Iata 2011

IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels
Effective December 2011
6th Edition
Report on Alternative Fuels_2011_v5.indd 1 29/11/2011 10:02:21 AM
Effective December 2011
International Air Transport Association

Montreal Geneva 6th Edition
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Ref. No: 9709-04
978-92-9233-668-4
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Alternative Fuels Foreword 2011
Dear readers,
In 2011, the aviation industry has experienced exceptional growth of alternative aviation fuels. This emerging
field has gone from dream to reality faster than anyone could have expected, fuelled by a spirit of mutual support
and cooperation between airlines, aircraft and engine manufacturers, fuel producers, and standards setting
bodies. This coordinated approach is truly unique to aviation and the progress we have seen is a testament to
its effectiveness.
This year alone, we have witnessed the first transatlantic biojet flights, the first commercial passenger biojet
flights and the first regular use of biojet by commercial airlines. The number of announced alternative fuel
activities has increased from 11 in 2009 to over 300 in 2011.
Despite this amazing progress, IATA recognizes that this growth cannot be unconstrained by environmental
and social considerations, which is why IATA continues to participate in the development of strict biofuel
sustainability criteria through the Lausanne-based Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels as well as support the
research of algae-derived fuels. Although two types of biojet fuel have already been approved for use (Fischer-
Tropsch and hydroprocessed biojet fuels), IATA is encouraging the approval of at least two more new fuels in
the coming years that will increase the options available to airlines. This report includes descriptions of these
sustainability requirements and gives a preview of these new fuels.
If our industry is to achieve its ambitious targets for carbon neutral growth by 2020, including emissions
reductions with annual fuel efficiency improvements of 1.5%, and a 50% emissions reduction between 2005
and 2050, then sustainable biojet fuel must play a major role. Given the progress we have witnessed over the
past few years, we are very much on track with alternative fuels to achieve this target.
I would like to sincerely thank industry specialists from airlines, manufacturers, and governmental bodies for their
contributions to this report.
Best regards,
Gnther Matschnigg,
Senior Vice President, Safety, Operations and Infrastructure
international air transport association 1

Summary
This is the sixth edition of the IATA Report on Alter- biojet fuel production. An announced investment of
native Fuels, which builds on previous editions by US$ 510 million by the US Department of Energy has
focusing on future fuels as well as the most up to date been directed towards the development of a domestic
state of sustainability certifications, economic consid- biojet fuel industry, and is designed to help overcome
erations, and government and stakeholder programs. the risk of investing in biojet production. The European
Commission has announced the European Biofuels
The year 2011 has been marked by the certification
Flight Path Initiative, which aims to achieve 2 million
of HEFA (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids, i.e.
tons of biojet fuel in the European Market by 2020.
oil and fat-derived) biojet fuels and a surge of biojet-
Second generation biofuels derived from feedstock
operated commercial passenger flights immediately
indigenous to developing countries provide a poten-
following this event. Eight airlines in Europe and Latin
tially viable commercial opportunity in the medium to
America have been performing such flights so far,
long term but require further research and develop-
some of them having started regular services on biojet
ment. Two pull mechanisms for incentivizing biojet
between specific city pairs. Despite this success,
production are considered, a blend mandate and
deployment of industrial biojet production capacities
forward contracts.
and large-scale commercialization are still challenges.
Several groups made up of multiple aviation industry
The first chapter of this report gives an overview of
stakeholders have been formed to advance alternative
the current state of biojet fuels and the recent activi-
aviation fuels. The progress of these groups, including
ties announced around the world. The reasons for the
AIREG in Germany, CAAFI in the US, and SWAFEA
chosen format of this report are given as well. This
in the EU, are described in Chapter 5. In addition,
overview contains an introduction and brief back-
the US military services (including the Army, Navy
ground of the topics covered in the rest of the report.
and Air Force) have been certifying various platforms
The second chapter summarizes the certification for several types of biojet fuels and their progress is
process for new fuels. The two approved types, also reported in Chapter 5. Finally, a new multi-stake-
Fischer-Tropsch and HEFA, are described, as well holder consortium in Brazil, which is a nation with a
as two biojet fuels currently being analyzed for future strong background in biofuels, has been formed to
approval: alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) and synthetic kero- investigate local biojet production.
sene containing aromatics (SKA). The US Air Force
Finally, chapter 6, Notable Developments in Alterna-
program checking biofuel compatibility with fuel infra-
tive Aviation Fuels, summarizes some of the exciting
structure is also described; no compatibility problems
commercial advancements that have taken place in the
are reported.
past year. Mexicos national airport services company,
The sustainability of biojet fuel is addressed in ASA, has embarked on a biojet program that involves
Chapter 3. Various regulatory standards exist in different growing local feedstock, converting it to biojet,
countries which have to be met in order to qualify for and consuming it on flights out of Mexico. Also, the
public incentives. In addition, voluntary standards for Lufthansa group of airlines has begun operating eight
biofuels have been developed; amongst them, the daily biojet flights between Hamburg and Frankfurt on
standard of the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels a dedicated A321, under the project name PureSky.
(RSB), a Lausanne-based global multi-stakeholder In Australia, the Qantas group has entered into agree-
certification body, is the most comprehensive. Recent ments with Solena and Sapphire Energy to develop
developments in the RSB certification program are their technology for the Australian biojet market, and in
described in this chapter, as well as ongoing field trials Europe, Air France flew what it believes is the greenest
applying the RSB criteria in Mozambique and Brazil. flight ever by utilizing a combination of biojet fuel, and
technological and operational optimization. TAROM,
If the production of biojet fuel is to attain sufficiently
the Romanian airline, has embarked on an ambitious
large volumes to meet the industrys expectations for
biojet fuel project that includes analyses of Camelina
emissions reduction, there will need to be government
as the primary feedstock and the effects on the entire
programs in place to incentivize the construction of
supply chain from the crop to finished fuel, and Sky
biofuel production plants. Chapter 4 addresses some
NRG and BioJet Corporation report on their efforts to
of the policy levers that would result in increased
deploy biojet fuel.
2 IATA 2011 REPORT ON ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Quick Facts Recommendations
The number of announced alternative jet fuel Support the approval of new biojet fuels from
activities around the world surged from less than different feedstocks and conversion processes
sixty in 2010 to over three hundred in 2011; diversity of supply is critical to finding cost-effective
The first transatlantic biojet flights took place solutions;
in 2011, as did the first commercial passenger Ensure a strong focus on biomass sustainability
biojet flights; through a comprehensive range of environmental,
HEFA biojet fuel (hydroprocessed esters and fatty societal and economic criteria;
acids1 derived from oils and fats) was added Work towards globally harmonized sustain-
to the ASTM specification for jet fuels in 2011. ability criteria for the production of biomass and
HEFA joins FT (Fischer-Tropsch) fuel as the only the processing of biojet fuels a patchwork of
acceptable substitutes for conventional petro- incompatible criteria is a barrier to large scale
leum-derived jet fuel; biojetuse;
Two further alternative jet fuels have task forces Develop synergies between all parts of the supply
considering them for ASTM certification: synthetic chain and also between the aviation and automo-
kerosene containing aromatics (SKA) and meta- tive industries;
bolically-derived synthetic kerosene (SKM); Governments should provide incentives for airlines
Trials are being carried out analyzing biomass to use biofuels from an early stage and de-risk
crops and applying newly-published strict sustain- public and private investments in aviation biofuels.
ability criteria developed by the Roundtable on Incentives should establish a level playing field
Sustainable Biofuels (RSB), with the first certifi- between aviation and road biofuels.
cations expected in late 2011 or early 2012;
Multiple government programs are already in
place to promote the use of biojet fuel and provide
funding mechanisms; these include the Environ-
mental Policy Act in the US, the European Biofuels
Flight Path Initiative, and the Brazilian Biokerosene
Platform.
1. In previous reports HEFA was referred to as hydroprocessed renewable jet fuel (HRJ). This change was made to align with
ASTM convention.

Table of Contents
Alternative Fuels Foreword 2011.................................................................................1
Summary..............................................................................................................................................2
Quick Facts...........................................................................................................................................3
Recommendations..............................................................................................................................3
1. O
verview........................................................................................................................................9
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................9
1.1.1 A Note on Sustainability..............................................................................................9
1.2 Global Research Into Biojet Fuel........................................................................................ 10
1.3 On the Format of IATAs Report on AlternativeFuels.................................................... 10
2. Certification.............................................................................................................................. 11
2.1 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 ASTM D7566 aStandard for Alternative Aviation Turbine Fuel.............................. 11
2.3.1 The Basic Concept of D7566................................................................................ 11
2.3.2 Current Status of D7566........................................................................................ 11
2.3.3 Future Additions........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.4 A General Caveat...................................................................................................... 13
2.3.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 14
2.4 Overview of Synthetic Kerosene with Aromatics (SKA)............................................... 14
2.4.1 Background................................................................................................................ 14
2.4.2 Production of SKA.................................................................................................... 14
2.5 Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ) Overview............................................................................................. 15
2.5.1 Comparison to Currently Available Processes................................................... 16
2.5.2 ATJ Certification and Approval Process............................................................... 16
2.6 Compatibility of New Fuels with Fuel Infrastructure US Air Force Experience.... 17
3. S
ustainability.......................................................................................................................... 19
3.1 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................. 19
3.2 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 19
3.3 Governmental Regulations and Sustainability Standards............................................ 19
3.4 RSB Certification................................................................................................................... 20
3.5 Field Research Testing ofthe RSB Social Guidelines and Relevant
Definitions in the Context of the Novabra Jatropha Project in Colatina,
Espirito Santo, Brazil............................................................................................................. 21
3.6 Sustainability Assessment and GHG Balance of Jatropha in Mozambique ........... 22
4 IATA 2011 Report on Alternative fuels

4. Economic Policy for Biojet Production ......................................................... 23
4.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 23
4.3 Push Mechanisms ................................................................................................................. 23
4.3.1 Research and Development Funding .................................................................. 23
4.3.2 US Research & Development Programs ............................................................. 23
4.3.3 European Research & Development Programs ................................................. 24
4.3.4 Enhancing Production of Indigenous Second Generation Biofuels
in Developing Countries ......................................................................................... 25
4.4 Pull Mechanisms.................................................................................................................... 26
4.4.1 Blend Mandate .......................................................................................................... 26
4.4.2 Forward Contracts and Off-Take Agreements .................................................. 26
5. Stakeholder Initiatives .................................................................................................. 29

5.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 29
5.2 AIREG The New German Centre of Competence on Aviation Biofuels .............. 29
5.3 US Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) Energy Biofuels Initiatives............................... 30
5.4 The United States Farm to Fly Initiative......................................................................... 32
5.5 The Brazilian Biojet Fuel Platform...................................................................................... 33
5.5.1 The Sustainable Multi-Feedstock Unit ................................................................ 34
5.5.2 The Logistic Unit ....................................................................................................... 35
5.5.3 The Biorefinery Unit ................................................................................................. 35
5.6 SWAFEA: A European Study on the Feasibility And Impact
of the Introduction of Alternative Fuel in Aviation .......................................................... 35
5.6.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 35
5.6.2 Summary of SWAFEA Report ............................................................................... 36
5.7 CAAFI ...................................................................................................................................... 36
5.7.1 CAAFI Goals ............................................................................................................. 36
5.7.2 Function and Focus ................................................................................................. 37
5.7.3 Flying into the Future The Flight Continues.................................................... 38
6. Notable Developments ................................................................................................. 39

6.1 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 39
6.2 Recent Activities on Sustainable Aviation Biofuels in Mexico .................................... 39
6.2.1 Next Steps at ASA ................................................................................................... 42
6.3 Lufthansas New Brand PureSky Sky Friendly Energy ........................................ 42
6.3.1 PureSky Working Group...................................................................................... 42
6.3.2 Burn FAIR Inflight Evaluation of Engine Behavior and Corresponding
Research Work ......................................................................................................... 42
INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION 5

6.3.3 QuaNaBioL Quality and Sustainability Requirements for Biofuels......... 43
6.3.4 Sustainable Biokerosene Feedstock Supply for Aviation
Leuphana University.................................................................................................. 43
6.3.5 Aireg e.V. Aviation Initiative for Renewable Energy inGermany................. 43
6.4 Platform for Sustainable Aviation Fuels University of Lneburg/Germany........... 44
6.5 Qantas Sustainable Aviation Fuels.................................................................................... 44
6.5.1 Qantas Biojet Projects............................................................................................. 45
6.5.2 Australian Biojet Initiatives....................................................................................... 45
6.6 Air Frances Green Flight..................................................................................................... 46
6.7 TAROM and the First European Camelina ValueChain................................................ 47
6.7.1 The Romanian Camelina Value Chain.................................................................. 47
6.7.2 Camelina Feedstock................................................................................................. 47
6.7.3 Project Structure....................................................................................................... 47
6.7.4 Next Steps: Development and Deployment........................................................ 48
6.7.5 What Makes this Project Special?........................................................................ 48
6.7.6 The Projects Focus.................................................................................................. 49
6.7.7 Are There Any Limits?.............................................................................................. 49
6.8 SkyNRG The Fuel Future................................................................................................. 49
6.8.1 SkyNRGs Mission ................................................................................................... 49
6.8.2 SkyNRG Accomplishments.................................................................................... 50
6.8.3 SkyNRG Bioports................................................................................................... 51
6.9 BioJet Corporation................................................................................................................. 51
6.9.1 2011 Highlights......................................................................................................... 51
6.9.2 Capital & Finance...................................................................................................... 51
6.9.3 Feedstock.................................................................................................................... 52
6.9.4 Native American Projects........................................................................................ 52
6.9.5 Refining/Conversion................................................................................................. 52
6.9.6 Sales/Offtake.............................................................................................................. 53
6.9.7 Sustainability............................................................................................................... 53
Glossary............................................................................................................................................. 54
Definitions.......................................................................................................................................... 54
Acronyms.......................................................................................................................................... 56
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ 57

Report on
Alternative
Fuels


1. Overview
1
1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 A Note on Sustainability

The year 2011 has been amilestone year in biojet fuel. It is essential to consider the sustainability of biofuel
It marks the year in which bio-derived HEFA (hydro- crops. The creeping increases in petroleum prices,
processed esters and fatty acids) was approved by ambitious biomass energy targets, and the ever-
ASTM, and new ASTM task forces are making prog- increasing land required for food and oleo-chemical
ress towards approving SKA (synthetic kerosene production have created strong demand for biomass
containing aromatics) and SKM (metabolically-derived and the land required to grow it. The sustainability of
synthetic kerosene). This paves the way for four biofuels is imperative, which needs to be reached by
different types of biojet fuel approved for blending with appropriate standards and policy measures.
conventional jet fuel in the coming years. In May 2011, the International Energy Agency published
2011 also witnessed the first biojet commercial trans- atechnology roadmap on biofuels for transport2, and
atlantic flight, regular commercial use, and aburst of found no fewer than 67 sustainability schemes oper-
activities so numerous that in just two years it has ating or under development around the world. As of
become impractical to describe each one individually July 2011, the European Commission (EC) only recog-
(see graph below). nizes the following seven3 schemes as compatible with
their Renewable Energy Directive (RED):
1. ISCC (International Sustainability and Carbon
Certification)
2. Bonsucro EU
3. RTRS EU RED (Round Table on Responsible
Soy EU RED)
4. RSB EU RED (Roundtable on Sustainable
Biofuels EU RED)
5. 2BSvs (Biomass Biofuels voluntary scheme)
6. RBSA (Abengoa RED Bioenergy Sustainability
Assurance)
Figure 1 Global alternative fuel aviation activities1 as tracked by 7. Greenergy (Greenergy Brazilian Bioethanol
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). verification programme)
Impressive progress has been made but it is crucial Notably, in the USA, there is also the Renewable Fuels
not to recreate the mistakes of first generation ethanol Standard (RFS2) that requires producers to meet
and biodiesel. While these fuels have certain merits certain sustainability criteria to qualify for incentives.
and are often found to be superior to petroleum in A description of the EU RED and RFS2 sustainability
lifecycle carbon emissions, they have also competed criteria can be found in the 2010 IATA Report on Alter-
with foodand other industries for valuable farm land, native Fuels.
possibly contributing either directly or indirectly to
deforestation and land use change.
1. Alternative fuel aviation activities are those relating to fuel certification, policy and process setting, standardization, and tests
or demonstrations
2. http://www.iea.org/papers/2011/biofuels_roadmap.pdf
3. Source: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/biofuels/sustainability_schemes_en.htm

1 IATA has been an active participant in sustainability
discussions and has worked with the Roundtable on
Sustainable Biofuels towards developing sustain-
ability criteria for certification purposes. The RSB is
1.3 On the Format of
IATAs Report on
AlternativeFuels
the most comprehensive existing biofuel standard,
IATA depends on a broad range of experts who
which goes beyond RED and RFS2 and also extends
contribute information for this report. These volunteers
the requirements into the social domain. RSB relies on
are asked to supply by mid-fall each year descriptions
the individual auditing of each applicants process and
and explanations of new certifications, technologies,
procedures to verify environmental benefit.
program progress and more. By November, the editors
The goal of achieving widespread biojet use around have combined the contributors (listed in the Acknowl-
the world would be made significantly simpler if there edgements section) submittals into its presentformat.
were globally harmonized sustainability standards that
The goal of this report is not to lay out procedures
would be recognized in the EU, the US, and elsewhere
or best practices, but simply to inform the reader on
around the world. Aviation operations are inherently
progress that has taken place over the past year. It
international, so it is essential that biojet purchased
is not intended to be read from cover to cover, but
in one region and meeting local sustainability criteria
rather based on the chapter that is most interesting
would be recognized as sustainable at that aircrafts
to thereader.
destination. Achieving harmonization or at least mutual
recognition between the different standards is there- In order to address questions of procedures and best
fore an important need for asuccessful deployment of practices required for an airline to use biojet, IATA
biojet fuel worldwide. and its Strategic Partners have been developing the
IATA Guidance Material on Biojet Fuel Management
(BioGuide for short). The BioGuide addresses the
1.2 Global Research following four topics:
Into Biojet Fuel Certification and handling;
The questions of technical certification, sustainable Sustainability;
biomass production and economic measures have Emissions regulation compliance;
been considered at length by other organizations. Purchase contracts and insurance.
For example, SWAFEA1 is aEuropean consortium The BioGuide also contains in its Annex aprocedure
consisting of airlines, governments and NGOs, and for tracking biojet fuel purchases. If properly followed,
tasked with answering the most pressing questions in the procedure could allow for the aggregate of such
aviation biofuels. This group has published its conclu- purchases to be applied towards emissions allow-
sions and recommendations on lifecycle analyses, ances, for example under the EU Emissions Trading
economics, policy options and more. CAAFI2 is a Scheme (ETS). Therefore, the BioGuide can be
comprehensive American multi-stakeholder initia- considered more of technical, commercial and regula-
tive that has played an important role in providing tory guidance material, whereas the IATA Report on
the necessary data and expertise to ASTM3 subcom- Alternative Fuels is for informational purposes only.
mittee J that approves new jet fuels. The US military The BioGuide is scheduled to be published by IATA
represents yet another group that funds research and in 2012.
purchase of biojet fuels. The progress witnessed and
milestones achieved over the past few years have
been due in large part to the work of groups such as
these; therefore one full chapter of the present report
is dedicated to descriptions of these initiatives. Further
information regarding SWAFEA, CAAFI, and the other
groups can also be found online in the 2009 and 2010
IATA Reports on Alternative Fuels.
1. Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy in Aviation

