THE AUTHENTIC PERSON: CONFUCUIS AND KIERKEGAARD

1. Introduction
It is the nature of man1 to seek for his own happiness and meaning in life. Happiness and
in ones life would mean a eudemonic and fulfilled life. Self-fulfilment is not measured by the
persons wealth, power and fame but it is achieve through a genuine and authentic existence in
this world. It is sad to reflect that there are some people who live in a meaningless and miserable
life. These absurdities in life would hinder man to perform his utmost possibilities as human
being. No wonder why, Socrates underscores the importance of authentic existence by saying
that the unexamined life is not worth living.
On one hand, Confucius an ancient Chinese sage from the state of Lu and lived during
the warring states period delves into mans concern to relieve suffering in order to live a good
life. Confucius thoughts are basically anthropocentric2. He believes that man is the ultimate
basis of morality and values. He gave emphasis on the virtue of jen and other virtues and
teachings in order to attain the Superior man.
On the other hand, Soren Aabye Kierkegaard, a 19 th century philosopher and father of
existentialism contends the vitality of authenticity in mans life. His quest for authenticity is
stipulated in his journal. According to him, The thing is to find a truth which is true for me, to
find an idea for which I could live and die. 3 This means that for him, authenticity implies a
quest for the truth in a subjective way. Moreover, to be authentic means to be in conscious and
active participation in every choice and actions.
The aim of this paper is to conduct a comparative analysis on Confucius and
Kierkegaards concept of authentic person, in order to find out its points of convergence and
divergence. Thorough exposition on both concepts will be also applied prior to the analysis. It is
indeed good to point out the importance of comparison between these two philosophies since the
former is from the west and the latter came from the west.

1 In this paper, the term man generally refers to both man and woman.

2 This is an approach in philosophy wherein man is the center of inquiry. It is also called humanism.

3 Soren Kierkegaard quoted by Galomb, In Search for Authenticity: from Kierkegaard to Camus , 33.
2. Confucius concept of Virtuous Living
2.1 Human-heartedness and other virtues
Confucius taught that human beings are the fountain of virtues and values. The core of
his teachings is Jen, translated as human-heartedness for it is love for men4 and this makes
man essentially human and a man for others. Confucius writes,
True manhood consists in realizing your true self and restoring the moral order. If man can just
for one day realize his true self and restore complete moral discipline, the world will follow
him. To be a man depends on yourself. What has it to do with others?5

He considered the virtue of jen as the principle of human relationships because through
loving, one can fulfil his deepest nature and is capable of showing his concern to others. Peimen
Ni supports that, the word jen is interpreted as a quality that makes a person an authentic human
being, which every biological person needs to strive toward.6 Confucius further explains that jen
is a special and personal attainment for humans. In addition, the attainment of this virtue entails a
lot of effort for it is challenging and only few are able to attain this. Confucius says,
I have never seen one who really loves humanity or who really hates inhumanity. One who
really loves humanity will not place anything above it. One who really hates inhumanity will
practice humanity will have no chance to get at him. Is there anyone who has devoted his
strength to humanity for as long as a single day? I have never seen anyone without sufficient
strength to do so. Perhaps there is such a case, but I have never seen it.7

Thus, in order to actualize jen, a person must do his best and develop his personal attitude
for himself and for others.
Confucius virtue of jen is expounded through its two way practice. These essential
virtues that constitute jen are zhong (conscientiousness) and shu (altruism). Confucius claimed
that zhong is the positive dimension of jen. He says Do unto others as you would others do unto
you.8 On the other side, shu exhibits the prohibitive dimension of jen. Confucius says, Do not
do to others what you want them to do unto you.9

4 Confucius, Analects 12:22

5 Confucius quoted by To Thi Anh, Eastern and Western Cultural Values: Conflict or Harmony (Hochiminh
City: (no publisher), 1994), 8.

6 Peimen Ni, On Confucius, 28

7 Wing- Tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. ( Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), 26.

