Appendix A

Proof of Basic Rules of

Dierentiation
d du dv
Sum rule: (u + v) = +
dx dx dx

u(x + x) + v(x + x) u(x) v(x)

LHS = lim
x0 x
u(x + x) u(x) v(x + x) v(x)
= lim + lim = RHS.
x0 x x0 x
d dv du
Product rule: (uv) = u + v
dx dx dx
Note that

u(x + x)v(x + x) u(x)v(x) v(x + x) v(x) u(x + x) u(x)
= u(x+x) +v(x) .
x x x

Now just let x 0, observing that

u(x + x) u(x)
u(x + x) = u(x) + x
x

tends to u(x) as x 0.

d u v du u dv
Quotient rule: = dx 2 dx
dx v v
Note that
u(x + x) u(x) v(x)[u(x + x) u(x)] u(x)[v(x + x) v(x)]
= .
v(x + x) v(x) v(x)v(x + x)

Now divide through by x and let x 0, observing that v(x + x) v(x) as x 0.

1
 d df du
Chain rule [f {u(x)}] = .
dx du dx
The left hand side is the limit as x 0 of

f {u(x + x)} f {u(x)} f {u(x + x)} f {u(x)} u(x + x) u(x)
= ,
x u(x + x) u(x) x

f {u + u} f {u} g(x + x) g(x)
= ,
u x

where the x-dependent quantity u = u(x + x) u(x) tends to 0 as x 0.

2
Appendix B
Basic Properties of the
Trigonometric Functions

B.1 Fundamental Identities for the Sine and Cosine

We recall the special values:

sin 0 = 0, (B.1)

cos = 0, (B.2)
2
cos 0 = 1, (B.3)

sin = 1. (B.4)
2
The trigonometric functions possess a high degree of symmetry and accordingly obey
an almost bewildering variety of identities. [NB Recall that an identity is an equation
which holds for all permitted values of its variables.] Of fundamental importance are the
addition and subtraction formulae:-

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y, (B.5)

sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y, (B.6)
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y, (B.7)
cos(x y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y. (B.8)

Take special note here of the signs in equations (B.7) and (B.8). The truth of the addition
formulae (B.5) and (B.7) for 0 < x < x + y < /2 and of the subtraction formulae (B.6)
and (B.8) for 0 < y < x < /2 is immediately apparent geometrically from the two
diagrams which follow, but note that (B.5)(B.8) hold for all real values of the variables
x and y.

3
 Diagram for proof of the addition formulae for 0 < x < x + y < /2

Diagram for proof of the subtraction formulae for 0 < y < x < /2

From (B.1)(B.8) we can deduce many more formulae for the sine and cosine. Taking
y = x in (B.8) and using (B.3) gives the fundamental trigonometric identity

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, (B.9)

while taking y = x in (B.5) and (B.7) gives the double angle formulae

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, (B.10)

cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x. (B.11)

4
Adding and subtracting (B.9) and (B.11) back to front (and subsequently dividing
through by 2) gives

cos2 x = 1
2
(1 + cos 2x), (B.12)
sin2 x = 1
2
(1 cos 2x). (B.13)

Adding (B.5) and (B.6) and adding and subtracting (B.7) and (B.8) yields
1
sin x cos y = [sin(x + y) + sin(x y)], (B.14)
2
1
cos x cos y = [cos(x y) + cos(x + y)], (B.15)
2
1
sin x sin y = [cos(x y) cos(x + y)]. (B.16)
2
[Note the sign in (B.16). By (B.3), it is clear that (B.12) and (B.13) are the special cases
of (B.15) and (B.16) respectively with y = x. Formulae (B.12)-(B.16) can prove very
useful in integration.]
Putting x = 0 in (B.6) and (B.8), using (B.1) and (B.3) and then replacing y by x
(which is legitimate, since x and y are just labels standing for arbitrary real numbers)
gives

sin(x) = sin x, (B.17)

cos(x) = cos x, (B.18)

or sin is an odd function (i.e. reverses sign when its variable does), while cos is an even
function (i.e. remains unchanged in value when its variable reverses sign).
Putting x = /2 in (B.10) and (B.11) and using (B.2) and (B.4) gives

sin = 0, (B.19)
cos = 1. (B.20)