2. Commercial Alternative Aviation Fuels Initiative
3. Formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials

2. Certification
2
2.1 Chapter Summary 2.3.1 The Basic Concept of D7566
ASTM International formerly the American Society The fact that refined aviation turbine fuel is rarely an
for Testing and Materials has recently approved issue for commercial aviation is atestament to the five
a second synthetic jet fuel (in addition to its original plus decades of specification activity that has resulted
acceptance of jet fuel derived through the Fischer- in excellent control. The basic concept for approving
Tropsch process), derived from fats and oils, and called alternative fuels was defining that this experience
HEFA (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids). ASTM described bounds for what is fit for purpose in avia-
has created task forces to investigate two further fuels: tion turbine engines. Thus it was reasoned that if the
synthetic kerosene containing aromatics (SKA), and alternative fuel could be made to perform in the same
alcohol to jet fuel (ATJ). In addition, compatibility tests manner it too would be fit for purpose.
were run by the US military to check if fuel infrastruc- Turbine fuel is used for more than power. Its heat
ture is affected by the chemical properties of synthetic transfer and hydraulic actuation properties are also
fuels; no incompatibilities were reported. important attributes. It also has to be compatible with
the materials from which the aircraft are made and
2.2 Introduction with the environments in which the aircraft is operated.
Over two decades of effort, starting with the Sasol
The certification of new fuels is an essential step effort to supply synthetic aviation turbine fuel in South
towards integrating biojet fuel in aviation. ASTM Inter- Africa, have gone into defining the key properties of
national has approved anew standard for these fuels aviation turbine fuel. The basic outline of these prop-
that corresponds closely to existing standards for erties is found in the latest release of ASTM D4054,
conventional jet fuel. This new standard, ASTM D7566, the Standard Practice for Qualification and Approval
and avariety of compatible fuels are described below. of New Aviation Turbine Fuels and Fuel Additives. This
is not aroutine process but an interactive journey with
the aviation community in general and the airframe and
2.3 ASTM D7566 power plant manufacturers in particular. The more that
aStandard for Alternative is known about hydrocarbons, for instance, the less
Aviation Turbine Fuel exotic the testing but each new hydrocarbon class has
resulted in new evaluation recommendations.
The development of ASTM D7566, the Standard
Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing
Synthesized Hydrocarbons, was the result of 2.3.2 Current Status of D7566
aconcerted effort of government and industry volun- ASTM D7566-11a has just been modified to include
teers. This group was dedicated to providing a way the first alternative path aimed exclusively at biologically
forward for the aviation industry while preserving derived jet fuel components from the hydroprocessing
the quality and capability of the fuel upon which the of fats and oils, HEFA synthetic paraffinic kerosene
industry has relied. (SPK). This relatively quick addition to D7566 was
aided significantly by how closely the HEFA SPK
resembled the kerosene generated in the Fischer
Tropsch process, FT SPK. While the inclusion of

aprimarily renewable path was the industry goal from the point of origin as the agreed practice is that the
the outset of the standardization process, the obvious fuel produced by D7566 will enter commerce under
starting point was with reasonably established (nearly either ASTM D1655 or UK(MOD) DefStan 91-91.
2
adecade of experience in South Africa) FT SPK.
It was not simply amatter of codifying existing practice 2.3.3 Future Additions
however. The Sasol FT SPK was approved as asole-
site source in the UK (MOD) Defense Standard 91-91. The current version of D7566 is a milestone in the
An ASTM specification has to be generic in nature production of alternative fuels but the work is not
and offer a path to use for any appropriate source. finished. Even while the FT and HEFA SPKs were
The significant issue was that the Sasol FT process being standardized, new approaches to producing
is unique in comparison to newer FT processes. The alternative aviation materials were being developed.
Sasol process produces highly isomerized paraffinic The variety is impressive but the approaches can be
kerosene whereas the newer processes produce narrowed to two primary topics: synthetic kerosene
paraffin wax. That wax is then put through additional with aromatics (SKA) and metabolically derived kero-
processing to generate kerosene suitable for avia- sene (SKM).
tion use. In the study that led to the original D7566 While the general belief is that less aromatics are better
the industry proved that both of these approaches (for engine life and emissions), there is a minimum
produced kerosene suitable for aviation purposes. requirement. This is based primarily on two needs:
The first step in turning fats and oils into aviation fuel density and elastomer compatibility. Aircraft operation
blend stock is removing the oxygen and breaking the planning depends on fuel meeting aminimum density
molecule into its component pieces. That step produces requirement. The analysis of historic fuel properties that
paraffin wax, essentially the same as that generated by led to setting the initial blend requirements suggested
the modern FT processes. This bio wax is then put that 8.0% was an appropriate value to meet density
through the same type of additional processing as requirements. Experience in synthetic fuel evaluations
the FT wax and, as a result, produces a HEFA SPK has shown that this is an appropriate level. This level is
product practically indistinguishable from the FT SPK. not specified for refined fuels because natural variation
This essential similarity allowed the industry to move in the paraffin content can result in adenser product
forward with the approval more quickly. Where FT SPK requiring less aromatic content.
required approximately two decades to be recognized In the extensive analysis of material compatibility for the
as ageneric product, the start to finish effort for HEFA proposed hydrocarbon blend materials one item has
SPK was about 5 years. The principle is fairly simple; stood out as critical proper sealing characteristics
the more the industry knows about the hydrocarbons of nitrile elastomers. These materials are very common
in general, the less that needs to be known about in the commercial fleet, particularly for sealing fuel
specific processes. a primary question of the study tanks. The minimum aromatic content for maintaining
was on the effect of feedstock. Fats and oils, new seal swell has not been defined but the same histor-
and waste, have awide variety of chemical properties ical experience that pointed to 8% being a practical
so a wide variety of feedstocks were evaluated. The minimum to maintain density supports the conclusion
conclusion of this study was that if the product met that it is sufficient for the elastomers too.
the established requirements it was fit for purpose,
regardless of feedstock origin. Practical experience has shown that meeting the
minimum density requirement has been alimiting factor
Therefore, there are now two paths for generating in how much SPK can be used. Sasol, the leader in
alternative aviation fuel in D7566. Annex A1 allows the synthetic aviation turbine fuel experience, found this
production of FT SPK, primarily from coal and natural limitation to be asignificant issue and led an effort for
gas but the use of biomass as afeedstock is allowed another single site source approval to allow synthetic
(thus providing a renewable path). Annex A2 allows kerosene with aromatics (SKA) to be approved for use
the production of HEFA SPK, from fats and oils. Both in UK(MOD) DefStan 91-91. This is not aSouth Africa
of these SPKs may be blended up to fifty percent with exclusive issue, so the ASTM Emerging Turbine Fuel
refined aviation turbine fuel. The resulting product is fit group is working toward ageneric approval for SKA.
for purpose and may be used without condition, other Current refined fuel characteristics already limit the
than the standard requirements for using any refined blending potential for SPK. On the horizon are potential
fuel. The only interest in source would be for environ- limits on fuel sulfur content and, if the experience with
mental accounting and that would only be available at the removal of sulfur from diesel fuel is apredictor, that

could further reduce the aromatic content of refined 2.3.4 A General Caveat
fuel and, thus, the ability to blend in synthetic compo-
nents. In the long term, producing SKA is the path to Organizations that intend to become involved with the
2
delivering afully synthetic aviation turbine fuel. acquisition, production and use of alternative aviation
fuels need to seek out fuel property expertise as part of
There are some very interesting developments in the the process. The existing fuel industry has done avery
area of synthetic kerosene from metabolic processes good job of providing aquality product which makes
(SKM). While fats and oils come from organisms, in the aviation industrys prime concerns location and
this case the reference is to organisms specifically cost. As aresult the aviation industry expertise tends
developed to generate hydrocarbon fuel. This varies to be focused on fuel as acommodity and not on its
from producing abuilding block, such as an alcohol, properties. Experience with other transportation fuels
used to assemble kerosene class molecules to the has shown that new providers sometimes fail to meet
actual generation of kerosene type molecules in the the actual needs of the industry they sought to supply.
organism. Evaluating the fit for purpose nature of the Misunderstandings are not allowed in aviation.
SKMs introduces new questions. While most of the
hydrocarbon issues may be settled science, SKMs Some of the most egregious errors in the past, partic-
offer new challenges. One of the unique character- ularly for biodiesel, were caused by very small marginal
istics of these materials is they tend to have a very operators. The capital costs for processes allowed by
specific chemical identity. Where the FT and HEFA D7566, now and in the foreseeable future, are just
SPKs have a large number of molecule types over too great for amateur approaches. There is, however,
broad distillation range, aSKM material may be as a potential to misunderstand the requirements. The
narrow as asingle molecule with afixed boiling point. most likely points of misunderstanding are:
While it is true that turbine engines can run on mono 1. Ignoring the Quality Control Effort Required
molecular fuel, the broad industry experience is with At the start of the biodiesel effort some
fuel having a wide molecular distribution and boiling participants were surprised they had to prove
point range. The essential question will likely be how their product met a specification and some
much variation from a nominal distillation pattern will were shocked to learn that every batch had to
aturbine engine tolerate and perform as designed. As be tested. It is easy to anticipate similar confu-
usual with aviation turbine fuel, the initial allowance will sion will be an issue for parties that are not
likely be conservative. rooted in aviation fuel technology. Every batch
The SKMs that will come directly from internal synthesis of blend stock has to be tested. Every batch of
in organisms will pose new challenges in the evalu- blended fuel has to be tested. If the blending
ation of trace contamination. For the existing SPKs is done outside of a refinery every batch of
and the typical SKA, the synthesis process is very refined fuel that will be used in the blend will
aggressive and eliminates most source contamination need to be tested to determine how much
issues. From the experience with diesel fuel, where can be blended. (The blending process is not
a metabolite (sterol glucoside) became a significant just add 50%, it is add up to 50% if all of the
low temperature flow issue, the turbine fuel community Table 1 requirements plus aminimum aromatic
is aware of the fact that the carryover of oils soluble content aremet.)
metabolites is an issue with which it has to deal. 2. Making Assumptions About the Required
Properties Historically there has always been
As new processes are developed the specification atendency to divide the specification proper-
issues become more complex. The FT and HEFA ties into important and routine categories.
SPK covered a significant variety of processes and That division may be useful on alocal basis for
starting materials that would work effectively. Most of evaluating process operations, as long as the
the proposed SKAs are aromatic inclusive versions of requirements are met, but ignoring the routine
the existing processes but some of the SKMs include would be inappropriate. Nothing goes into
aromatic molecules. The SKMs have a variety of afuel specification that is not important. Some
unique chemical products. Every new synthetic source tests may be more critical than others but every
can build on the common experience but unique attri- test has apurpose.
butes will have to be addressed. Dealing with these 3. Mistaking the Specification Tests for the Fit
complex issues may result in abulky document but the for Purpose Requirements Aviation turbine
Aviation Fuel Subcommittee will always choose clarity fuel has many required properties that are
over brevity. Without clarity there is too much room not tested with every batch. The purpose
forinterpretation. of a specification table is not to define every

aspect of afuel but to control those properties flights from Johannesburg to Cape Town. In what was
which are not anatural product of the process acknowledged as a world-first, the Hawker 4000
involved. The key task for dealing with non- corporate jet, Beechcraft King Air 350i and P750 jets,
2
refined feedstocks has been defining those as well as a Boeing 737-200 chartered plane with
properties which, when applied as aspecifica- 90passengers aboard, conducted the 1500 km flight
tion, will assure the resulting product is fit for from Johannesburg to Cape Town on the new jet fuel.
purpose. This understanding only applies for There the aircraft took part in the African Aerospace &
the process for which the specifications are Defence Exhibition (AAD2010), which was held at the
developed. Comparing test results to specifi- Ysterplaat Air Force Base.
cations for approved processes is agood way
This was the culmination of asustained research and
to evaluate potential processes but it is not
testing effort over the last two decades during which
proof of equivalence.
Sasol followed acomprehensive process for the inter-
ASTM D7566 provides all the required informa- national qualification of firstly semi-synthetic jet fuel
tion for producing fuels with the currently approved and later fully synthetic jet fuel engaging all inter-
synthesized hydrocarbon processes. Besides being national stakeholders throughout the process. During
a formulary, the subcommittee included all of the the course of this prolonged effort, the protocol for the
supplementary text from ASTM D1655, the Standard approval of any future, new and alternative jet fuel was
Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel, to provide also developed, as no precedent existed for this.
abetter understanding of the industry requirements for
the fuel being generated. The presence of documen-
tation does not assure compliance, however, so an 2.4.2 Production of SKA
independent review by atechnical expert could be an Unlike most existing FT refineries which would use
important due diligence effort for any proposed project alow-temperature FT process with acobalt catalyst,
(particularly for organizations without established avia- the Sasol Synfuels refinery in Secunda utilizes ahigh-
tion fuel credentials). temperature process with an iron-based catalyst. As
a result, the hydrocarbon product stream is unique
in that it contains single-ring aromatics in the jet fuel
2.3.5 Conclusion boiling range, in addition to the normal-, cyclic- and
Working together with the common goal of ensuring iso-paraffins produced by the other (lower-temper-
the output was fit for purpose, the government and ature FT, as typically used for GTL) processes. The
industry volunteers that comprise the ASTM Aviation presence of the aromatics makes it possible to blend
Fuel Subcommittee have delivered aspecification that synthetic kerosene that is more representative of
both solves the need for alternative, and potentially conventional petroleum-derived jet fuel than the totally
renewable, aviation turbine fuel and assures uncom- paraffinic kerosene produced by the more common,
promised operations. There are two viable generic low-temperature (LTFT) process. Although the fuel
approaches now, FT SPK and HEFA SPK, and more manufactured for the demonstration flights was
are in process. The only limitations to the future are considered to be aFully Synthetic Jet Fuel (FSJF) as
volunteer effort and flight safety. described and approved in DEF STAN 91-91 (Issue6),
it may also be seen as an example of what may be
possible under the more generic SKA definition, which
2.4 Overview of Synthetic is currently being developed by an ASTM task force.
Kerosene with Aromatics It is envisaged that the ASTMs SKA task force would
(SKA) initially, perhaps by December 2011, recommend
the inclusion of SKA as ablending component at up
to 50% (v/v), as the third Annex to ASTM D7566,
2.4.1 Background following FT SPK in Annex A1 and HEFA in Annex
On 21 September 2010, Sasol became the first A2. In this context, Sasol has again led the way by
company in the world to fly four commercial airplanes obtaining approval for the first SKA, Secundas Heavy
with passengers on 100% synthetic jet fuel which Naphtha#1, which was approved as asemi-synthetic
conformed to the definition of SKA (Synthetic Kero- blend component in May 2010 by the Aviation Fuels
sene with Aromatics). All four planes had Pratt & Committee (AFC) (and formally included in DEF STAN
Whitney turbine engines, and all the engines ran on 91-91, Issue 7, as published on 18 February 2011).
the 100% fully synthetic jet fuel during the chartered It is expected that other SKAs, that can potentially
be used up to 100% on their own as Jet A/A-1 fuels,

similar to the Sasol FSJF, will only be accommodated
later under the generic approval protocol followed by
2.5 Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ)
ASTM International. Overview
2
Alcohol to jet (ATJ) alternative jet fuel is avariety of
metabolically-derived kerosene (described in Section
2.3.3) and represents multiple processes in which
primary feedstocks are converted to alcohol inter-
mediates, which are then chemically converted into
jet range hydrocarbons. anumber of companies are
developing ATJ technologies for alcohol production,
alcohol conversion, or both. ASTM has convened
atask force focused on ATJ fuels, which is expected
to be the next alternative aviation fuel process to
becertified.
Figure 2 Sasols Piet Roets with the 100% Synthetic Jet A-1, in ATJ requires two principal conversion steps: 1) the
front of the Boeing 737-200. conversion of feedstocks to alcohols and 2) the conver-
sion of alcohols to jet fuel. As illustrated in the figure
below, the primary feedstocks for ATJ may be starches
or sugars, biomass, or industrial waste gases. Starches
and sugars may be converted to alcohols through direct
fermentation. Biomass may be converted to alcohols
by pretreatment to release sugars, followed by fermen-
tation, or by gasification to produce synthesis gas
(CO + H2), followed by gas fermentation. The alcohol
Figure 3 The Boeing 737-200 being filled with 100% Synthetic intermediates may be ethanol, butanol, other alcohols,
Jet A-1.ibility with seal materials. or mixed alcohols. Alcohols are then converted to jet
using standard chemical processes.
Figure 4 Overview of Alcohol-Derived (AD) or Alcohol-to-Jet Processes.