8 Confucius, analects
9
Confucius, analects
 2.1.1 Yi, Li, Hsiao, Zhi, and Xin
The virtue of jen is directed towards others. Now in order to fully actualize this virtue,
Confucius added sets of virtues. The first virtue that important in actualizing jen is yi. Yi or
righteousness is important in achieving ones goal to have a worthy life. Yi is also the minimum
requirement in attainment of the Superman or Chun Tzu for this pertains to the moral
responsibility of a person.10 Since yi pertains to doing what is ought to be done, the person
concerned must act accordingly in a particular situation in a way that his actions is done out of
love and respect for humanity.11 This virtue is significant in Confucius notion of the rectification
of names that will be discussed in the next pages.
The second virtue that is vital in actualizing jen is li. Li or propriety refers to the
ceremonial or ritual means which serves man as his guiding principle in realizing jen in his own
life.12 Confucius says to master oneself is and return to li (propriety) is jen.13 Furthermore,
each of these rituals is designed to demonstrate how a particular action is to be performed. As
such, with li a person is able to become a man for he is able to transcend form his ego. He
behaves benevolently and virtuously as he deals with others.
Another virtue that is significant in living a virtuous life is Hsiao. Hsiao or filial piety
or reverence to ones parents or family. Confucius says, The filial piety of now-a-days means
the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in the way of
support; without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other? 14
Confucius gives emphasis on the importance of virtue in the context of the family because it is at
home that a person first acquires virtue. Thus, a person should give respect and serve his parents

10 Confucius, Analects 15:17

11 Koller, Asian Philosphies 276.

12 Koller, Asian Philosophies, 273. Li is a combined character that means to worship before an urn.this
signifies to the sacred rites and ceremonies. It is translated as propriety, good manner, decorum, politeness,
feeling of respect and reverence.

13 Confucius, Analects, 12:1.

14 Ibid., 2:7.
and if he is away from home, he should give respect to the elders wherein he will give honor and
pride to his family by his own deeds and example.
The fourth virtue that is essential in attaining jen is zhi. Zhi means the application of
such knowledge to human affairs.15 Confucius declares To know what is good and yet not do
anything about it, what use is there then for that knowledge? 16 This implies the necessity of
transmitting and conveying wisdom.17 Confucius asserts that knowledge is really intended to put
into practice. It is not just for the sake of knowing, it must be applied to ones personal life and as
he deals with others. In addition Confucius further contends that one who longs to become
virtuous must practice what he preaches and then he follows it.18
The last virtue is xin. This virtue according to Confucius pertains to the unity between
words and actions. He says that "The purpose of speech is to convey meaning. 19 This means
that one should be sincere to his words or promises. This is also an essential thing to be virtuous.
Confucius argues that a person must justify his word always through his actions. Thus,
Confucius posits that if your words are not humble, it will be difficult to put them into action.20

2.2 Confucian Doctrines

There are major Confucian teachings that help man actualize his authentic role as human.
The following indispensable requirements in attaining the Superior Man: The Confucian
learning, rectification of names, the concept of Tien-Ming or the role of heaven and Chun-Tzu.
According to Confucius learning has an indispensible role in becoming a virtuous person.
He highlights the importance of learning to a person. Learning for Confucius is not just a matter
of acquiring knowledge about the empirical world form the investigation of things. But it is a
tool towards obtaining the important virtues.21 It also involves the practical application of these
15 Thomas Wall, On Human Nature: An Introduction to Philosophy (California; Thomson Wadsworth, 2005),
48.

16 Confucius, Analects. 4:8.

17 Co, Philosophy of Ancient China, 113.

18 Confucius, Analectx, 2:13.

19 Confucius, Analects 15:40.

20 Ibid., 4:21.

21 Co, Philosophy of Ancient China, 114.

virtues into ones life. As such, Confucius really puts an emphasis on learning in mans pursuit
towards moral perfection. Moreover, Confucius considers self-knowledge as the most
important knowledge.22 This is the best kind of knowledge for it leads a person to know himself
better. He posits that to say you know when you know, and to say you do not when you do not.
That is knowledge.23
The doctrine of Rectification of Names pertains to the right use of words that it should
correspond to the reality it names. Confucius suggests that there should be agreement between
names and the thing or deeds that they name. 24 He says Let the ruler be ruler, the father, father,
the son, son.25 Thus, one should live or act according to his name or title for each name
corresponds to the reality it represents. For instance as ruler, he should rule accordingly, as well
as the father, etc. Because, the names constitutes the essences and when they do not, either one
changes his name or changes his essence.26
Confucius further underscores that this doctrine is very much essential to a Superior man.
He says
A superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately and
also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is
just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.27