Putting y = in (B.5) and (B.7) then gives

sin(x + ) = sin x, (B.21)

cos(x + ) = cos x, (B.22)

i.e., whenever we add to x, we reverse the signs of both sin x and cos x (as is evident
from the graphs of these two functions). For any integer n (positive, negative or zero),
this allows us to generalize (B.1)(B.4) to

1
sin n = cos n + = 0, (B.23)
2

1 1 if n is even
cos n = sin n + = = (1)n . (B.24)
2 1 if n is odd
Putting x = /2 in (B.6) and (B.8), using (B.2) and (B.4) and then replacing y by x
gives the simple (and equivalent!) relations

sin x = cos x, (B.25)
2

cos x = sin x (B.26)
2

5
between the sine and cosine functions. Replacing x by x in (B.21) and (B.22) and using
(B.17) and (B.18) gives

sin( x) = sin x, (B.27)

cos( x) = cos x. (B.28)

B.2 Some Identities involving Other Trigonometric

Functions
Further identities may now be obtained involving the four extra trigonometric functions
sin x cos x 1
tan x = , cot x = = = tan x [by (B.25) to (B.26)],
cos x sin x tan x 2
1 1
sec x = , cosec x = ,
cos x sin x
of which tan x and sec x are undefined when x is an odd integer multiple of /2 [since
this makes cos x = 0, by (B.23)], and cot x and cosec x are undefined when x is an integer
multiple of [since this makes sin x = 0, by (B.23)]. We note here some of the more
important identities involving these functions. From (B.17) and (B.18) we deduce

tan(x) = tan x, (B.29)

cot(x) = cot x, (B.30)
sec(x) = sec x, (B.31)
cosec x = cosec x, (B.32)

i.e. tan, cot and cosec x are odd functions, while sec is even. Dividing (B.9) by cos2 x or
sin2 x gives the useful formulae

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, (B.33)

1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x. (B.34)

Dividing (B.21) by (B.22) gives

tan(x + )= tan x, (B.35)

or, as we say, tan is a periodic function with period . For this reason, its graph, depicted
below, consists of a pattern which continually repeats itself after a horizontal distance .
Note the vertical asymptotes occurring wherever x is equal to an odd integer multiple of
/2.

6
 The graph of tan x in the range 3 < x < 3

Writing x + 2 as (x + ) + and using (B.21) and (B.22), we get

sin(x + 2) = sin x, (B.36)

cos(x + 2) = cos x, (B.37)

i.e. sin and cos are periodic with period 2. Geometrically, this reflects the fact that
2 radians = 360 is a complete revolution, so that x and x + 2 are essentially the
same angle. This periodicity of sin and cos is immediately evident from the form of their
graphs.

B.3 Trigonometric Functions of some Special Angles

Putting x = /4 in (B.25) and (B.10) and using (B.4) gives sin(/4) = cos(/4), 1 =
2 sin2 (/4), so
1
sin = cos = , tan = 1. (B.38)
4 4 2 4
[NB Since /4 is an acute angle, i.e. 0 < /4 < /2, we know that its sine and
cosine must both be positive.] Putting x = /3 in (B.25) and (B.26) gives sin(/6) =
cos(/3), cos(/6) = sin(/3). Putting x = /6 in (B.10) then gives sin(/3) =
2 sin(/6) cos(/6) = 2 sin(/6) sin(/3), whence use of (B.9) shows that

1 3 1
sin = cos = 2 , cos = sin = , tan = , tan = 3. (B.39)
6 3 6 3 2 6 3 3

7
B.4 Evaluation of a Certain Limit

In the above diagram, the areas of triangles OAB and OAC are (sin x)/2 and (tan x)/2
respectively (each being equal to half the base times the vertical height). On the other
hand, the area of the sector OAB of the circle centre O radius 1 is a fraction x/(2) of
the total area of that circle, i.e. it is equal to x/2. Comparing these areas and doubling
through, we see immediately that

sin x < x < tan x for 0 < x < .
2
Dividing through by the positive quantity sin x gives
x
1< < sec x for 0 < x < ,
sin x 2
and turning this upside down yields
sin x
cos x < <1 for 0 < x < , and hence also for < x < 0,
x 2 2
since cos x and sin x are respectively even and odd functions of x. Letting x tend to zero
(from either side), since cos x cos 0 = 1, it follows that
sin x
lim = 1.
x0 x

i.e. sin x x for small x.