2.5.1 Comparison to Currently alternative aviation fuels beyond those suitable for FT
and HEFA, lowers feedstock costs and creates aclear
Available Processes path to commercial scale production.
2
Both FT and HEFA produce only the paraffinic content A summary of ATJ processes in development is
of jet fuel and rely on petroleum resources in jet fuel provided in the table below. These often represent
blends to provide the aromatic content. Some ATJ partnerships between alcohol production and alcohol
processes provide a route to renewable aromatic conversion technology providers, and use different
hydrocarbons in the jet fuel range, in addition to alcohol intermediates. U.S. Federal agencies, such
branched and cyclic paraffins, providing apathway to as Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and
a100% substitute for petroleum derived jet as well as the Department of Energy have funded R&D programs
ablending component. to develop ATJ processes. In addition, the Defense
ATJ processes can utilize traditional feedstocks such Logistics Agency recently awarded a procurement
as corn and sugarcane, energy crops like miscanthus contract to Gevo for up to 11,000 gallons of ATJ for
and switchgrass, and other waste biomass sources fuel testing. Downstream partnerships have already
like municipal solid waste or agricultural waste such as been announced in anticipation of commercial ATJ
bagasse or corn stover. In addition, companies have production: United Airlines/Gevo and Virgin Atlantic/
demonstrated that woody biomass, and even industrial LanzaTech/Swedish Biofuels have announced their
waste gases integrate with ATJ technology. This feed- intent to utilize ATJ fuels for future commercial flights.
stock flexibility significantly expands the feedstocks for
Company Feed stock Primary Processing Intermediates Conversion Process Final Fuel
Gevo Corn; Biomass Direct Fermentation Isobutanol Dehydration, Oligomer- AD-SPK
ization, Fractionation,
Hydrogenation
Cobalt Biomass Direct Fermentation n-butanol Dehydration, Oligomeriza- AD-SPK
tion, Hydrogenation
Byogy Sugar Cane; Corn; Direct Fermentation Ethanol & Other Alcohols Dehydration, Catalytic JP8/Jet A-1
Biomass Synthesis Fractionation,
Polishing
Terrabon/Logos Biomass Fermentation/Reduction Mixed Alcohols Dehydration, Oligomeriza- JP8/Jet A-1
tion, Hydrogenation
LanzaTech/Swedish Biomass; Industrial Gas Direct Fermentation Ethanol & Other Alcohols Chemical Synthesis AD-SPK & JP8/Jet A-1
Biofuels
Virent Sugars; Starches; Thermal Catalytic Alcohols, Ketones, & Condensation, Hydrode- AD-SPK & JP8/Jet A-1
Biomass Aldehydes oxygenation Dehydration,
Oligomerization,
Hydrogenation
Zeachem Biomass Fermentation/Reduction Ethanol & Propanol Dehydration, Oligomeriza- AD-SPK
tion, Hydrogenation
2.5.2 ATJ Certification to support the ASTM International certification of an

alcohol derived jet fuel. The ATJ pathway is the next
and Approval Process upcoming class of alternative jet fuel processes to be
The Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative evaluated for certification in 2012. In accordance with
(CAAFI) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ASTM D4054, several companies with ATJ processes
are working aggressively to accelerate certification of are currently producing fuel samples for testing by the
new alternative aviation fuels. Many of the companies Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) and inclusion
with ATJ technology processes are collaborating with in a detailed research report that will be provided to
CAAFI, the FAA, engine manufacturers, and many other engine manufacturers and presented at the upcoming
aviation industry stakeholders and certification bodies ASTM D02 conference in December of 2011.

2.6 Compatibility of Several materials were tested in a sequence that
mimicked the changing environments of switch loading
New Fuels with Fuel between an FT fuel blend with JP-8 and neat JP-8.
2
Infrastructure The work addressing the compatibility with Air Force
US Air Force Experience F/S equipment included both military and commer-
The US Air Force launched afull-scale effort in 2007 cial equipment and was conducted in two parts.
to certify its entire fleet of aircraft on the use of an The first part consisted of single element tests on
alternative aviation fuel consisting of ablend of 50%v filter elements manufactured per EI 1581 5th edition,
(percent by volume) JP-8 and a fuel produced from and on MIL-PRF-32148 shipboard elements utilizing
afeedstock that did not involve crude oil. At that time, amixture of FT fuel and JP-8 at 50%v with all required
an alternative fuel produced via a FT synthesis was military additives. The second part was performed
the lone non-crude-oil-based fuel that was in full-scale with the same type of equipment and with amixture of
production and was consequently available in quanti- FT fuel and JP-8 at 50%v without any of the additives.
ties large enough to support this Air Force certification The equipment and field evaluations were preceded
effort. ablend of 50%v JP-8 and an FT-derived fuel was by a literature review of studies and reports from
therefore chosen as the alternative certificationfuel. investigations which had already taken place in order
to better focus these efforts. The facilities and equip-
The properties of what was considered to be an ment evaluated included aviation fuel-related receiving,
acceptable FT fuel were defined in the F revision to storage, pumping, transfer, dispensing, direct fueling
the specification for JP-8 (F-34), MIL-DTL-83133. As hydrant systems and associated fuel system compo-
part of this effort, the Air Force initiated an effort to nents. The field evaluation was performed utilizing
determine any impact that aJP8/FT-derived alternative a working Type III hydrant fueling system at an Air
fuel blend might have on the part of the Air Force Infra- Force base for a period of six months beginning in
structure (AFI) that is used to handle and store fuels. May 2009. Initially, abaseline evaluation was accom-
This AFI fuel certification effort included an investiga- plished using standard JP-8 fuel. Following this, the
tion of the following: system was operated using a 50%v mixture of JP-8
The compatibility of an FT-derived fuel and JP-8 and an FT fuel. During the evaluation, the system was
fuel blend with fuel-wetted materials found in continuously inspected for fuel leakage or any sign of
theAFI; system anomalies. In addition, measurements were
The compatibility with fuel Filter/Separator (F/S) made throughout the evaluation on fuel flow rates
equipment; andpressures.
Any change in the performance of equipment The results of this evaluation suggest that no signifi-
used in the fuels infrastructure, followed by afield cant material incompatibilities should be anticipated
evaluation in an isolated working fuel storage and when using ablended fuel containing up to 50%v FT
delivery system. synthetic fuel and JP-8. The US Air Force is, however,
The investigation of the AFI materials compatibility continuing to require an aromatics content of at least
relied to some extent on laboratory-scale materials 8%v in any fuel blend consisting of amixture of JP-8
testing which had been performed by the Air Force and synthetics. In addition, these aromatics must
Research Laboratory (AFRL) prior to and during the originate in the petroleum-based content of the blend.
initial stages of the aircraft fleet certification effort. This This requirement is based on studies performed in the
was due to the fact that some of the materials tested past which have concluded that aminimum aromatics
in the fleet certification work were identical to or suffi- content be maintained to ensure the continued integ-
ciently similar to the materials found in the AFI. rity of some nitrile-based sealing materials. The results
of the F/S testing demonstrated that the FT fuel
The fuels used in this work were for the most part blended with JP-8 at 50%v had no effect on the F/S
blends with varied contents ranging from 100%v equipment being able to remove sediment or water
FT (0%v JP-8) down to 0%v FT (100%v JP-8). This from the fuel and based on the operational portion of
testing involved both liquid and vapor phase expo- this evaluation, no significant differences were found in
sures. The materials used in these tests included both the performance of equipment or facilities when using
metallics and non-metallics (including collapsible fuel ablended fuel consisting of 50%v synthetic and 50%v
storage tank materials) along with pertinent adhesives, JP-8. As a result of these studies, Air Force fueling
sealants and coatings. In some cases, these materials systems were certified as compatible with ablended
were tested in both new and aged conditions (i.e.,after fuel containing up to 50%v FT synthetic fuel and JP-8
having been exposed to JP-8 for anumber of months). in March 2010.

Following the successful evaluation of AFI with FT
derived synthetic fuels, the Air Force began an evalua-
tion of synthetic aviation fuel derived using abio-based
2
feedstock and hydroprocessing techniques. Because
of the similarities of this Hydroprocessed Renewable
Jet (HRJ) and the FT fuels tested, the certification
process was streamlined to include fuel wetted mate-
rial testing as well as single element EI 1581 filtration
testing. AFRL is finishing up on material testing using
the same evaluation criteria used in the FT certifi-
cation. Additional elongation and tensile strength is
being conducted on Buta-N materials found in fuel
valve diaphragms. AFRL feels this additional testing
is warranted due to the constant state of flex these
diaphragms undergo during refueling operations.
The filtration testing was modified to include single
element testing using various combinations of military
additives to determine if an additive, mixed with the
blended fuel, would produce filterability results which
varied from that seen in traditional JP-8. These reports
are being evaluated.
To date, no variables have been seen which would
preclude certification of AFI on a blended fuel
containing up to 50%v HRJ synthetic fuel and JP-8.
Barring any unforeseen test results, AFRL expects Air
Force fueling systems to be certified on ablended fuel
containing up to 50%v HRJ synthetic fuel and JP-8
during the spring of 2012.

3. Sustainability
3
3.1 Chapter Summary The use of biofuels is expected to strongly contribute
to the achievement of these goals. There are anumber
Meeting sustainability criteria is a crucial requirement for of biofuels from various feedstocks usable for avia-
biofuels in aviation. Reduction of greenhouse gas emis- tion which typically achieve GHG emission reductions
sions through the use of sustainable biojet fuel is seen around 80% or better.
as a major contributor to meeting the aviation industrys
climate change goals. Various regulatory (EU RED, US
RFS) and voluntary standards set sustainability require- 3.3 Governmental Regulations
ments for biofuels, the most comprehensive one being and Sustainability
the one of the Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels
(RSB), which has recently started its certification activ- Standards
ities. The first certificates are expected to be issued Both the EU and the US have introduced regulatory
in late 2011 or early 2012. Two of these RSB certifi- standards (Renewable Energy Directive (RED) in
cation efforts are described for Jatropha being grown the EU, Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) in the US)
in Brazil and inMozambique. There are other sustain- prescribing criteria that biofuels for industrial applica-
ability certifications available, and the RSB described tions have to meet in order to be eligible for incentives
in this chapter represents just one example. or to be counted towards a biofuel blend or volume
mandate. In particular, specific GHG reduction thresh-
olds are required by these standards. The aviation
3.2 Introduction sector is not subject to obligations of using biofuels
Sustainability is one of the most important requirements since aviation biofuels have been certified only recently
for alternative fuels in aviation, which is supported by and are not yet available in large commercial quantities.
all aviation stakeholders, including airlines, manufac- In parallel to governmental regulations there are
turers, and airports as well as national and international various voluntary standards for biofuel sustainability,
authorities. As aconsequence of the experience with normally with more comprehensive requirements
first-generation biofuels for other industrial applications, that the regulatory ones. One example is the Round-
especially regarding the food vs. fuel competition, table on Sustainable Biofuels (RSB), an international
IATA and various airlines have been promoting the multi-stakeholder initiative coordinated by the Ecole
application of appropriate sustainability criteria from Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne (EPFL), and
the early times of aviation biofuels development. which was the first institution to develop sustainability
Moreover, reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- criteria for biofuels. Between 2007 and 2011, it set
sions is the major driver for the aviation industry to up a sustainability standard consisting of a compre-
push for the use of sustainable biofuels. In 2009 hensive set of environmental, societal and economic
IATA, together with the other global aviation stake- criteria. The Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group
holders, established aset of high-level goals to limit (SAFUG), an association of today 23 airlines, 3 aircraft
and reduce aviations impact on climate change that manufacturers and abiofuel supplier (www.safug.org),
includes the following: considers the RSB standard as areference. There are
seven voluntary standards recognized by the Euro-
a cap on global aviation CO2 emissions (carbon- pean Commission for certification of biofuels under
neutral growth) from 2020; the European Renewable Energy Directive (RED),
a reduction in CO2 emissions of 50% by 2050 the best known among them being RSB and ISCC
relative to 2005 levels. (International Sustainability and Carbon Certification).

a comprehensive overview of biofuel regulations and United States as a501(c) 3 non-profit. RSB Services
both regulatory and voluntary sustainability standards Foundation will work closely with the RSB on the imple-
can be found in the IATA 2010 Report on Alternative mentation of the RSB standard. Since July 2011, the
Fuels. RSB has received eight applications for certification
and is working with anumber of companies who are in
Unfortunately the different existing sustainability stan-
the pipeline for certification. The first certificates are
dards do not only cover different criteria, but also use
expected to be issued towards the end of 2011 or in
different methodologies to determine impact param-
3
the first months of 2012.
eters such as lifecycle GHG emissions. RED, RFS and
RSB use substantially different methods to account The RSB is in close contact with members of the
for the different sources of GHG emissions and to aviation industry, including airlines, biojet producers,
share them between co- and by-products; lifecycle aircraft manufacturers and other stakeholders, in order
GHG emission values determined according to these to work towards the production of sustainable and
standards are thus not comparable. For aviation, due certified aviation biofuel.
to its global and border-crossing nature, these diver-
In addition to building industry support, the RSB has
gent regulations make it difficult to make best use of
started to work more closely with the auditing and
incentives for biojet fuel. Achieving harmonization or
verification community. Around a dozen certification
at least mutual recognition between the different stan-
bodies around the world have indicated their interest
dards has thus been identified as an important need
in offering RSB auditing and verification services. The
for asuccessful deployment of biojet fuel worldwide.
first certification body was awarded RSB accredita-
The following sections focus on the latest achieve- tion in September (SGS) and anumber of others will
ments in establishing RSB certification as well as two follow shortly.
practical examples of assessment of jatropha biofuel
In 2011 the RSB held three auditor training courses,
feedstock production in Mozambique and Brazil.
in Lausanne (April 2011), Mexico City (June 2011)
Jatropha is one of the feedstocks that see aviation as
and Kuala Lumpur (September 2011). Starting in
amajor customer for the future.
January 2012 the RSB will move to an e-learning
auditor training platform, in which course modules are
3.4 RSB Certification taken online, followed by ashort face-to-face course.
On-site training courses will be held throughout 2012
The global RSB Standard, which was described more in different locations throughout the world.
in detail in the IATA 2010 Report on Alternative Fuels,
is applicable to all types of feedstock throughout the In order to facilitate the implementation of the RSB
entire supply chain. Standard for biofuels made from certain end of life
products, the RSB Secretariat is developing apolicy
The RSB certification system was officially launched on for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Used Cooking Oil
23 March 2011 at the World Biofuels Market confer- (UCO) and Wastewater used to produce biofuels.
ence in Rotterdam. This milestone was the culmination Additional biofuel pathways that qualify for end-of-life
of the work accomplished by RSB members over the status may be added in the future, when demonstrating
last four years, during which more than 120 organi- upstream compliance for feedstock sources is not
zations worldwide developed the Standard through necessary or feasible.
consensus and an open and transparent multi-stake-
holder process. Within the area of indirect impacts, the RSB Secre-
tariat is drafting aproposal on how to address Indirect
On July 19, 2011 the European Union recognized Impacts of biofuel production in the RSB Standard.
the RSB standard and certification system as a way This proposal will be informed by the results of the
to demonstrate compliance with the EU Renewable project Certification System for Low Indirect Impacts
Energy Directive (EU RED), which was another key Biofuels (CIIB), acollaboration project between RSB,
milestone for the RSB. Ecofys, WWF International and several other partners.
Another important step forward for the RSB was The RSB policy on indirect impacts will be discussed
the legal establishment of the RSB Services Foun- by the RSB membership and Steering Board in 2012.
dation, which has been legally incorporated in the

In September of 2011 the RSB organized, in collab- (Principle 4). The RSB Secretariat in cooperation
oration with Brazilian NGO 4 Cantos do Mundo, an with several world experts has now developed guide-
outreach on biofuels, sustainability and certification in lines to guide operators through the implementation
the State of Minas Gerais in Brazil. The RSB hopes to of the social principles and has developed definitions
organize more of such outreaches in the year to come for region of poverty (Principle 5), region of food
to build capacity in the area of biofuels sustainability insecurity (Principle 6) and legitimate land dispute
and certification in key biofuel producing regions of (Principle 12). These guidelines and definitions are
3
the world. now being tested in six different contexts (from small
producers to large plantations, various crops) to
In addition, the RSB continues to collaborate with
evaluate their feasibility, appropriateness and prac-
biofuel operators, governments, NGOs and other
ticalvalidity.
organizations in the area of biofuel sustainability. The
RSB is looking forward to 2012 as ayear of growth This field research will focus on the Novabra Jatropha
and expansion for the organization. Project in the region of Colatina, Espirito Santo, Brazil.
The project aims at the introduction of Jatropha as
a non-food feedstock amongst small holders for the
3.5 Field Research Testing production of sustainable biofuels. Its goal is to reach
ofthe RSB Social 25,000 hectares of Jatropha plantations in the next eight
years, generating anew virtuous economic cycle in the
Guidelines and Relevant communities engaged with the program. By 2011, it
Definitions in the Context had already reached 1200 hectares with 480families
of the Novabra Jatropha from rural settlements, coffee plantations, and cattle
ranches. The State Government of Espirito Santo is
Project in Colatina, giving full official support to this project by setting up
Espirito Santo, Brazil aJatropha Knowledge Center in the region.
The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels (RSB) aims The outcomes of the field research will be the
to offer a one stop third party certification system following:
to biofuels operators by covering different feedstock,
different supply chains and offering certification for 1. Results on the feasibility, appropriateness and
different markets. In November 2009, the Steering practical validity of the definitions and guide-
Board of the RSB approved Version One of the RSB lines, based on the field research conducted in
Standard and certification system for use during Colatina, Espirito Santo, Brazil.
aseries of pilot tests in 2010. After several months of 2. Recommendations on the applicability of
field testing in pilot projects, followed by a2 months the standard to smallholders and the planta-
consultation period of RSB members and of the tion model, as observed in the context of the
public, the RSB Steering Board validated Version 2.0 Novabra project.
in November 2010. In 2011 RSB began accepting These results will inform the revision of the guidelines
applications for certifications. The RSB Standard will and inform the discussion on the adoption of the rele-
now be regularly revised for improvements and adap- vant definitions. They will also provide useful insight
tations to new and relevant developments. into possible changes required in social principles
The RSB Principles & Criteria (P & Cs) cover social during the preparation of Version 3 of the standard. As
issues which are critical for the long term sustain- RSB aims to be accessible to smallholder, it will also
ability of biofuels. These issues include local food provide substantial feedback on the possible need for
security issues (covered in Principle 6), how biofuels adaptation or provision or further clarification to ensure
can contribute to local development (Principle 5), how the standard can be used by smallholders.
land rights and water rights are duly acknowledged
(Principle 9 & 12) as well as the involvement of stake-
holders (Principle 2) and labour and human rights