Thus, a superior man also rectifies himself by living his words into actions. He is true to
his words and action.
Confucius contends that Chun tzu is a person who is able to follow the Way and has
acquired the important virtues primarily the jen.28 Confucius says A Superior Man is he who
values virtue.29 As a reward of living a virtuous life, a Superior Man is able to attain self-

22 Koller, Asian Philosophies, 278.

23 Confucius, Analects, 2: 17.

24 Asian Philosophies, 276; Wall. On Human Nature, 49. This docrine is also called Ching meng.

25 Confucius. Analects, 12:11.

26 Wall, On Human Nature, 49

27 Confucius. Analects,

28 The Ethics of Confucius [article online]; available from http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/eoc/eoc06.htm;

20 July 2011.
 perfection and fulfillment. Confucius says a Superior Man is happy and contented. 30 He further
adds that a Superior Man is free from anxieties, perplexities, and fear.31
In addition, Confucius posits that when a person becomes a Superior Man he has a moral
obligation towards others. He is tasked to help others to achieved perfection. He says Now the
man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to
be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others.32
Lastly, Confucius teaches that to be moral and to have good characters are keys towards a
meaningful life- a life of moral perfection, and a life of authentic human being.

3. Kierkegaards concept of Authentic Existence

3.1.1 Human Existence
Kierkegaard asserts that existence is personal striving towards self-actualization. He says
To exist is to be in the process of becoming, and to become is to face the future, to act and
choose one existential possibilities.33 For him, this striving of man is characterized by a lot
choice and possibilities. Through the choices he make, he can create his life and become truly
become an actual existing individual.34
Kierkegaard distinguishes the difference between an actor and a spectator to further
describes an authentic person. For him, an actor is like a driver who is in conscious active
participation of the object at a given time, whereas a spectator is a person who is physically
present but there is no active participation (driver who is asleep). For Kierkegaard the actor who
is fully aware and conscious is the one who really exist.

29 Confucius, quoted by Epiphanius Wilson. The Wisdom of Confucius with Critical and Biographical
Sketches (New York: Colonial Press, 2010), 48.

30 Confucius. Analects, 7:36.

31 Ibid., 9:28.

32 Ibid., 6:28.

33 Soren Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments. Translated by Howard

Hong and Edna Hong. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 112.

34 George Henry Price, The Narrow Pass: A Study of Kierkegaards Concept of Man (London: Hutchinson,
1963), 103.
 Kierkegaard also emphasize the importance of individuality in human existence, he
believes that individuality or becoming an individual is realized because of ones choice and
decisions.35 Through these choices one directs and determines his life. As Kierkegaard says that
the individual turns to himself completely in such a way that he becomes his own creator. 36 He
alone is responsible for creating his own life. Since he alone is responsible for his life, he is
therefore able to act and feel with a high degree of social independency, not being dictated by
others.37 It is a life that is opposite to the crowd. Kierkegaard believes that living with the crowd
is not suitable since the crowd is untruth.

3.2 Truth is Subjective

Kierkegaard asserts that the longing of man to live a meaningful life also corresponds to
his quest for truth. He says that man as an existing, wants to grasp the truth and exists in it. 38
For him, there are two kinds of truths that can be abstracted from our experience with the reality,
namely the objective and subjective truths.39 These two kinds of truth can be known through
reflection. He posits
To objective reflection, truth becomes something objective, an object, and the point is to
disregard the subject. To subjective reflection, truth becomes appropriation, inwardness,
subjectivity, and the point is to immerse oneself, existing in subjectivity.40
Moreover, for Kierkegaard, objective truth is only concerned with the objective facts and
focuses on what, which has nothing to do with the existing individual. 41 Kierkegaard asserts that

35 Ibid, 335

36 Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or: A Fragment of Life trans. Alistair Hannay (London: Penguin Books, 1992)
149.

