Pollination: transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma, it leads to fertilisation.

Self pollination: pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the same flower or to the
stigmas of other flowers on the same plant.
Cross pollination: pollen grains are transferred to the stigmas of flowers on different
plants of the same species.

Agents of pollination may be:

1. Wind- pollinated plants include grasses such as maize, sugar cane and rice.
2. Insect- pollinated plants include sunflower, balsam.

Wind Pollinated Insect pollinated

Flowers Small and inconspicuous Large and conspicuous
Petals Small, green, no scent, no Relatively large, brightly coloured, scented,
nectaries,no honey guides have nectaries and honey guides to attract
insects
Pollen grains Large quantities produced: Smaller quantities produced: fewer are lost.
many are lost. Small, Large, sticky or spiky: stick on insects
smooth, light: easily blown
in wind
Stamens Long filaments with large, Short, stiff filaments with firmly attached
loosely attached anthers anthers which are inside the flower: insect has
which hang outside the to brush past them to get nectar - picks up
flower: pollen easily blown pollen
away by wind
Stigmas Large, branched and Flat or lobed and sticky, situated inside the
feathery, hang outside the flower: insect has to brush past to get nectar-
flower: greater chance of deposits pollen
catching pollen grains
Examples Grass, maize, sugar cane Flamboyant, pride of Barbados
Fertilisation

Once a pollen grain landed on a stigma, it sends out a snake-like outgrowth called a
pollen tube. This grows into the stigma and down the style.
It is attracted by sugar in the stigma and nourished by substances in the tissues of the
style
 Towards the tip of the pollen tube there is a male nucleus which is equivalent to the
nucleus in the head of an animals sperm
Having reached the ovary, the pollen tube pushes its way into the ovule usually through
the micropyle
The tip of the pollen tube now grows the egg cell in the centre of the ovule.
The male nucleus fuses with the egg cell, this is fertilisation
The fertilised egg now divides up into a ball of cells which becomes an embryo. This
remains in the centre of the ovule and becomes surrounded by a special tissue called
the endosperm which supplies it with food
The ovule itself becomes the seed and the wall around it hardens to form the seed coat.
Meanwhile this is happening the ovary develops into a fruit. So the seed becomes
surrounded by a fruit.

Reproduction in humans

Which statement about sex cells is correct?

Sperm are male gametes

Ova are male gametes

Sperm are female gametes

In reproduction, what is fertilisation?

When a male and female gamete join

When a farmer puts manure on farmland

When plants drop seeds onto the ground

What is a zygote?

A cell formed when two embryos join, which will develop into a gamete

A cell formed when two gametes join, which will develop into an embryo

A cell formed when two gametes join, which will develop into a gland

Which of the following is not a part of the male reproductive system?

 Penis

Testes

Uterus

Where are the female sex cells contained?

In the uterus

In the ovaries

In the ova

About how long does the menstrual cycle take?

5 days

14 days

28 days

What is ovulation?

The release of a mature egg cell

The loss of the lining of the uterus

The joining of a male sex cell and a female sex cell

Which way does blood normally pass across the placenta?

From the mother to the foetus

From the foetus to the mother

Blood does not pass across the placenta

Which of these is a role of oestrogen?

It maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part of the menstrual cycle

It repairs and thickens the lining of the uterus

 It triggers the release of a mature egg

10

Which hormone is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics?

LH

Progesterone

Testosterone

Genetic diagrams and pedigree analysis

What is a gamete?

A sex cell

A type of chromosome

A zygote

How many chromosomes are found in human body cells?

23 chromosomes

23 pairs of chromosomes

46 pairs of chromosomes

Which statement about chromosomes and human gender is correct?

Males are XX

Females are XY

Males are XY

What are the different forms of a gene called?

Genotypes
 Alleles

Chromosomes

Why does a person need to have two copies of the cystic fibrosis allele to have cystic fibrosis?

The allele is a carrier

The allele is recessive

The allele is dominant

In a genetic diagram, how is a dominant allele shown?

As a bold letter

As a lowercase letter

As a capital letter

Which of these represents someone who is heterozygous for a certain gene?

Hh

HH

hh

Polydactyly is an inherited condition, due to a dominant allele, causing extra fingers or toes. What is the chance of a child having polydactyly if
their parents are Pp and pp?

25%

50%

75%

Feather colour in hens can be white (WW), black (BB) or speckled (BW). What does this tell you?

White is dominant over black

Black is dominant over speckled

Feather colour shows codominance

10

What is a phenotype?

All the genes in an organism

All the genes and characteristics shown by an organism

All the characteristics shown by an organism

Sexual and asexual reproduction

There are two types of reproduction - sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.

Two parents are needed in sexual reproduction, and the offspring produced are genetically
different to the parents.

Only one parent is needed in asexual reproduction, and the offspring produced are genetically
identical, eg reproduction in bacteria, production of spores by fungi, and the formation of tubers
in potatoes and bulbs in daffodils.

Sexual reproduction

These are some of the advantages of sexual reproduction:

introduces variation into a population

the species can adapt to new environments
a disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population

These are some of the disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

time and energy are needed to find a mate

not possible for an isolated individual

Asexual reproduction

The advantages of asexual reproduction include:

population can increase rapidly

can exploit a suitable habitat quickly

The disadvantages include:

 does not lead to variation in a population
the species may only be suited to one habitat
disease may affect all the individuals in a population

Flowers

Flowers are important in the sexual reproduction of plants. They produce male sex cells (pollen
grains) and female sex cells (contained in the ovules). These must meet for reproduction to begin
- a process called pollination.

Parts of a flower
Structure Function

Sepal Protects the unopened flower

Petal May be brightly coloured to attract insects

Stamen The male part of the flower, comprising an anther attached to a filament

Anther Produces the male sex cells (pollen)

Stigma The top of the female part of the flower, which collects pollen grains

Ovary Produces the female sex cells (contained in the ovules)

The female parts of the flower together are called the carpel.
Insect-pollinated flowers

Flowers with brightly-coloured petals are usually insect-pollinated flowers. Insects carry pollen
from one flower to another.
Cross section through an insect-pollinated flower the nectary produces sugary nectar to attract
insects

Wind-pollinated flowers

Grasses have wind-pollinated flowers. They have small petals, and their stamens and stigmas
hang outside the flower.

Cross-section through a wind-pollinated flower

Forming seeds and fruit

Fertilisation

When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the correct species, a pollen tube begins
to grow. It grows through the style until it reaches an ovule inside the ovary. The nucleus of the
pollen then passes along the pollen tube and fuses (joins) with the nucleus of the ovule. This
process is called fertilisation.
Seeds and fruit

After fertilisation the female parts of the flower develop into a fruit:

the ovules become seeds

the rest of the carpel becomes the fruit