3.6 Sustainability Assessment In the second part of the study, Jatropha Alliance
and its partner Sun Biofuels demonstrated that even
and GHG Balance of under conservative assumptions on yields and other
Jatropha in Mozambique parameters, Sun Biofuels produces aGHG savings of
48% compared to the local fossil equivalent. However
In a pilot project of the Jatropha Alliance in Mozam-
there is apotential to save up to 73%, if the nitrogen
bique, the principles of the Roundtable on Sustainable
fertilizer were to be substituted by organic fertilizer
Biofuels (RSB) have been directly applied to Jatropha
3
(e.g.Jatropha seed cake).
plantations on the ground. This project has demon-
strated that Jatropha is able to justify its claim as Finally, the study calculates the impact of land use
a sustainable alternative to first generation biofuels. change on GHG savings. If perennial Jatropha is
The project team reported that the RSB toolset works grown on former cropland, this pushes the actual GHG
well in practice. The RSB standard is quite demanding savings to above 100%, due to the effects of carbon
in terms of data, striving for excellence in analyzing all fixing. Cultivating Jatropha on former annual crop-
sustainability issues in operations and planning. The land or grassland savannah leads to apositive GHG
project team concluded that RSB certification could impact, whereas cultivation on forest or dense scru-
be a challenge for organizations dealing with alarge bland is not recommendable from aGHG perspective.
number of smallholder farmers. However, the RSB has The Jatropha Alliance therefore strongly recommends
confirmed it is addressing the issue of streamlining not planting Jatropha on forest or dense scrubland.
smallholder certification operations. The final report and project toolbox are available to the
public online1.
Figure 5 Jatropha plant.
It was also found that the required effort to achieve

compliance varied significantly from principle to
principle. An appraisal of the ease of providing docu-
mentation, conducting assessments and gaining
compliance was performed. The project resulted in
a gap analysis on each company to identify where
compliance with RSB was reached and where further
efforts needed to be made. Based on the identified
gaps, acompany specific roadmap for RSB certifica-
tion was developed. Early results indicate that Jatropha
production in Mozambique is well enough advanced to
be certifiable according to the RSB standard.
1. www.jatropha-alliance.org

4. Economic Policy for
Biojet Production
4.1 Chapter Summary

If the production of biojet fuel is to attain sufficiently
large volumes to meet the industrys expectations for
emissions reduction, there will need to be government
on analyzing pull instruments that can be used to give
demand certainty to aviation biofuel producers.
4.3 Push Mechanisms

4
programs in place to incentivize the construction of
biofuel production plants. In the US, a reverse auction
mechanism to promote cellulosic biofuels has been 4.3.1 Research and
established but lack of funding to-date has constrained Development Funding
the impact of this mechanism. An announced invest-
ment of $USD 510 million by the US Department of There are several programs that are currently in place to
Energy has been directed towards the development support research and development in aviation biofuels
of a domestic biojet fuel industry, and is designed to with most of these programs centered in developed
help overcome the risk of investing in biojet produc- countries. The US and the EU are most actively
tion. The European Commission has announced the engaged in research and development of aviation
European Biofuels Flight Path Initiative, which aims to biofuels, building on longer experience from automo-
achieve 2 million tons of biojet fuel in the European tive biofuel. Australia is also playing an increasingly
Market by 2020. Second generation biofuels derived important role. Among developing countries Brazil is
from feedstock indigenous to developing countries clearly a frontrunner in automotive biofuels, in particular
provide a potentially viable commercial opportunity in ethanol from sugarcane, and has started to undertake
the medium to long term but require further research an increasing amount of research and development
and development. Two pull mechanisms for incen- of aviation biofuels. Various consortia have under-
tivizing biojet production are considered, a blend taken research and development for aviation biofuels,
mandate and forward contracts. which are again dominated by companies from US and
Europe and include aviation fuel users, aircraft manu-
factures, and refiners, as well as other participants of
4.2 Introduction the supply chain (see Chapter 5 for examples). While
in the past years the focus has been on development
In the economics chapter of last years report, the and testing of the feasibility of biojet fuels, the current
focus was on providing an overview on the economics challenge, which requires much larger investment,
of aviation biofuels as well as providing cost ranges is incentivizing the construction of commercial scale
for the FT and HEFA processes. This year it focuses biojet demonstration and deployment plants.
on providing an analysis on a range of policy options
that can be employed to promote drop-in biojet fuels.
The chapter is split into two sections. The first section 4.3.2 US Research &
analyzes potential push policy options that can be
used to stimulate the advancement of aviation biofuels
Development Programs
through research, development, demonstration and The US has actively supported development of
eventually deployment. The second section focuses biofuel production including production incentives
for cellulosic biofuels. Through the Energy Policy
1. Reverse auctions refer to the competition between multiple sellers to offer the lowest price to a single buyer through an organized
bidding process.

Act of 2005, an incentive program for production of A geographically advantageous location with
cellulosic biofuels using reverse auctions1 was estab- ready market access;
lished. The Energy Independence and Security Act Results in no significant impact on supply of agri-
of 2007 updated Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS2) cultural commodities for the production of food.
to introduce explicit mandates for use of cellulosic
The MoU states that the US aims to attain enhanced
biofuels but did not make changes to the reverse
reliability of fuel supplies through diversification to
auction program. The RFS2 program is described in
advanced drop-in biofuels in order to sustain US military
the 2010 IATA Report on Alternative Fuels in Chapter
capabilities through reducing its vulnerability to poten-
4.5.1. The slow pace of the reverse auction program
tial disruption of crude oil supplies. The US needs to
and the modest funding actually appropriated by
ensure that the pledged funding is delivered and other
Congress has led to this mechanism not being able
policy mechanisms, such as those employed through
to support the construction of demonstration projects
the Department of Energys loan guarantee program,
4
for cellulosic biofuels. The Energy Policy Act of 2005
further complement efforts to catalyze commercializa-
allowed for USD 1 billion to be channeled through
tion of drop in biofuels.
the reverse auction program but to-date the appro-
priations to support the mechanism had only been
about USD 5 million through the FY2008 budget of 4.3.3 European Research &
the Department of Energy (DOE). Under the FY2012
budget of the DOE, USD 150 million is proposed to Development Programs
support the reverse auction program. If these funds The European Commission, in close coordination
are appropriated, this mechanism could start making with Airbus, leading European airlines and key Euro-
a meaningful contribution to achieving its objectives, pean biofuel producers, have launched the European
which includes the acceleration of deployment and Advanced Biofuels Flight Path Initiative, an industry
commercialization of biofuels as well as the delivery of wide initiative to speed up the commercialization
the first one billion gallons of annual cellulosic biofuel of aviation biofuels in Europe. Through this initiative
production by 2015. Should the program be scaled the aim is to deploy at least 2 million tons of biofuels
up, it is critical that it specifically targets biofuels that per annum in aviation in the EU by 2020. Milestones
meet the ASTM D7566 specification to ensure suit- to achieving that goal include the development, by
ability for use in aviation. 2015, of a reliable supply chain for certified sustain-
The US government recognized that given the able resources, the conversion of hydroprocessed
economic environment, significant start-up risks, vegetable oil (HVO) plants to HEFA plants to produce
and competitive barriers posed by established fuels, aviation biofuels and the commissioning of three plants
industry will not assume all the uncertainty and risk producing lignocellulosic (FT) biojet fuel. By 2018,
associated with providing a commercially viable the aim is to commission an additional four plants
production capability for advanced drop-in biofuels, producing FT biojet and at least two HEFA plants
including biojet fuels. To address some of these short- producing algae and microbe oil based biofuels. There
falls, the US government (through an MoU between are several compelling reasons that call for govern-
the Department of the Navy, Department of Energy ment support in the realization of these objectives,
and Department of Agriculture) announced in August which include:
2011 a funding pledge of 510 USD million, envisioned Market and financial risks are currently too high for
to be matched by the private sector, over three years private investors;
to work with private industry to create advanced Technology risks are high at demonstration or
drop-in biofuels for the Department of Defense and early deployment stage;
private sector transportation throughout the US. The Traditional energy technologies can have an advan-
objective of the initiative is the construction or retro- tage due to embedded capital and infrastructure.
fitting of domestic commercial (or pre-commercial)
scale advanced drop-in biofuel plants and refineries
that have the following properties:
The capability to produce drop-in replacement
advanced biofuels meeting military specification
at a price competitive with petroleum;

An analysis of financing mechanisms under the frame- No single mechanism on its own would appear to
work of the Strategic Energy Technology Plan1 by the be sufficient to bridge the current cost gap between
Centre for European Policy Studies proposes some convention jet fuel and aviation biofuels. a combination
financial mechanisms through which the EU can of these mechanisms would need to be made available
support the implementation of the European Advanced to enable commercialization of biojet fuel. Given the
Biofuels Flight Path Initiative; these include: relative infancy of the industry, public partnership with
private developers is essential for de-risking these
Incorporation of aviation biofuel projects as part
investments. At the initial stage of demonstration,
of the Risk Sharing Financial Facility (or estab-
for the period leading up to 2020, there will likely be
lishment of dedicated instrument) addressing
a need for greater equity or grant based financing from
bankable project for which the credit risk is
public sources to realize commercial scale in avia-
perceived to be low or sub-investment grade.
tion biofuel production. The EU needs to leverage the
4
The budget for the new phase of this facility is
mechanisms identified under the SET plan to bring to
expected to be 5 billion Euros from 2014-2020;
full implementation the European Advanced Biofuels
The expansion of loan guarantee instruments
Flight Path Initiative.
can be complemented with EU project bonds
for specific late stage more mature long-term
projects; 4.3.4 Enhancing Production of
Another source of funding could be the NER
300 program established through the Emis- Indigenous Second Generation
sions Trading Directive. The program aims to Biofuels in Developing
support demonstration of low-carbon technolo- Countries
gies at commercial scale through co-funding at
least 34 innovative renewable energy technology Second generation biofuels derived from feedstock
demonstration projects within the EU. It was indigenous to developing countries provide a poten-
estimated that such a program could provide tially viable commercial opportunity in the medium
4.5 billion in co-funding and aims to leverage to long term but require further research and devel-
matching funds from the industry; opment. In addition to not directly being part of the
The European Commission, through the EU 2020 food supply, there is often higher potential for yield
Strategy, committed itself to bringing in innovative increases in these feedstock sources through genetic
incentive mechanisms linked to the carbon market. and agronomic improvements, which have mostly
The EC is in the process of securing technical already been made in the past for species serving
support2 to assist the commission in the develop- as food. While some research and development has
ment of an instrument in clean technologies with already been undertaken, to realize the potential of
allowances for the EU Emission Trading Scheme. these second generation biofuel sources, a targeted
The incentive mechanism is envisioned to provide approach supporting research and development into
additional carbon allowances for innovative tech- increasing yields and other favorable properties within
nologies demonstration plants and existing best second generation feedstock sources that are preva-
technologies deployment in industrial sectors. lent in developing countries is warranted.
The EC is considering the establishment of an The Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Innovation/Technology Accelerator under the Research (CGIAR) is a global partnership that unites
EU ETS, which would reward early investors in organizations engaged in research for sustainable
top performing low-carbon technologies with development with the funders of this work. CGIAR
rewarding them with additional allowances; includes a consortium of fifteen centers that were
EU Member States may choose to provide loan established to lead, coordinate and support research.
guarantees; Partner agencies of CGIAR have already initiated
Other fiscal incentives such as low interest technology oriented biofuels research but this has not
payment and equity capital. been undertaken on a large scale. The gap in adequate
research on second generation fuels indigenous to
developing countries may be possible to address
1. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/set_plan/set_plan_en.htm
2. http://ec.europa.eu/clima/tenders/2011/213427/specifications_en.pdf

through creating a global research program by using nism would provide some degree of certainty, the total
CGIAR as a platform for undertaking and coordi- demand would be determined by the level at which
nating this research. To achieve scale, such a global the mandate is set. Since in the medium term aviation
research program would need to bring together main biofuels can be produced through a fairly diversified
users of fuel across different industries (namely avia- and large number of producers a situation may arise
tion and automotive), governments, existing research where producers have uncertainty about the volume of
initiatives, agricultural researchers and others to the fuels that they may be able to sell under the speci-
launch a multi-year research program into developing fied mandate. This would happen if producers dont
higher value second generation biofuel production. have information on planned production volumes of
Undertaking such research can help facilitate the their competitors. Given the lack of current availability of
scale up of production from these potential biofuel supply, this is unlikely to happen in the immediate term.
sources. CGIAR has a long relationship with develop- However, due to limited demand outside the scope of
4
ment institutions and governments, which frequently the mandate and risk aversion of investors to scale up
use findings from the latest research undertaken by production beyond the point of demand certainty can
CGIAR to help demonstrate and deploy new innova- serve as an obstacle to scaling up production.
tion in the agricultural sector in developing countries.
Another result of a blend mandate would be higher fuel
Findings from the research undertaken could be used
costs for fuel users for the short to medium term. The
to scale up production of second generation biofuels
mid-range of current cost estimates for FT and HEFA
with support from development institutions, potentially
processes suggest that prices for aviation biofuels are
leveraging their expertise in sustainable development
roughly double the current jet kerosene price today.
to demonstrate how to scale up such approaches in a
The blend mandate, if required at all fueling points,
sustainable way in developing countries.
may also lead to local price spikes driven by difference
in availability of aviation biofuels in different markets.
4.4 Pull Mechanisms Potentially the most adverse impact from this policy
would be that it could lead to stifling innovation. If
Some biofuel producers have raised concerns that one biofuel developers mobilize their resources to bringing
potential bottleneck in achieving commercialization fuels to market without channeling resources to make
and scale-up of biofuel production is due to insufficient aviation biofuels cost competitive with jet kerosene
demand for aviation biofuels. Until HEFA was certi- this could lead to the scaling-up of structurally flawed
fied for aviation use in 2011, biofuel producers were options that would never be cost competitive with
hesitating to invest in aviation biofuels or even did not conventional jet fuel. While the blend mandate may
recognize aviation as a potential customer. With the create opportunities for learning and innovation it may
start of commercial flights using biofuels this is now also lead to scale up in production at the expense of
changing, but there are still strong concerns regarding developing pathways that have potential to be commer-
the time period needed for aviation biofuels to become cially viable in the medium to longer term.
cost competitive with conventional jet fuel. To alleviate
these concerns an appropriate policy signal can be
used to provide certainty of demand for the fuel. There 4.4.2 Forward Contracts and
are several mechanisms that are advocated by policy Off-Take Agreements
makers, the two considered in this report are the blend
mandate and the use of forward contracts. Forward contracts or off-take agreements are already
being used in the industry to promote the use of biojet
fuels. However, these tend to be limited by geographic
4.4.1 Blend Mandate location, quantity or scope. Purchases of biojet fuels
to-date suggest that there is a significant premium
A blend mandate is a policy instrument that requires
being paid to producers but there is evidence that
that a specified volume or percentage of biofuels be
costs have potential to reduce significantly with scale
used within the fuel mix. This instrument is widely used
as suggested by the recent contract made by the
in the automotive fuel sector. While such a mecha-
US Defense Logistics Agency.1 Such contracts are
1. Sustainable Oils contracted to deliver aviation fuels (HRJ8) derived from camelina to the US Defense Logistics Agency at USD 66.60 per
gallon for the 100,000 gallons but offered to provide an additional 100,000 gallons at price of USD 34.9 per gallon. The prices should
be considered in the context of volumes delivered in R&D quantities and are far from being competitive with jet kerosene, but nonetheless
suggest significant economies of scale.