37 Robert Roberts, "Existence, Emotion, and Virtue: Classical Themes in Kierkegaard" in Cambridge
Companion to Kierkegaard. Eds. Alastair Hanay and Gordon Marino (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1998), 178.

38 Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 191.

39 Richard Palmer, Kierkegaard for Beginners, (New York: Routledge 1997), 35.

40 Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 192.

41 Palmer, Kierkegaard for Beginners, 35.

 this kind of truth can only lead the individual into something accidental and thereby turning
himself into indifferent.42
On the other hand, Kierkegaard further discuss that subjective truth is the existential
truth which is essential to ones existence. 43 This kind of truth can be obtained through
inwardness where in the individual relates to himself and understand himself. Kierkegaard
considers the subjective truth as the highest kind of truth for an existing individual.44

3.3 The Three Stages of Life

Kierkegaard believes that there are three stages of existence in which man lives. These
three stages pertain to modes of human existence as human individual in his pursuit for self-
fulfilment and meaning of life. Furthermore, Kierkegaard posits that individual can opt for one of
the three stages namely aesthetic stage, the ethical stage, and the religious stage.
The aesthetic stage of life adheres to the principle that one must enjoy life. 45 He
considers this as the most fragile, the lowest and the least stable among the stages. The only goal
of life is the pursuit of sensual pleasure and self-gratification.46 Since the attitude of life here is
fragmented, it cannot lead an individual to live an authentic existence. 47 Thus, there is a need for
him to leap into the higher level - the ethical stage.
Unlike the in the aesthetic stage where one is only governed by sensual pleasure,
Kierkegaard opines that this stage of life is characterized by individuals obedience with the
universal. In this stage, the individual divests from his self- interests and becomes aware of
responsibility, duties, and rules. It is a way that he can establish actively his own identity.
Moreover, Kierkegaard emphasizes that living in this stage is a difficult undertaking for it entails

42 Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 193.

43 Palmer, Kierkegaard for Beginners, 36.

44 Kierkegaard, quoted by Merold Westphal, Kierkegaard and Hegel in Cambridge Companion to

Kierkegaard, 114.

45 Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or: A Fragment of Life trans. Alistair Hannay (London: Penguin Books, 1992),
49.

46 Frederick Patka, Existentialist Thinkers, 80.

47 James Barret, Irrational Man: The Study in Existential Philosophy (New York: Doubleday, 1958), 146.
 act of heroism. According to him the tragic hero is who renounces himself to express the
universal.48 One has to deny himself for the sake of the social virtues.
Kierkegaard posits that even in this stage, individual becomes aware of his inability and
insufficiency to fulfill such laws and obligation set by the society. Thus, according to
Kierkegaard there is a need for the individual to transcend the universal, by relating himself to
God through an act of faith.

4.5.3 The Religious Stage

Kierkegaard considers this as the highest among the three stages because this is the stage
where in an individual commits his life to God. He opines
He who strove with the world became greater by conquering the world, he who strove for
himself became great by conquering himself, but he who strove with God became greater than
all.49
Thus, this stage entails a personal relationship and direct accountability to God after the
individual having realized his finiteness and insufficiencies in the previous stages. Kierkegaard
regards this stage as eminently paradoxical. The absolute relationship of the individual to the
absolute cannot be easily explained by reason.
As a result, it cannot be understood by reason. One needs faith. Through his faith, the
individual realizes that he is higher compared to the universal or the laws and obligations. In
addition, he makes use of Abraham as the example of this.50

3.4 Leap of Faith

The transition towards the religious stage from the ethical necessarily requires a leap of
faith. Kierkegaard stresses that the leap of faith is not a rational but rather it is volitional since it
falls under the category decision.51 For him, it is a commitment of the individual that is done

48 Kierkegaard, Either/Or, 103

49 Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling, 50.