important in incentivizing learning and stimulating the the price differential between the set floor price and
aviation biofuels market. They can prove to be impor- the price of conventional jet fuel. Such a government
tant sources of revenue for aviation biofuel producers support mechanism would only be called upon when
that are involved in research and development of and if the price of conventional jet fuel in the future
biofuels, particularly at the development stage. falls more than the specified amount, for example 20%
below the current prices. Oil prices are forecast to
An overarching framework contract that sets out
rise over the foreseeable future but such a mechanism
the parameters under which industry would be able
can remove downward price risk from movements in
to purchase aviation biofuels can complement short
conventional jet fuel for aviation biofuel producers. It
and medium term agreements and create large scale
would also allow aviation biofuel producers to benefit
demand while sending the appropriate price signal
from upside movements in conventional jet fuel prices.
over the longer term. Given the cost advantage of
Drops in prices of oil products can be caused by short
conventional jet fuel, it is unlikely that such a contract
4
term surges in supply or slumps in demand, which
will be called upon in the short-to-medium term but it
would be very disruptive to a nascent industry trying to
would nonetheless be important in setting a price floor
mobilize capital for long term investment.
for aviation biofuels. The forward contract would need
to address the following parameters: Price of Carbon: Another component that can be
integrated into the price of aviation biofuel is the price
Fuel specification: The contract would indicate that
of carbon. Prices for carbon vary significantly from
the fuel purchased would need to be from a qualified
one regulatory scheme to another, which can create
fuel and meet the technical specifications under the
unequal demand for carbon assets as well as high
ASTM agreed criteria as well as a set of sustainability
variability in prices. Current prices for allowances
criteria according to one of the regulatory or voluntary
under the EU ETS are around 15USD per ton of CO2
standards (see Chapter 2 for specifications).
which, if applied, would provide an incentive of about
As indicated earlier, there are two processes (FT and 3.5 cents USD per liter of aviation biofuel or roughly
HEFA) that are already approved for use in commer- 5% above conventional jet fuel prices. Prices for EUAs
cial aviation. However, the framework contract can are forecast (i.e. Bloomberg New Energy Finance) to
leave open the possibility of purchasing other types of increase significantly under phase III of the EU ETS,
fuels so long as they meet the existing or future ASTM with high-end estimates indicating rises to about
specification for approved fuels. By keeping the possi- 45 USD in 2015 and about 75 USD 2020, which
bility to purchase fuel developed from new processes would translate to an additional incentive for avia-
or accepted specifications the forward contract would tion biofuels of 10.5 cents USD and 17.5 cents USD
not disadvantage any future process or specification per liter in 2015 and 2020 respectively. This would
that may be developed that is capable of meeting the likely still represent an insufficient incentive compared
needs of commercial aviation. to the cost advantage enjoyed by conventional jet
fuel in the medium term. In addition, as noted earlier,
Meeting sustainability criteria according to regulations
there is significant uncertainty in the price forecasts
in force (e. g. EU RED) is a prerequisite for benefit-
of carbon assets within a regulatory scheme as well
ting from specific public incentives. Meeting voluntary
as across different schemes, which further contrib-
sustainability standards such as the RSB can in addi-
utes to price uncertainty. In this context, it may be
tion be used for corporate responsibility purposes.
appropriate to consider policy proposals that policy
The price could be formulated through the use of makers have put forward in the context of promoting
several inputs, which include: demonstration of carbon capture and storage (CCS)
facilities. In considering policy options for promotion
Price of conventional jet fuel: Under the framework
of CCS to encourage rapid commercialization several
contract, increases in the price of conventional jet fuel
proposals put forward by policy makers have included
above a certain threshold would result in equivalent
allowing multiple crediting for CO2 captured during
increases in the price of aviation biofuels. If govern-
the first few years of a regulatory regime. For example,
ment support is mobilized, a floor price for jet fuel can
incentives for CCS demonstration are detailed in the
also be set, for example 20% below current market
Americas Climate Security Act of 2007 also known
prices for jet kerosene. In the event of a fall in the
as the Lieberman-Warner bill, which was approved
price of conventional jet fuel below the specified
by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public
level, a government support mechanism would cover

Works but failed to clear the Senate over concerns
that it would damage the economy. The bill indicated
that a bonus allowance adjustment factor should
be applied that starts with a bonus multiple of 4.5
in 2012 gradually decreasing to a bonus multiple of
0.5 in 2039 for each metric ton of carbon emissions
avoided through capture and geologic sequestra-
tion of emissions. A similar incentive mechanism was
also proposed by the Waxman-Markey bill as well
as in other contexts, including by policy makers in
Europe, Canada and other parts of the world. Further
assessment may be warranted whether the approach
4
of incentivizing aviation biofuel use through multiple
crediting of CO2 reduction would be appropriate for
use in the aviation industry during the early stage of
aviation biofuels deployment, for example until 2020.
Contexts where such an approach may be considered
could include the industrys climate change strategy
or other emission trading schemes, such as the
proposed inclusion of aviation under the EU ETS. The
existence of such an incentive would enable airlines
to pay a higher premium for use of aviation biofuels,
which can contribute to their commercialization.
Quantity: a key advantage of the framework contract
is that it is able to offer a premium price for avia-
tion biofuels while providing a signal for large scale
demand. Assuming a technically feasible blend of
50% of aviation biofuels with conventional jet fuel, the
price premium offered would be on almost 40 billion
gallons of aviation biofuels in 2015. Constraints on the
supply side would prevent the uptake at such levels
but nonetheless the forward framework contract would
send a premium price signal for half of the industrys
fuel forecasted consumption. While not a concern in
the immediate future, in the medium to long term it
may be important to also consider any local surges
in supply of aviation biofuels that could limit uptake at
a particular site due to blend threshold constraints. In
this context the contract could include provisions for
the transportation and market access of the produced
aviation biofuels.

5. Stakeholder Initiatives
5.1 Chapter Summary 5.2 AIREG The New

This chapter gives descriptions of the following wide- German Centre
of Competence on
5
scope biojet projects that have been undertaken by
groups of stakeholders:
Aviation Biofuels
AIREG is a German association of 25 organiza-
In Germany 25 organizations have come together this
tions that is focusing on five working groups:
year to form a unique association. AIREG Aviation
provision of feedstock, technologies of fuel
Initiative for Renewable Energy in Germany strives
production, fuel utilization, quality and certifica-
to gain a truly all-encompassing perspective on the
tion, and s ustainability;
field of aviation biofuels. AIREG believes that biomass
In the US, the Defense Logistics Agency is
production, conversion and distribution have to be opti-
purchasing biofuels for the Army, Navy, and Air
mized in order to achieve asufficient supply of biofuel
Force who are certifying their aircraft for using
at fair prices within areasonable time. Following that
these new fuels;
objective AIREG is bringing together companies and
Also in the US, the Farm to Fly program was initi-
organizations from biomass producers to airlines, from
ated U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
aircraft manufacturers to airports and from universities
Air Transport Association of America, Inc. (ATA)
to consulting firms. This broad spectrum will enable
and The Boeing Company (Boeing), and aims
AIREG to connect know-how across the entire value-
to accelerate the availability of a commercially
creation chain and to act as acatalyst for sector-wide
viable sustainable aviation biofuel industry in the
progress at the same time.
United States, increase domestic energy security,
establish regional supply chains and support rural As a nonprofit organization AIREGs membership is
development; open for all parties willing to contribute to furthering
In Brazil a sustainable biojet program involving the common cause of establishing sustainable ways
multiple local stakeholders aims to study feed- to introduce aviation biofuels. AIREG is taking into
stock, logistics, industry, sustainability, and account that there are no national solutions in this
funding through aseries of pilot programs already field; therefore AIREG is inviting companies and orga-
in operation; nization from around the globe to join the effort.
SWAFEA is aEuropean program that spent the last
AIREGs comprehensive approach is further empha-
two years investigating different biojet pathways
sized by the set-up of our working groups that are
and analyzing policy, economic and environmental
shedding light on the specific aspects of how to imple-
matters. Amongst other recommendations, the
ment aviation biofuels on alarge scale.
SWAFEA report proposes reinvesting some of
the funds collected by member states under the 1. Starting with topics concerning the Provision
EUETS into biojet production plants; of Feedstock, AIREG experts are comparing
different types of crops regarding their respec-
CAAFI is a US-based program responsible for
tive benefits, detecting adequate regions for
significant accomplishments in alternative fuel
mass-production and assessing the sustain-
certification and deployment. CAAFI played
ability for all options of feedstock provision.
a leading role in the creation of the Farm to Fly
program, as well as several other initiatives.

2. With the assumption that Jet a 1 will remain DLA Energy has supported the services in their certifi-
the standard aviation fuel and drop-in synthetic cation efforts through numerous procurement actions.
fuels are the way to usher in a new era, an During 2007 and 2008 DLA Energy awarded three
AIREG team is working on Technologies of contracts for 730,000 gallons of Fischer Tropsch
Fuel Production. Critical issues are to ensure fuels derived from both coal and natural gas feed-
the quality of biofuels, to identify the most stocks, fulfilling the test quantities required by the Air
efficient conversion process and to establish Force for certification. In 2009 and 2010 DLA Energy
aroadmap for extensive distribution. established seven contracts totaling 800,000 gallons
3. In Fuel Utilization AIREG aims to verify that for delivery of hydrotreated renewable (HR) JP-8,
aviation biofuels will not require adaptation of JP-5 and F-76 for Air Force, Army and Navy certifi-
fleet or infrastructure. We are also looking into cations programs. These fuels were derived from
assessing the future demand in Germany and avariety of feedstocks including camelina, tallow and
beyond in order to determine the feasibility of algal oil. Additional work underway involves procure-
current emission reduction goals. ment of HRJ-5 and HR F76 fuels in support of the
4. The Quality and Certification working group Navys Sail the Great Green Fleet initiative. a DLA
will ensure that the largely self-regulated stan- Energy solicitation recently closed on August 16,
5
dardization is providing for sufficient transfer 2011 for procurement of 100,000 gallons of HRJ-5
of know-how to new market participants. Also, and 350,000 gallons of HR F76. Delivery of the fuel
this group will be concerning itself with assuring will take place by May 1, 2012 to Puget Sound Naval
standard compliance of biofuels and assisting Shipyard where it will be blended with its petroleum
during certification of new aviation biofuels. counterparts and used to demonstrate aGreen Strike
5. On top of all that rests the question of Sustain- Group. Most recently DLA Energy awarded acontract
ability, the objective of the fifth working group. for 11,000 gallons of aviation fuel derived from the
This group will be contributing to implement dehydration and oligomerization of alcohols. This
and further develop sustainability criteria along effort supports the next step in the Air Forces alterna-
the value-creation chain. By doing so, it will tive fuels certification program which aims to certify
be able to evaluate different incentive systems Alcohol to Jet (ATJ) fuels.
for emission reduction and to identify research
For the next step, DLA Energy is focused on bridging
requirements and needs for political action.
the gap between certification and commercial scale
After one year of progress, AIREGs findings will be production by supporting a variety of demonstration
presented and more input requested during afull-day programs and initiatives through partnerships with
international conference program on aviation biofuels other government organizations and industry. These
during the 2012 Berlin Air Show. efforts allow for a competitive industry, ensuring the
military has a supplier base capable of producing
operational volumes in order to meet their future goals.
5.3 US Defense Logistics The Air Forces goal is to be prepared to cost compet-
Agency (DLA) Energy itively purchase 50 percent of its domestic aviation
fuel requirement from an alternative source by 2016.
Biofuels Initiatives The Navys goal is to satisfy 50 percent of all energy
The Military Services along with DLA Energy are requirements with alternative sources by 2020.
currently involved in multiple initiatives to support
To help foster the growth of production capacity,
the certification and commercialization of alternative
DLA Energy and the Air Transport Association signed
aviation fuels. Alternative aviation fuels serve critical
a strategic alliance for alternative aviation fuels on
needs for the country and the Department of Defense
March19,2010. This will leverage the larger require-
including increased energy security through decreased
ments of the commercial airlines with the financial
petroleum consumption, enhanced use of domestic
stability of the government, incentivizing commercial
resources, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,
financing for the alternative fuels industry.
and establishment of alarger fuel supply base in order
to fulfill consumption needs.

In addition, DLA Energy is currently involved in the Long term contracts and off-take agreements are
Green Initiative for Fuels Transition Pacific, which is another pertinent issue. Discussions with industry have
a working group of over 30 member organizations revealed aneed for 10 year minimum supply contracts
and commands, co-led by United States Pacific with a preference for up to 20 years. The contracts
Command and the United States Department of the and off-take agreements are vital for producers to gain
Navy. The group aims to purchase and use cost- financing from capital investors. This is of concern
competitive domestically produced advanced biofuels because currently DLA Energy is limited to five year
by 2018 to displace at least 25 percent of the fuel contracts with up to and additional five option years
used by the Department of Defense in Hawaii. The and it has been conveyed the options years hold little
estimated requirements for aviation and marine to no value when attempting to gain financial backing.
diesel fuels in Hawaii are 78,550,000 gallons of JP8, Several efforts have been made by DLA Energy to gain
7,180,000 gallons of JP5, and 42,250,000 gallons authority to award longer term contracts with some
ofF76. progress being realized with each attempt. a revised
legislative proposal has recently been submitted and
The Pacific Northwest is another area of promise
there is hope for long term contracting authority to be
for the commercialization of alternative energy. DLA
granted sometime in 2013.
5
Energy currently participates in the Farm to Fly
(detailed in Section 5.4) and Sustainable Aviation Environmental Sustainability challenges, such as green-
Fuels Northwest (SAFN) initiatives, designed to bring house gas emissions, water use, land use, particulate
together aviation biofuels chain stakeholders with emissions, nutrient depletion and competition with
the goal of providing fuel to the Pacific Northwest. food have also come to the forefront of the biofuels
a regional analysis of feedstocks, conversion tech- discussion. Greenhouse gas emissions are particu-
nologies, logistics and environmental impacts has larly important to DLA Energy because of mandates by
recently been completed by SAFN detailing some of Section 526 of the Energy Independence and Secu-
the more promising opportunities for the region. rity Act (EISA) of 2007. This regulation requires the
life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of government-
Lastly, DLA Energy is providing technical and
procured alternative fuels, other than for R & D testing,
contracting support to the DOE, Navy and USDA
be less than or equal to that of conventional petro-
Biorefineries Program which aims to partner with
leum. Currently, DLA Energy is working with other
industry to create robust domestic production for
government agencies, academia and commercial
advanced drop-in biofuels. It is envisioned that two
industry through the Commercial Aviation Alterna-
to three bio-refineries, each capable of producing in
tive Fuels Initiative (CAAFI) Environmental group, to
excess of 10 million gallons of advanced biofuels by
develop guidance and compliance mechanisms for
2016, will result from the initiative. In support of the
lifecycle greenhouse gas emission regulations like
program DLA Energy anticipates potential award of
section 526 of the EISA. In April of 2009, the Air
fuel contracts to the biorefineries for delivery of military
Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) published adocu-
grade alternative fuel blends.
ment titled, Framework and Guidance for Estimating
DLA Energy has encountered a variety of hurdles Greenhouse Gas Footprints of Aviation Fuels. This
during the alternative fuel procurement process, both document provides methodologies and modeling
in certification and commercial volumes. Major industry guidance for calculating the lifecycle greenhouse gas
concern includes the availability of feedstock and inter- emissions of alternative aviation fuels. Subsequently
ruptions in supply. This stems from uncertainty due the group authored a case study Life Cycle Green-
to harvest quantities and weather and environmental house Gas Analysis of Advanced Jet Propulsion Fuels:
conditions, which may unexpectedly limit the amount Fischer-Tropsch Based SPK-1 Case Study to further
of feedstock available to asupply during agiven time- the guidance in this area of research. Future work
frame. Other concerns include lack of crop insurance will include comparisons of existing lifecycle analysis
for many popular biofuels feedstock candidates such models and metrics and an eventual mechanism which
as camelina. can be used for section 526 EISA compliance. Work
has begun to address mechanisms for evaluating
other Environmental sustainability indicators beyond
greenhouse gas emissions, but much more needs to
be accomplished in terms of lifecycle guidance, base-
line comparisons and regional impacts.

Through partnerships across the biofuels stakeholder With respect to existing programs, the Farm to Fly
value chain, the hope is to help the alternative fuels working team focuses on meeting the directive in the
industry grow into astrong supplier base. DLA Energy 2008 U.S. Farm Bill that states that U.S. programs
could then continue doing what we have done for aimed at energy crops should be equally available
decades: buying fuel for our customers, no matter how for air transportation fuels as for ground transporta-
the product may have changed. tion fuels.2 Accordingly, the Farm to Fly working team
has been working to make aviation fuel feedstocks
and production eligible for existing U.S. alternative
5.4 The United States energy programs, such as the Biorefinery Assistance
Farm to Fly Initiative Program (BAP), Biomass Crop Assistance Program
(BCAP), and the U.S. crop insurance program. The
In July 2010, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Farm to Fly working team also is working to demon-
(USDA), Air Transport Association of America, Inc. strate asustainable supply chain, with arecent pilot
(ATA) and The Boeing Company (Boeing) signed project, Sustainable Alternative Fuels Northwest,
a resolution memorializing their commitment to work assessing and reporting on the sustainable produc-
together on aFarm to Fly initiative to accelerate the tion of biomass, collection and delivery of feedstocks,
5
availability of a commercially viable sustainable avia- crushing and preparation, process technologies
tion biofuel industry in the United States, increase for aviation alternative fuels and co-products, and
domestic energy security, establish regional supply blending and delivery of resulting fuels to end-users
chains and support rural development.1 Although at airports.
these organizations already were working together
under the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels A key goal of the Farm to Fly initiative is also to marshal
Initiative (CAAFI), they had determined that an even new and existing funding and mechanisms to prove
more focused effort would be needed to further align that commercial-scale production of alternative avia-
U.S. biofuels agricultural policy which up to then tion fuels is possible and commercially sustainable.
had almost entirely been focused on the production The intent is to jump start this industry and build the
of biofuels for automobiles and trucks to provide necessary bridge to a future in which the industry is
opportunity for farmers and fuel producers to generate entirely funded by private capital. The 2011 announce-
feedstocks and fuels for aircraft. ment by the USDA, DOE and U.S. Navy that they
plan to invest up to $510 million over three years in
While the USDA, ATA and Boeing remain the drivers a public-private partnership to produce advanced
of Farm to Fly, the coalition has been expanded to drop-in aviation and marine fuels is asignificant step
include the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), the toward meeting this goal.
Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Depart-
ment of Defense (DOD). The Farm to Fly working While significant work lies ahead, the Farm to Fly initia-
team focuses both on existing government authority tive is enabling aviation to more fully participate in the
and private initiatives and on areas that may require supply chain essential to making alternative aviation
additional rulemaking, statutory changes, govern- fuels areality.
ment funding or private investment to align U.S. rural
development and biofuel agricultural policy to promote
the commercial-scale production of sustainable feed-
stocks and the development of an aviation biofuel
production and distribution supply chain.
1. http://www.airlines.org/Energy/AlternativeFuels/Documents/FarmToFlyResolution071410.pdf
2. Conf. Rpt. 110-627, on H.R. 2419; p. 911, May 13, 2008

5.5 The Brazilian Biojet three key units: the Sustainable Multi-Feedstock Unit,
the Logistics Unit, and the Biorefinery Unit. INOCAS
FuelPlatform will advise on the RSB compliance issues, Quinvita will
From the initial business concept presented last year, supply technology and planting material for Jatropha
the Brazilian Biojet Fuel Platform is bringing together projects, CNAGA will integrate logistic systems, and
additional stakeholders to structure and implement an Santiago Advisors will provide project management
integrated biojet fuel value chain in Brazil focused on and financial advice (see Figures 6 and 7).
Figure 6 Schematic showing contributors roles in the Brazilian Biojet Fuel Platform. The six main areas of focus are shown along the
top, with the three phases of feedstock development along the bottom, and the advisors on either side.
Figure 7 The five modules of the Brazilian Biojet Fuel Platform.

5.5.1 The Sustainable to farmers, with adequate financing mechanisms, to
foster an energy and food program, envisaging both
Multi-Feedstock Unit food and energy security.
The strategic mission of this unit is to deal with the Therefore, much emphasis at this initial structuring
major challenge of providing competitively priced phase of the integrated biojet fuel value chain is being
sustainable feedstock to the Platform, respecting the placed on aJatropha research and development under
sustainability criteria of RSB, in the volume demanded a public-private partnership (PPP) with Embrapa
by the Carbon Neutral Growth (CNG) goals of IATA. Agroenergia, the foremost research institution of the
Competitively priced sustainable feedstock can only Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture (MAPA). This means
be achieved if the right planting material (high yield coordinating aBrazilian research network amongst the
productivity, disease resistant, etc.) is made available institutions shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Map showing the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture institutions engaged in relevant research activities.
As part of the multi-phase feedstock program, the material will finally be available for the scaling up of
Platform is undertaking the domestication issues for Jatropha plantations in Brazil next year.
Jatropha, Macauba, Dende, Babassu, and adaptation
An agreement has been reached with Longido to set
of Camelina as awinter crop to the warmer climates
up the value chain to explore the potential of 18 million
of Brazil.
hectares of native babassu forest, based on present
Several advances have been made in the Brazilian brownfield in Maranho, and feasibility check of the
Jatropha domestication program, including better value chain for biomass, and oil.
understanding of the plant physiology, pruning tech-
Procedures are underway for the introduction of
niques adjusted to the plant physiology, mechanized
Camelina in Brazil as awinter crop to soy, leveraging
harvesting, seed cake detox, etc. Pan American
on the existing soy value chain.
genetic material exchange has been led by Curcas
Diesel Brazil, Global Clean Energy, Quinvita and SG Macauba and Dende will be the next cultures to be
Fuels; each offering their material and services in addressed by the research program of Embrapa
the Brazilian market. With cooperative agreements Agroenergia with the Brazlian Biojet fuel Platform,
between ABPPM and Pan American research insti- uniting efforts for a comprehensive research and
tutions, one can expect that adequate initial planting development program.

5.5.2 The Logistic Unit 5.6 SWAFEA: AEuropean
Harvest logistics, consolidation and crushing centers, Study on the Feasibility
silos and tank farms, and integrated regional inter- And Impact of the
modal transportation networks are being planned for
each production hub. The first phase will deal with the Introduction of Alternative
Southeastern Hub, to serve the major markets of So Fuel in Aviation1
Paulo and Rio. Final integration assurance with major
airport logistic operators will be addressed once the
value chain is in place. 5.6.1 Background
Committed to taking an active role in climate change
mitigation and in the promotion of secure and sustain-
able energy sources, the European Commissions
Directorate General for Mobility and Transport initiated
the SWAFEA study in February 2009 to investigate the
feasibility and impacts of the use of alternative fuels in
5
aviation. Alternatives to crude oil-based kerosene are
seen as an important component in the efforts to reach
the target set by the European Directive for Renewable
Energy (RED) to introduce 10% of renewable energy
in transport by 2020. Its also an important develop-
ment with view to the introduction of aviation in the
ETS from 2012.
The study aimed to develop acomparative analysis of
different fuels and energy-carrier options for aviation
on the basis of current knowledge, and to propose
apossible vision and roadmap for their deployment in
In the first phase, sustainable feedstock will be order to facilitate and support future policy decisions.
exported while awaiting the local biojet fuel production The SWAFEA study, which delivered its findings and
plant to be fully operational. recommendations in April 20112, encompassed all
aspects of the possible introduction of alternative fuels
in aviation using a highly multidisciplinary approach.
5.5.3 The Biorefinery Unit This included technical, environmental, and economic
Based on the production hub concept, the Platform assessments. The study was carried out under the
is finalizing the site and technology selection to install leadership of the French Aerospace Research Lab
a pilot plant in the southeastern region to supply ONERA, in cooperation with a consortium of twenty
biojet fuel to the major airports of So Paulo and Rio partners3 bringing together European research orga-
de Janeiro in Brazil. Presently undergoing a tech- nizations and representatives of virtually every major
nical evaluation, the pilot plant will be co-located with stakeholder in the aviation fuel chain.
a major operating chemical company to reduce the
time to market, and to optimize the production costs
for final competitive pricing.
1. The SWAFEA study was funded by the European Commissions Directorate General for Mobility and Transport under contract TREN/
F2/408.2008/SI2.518403/SI2.519012. The contents or any views expressed herein have not been adopted or in any way approved
by the European Commission and should not be relied upon as astatement of the Commissions or DG Mobility and Transports views.
The contract was carried out by ateam led by ONERA and gathering 20 partners from industry, airlines and research. Statements
presented here represent acollective work and ageneral agreement on the high level conclusions derived from parallel works carried
out in the frame of the study. As such, it does not engage the individual responsibility of each of these organizations and corporations
on any and all the topics covered by the study.
2. SWAFEA final report is available on www.swafea.eu
3. SWAFEA partners : Airbus, AirFrance, Altran, Bauhaus Luftfahrt, Cerfacs, Concawe, DLR, EADS-IW, Embrarer, Erdyn, Iata, Ineris, IFPEN,
Onera, Plant Research International (WUR), Rolls-Royce UK and Rolls-Royce Deutschland, Shell, Snecma, University of Sheffield

5.6.2 Summary of SWAFEA Report with the development of energy biomass production.
Such aplan could possibly be funded by the revenue
Although the aviation sector has agood track record of ETS auctions. To complement it, aquota mandate
in reducing its environmental impact through efficiency policy on fuel production could be investigated, in
gain, it is highly unlikely to reduce or even stabilize its a push and pull approach that guaranties that the
emissions through this means alone. deployment occurs and also may offer possibilities to
Biofuels present real potential for reducing GHG emis- distribute the funding over a wider range of payers.
sions, provided that the feedstock production step In all cases, early deployment should be partnered
is well mastered. However, even if the FT and FEFA with an intensification of the research into innovative
pathways are available in the short term to produce processes and feedstock, and should be considered
jet quality fuels, they lack the necessary cost-compet- in synergy with other sectors and in particular with the
itiveness with conventional jet fuel needed to promote automotive industry.
their development, even with the exemption of biofuels
from the EU ETS. In addition, biomass availability and
production development appear as the critical bottle- 5.7 CAAFI
necks for biofuel ramp-up and for achieving emissions
5
CAAFI evaluates alternative jet fuels in teams focused
reductions targets.
in four areas: fuel certification and qualification, envi-
Both biomass availability and economics provide ronment, business and economics and research
evidence of the need for more efficient processing and development. Key accomplishments include the
pathways with higher transformation yields and following:
reduced costs, and for new sources of feedstocks. In
Approval by ASTM International of synthesized
that field, algae today appear as apromising focus of
hydrocarbon jet fuels (D7566 specification HEFA
research. ahigher economic efficiency is also expected
Annex);
from sugar-derived hydrocarbons pathways.
Initial pre-purchase agreements announced with
Biofuels provide a solution for aviation emissions three alternative-fuel suppliers (AltAir Fuels,
reductions and also for the diversification of fuel supply, Rentech, Solena);
but achieving significant reduction will need time and Strengthening and expanding the strategic alli-
adetermined policy, meaning also that aviation will have ance between airlines (via ATA) and the Defense
to offset part of its emissions beyond 2030. Initiatives Logistics Agency (DLA), creating a single market
have to be decided immediately to kick off the process for alternative jet fuel;
and generate the learning and technological progress Over 60 energy suppliers engaged in development
which is required for a faster future deployment in and deployment discussions;
order to achieve emissions reductions targets. Raised the commitment of aviation as a priority with
respect to biofuel deployment by U.S. government;
Defining a small minimum goal for biofuel introduc-
Farm to Fly resolution between ATA, Boeing and
tion in aviation by 2020 could be afirst step on which
USDA to accelerate commercial availability of
policy measures suitable for triggering astart-up of the
sustainable aviation biofuels in the United States.
production could be based.
No single measure appears able to simultaneously
achieve this production target, a significant involve- 5.7.1 CAAFI Goals
ment of multiple stakeholders in biofuel production, and CAAFIs main goal is to promote the development of
the emergence of diversified technologies. The limited alternative jet fuel options that offer equivalent levels
profitability margin of airlines is also to be kept in mind, of safety and compare favorably on cost with petro-
considering their limited capacity and willingness to leum-based jet fuel while also offering environmental
pay apremium for biofuel, especially in situation where improvement and enhanced security of energy supply
policy measures could induce competition distortion. for aviation. Since its inception, CAAFI has sought to
a combination of measures is probably preferred. In improve energy security and environmental sustain-
particular a global plan pushing for the emergence ability for aviation by exploring the use of alternative
of anumber of end-to-end projects addressing the jet fuels. Together, these stakeholders are leading the
complete production chain from feedstock to fuel could development and deployment of alternative jet fuels for
be away to reach aminimum production target while commercial aviation.
favoring technology development and diversity along

In 2006 fuel became the single largest component of Environment to ensure the environmental
U.S. passenger airline operating costs for the first time impacts of alternative fuels are evaluated in a
in history. Concern about the environment impacts, consistent, scientific manner, participants are
particularly greenhouse gases emissions, associated working to assess emissions that affect local air
with all sectors of the economy is rising and avia- quality and greenhouse gas emissions on a full life
tion is no exception. While U.S. commercial aviation cycle basis, and to identify and develop standards
accounts for less than 2 percent of U.S. greenhouse for assessing sustainability criteria;
gas emissions, it drives more than 5 percent of U.S. Business and economics to facilitate the deploy-
gross domestic product and more than 10 million ment of alternative jet fuels in the marketplace,
U.S. jobs. Secure and sustainable fuel sources are participants are connecting fuel producers and
essential for its continued prosperity. consumers, evaluating the business case for use
of alternative jet fuel, and identifying opportunities
Aviations scope is international and it is highly
for deployment.
integrated in its fuel supply chain. Also, because
commercial aviation is particularly adept at aligning CAAFI participants (including IATA) meet regularly to
and coordinating its stakeholders, the industry is update the state of alternative jet-fuel developments in
5
particularly well positioned to pursue alternative fuels. these areas, identify opportunities, gaps and hurdles
and decide on next steps required in the research,
development and deployment process. CAAFI held its
5.7.2 Function and Focus most recent General Meeting on Nov. 30-Dec. 1, 2011.
CAAFI primarily serves as a forum for exchanging
information among stakeholders and coordinating the 2011 Accomplishments
variety of efforts necessary to support development of Approval by ASTM International for synthesized
alternative aviation fuels. An important goal and result hydrocarbon jet fuels (D7566 specification HEFA
of its activities is educating stakeholders like govern- Annex);
mental agencies, fuel producers and others outside Initial pre-purchase agreements announced by
the industry about commercial aviation and its unique several U.S. airlines, plus Air Canada and United,
needs. CAAFI seeks to fulfill its goals in a variety of with Solena Fuels in northern California;
ways, including convening technical workshops, partic- Updated Fuel Readiness Level documentation;
ipating in domestic and international aviation, energy, Completed aviation fuel-specific greenhouse gas
and financial industry forums and communicating with Life Cycle Analyses (LCAs) for multiple fuels;
the news media. The four CAAFI teams Fuel Certi- Updated and streamlined unified research and
fication and Qualification, Environment, Business and development road maps to inform investment
Economics, and Research and Development meet decisions by the public and private sectors;
regularly to share progress, identify gaps and hurdles, Played valuable roles within the CRC, IATA and
determine next steps for the earliest possible devel- ASTM International in support of alternative fuels
opment and deployment of jet fuel alternatives, and development;
expand global engagement. The goals and activities of Strengthened the strategic alliance between
CAAFIs four teams are summarized below: airlines (via ATA) and the Defense Logistics
Fuel certification and qualification to ensure the Agency (DLA), creating a single market for alter-
safety of any alternative fuels given the demanding native jet fuel;
environment posed by aviation operations, partici- Over 60 energy suppliers engaged in develop-
pants are creating a new jet-fuels approval process ment and deployment discussions;
via the ASTM International standard-setting body. Facilitated alternative-fuel development projects
Fuel approval will enable the safe use of alterna- in more than 20 states;
tive jet fuels and assure manufacturer, user and Vastly expanded an ongoing joint outreach
regulatory confidence in them; program, to the aviation community, with U.S.
Research and development to improve under- Cabinet-level participation at the Paris Interna-
standing of the broad range of new fuel-production tional Air Show;
technologies and feedstocks that can be applied Supported outreach to airports and a variety of
to aviation, participants are sharing analyses and airport related projects through the involvement
identifying and coordinating research activities; of Airports Council International-North America
(ACI-NA);

Expanded the concept of aviation as a priority
with respect to biofuel deployment by U.S.
government;
Continued to support the Farm to Fly initiative
between ATA, Boeing and USDA aimed at accel-
erating commercial availability of sustainable
aviation biofuels in the US and helped facilitate
the announcement of Federal matching funds
from USDA, Department of Energy and U.S. Navy
supporting Farm to Fly;
Won the prestigious 2011 Washington Airports
Task Force Williams Trophy Award.
5.7.3 Flying into the Future

The Flight Continues
5
CAAFI continues to build upon on the foundation of
the past five years by accelerating the development of
viable alternative aviation fuels. CAAFI is supporting
the progression of parallel alternative aviation fuel
pathways through the ASTM International approval
process. In 2011 and 2012 CAAFI and ASTM continue
to be presented with a growing number of focused fuel
producers employing a number of new technologies.
In previous years, the ASTM addressed a single tech-
nology at a time; first was Fischer-Tropsch and second
was HEFA (HRJ). By engaging ASTM in a parallel
process approval strategy, CAAFI and ASTM provide
a means of working toward simultaneous approvals of
emerging fuel technologies. The end result will be a
wider array of alternative fuels which will be brought to
the market place sooner while maintaining the integ-
rity of the ASTM process. CAAFI remains committed
to working with public and private-sector participants,
CAAFI will continue to facilitate the sharing of informa-
tion and coordination of stakeholder efforts, including
identification of funding and support for research
and development, loan guarantees, tax incentives
and broader crop-insurance programs. In addition,
CAAFI will continue its outreach initiatives and tech-
nical support to regional alternative-fuels initiatives
throughout the United States.

6. Notable Developments
Notice: The presentation of specific companies, products or services in the Report does not imply that these specific companies,
products or services are endorsed or recommended by IATA as such or in preference to others of a similar nature which are not
mentioned or represented herein. Opinions expressed by any company in the presentations appearing in the Report are that companys
sole opinions and do not necessarily reflect those of IATA.
6.1 Chapter Summary 6.2 Recent Activities on

As described in Chapter 1, there were over three Sustainable Aviation
hundred announced projects in alternative aviation Biofuels in Mexico
fuels in 2011, making it impractical to report them all.
Instead, this chapter contains several notable develop- Following the objectives that the aviation industry has
ments that have been reported in the news this year. set for itself, the Mexican Federal Government, has
These developments are as follows: implemented an ambitious strategy for the promo-
6
tion and development of sustainable aviation biofuels.
In Mexico, aproject named Flight Plan has been Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares (ASA, Airports
launched by the national airport services provider, and Auxiliary Services), the agency in charge of this
ASA, in which locally grown feedstock was endeavor, designed a comprehensive far-reaching
converted to biojet and consumed by InterJet road-mapping exercise called the Flight Plan towards
andAero Mexico on the first commercial transat- Sustainable Aviation Biofuels in Mexico.
lantic flight;
The Lufthansa group of airlines has begun oper- The idea behind the Flight Plan was to actively
ating eight daily biojet flights between Hamburg work to understand the supply chain through which
and Frankfurt on a dedicated A321, under the commercially viable and sustainable aviation fuels can
project name PureSky; be obtained. ASA is the sole supplier of jet fuel in
The Qantas group has entered into agreements Mexico, responsible for all into-plane operations and
with Solena and Sapphire Energy to develop their the management of over 60 fuel farms in the Mexican
technology for the Australian biojet market; airport network (Figure 9). Being the last link in the
Air France flew what it believes is the greenest supply chain gives it a holistic view that enables the
flight ever by utilizing acombination of biojet fuel, organization to act as acatalyst in this process.
and technological and operational optimization; The Flight Plan exercise was able to pull all interested
TAROM, the Romanian airline, has embarked on stakeholders along the aviation biofuel value chain.
an ambitious biojet fuel project that includes anal- All levels of government (federal, state, and local),
yses of Camelina as the primary feedstock and the academic and research institutions, together with the
effects on the entire supply chain from the crop to private sector, from small producers in the agriculture
finished fuel; industry to big financial institutions, participated in
SkyNRG, aprovider of biojet fuel, has expanded its the process. The main objective was to analyze the
logistics and distribution operations, and provided existing and missing links in this chain, being similar to
the biofuel to multiple green flights in 2011; aroad-mapping exercise in that it looks into the market
BioJet Corporation has received US1.2 Billion in drivers, the associated products and services, and
financing equity that have allowed it to become the technologies that could help an aviation biofuel
what it believes is the largest producer of Jatropha industry get off its feet. The main goals of the Flight
in the world. Plan were to diagnose the state in which the different
parts of the supply chain were, get all the interested
stakeholders involved, and communicate to society
at large the benefits that aviation biofuels can bring.