50 Kierkegaard exemplifies Abraham because of his faith. Though he has a duty to his child, he prefers to obey
the command given by God. With his exemplary act Kierkegaard honors Abraham as the Knight of Faith.

51 Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 99.

 by an act of his will. Thus, it is the individuals highly personal, subjective choice to ascent to the
highest stage of life.52
Moreover, Kierkegaard suggests that leap of faith necessarily requires a risk for without
risk there is no faith.53 Thus, the individual must take a risk of the possibilities, to the
unknowns, or to consequences of his own action. For Kierkegaard, Abraham is certainly aware
of possibility of losing his son and as well his absolute duty towards God. For Kierkegaard,
Abraham believes by virtue of the absurd.54 Through his faith he is able to have a personal and
genuine relationship with the Absolute. He has achieved the highest for self-actualization.

4. Comparative Analysis On Confucius and Kierkegaard.

4.1 Key Similarities
There exist similarities between Confucius concept of virtuous living and Soren
Kierkegaards three stage of life. There are points or aspect that their views converge. They have
the same stance with regards to the nature of man, freedom as a characteristic of man in
achieving his goal, and the role of the divine. The also share the same position that the goal of
man is by becoming authentic.
4.1.1 Mans Nature
Man by his nature craves to achieve something higher. Confucius and Kierkegaard both
affirm to this. For them, man has a natural disposition towards the good which can bring him
happiness and meaning in life. They also both argue that lower form of human existence cannot
really make a person authentic. Thus, one needs to forsake the world and its pleasures in pursuit
of a higher calling.
From his particular experience, Confucius believes that looking after worldly things
cannot give a person satisfaction. Instead, this is the root of evils, selfishness and greed. This
only brings a lot of sufferings to others.

52 Patka, Existentialist Thinkers, 87.

53 Kierkegaard. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 203.

54 Kierkegaard quoted by Palmer, 121.

 On other hand, Kierkegaard agrees to this. In the aesthetic stage, he contends that this
may bring momentarily pleasure but cannot bring life to its fulfilment. It can only lead ones life
to despair.
That is why both of them contend that one the individual should look to the higher
perspective of life. Confucius suggests that one should live according to the Confucian virtues.
Kierkegaard offers that it is in the religious stage that can surely lead a life of self-fulfilment.

4.1.2 Free Choice

Man having endowed the faculty of the will, he is basically free. Both Confucius and
Kierkegaard believe man is free in his pursuit towards authentic existence. He has the capacity to
decide what kind of life he wants to live.
For Confucius, actualizing applying the important virtues into ones life implies a choice.
Choosing to live these virtues such as li, yi, hsiao, zhi, and ren is the key towards moral
perfection. Without these virtues, a person can never be authentic. Thus, the desire to become a
virtuous person also depends on his own decision. He is free to choose whether to become
authentic or not.
On the other hand, according to Kierkegaard, one of inherent possession of a truly
existing individual is his free will. For Kierkegaard the existing individual is confronted with
many choices. It is from these choices that he is able to create the meaning of his life. Moreover,
Kierkegaard states that the individual is free to choose what stage he wants to belong and live.
When the individual realizes the stage where in he chooses live does not bring him to fulfilment,
he is very much free to move or to transcend to the higher level. In addition, Kierkegaards leap
of faith springs from the free willing of man to commit or relate himself with the Absolute or
God.
Thus, both philosophers hold the same position that responsibility for his well-being
depends on the person. He is basically responsible and free for creating his own life. Action is
also a determining factor to attain an authentic existence.
 4.1.3 The Role of the Divine
As man tries to find his meaning and fulfillment, he cannot set aside the idea in
considering God as part of his endeavor. This is also true with Confucius and Kierkegaard. They
give importance on the role of the Divine in mans struggle to live an authentic life.
Confucius recognizes that all the human values are from the Heaven or Tien.55One
who aspires to become an authentic person or Chun Tzu is very much sensitive to follow the
mandate of Heaven.56 Aside from that he also highlights li as one of the virtues. This particular
virtue stands for the worship of the spirits of their ancestors and to the Divine entity.
On the other hand, Kierkegaard also considers God as the source of all the moral
standards.57 Moreover, Kierkegaard highlights that it is the personal relationship with God that
the individual or man can truly achieve an authentic life. In this stage the individual realizes that
he is higher than the universal.
Thus, Confucius and Kierkegaard put an emphasis that the Divine entity is significant in
mans goal to live a meaningful life.