6 Figure 9 Network of fuel farms managed by ASA.
Support from many organizations was critical to the receive the BioSPK/Jet A-1 blend (Figure 10), and
success of the Flight Plan, including international some of the refueling equipment was also updated to
companies such as Boeing and UOP-Honeywell, but reflect the use of biofuel (Figure 11).
others such as the Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels
(RSB) were also heavily involved.
As part of the process, a proof of concept exercise
was also carried out. Jatropha seeds were collected
throughout Mexico to serve as asource of feedstock
for the production of afirst batch of aHEFA (Hydro-
processed Esters and Fatty Acids) type fuel. Close to
35 tons of seed were sent to an oil production facility
in the city of Guadalajara, in central-western Mexico,
where the oil was extracted to produce approximately
10,000 liters. The crude jatropha oil was subjected to
a cleaning process to remove impurities, and it was
subsequently sent to aUOP-Honeywell refining facility
near the city of Houston, Texas. After the refining
process was completed, the resulting synthesized
paraffinic kerosene or BioSPK, was imported back to
Mexico, where it was blended with fossil-based Jet
A-1 fuel in a27%-73% ratio.
In parallel, the fuel farm located at the Mexico City
International Airport (MCIA) received several upgrades
in its infrastructure. asmall, unused tank, together with
the filtering and reception areas were revamped to
Figure 10 Storage tank for the BioSPK/Jet A-1 blend.

Figure 11 Refueler updated with biofuel imagery.
On April 1st, 2011, as the closing event for the Flight Mexico and Tuxtla Gutierrez. Almost 300 passengers
6
Plan exercise, the first demonstration flight in Mexico flew on these flights, marking the dawn of anew era in
was carried out, using an Airbus A-320 aircraft from Mexican aviation history.
Interjet. The route was Mexico City Tuxtla Gutierrez,
the capital city of the southern State of Chiapas, as it
was this state where most of the jatropha seed was
collected. Close to 120 observers were on board,
as this historic flight took off from the MCIA, mostly
members of the press, but also with several important
members of the Mexican political landscape, including
the Governor of Chiapas.
Figure 13 Aeromexicos Boeing 777 parked at the Madrid-Barajas

tarmac after the first transoceanic flight.
On August 1st of this year, the first commercial trans-

oceanic flight on a wide-body jet using biojet fuel in
the world was executed by Aeromexico, carrying more
Figure 12 Take-off of the first demonstration flight in Mexico.
than 250 passengers between Mexico City and Madrid
Once the ASTM approved the Standard Specifica- (Figure 13). The flight used over 26,000 liters of a25%
tion for Aviation Turbine Fuels Containing Synthesized BioSPK 75% Jet A-1 blend derived from Camelina
Hydrocarbons on July 1st of 2011, the first two oil. The route was chosen in part as a bolstering
commercial flights in the American continent were mechanism for the treaty that was signed between
done, also by Interjet, and also between the cities of the governments of Mexico and Spain to promote the
development of sustainable aviation biofuels.

6.2.1 Next Steps at ASA 6.3.1 PureSky Working Group
The Flight Plan towards Sustainable Aviation Biofuels The Lufthansa Group of Airlines (Austrian Airlines,
in Mexico has proved to be an invaluable exercise to British Midland, Brussels Airlines, Germanwings,
identify the existing and missing links along the value Lufthansa Passenger Airline, Lufthansa Cargo, Swiss
chain of this new type of energy. International Air Lines) has formed the PureSky
working group with representatives from all member
New lines of research have emerged and the chal-
airlines to coordinate group activities with regards
lenge is to find the necessary funding to pursue them.
tobiofuels.
This, together with the implementation of the defined
action items are the necessary next steps to follow so
that anecessary aviation biofuel industry is established 6.3.2 Burn FAIR Inflight
inMexico.
Evaluation of Engine
As ASA works on putting together the pieces of the
puzzle to define the successful path Mexico will be
Behavior and Corresponding
following in the next few years, the results that will ResearchWork
benefit Mexican society, such as the reduction in Since July 15th, 2011, a dedicated A321 with the
greenhouse emissions, the promotion of agriculture in tailsign D-AIDG operates on a closed loop between
marginal land, new jobs, and amajor boost for anew Hamburg and Frankfurt with 8 flights per day burning
industry, are well under way. a 50/50 biofuel blend in the starboard engine. The
6
engine footprints of the brand new aircraft have been
taken by Lufthansa Technik prior to commencement of
6.3 Lufthansas New Brand evaluation flights and the engine behavior is frequently
PureSky monitored as well as a comparison of both engines
Sky FriendlyEnergy with regards to systems, burning chamber and overall
performance. The aircraft is fueled only in Hamburg
Lufthansa has created its own brand in order to with the block-fuel for the entire roundtrip: After three
focus all alternative fuels activities towards its aim: months of operation observers can already monitor
acontribution to mitigate climate change by reducing a 1 per cent lower fuel burn in the bioblend-engine
greenhouse gases. (a figure expected due to the higher energy content).

Leading German research institutes such as Bauhaus 6.3.4 Sustainable Biokerosene
Luftfahrt, DBFZ-German Biomass Research Center,
Technical University Hamburg-Harburg and DLR Feedstock Supply for
Stuttgart and DLR Hamburg are calculating effective Aviation Leuphana
CO2 reductions as well as how well the sustainability University
criteria have been met. This project is funded by the
German government. Lufthansa cooperates with the Center for Sustain-
ability Management of the Leuphana University
Lneburg (40miles southeast of Hamburg). The coop-
6.3.3 QuaNaBioL Quality and eration has already started with Camelina test fields
Sustainability Requirements in Romania and Ukraine and covers single Camelina
plants on dedicated fields as well as aintercropping
for Biofuels of Camelina and Peas (Food and Fuel in a joint
Fraunhofer Institute UMSICHT, Technical University of farmingapproach).
Berlin, Bauhaus Luftfahrt and Lufthansa jointly share
a two-year research project on quality requirements
for production, handling and storage of biofuels as 6.3.5 Aireg e.V. Aviation Initiative
new market participants suffer from lack of knowledge for Renewable Energy
and practice how to meet the IATA fuel standards and inGermany
the Joint Guidelines-standard of the international oil
6
companies. The project aims to create the foundation Lufthansa is one of the founding members of this initia-
for an ISO-Standard for fuel handling and storage. tive, which is described in Chapter 5. The initiative
This project will be funded by the German government. counts for 24 members along the supply chain from
farming to the aircraft wing.

6.4 Platform for Sustainable from the industry; further collaborations and support
of industry partners will be developed in the future.
Aviation Fuels University The project is funded by the EU with Euro 2.7 million.
of Lneburg/Germany
The key challenge for alternative jet fuel is: how, 6.5 Qantas Sustainable
when and where can large volumes of feedstock
be produced, and how can their sustainability be Aviation Fuels
ensured? The Platform for Sustainable Aviation Fuels The aviation industry is committed to reducing its
is athree year R&D project dedicated to these ques- greenhouse gas emissions and the Qantas Group is
tions. The Platform builds on two thematic pillars: one at the forefront of efforts to do so in the Asia-Pacific
is feedstock production in temperate climates with region. Escalating fuel costs and the patchwork
annual crops, the other plant oil production in (sub-) introduction of new regulatory schemes for carbon
tropical climates. emissions have only underlined the imperative for the
In the tropics, integrated afforestation programs with industry to develop new technologies. The Qantas
oil-bearing plants such as Moringa, Pongamia, Jatropha Group is preparing for compliance across three juris-
or Acrocomia are developed. Pilot projects will be dictions and bringing forward the technology required
implemented in cooperation with industry partners. to minimise its environmental footprint.
In such projects, the ecological, economic and social During 2010/11, with the European Union and Austra-
sustainability of plantation concepts will be continu- lian emissions trading schemes moving closer, the
6
ously improved focusing on carbon sequestration, Qantas Group launched collaborations with two
biodiversity conservation, positive social impacts and leading U.S. companies involved in developing
profitability. As astarting point for this research pillar, sustainable aviation fuel technology while continuing
aglobal market study has been conducted, compiling our work in fuel optimisation and technology develop-
key data of existing projects with oil-bearing trees such ment, reducing resource consumption and engaging
as Jatropha, Moringa and Pongamia. The study gives with employees and community groups on environ-
an overview about the status quo and sustainability mental goals.
of the industry. In addition, it can serve as a starting
point for the future expansion of plant oil production in Though technology development and more efficient
cooperation with existing and new projects. The study flight operations and aircraft can deliver substantial
will be published by the end of 2011. short-to-medium term gains, only the development
of low-carbon alternatives to traditional jet fuel at
In regions with temperate climate, new agronomic commercial scale will truly produce astep-change in
concepts for annual oil crops such as Camelina aviations emissions profile.
are tested for production. Such concepts include
different types of intercropping as well as catch crop- Qantas has been closely involved in the development
ping. Likewise, the concepts are designed to meet of the sustainable aviation fuels industry for anumber
existing sustainability standards, and pilots are being of years, and with growing global consensus for action
conducted together with industry partners. on climate change and emergence of carbon pricing
policies, the case for low carbon fuels has never been
The interdisciplinary team of currently 12 researchers so clear.
is based at the Leuphana University in Lneburg
(Germany) where it cooperates with the Centre A wide range of promising technologies available; the
for Sustainability Management and the Institute for challenge for Qantas is to determine the most viable in
Ecology. Partners in academia include University of terms of economics and sustainability.
South Australia as well as the Yale School of Forestry As a signatory of the SAFUG (Sustainable Aviation
(USA). In collaboration with partners from academia Fuel Users Group) pledge, Qantas actively reviews
and business, the project on the one hand aims at suppliers and potential pathways against strict
developing concepts of sustainable production and sustainability criteria. Potential biomass feedstocks
value chain design for bio jet fuel. On the other hand, are assessed to ensure they do not displace food
the project is explicitly focused on commercially sources, minimise biodiversity impacts, require minimal
realizing such concepts in practice. In this context, land and energy to produce, and do not compromise
INOCAS GmbH (Innovative Oil and Carbon Solutions) fresh water resources. In addition, the refined biomass
has been founded as a spin-off company. Lufthansa must be capable of being dropped in to the aviation
AG is among the Platforms first cooperation partners fuel supply chain and must be price-competitive with
current jet kerosene.

6.5.1 Qantas Biojet Projects
In early 2011, the Qantas Group entered into collabora-
6.5.2 Australian Biojet Initiatives
In May 2011, the Australian Sustainable Aviation Fuel
6
tions with two leading U.S. companies, Solazyme and Users Group (ASAFUG), of which Qantas is afounding
Solena, to investigate the potential for their signature member, launched the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Road
technologies in the Australian market. These collabo- Map (SAFRM).
rations are focused on developing feasibility studies
The report highlighted Australias advantages as
and business cases for each technology.
apotential SAF producer: atemperate climate, large
San Francisco-based Solazyme has developed land base, geopolitical stability, strengths in agricul-
a process based on the fermentation of algae in tural production and a commitment to sustainability.
combination with certain sustainable feedstocks The study also identified the current infrastructure
such as sugar cane to produce algal oils, which constraints and how anew SAF industry might address
can then be refined into jet fuel. It has entered trial those issues.
agreements with the U.S. Navy and also works with
To assist in the development of the industry, the report
major global corporations such as Unilever. Given
set out alist of key recommendations and conditions
Queenslands abundant sugar cane supplies, there
for industry, the private sector and government with
is considerable potential for, an interest in, the tech-
afocus on market structure, biomass supply, refining
nology in Australia.
and certification.
Solena Fuels, which is already working with British
The SAFRM report made clear that the commercially-
Airways on the development of afuel plant in London,
viable production of such fuels in Australia will depend
specialises in the gasification of waste to produce
on these conditions being met in particular the
fuel. Its business model draws on the ample produc-
adequate availability of government funding support
tion of various types of waste in major cities such as
and private capital.
London or Sydney and has clear benefits in terms of
scale, proximity to supply infrastructure and avoidance However, with Australias growing economy, natural
of landfill. resources and human capital, the possibilities are
exciting, and the Qantas Group is well-positioned to
lead the industry in the Asia-Pacific region.

6.6 Air Frances Green Flight Toulouse, ahigher cruising altitude and acontinuous
6
descent approach into Paris-Orly airport. Light mate-
On the 13th of October 2011, Air France performed rials were used on the aircraft to reduce total weight
what it considers the greenest ever commercial biofuel and reduce fuel consumption.
passenger flight. This flight from Toulouse-Blagnac to
Paris-Orly using an Airbus A321 demonstrated the This fully-optimized flight is an illustration of the 4 pillars
halving of CO2 emitted compared to a regular flight. strategy of IATA and shows how Air France intends to
reconcile the development of air transport with control
The biofuel used, provided by SkyNRG, constitutes over its CO2 emissions. Biofuel development is one of
a renewable, sustainable energy source which has the priorities of Air-France KLM group, whose strategy
none of the environmental or social impacts linked to is to explore all parts of the supply chain from produc-
the use of agricultural biomass. It was made from used tion to commercialization: Air France is involved in aBtL
cooking oil; this type of biofuel does not compete with from forestry waste production plant project and is set
the food chain nor does it deplete water resources. to receive 2000 tons of BtL per year from 2014, while
The biofuel was one aspect of this flight, but to KLM operates regular biofuel flights from Amsterdam
reduce fuel consumption and cut CO2 emissions at to Paris and SkyNRG, a joint venture between KLM,
the same time Air Frances pilots, in conjunction with North Sea Group and Spring Associates stimulates
air traffic control (DGAC-DSNA), applied the most the technical and economical development of sustain-
fuel-efficient procedures in each phase: the use of able biofuels.
electrically-powered generators on the ground, taxiing
on the power of asingle engine, asteady climb out of

6.7 TAROM and the First The Consortium is working together with the Bucha-
rest University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary
European Camelina Medicines Centre of Biotechnology (BIOTEHGEN)
ValueChain on the sustainable agricultural phase of the project
regarding the camelina plantations, harvesting and
TAROM, the Romanian national airline is investigating
oilproduction.
the development of a program related to emissions
cuts, preparing for the EU-ETS challenges. Apart from The sustainability studies and the LCA are conducted
managing fuel burn in aresponsible manner, TAROMs by the Manchester Metropolitan University, assisted by
management is actively involved in a demanding COMOTI, aRomanian aircraft engine research estab-
biofuelproject. lishment. The atmospheric impact assessment will
also be conducted, with focus on the airports local air
quality, not only on CO2.
6.7.1 The Romanian Camelina
However, the main aim of this project is to go from
Value Chain research to development and deployment. Thus,
Airbus and TAROM Romanian Air Transport together the Consortium is expecting that in 2013-2014, the
with a consortium of key stakeholders have estab- camelina biofuel to be produced in Romania and avail-
lished one of Europes first projects aiming to establish able for TAROM and Sky Team partners on a daily
a sustainable biojet fuel processing and production operation, as adrop in solution.
capability. The aim of the project is to provide abiofuel
6
made from the camelina plant, as asustainable substi-
tute to fossil based jet fuel. 6.7.2 Camelina Feedstock
This project is part of an ambitious Airbus global TAROM and its Consortium partners are working
program connecting farmers, refiners and the end user with local solutions for local community/geography
(i.e. TAROM) to form regional and sustainable biofuel and camelina is indigenous to Romania. Camelina
value chains. In order to be sustainable, these value has been chosen because of its good energy poten-
chains must not compete with land, water or food. The tial, considering the fact that one hectare of camelina
partnership works by encouraging local farmers to produces 0.5-1 tonnes of oil, it has great rotation prop-
farm non-arable land in the confidence that their crops erties and can also grow on marginal land, so it does
will be bought by refiners which will have, in return, not compete for agricultural land. Camelinas CO2 life
customers in the airlines. cycle suggests 50%-80% lower emissions compared
to jet fuel.
Unlike other biofuel value chains projects, TAROMs
project has its particularities. Thus, there is an oppor-
tunity to extend the project in the C-E European region 6.7.3 Project Structure
and the sustainability aspects are very much focusing
In 2011 the projects aim is to further verify the
on Land Use Change.
sustainability and economic viability of producing
The main partners involved in this Consortium are: bio-kerosene. CCE and BIOTEHGEN have imple-
TAROM, AIRBUS, Camelina Company Espaa and mented various camelina placement trials in different
UOP, a Honeywell Company. Each company has its locations in Romania, with the purpose of assessing
own role in this project: Airbus is providing technical sustainability of different production models and soil
and project management expertise and is sponsoring types, including contaminated soil and uncultivated
the sustainability assessment and LCA studies; CCE land, in order to identify the best techniques and
is contributing its knowledge on camelina agronomy, geneticmaterial.
including technologies on camelina growth, agricultural
The studies will provide the consortium with sufficient
monitoring networks and plant science; Honeywells
information to choose the best solution in terms of
UOP is applying its aviation biofuel refining technology
sustainability and economic viability in order to move
and TAROM, as the user, will execute commercial
forward to the implementation phase. aBiofuel refinery
flights with the biofuel resulting from the 2010-2011
development is in progress, in partnership with UOP
research and demo-trials.
and aRomanian local refinery.

Figure 14 Camelina from sowing to harvesting: Mihailesti demo trial: March-July 2011
6
6.7.4 Next Steps: Development
and Deployment
The next step after research will involve a joint effort
with a Romanian Government working group, initiated
to speed up the process of production and commer-
cialization, so TAROM and its Sky Team partners can
Figure 15 Camelina seeds, cake and oil. benefit from camelina biofuel according to their needs.
The members of this working group are from different
TAROMs first Biofuel Flight is planned to take place ministries representing several parts of the value chain:
in the first half of 2012. The project will be linked with agriculture, economy, environment and finance. The
the European Advanced Biofuels Flightpath (2M tons chair is represented by the Ministry of Transport and
of biofuels to be produced in Europe by 2020). Infrastructure, which is TAROMs owner.
Some examples of the research aspects of value chain
are illustrated in Figure 14 and Figure 15. 6.7.5 What Makes this
12 demo-trials were selected across Romania, Project Special?
including 3 varieties of camelina sativa in two
periods of sowing (autumn and spring): Austrian One important objective is to verify the opportunity
camelina -Calena; Germania- GP 202 and Romanian to use contaminated land as part of available land for
-Camelina. camelina value chain. Romania has 800,000 Ha of
contaminated land which need to be further researched
and checked of heavy metals traceability. Manchester
Metropolitan University is tasked with this challenging
research, but if the results are positive, the debate fuel
vs. food will have a different meaning and the results
can be extended to other projects using feedstocks
for biofuels.

Another special aspect of this project is its pros- sectors: regulators, farmers, refineries, airlines. And of
pect to be extended in the C-E Europe. This part of course, the sustainability criteria have to be followed
Europe has a real opportunity to produce camelina closely during the entire value chain.
biofuel, which, as a rotational plant seems to tick all
the required sustainability criteria.
6.7.7 Are There Any Limits?
Thus, amore practical way, from the airlines industry
perspective, is aregional project which will investigate Yes, of course. They are mainly cost related, as the
the value chain from farmers to the aircraft, to identify interest in a big refinery will generate a large invest-
the missing link and assess the sustainability criteria, ment. The business case needs to be well defined,
with focuses on land versus food. The Consortium afinancial system in place indentified and also, there
has to consider the uncultivated land availability, or is aneed for astrong lobby locally, backed up by the
degraded, marginal land which can be enriched in aviation sector. The European Industrial Bioenergy
nutrients by using camelina crops. The entire region Initiative (EIBI) can be an answer. An important factor in
has strong research in agriculture and the fact that this equation is that the owner of the technology turns
camelina cake is also an animal feed is aplus already the oil into biofuel and UOP, a Honeywell company,
known by some farmers in the region. This project will issuch an example. The company is also well known
generate several jobs across the value chain, as well inthe C-E European region.
as new markets for camelina oil and cake. However, Airbus & TAROM partnership has estab-
lished the first European biofuel value chain project
6
which will answer to several unknowns.
6.7.6 The Projects Focus
The focus is on development and deployment, based
on local knowledge, farmers willingness to take part 6.8 SkyNRG
in this kind of project, as well as the availability of The Fuel Future
marginal, contaminated and uncultivated land. It has
to be kept in mind that camelina is arotational plant to
cereals, for instance, so that an intercrops opportunity 6.8.1 SkyNRGs Mission
can be also considered. However, existing facilities
Mission: to help make the market for truly sustainable
related to refineries are helping the value chain and
jet fuel that is affordable.
this can also help the present economic climate. The
assessment priorities should be on production and SkyNRG develops and sells sustainable jet fuel for the
commercialization. An important factor is also the global aviation market based on aone-stop-shop prin-
willingness to change mentalities for all the involved ciple that takes care of the entire chain and guarantees

delivery of truly sustainable jet fuel, at the lowest price 6.8.2 SkyNRG Accomplishments
in the market. SkyNRG is asupply chain director, with
excellent relationships and strong partners in all parts of Over the last 18 months SkyNRG has developed the
the supply chain (feedstock, logistical, refining, quality technical, sustainability, supply chain logistics and
control, sustainability). It has access to all production marketing capabilities to deliver sustainable jet fuel to
locations in the world. The current short term focus any commercial airline globally. SkyNRG has aproven
is on demand aggregation to enable production runs track record, which includes:
(which requires a minimum volume that often cannot Supporting KLM to achieve the first commer-
be met by asingle airline). cial flight ever (and its subsequent green route
In addition to selling and promoting sustainable avia- AMS-CDG);
tion fuel, SkyNRG puts alot of effort into guaranteeing Delivery to three other leading airlines (Finnair,
sustainability, which it believes is the crucial factor Thomson, AirFrance);
in ensuring this emerging market is a success. The Delivery to five other commercial airlines in Q4
sustainability of alternative aviation fuels depends on 2011, with at least one on every continent of
many factors and has to be assessed on acase-by- theworld.
case basis. To make the right decisions now and in Although these first commercial flights and green
the future, SkyNRG is advised by an independent routes represent asmall overall contribution to global
Sustainability Board consisting of the Dutch branch of jet fuel supplies, they are an essential catalyst for the
the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF-NL), Soli- creation of this new market. Some benefits of these
daridad, and the Copernicus Institute of the University
6
flights include the following:
of Utrecht. In addition, SkyNRG supports the Round-
table on Sustainable Biofuels, and have been elected Demonstrate to the world that the aviation industry
co-chair of Chamber 3 for 2012. is serious about sustainable jet fuel;
Engage key stakeholders (e.g. airlines, airports,
airline customers, governments, suppliers, inves-
tors, technology developers and NGOs) to join
the race;
Top left to bottom right: KLM, Thomson Airways, Finnair, AirFrance.

Provide great learning and insights in devel-
oping the downstream part of the supply chain
by going from theory to practice (e.g. ASTM
certification, traceability, sustainability, chain effi-
ciencies,ETS);
Help in pushing down the price curve down
through initial scale.
6.8.3 SkyNRG Bioports

SkyNRG has been building astrong set of business
development tools based on the experience, volume
and solid relationship with KLM at Schiphol airport.
How does this work? KLM has set (ambitious) bio
jet fuel targets and wants to play an active role in
the development of bio jet fuel. Schiphol Airport has
6.9.1 2011 Highlights
recognized its role in the bio jet fuel supply chain FebruaryBioJet receives US$1.2 Billion financing
and wants to contribute to the development. Involve- facility from Equity Partners Fund.
ment of the airport and access to the fuel systems
AprilBioJet acquires Abundant Biofuels Corp.
turns out to be acrucial part in developing the biofuel
6
making BioJet worlds largest Jatropha feedstock
supply chain. In this relationship, SkyNRG is not just
developer.
the supplier of the sustainable jet fuel, but also the
principal driver in making it structurally affordable AprilBioJet and Council of Energy Resource Tribes
(feedstock control, technology, investments, legisla- (CERT) form exclusive relationship to develop multi-
tion/lobby, co-funding options). The knowledge and billion dollar renewable jet and diesel feedstock and
experience has given SkyNRG a blue-print which it refining facilities on Native American lands.
aims to replicate at three to five other strategic airport
JuneBioJet gains worldwide exclusive rights to
bio-hub locations worldwide in partnership with the
disruptive Camelina crop yield technology, expects to
selected carrier and airport. This will fortify SkyNRGs
double Camelina crop yields. ARPA-E funds project.
global leadership position through demand aggrega-
tion and price leadership. JulyBioJet offers 1 Billion gallons of renewable jet
fuel to the industry at $3 Price Cap on future deliv-
eries. No other competitor matches pricing.
6.9 BioJet Corporation1
JulyUniversity of West Indies and BioJet announce
UWI/BioJet Biofuels Research Center.
AugustBioJet gains worldwide exclusive to disrup-
tive hybrid GTL/BIO refinery process. Cheaper and
more flexible than any straight hydroprocessing
process.
The past year has been a banner one for BioJet.
The Company is a leading international supply chain OctoberBioJet forms BioJet Asia Pac subsid-
integrator for renewable (bio) jet fuel and related iary to develop aviation biofuels in China and Asia
co-products which include green diesel, etc. Formed Pacdomain
in late 2008, BioJet was the first company to operate
across the entire supply chain by owning and controlling
large quantities of bio-feedstock, developing refining/ 6.9.2 Capital & Finance
conversion capacity, solving aviation fuel supply logis- The primary and dominant underlying issue in the
tics, and handling sales to end users. BioJet was the biofuel supply chain is Capital. To date, the single
first to employ the model within aviation biofuels and greatest barrier to achieving targets in the world
remains first mover. biofuel industry remains inadequate capital.
1. Since March 2010, BioJet has been the first Alternative Fuels Strategic Partner of IATA.

In February 2011, BioJet closed on a $1.2 Billion Algae
financing facility. This funding represents the corner-
BioJet believes that the viability of Algae is still some
stone of the Companys US$6 Billion, 10 year
years in the future. However, the company has reviewed
capital assets development program. We believe
over 150 Algae projects and has joint venture agree-
this is the largest funding ever done in the renew-
ments pending.
able jet or diesel fields. Currently, BioJet is involved in
discussions on another $300 million, strategic acqui-
sitions of 4 different companies in the feedstock and Biomass
refining spaces, and 10 discussions involving project BioJet has several cutting edge Biomass conversion
jointventures. technologies in negotiation. The build-out quantity of
biomass exceeds 1 billion gallons equivalent per year.
6.9.3 Feedstock
The other primary issue in any biofuel is the feedstock 6.9.4 Native American Projects
source. The Company is fundamentally agnostic with BioJet will develop large Camelina and Algae proj-
regard to feedstocks and is committed to utilizing any ects as well as refining/conversion capacity on
and all sustainable and economically viable sources in Native American lands in the U.S. through its multi-
the fulfillment of its mission, making it unique among billion dollar exclusive joint venture with the Council
renewable jet and diesel fuel producers. BioJet oper- of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT). Their 57 sover-
ates in multiple feedstocks which include Jatropha, eign tribal members have absolute control over major
6
Camelina, Algae, Biomass, Sugars, and designer natural resources which include oil, gas, coal, uranium,
sources, such that it will be diversified across all the water and agricultural lands, the latter comprising of
major potential sources of feedstock. The Companys 56 million acres. CERT has commented We believe
model dictates that it must own all, or a dominant our sovereign members along with BioJet are well
portion, of feedstock projects. This policy drastically suited to lead one of the largest economic transitions in
reduces risk. history the transition from afossil based to abiofuel
based transportation sector, and on alarger scale, the
Jatropha transition to building afoundation for sustainable tribal
communities and an infrastructure for energy indepen-
With the acquisition of Abundant Biofuels Corpora-
dence for the United States.
tion, it is believed that BioJet is now the worlds largest
Jatropha developer with existing and planned projects
running to 4 million hectares in 10 different countries 6.9.5 Refining/Conversion
and another 3 million hectares in negotiation. Abun-
dant holds one of the top Jatropha agronomy teams In previous years, BioJet developed relationships with
in the world and is active in crop yield optimization in UOP and NCSU to utilize their refining technologies in
concert with several leading seed laboratories. plants in Asia, South Caribbean, and Europe.
Recently, BioJet concluded a deal with Emerging
Camelina Fuels Technology which gives the Company world-
The Company believes that by 2013 it will be the wide exclusive control of the disruptive natural gas
worlds largest Camelina producer. It currently has to synthetic fuel/plant oil to biofuel hybrid plant tech-
Camelina cultivation/refining under development nology. Emerging Fuels is one of the worlds leaders
in Argentina and is in the planning stages for large in gas to liquid fuel technologies and hydroprocessing
Camelina projects in the U.S. and Eastern Europe technologies. Resultant fuels will be significantly
including Russia, Romania, Slovenia, etc. cheaper than other types of petroleum or biofuels.
The limiting factor in Camelina is availability of seed.

Currently, the Company holds enough seed to plant
2 million acres of Camelina. Of major importance,
BioJet holds the worldwide exclusive to disruptive
technology which it believes will double the crop yield
of Camelina, thereby halving the cost of production.

6.9.6 Sales/Offtake
BioJet has several major finished fuel contracts
in negotiation and expects to have completed a
US$1.5Billion supply contract with ahighly respected,
major air carrier by the end of 2011. The company
also expects to complete aUS$1 Billion feedstock oil
supply contract this year. Deliveries of fuel begin in
2013 and feedstock oil in 2012.
6.9.7 Sustainability
BioJet continues to be a world leader in Sustain-
ability. BioJet Chairman, Mitch Hawkins, was elected
Chairman of Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels
Services and the corporation continues to hold two
Board seats at the prestigious RSB Standards.
BioJet is also active in ISO and other Sustain-
abilityprograms.

Glossary
The applied definitions and acronyms in the report are mentioned in this glossary.
Definitions
1st generation biofuel =b iofuel produced from biomass that may compete with food production,
degrade fresh water supply, cause deforestation and/or reduce biodiversity
2nd generation biofuel = biofuel made from sustainable, non-food biomass such as algae, jatropha, etc.
Agricultural residues = by-products from agriculture that are not well utilized
Alternative fuel = fuel from non-petroleum source
Anaerobic digestion = digestion in the absence of oxygen
Aromatics = molecule with acarbon ring of unsaturated bonds
ASTM D1655 = ASTM Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels
ASTM D7566 = ASTM Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels Containing
SynthesizedHydrocarbons
Barrel = volume measure of 159 liters or 42 US gallons
Biochemical = processing material with organisms or enzymes
Biodiesel = alkyl esters derived from fatty acids of biological origin
Biofuel = fuel produced out of biomass
Biojet fuel = jet fuel produced out of biomass
Biomass = renewable biological raw material such as plants, algae, organic waste etc.
Blend = mixing of different types of fuel
Butanol = alcohol with a4-carbon atom based carbon chain
Carbon footprint = net amount of carbon dioxide emissions attributed to a product or activity
Carbon neutral = with zero carbon footprint (CO2 emissions = CO2 absorption)
Catalyst = material that facilitates achemical reaction
Cellulose = organic compound consisting of linked D-glucose units
Cloud point = temperature at which solids (wax) begin to form and separate from the fuel
CO2 = carbon dioxide
Def Stan 91-91 = UK Defense Standard for Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosene Type
Density = mass per unit volume
Distillation = the separation of liquids by means of difference in boiling points
Drop-in fuel = a lternative fuel that is indistinguishable from conventional fuel, with no changes
of aircraft, engine or supply infrastructure required
Esterification = process to produce esters from fatty acids and alcohols, e.g. FAME and FAEE
Ethanol = drinkable alcohol with 2 carbon atoms
FAME/FAEE = Fatty Acid Methyl Esters/Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters ester based biodiesels
Feedstock = raw material such as biomass, oils, fats, coal and gas
Forest residues = by-products from forestry industries
Fractionation = physical separation through progressive evaporation of volatile components
Freezing point = temperature at which asolid freezes on cooling
FT fuel = fuel produced with the Fischer Tropsch process
Fuel additive = additive to fuel to improve acertain property
Gasification = process transforming feedstock into CO and H2 under high temperature
Gallon = 3.785 Liters
Hydrocarbons = molecules made out of carbon and hydrogen, used as fuels
Hydrocracking = cutting down carbon chains under influence of hydrogen
Hydrogenated = raw material upgraded by hydroprocessing
Hydrotreatment = saturating and removing impurities in hydrocarbons using hydrogen

Hydroprocessing = upgrading of oils with hydrogen, current technology in refineries
Industry residues = by-products from industries that are not or not well utilized
Lignin = complex organic polymer commonly derived from wood and plant material
Marginal lands = lands with poor soils
Methanol = smallest alcohol with only 1 carbon atom and low specific energy
Oil crops = plants that produces oil, palm oil, jatropha oil, soybean oil, etc.
Paraffin = straight-chain alkane hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n+2
Polymerization = chemical process bonding together multiple small molecules
Pyrolysis = heating in absence of oxygen resulting in thermal decomposition
Solid biomass = biomass in solid state, such as wood, switch grass, etc.
Specific energy = amount of energy per unit weight or volume
SPK = Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene, jet fuel substitute lacking aromatic compounds

Acronyms
AEMP = Annual Emissions Monitoring Plan
AER = Annual Emissions Report
AFRL = Air Force Research Laboratory (USA)
ASTM = American Society of Testing and Materials (USA)
ATA = Air Transport Association (USA)
BTL = Biomass to Liquids (Fischer-Tropsch process)
BTU = British Thermal Unit
CAA = Civil Aviation Authority
CAAFI = Commercial Alternative Aviation Fuels Initiative (USA)
CTL = Coal to Liquids (Fischer-Tropsch process)
DLA = Defense Logistics Agency (USA)
DOE = Department of Energy (USA)
EC = European Commission
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
ETS = Emissions Trading Scheme
EU = European Union
EUA = European Union Emission Allowance
EUAA = European Union Aviation Emission Allowance
FT = Fischer-Tropsch process
FAA = Federal Aviation Administration (USA)
FAE = Fatty Acid Ester
FAEE = Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester
FAME = Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
GE = Gasoline Equivalent
GHG = Greenhouse Gas
GTL = Gas to Liquids (Fischer-Tropsch process)
HEFA = Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids
HRJ = Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet fuel
IEA = International Energy Agency
LCA = Lifecycle Analysis
LGE = Liters of Gasoline Equivalent
MJ = Megajoule
OEM = Original Equipment Manufacturer
PARTNER = Partnership for Air Transportation Noise & Emission Reduction
PPP = Public Private Partnership
RED = Renewable Energy Directive (EU)
RFS = Renewable Fuel Standard (USA)
RSB = Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels
SPK = Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene
SWAFEA = Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy in Aviation
USAF = United States Air Force

Acknowledgements
IATA would like to express its appreciation to the following experts for their valuable contributions
to this report:
George Anjaparidze IATA

Michel Baljet IATA
Steve Barker ATA
Sabrina Bringtown Air France
Joachim Buse Lufthansa
Laurel Harmon Lanzatech
Mitch Hawkins Biojet Corporation
Victoria Junquera Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels
Dirk Kronemeijer SkyNRG
Mike Lu ABPPM
Jorin Mamen IATA
Dragos Munteanu TAROM
Philippe Novelli SWAFEA
Brian Pearce IATA
Virgil Regoli Air Force Petroleum Agency
Alejandro Rios ASA
Thomas Roetger IATA
Pam Serino Defence Energy Support Center
Steven Shaeffer USAF Petroleum Agency
Glenn Toogood Qantas
Carl Viljoen SASOL
George Wilson Southwest Research Institute
Nancy Young ATA
Thilo Zelt Jatropha Alliance

TOORDER )NTERNATIONAL!IR4RANSPORT!SSOCIATION
WWWIATAONLINECOM
CUSTSERV IATAORG

2EF.O
0RINTEDIN#ANADA )3".

Iata 2011

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IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels

Effective December 2011

International Air Transport Association

IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels

Report on Alternative Fuels_2011_v5.indd 4 29/11/2011 10:02:21 AM

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5. Stakeholder Initiatives .................................................................................................. 29

6. Notable Developments ................................................................................................. 39

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1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 A Note on Sustainability

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1. Sustainable Way for Alternative Fuels and Energy in Aviation

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Figure 4 Overview of Alcohol-Derived (AD) or Alcohol-to-Jet Processes.

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2.5.2 ATJ Certification to support the ASTM International certification of an

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Figure 5 Jatropha plant.

It was also found that the required effort to achieve

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4.1 Chapter Summary

4.3 Push Mechanisms

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5.1 Chapter Summary 5.2 AIREG The New

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