4.1.4 The End Goal: Becoming Authentic

Both Confucius and Kierkegaard have the same position that true and lasting happiness
and meaning can be achieve only by becoming an authentic. In their philosophizing they are able
to personify their own notion of authentic existence.
For Confucius, to be a Chun tzu is the ultimate end or goal of man. If he is able to live
and actualize ad devout his life to Confucian virtues such as li, yi, hsiao, zhi and ren.. Moreover,
become a Superior Man entails also a responsibility to others. He has a task to propagate these
virtues to others through his own examples. In this way, he has able to fulfill his nature. As a
result, a person can live a happy and meaningful life
In the same way, Kierkegaard calls the authentic individual as the knight of faith. The
knight of faith has reached his fulfillment through his relationship with the Divine. Having this
relationship the individual attains greatest happiness. The individual is able to see his true self

55 Tien refers to the Supreme Ruler in Heaven of the Chinese Religion. Laurence Thompson, Chinese
Religion: An Introduction (California: Dickenson Publidhing, 1969), 4.
56
Confucius, the Doctrine of the Mean, 17:2; Analects, 24:5.

57 Parka, Existentialist Thinkers, 82.

before God. Moreover, the knight of faith also labors on behalf of others, but only as an
example.

4.2 Key Difference

After having exposed the views of both philosophers, there are also exist significant
differences from their views on authentic existence. They have different approach in terms of
attaining authentic life.

4.2.1 Means
Though Confucius and Kierkegaard share the same idea that man is striving to live an
authentic life they differ on their ways in attaining it. For Confucius way to attain this is through
cultivation of oneself through acquiring virtues. Good morality or good character is the key to
achieve a meaningful life.
While for Kierkegaards way to attain authentic existence, involves actual progression of
the individual. It is not a matter of actualizing virtues but a change of attitude and perspective on
how to live life. In addition, Kierkegaard considers the ethical stage as a higher form of human
existence. For it is in this sage that the individual becomes faithful in obeying the moral
standards. This stage somehow can be comparable to that of Confucius. However, Kierkegaard
does not consider this as the way towards self-fulfillment. The key towards self-fulfillment lies
on the religious dimension where the individual becomes greater than the universal or the laws
and duties.

4.2.2 The Authentic Person: in Relation to Others

Another difference that can be noticed between Confucius and Kierkegaard notion of
authentic existence is that Confucius put an emphasis on the social aspect of human existence.
While Kierkegaard stresses much on the individual.
For Confucius, becoming a Chun Tzu necessarily entails a duty towards others
particularly to love them. His good deeds are actually geared towards others. He cannot fully-
actualized himself without them. As such, Confucius Chun tzu is relational or socially oriented.
On other hand, Kierkegaards Knight of faith is solitary in his quest towards authentic existence.
He never accepts to the idea that an individual can be authentic through living with others. That
 is why he holds the position that crowd is untruth. For Kierkegaard, authentic existence can only
be achieved through the personal relationship and encounter with God. The individual must put
his trust completely in himself and in God. Therefore, Kierkegaards conception of authentic
existence personified by Knight of faith is personal or individualistic.

5. Conclusion
Based on the aforementioned analysis, it is plausible to say that there is a great margin of
similarities on both philosophies in its quest for authenticity in life though they exists on
different timeline and locality. One cannot deny why there is a difference in their concepts
precisely because Confucius was an Ancient philosopher in China and Kierkegaard was a
modern philosopher from the west. One thing for certain is that, both philosophies shares a lot of
parallelisms and helps man to become authentic and find meaning in life.
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