GEOLOGY OF THE BATU

MELINTANG-SUNGAI KOLOK
TRANSECT AREA ALONG THE
MALAYSIA THAILAND BORDER

By
The Malaysian and Thai
Working Groups

A joint project carried out by

Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia

and
Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand

The Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey Committee

(MT-JGSC)
2006
 - ii -

PREFACE

This report together with its accompanying geological map on the scale 1:250,000 is the
result of close cooperation between the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and
the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand in resolving problems related to cross border
geological correlation between Malaysia and Thailand. Fieldwork was carried out separately
(July August 2001) in the Batu Melintang and Sungai Kolok areas and then jointly checked
(5-11 April 2002) by geoscientists from both Malaysia and Thailand, covering a total area of
about 1,350 square kilometres along the common border.
Problems on the discontinuity of time rock unit boundaries between the various rocks
found in both sides of the common border areas have been satisfactorily resolved. Potential
mineral deposits occur along the border areas but the present security situation, as well as
environmental issues does not encourage the exploitation of these mineral deposits. Future
increase in the price of minerals coupled with advances in mining technology may facilitate
joint exploitation of these mineral deposits.

Dr. Chu Ling Heng Mr. Somsak Potisat

Director General Director General
Minerals and Geoscience Department Department of Mineral Resources,
Malaysia. Thailand.

December 2003 December 2003

 - iii -

Geology of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area

along the Malaysia-Thailand border
by

The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups

Executive Summary

Detailed systematic geological mapping in the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect

area on scales of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 (originally mapped on the scale of 1:50,000), was
carried out independently by the working groups of Malaysia and Thailand covering
individual territories within the Transect area i.e. during July-August 2001 and re-checked
during November 2001. This was followed by detailed works on the Quaternary Geology in
October 2001 and January 2002 (Malaysian side) followed by re-checking works during
February 2002 (Thai side). A joint field check at selected localities along the Transect area by
geoscientists from both Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia, and Department of
Mineral Resources, Thailand was conducted in Thailand (5-7 April 2002) and in Malaysia (9-
11 April 2002). Problems on the discontinuity of time rock unit boundaries between the
Paleozoic rocks to Quaternary deposits, and the extension of granitic rocks (including the
mineral association), have been satisfactorily resolved.
The oldest rocks, the Silurian-Devonian succession of the Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation
(SDts/bs), consist mainly of medium- to thick-banded para-gneiss, augen gneiss with
subordinate amphibolite schist, schist and hornfels. The main succession is exposed in the
vicinity of Sungai Cherok (Malaysia) and at Khlong Ai Ku Sa (Thailand), in the western part
of the Transect area. A smaller rock body is exposed near Sungai Golok (Malaysia),
extending to the eastern side of the Ba Tu Ta Mong-Jeli granitic belt (Thailand). High-grade
regional metamorphism (amphibolite facies) is obviously recognised by the presence of
amphibole mineral group. No fossil assemblages were found and the thickness of the
succession is indeterminable.
The Carboniferous-Permian clastic rocks occur in the western and southeastern parts of
the Transect area. The rock units in the western part are enclosed by two granitic belts,
between the Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su) and the Merah granite/Bu Do
granite (Trgrmr/bd). The succession is subdivided into three formations, in ascending order: the
Mangga formation (CPmg)/Ai Ka Po (CPak)/ Ka Lu Bi (CPkl) formations. The three formations
are found to be stratigraphically equivalent and are known as the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/ Ka Lu Bi
(CPmg/ak/kl) formations. The Mangga formation (CPmg) is well exposed in the upper reaches of
Sungai Machang extending southwards to Kampung Gunung in the Batu Melintang area
(Malaysia). It is represented by a low grade metamorphic sequence that can be subdivided
into 4 facies: argillaceous facies (CPmgag), arenaceous facies (CPmgar), pyroclastic facies
(CPmgpy) and calcareous facies (CPmgcl). The Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) or the arenaceous
facies is exposed as a narrow N-S trending sharp ridge hill in Thailand. It is composed mainly
of thin- to thick-bedded, tuffaceous sandstone, quartzite and metaconglomerates. The Ka Lu
Bi formation (CPkl) or the argillaceous facies is gradational, fining upwards from the former
formation. The succession, well exposed at low relief terrain (in Thailand), consists of cycles
of thin- to medium-bedded, shales, sandstones and conglomerates with quartz vein and dyke
in the lower part, and sharp, even, very thin bedded or rhythmic sequence of shales and
siltstones intercalated with very fine-grained sandstones in the upper part.
 - iv -

The Carboniferous-Permian clastic rocks in the southern part of the Transect area is
known as Taku schist/ Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt ). The Taku schist (CPtk) is well distributed
in Malaysia, whereas the Buke Ta formation (CPbt) is locally distributed at Ban Buke Ta and
Mae Nam Kolok (Thailand). These formations comprise predominantly schists which are
wholly crystalline and generally completely schistosed. Mica schist is the main rock type,
which consists of quartz-mica schist, mica-garnet schist and quartz-mica-garnet schist.
Local deformation and low-grade metamorphism took place in the shear and contact
zones and metamorphosed the original rocks to slate, phyllite, phyllitic shale and spotted
slate. No fossil was found in these formations and the thickness of the succession is still
indeterminable. However, evidences shown by the intrusion of the well-dated Triassic granite
and the stratigraphic position of the rocks enabled the Working Groups to assume that the age
of the rocks is Carboniferous-Permian.
The Permian-Triassic succession of the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) is confined to the
northwestern part of the Transect area (in Thailand). It consists mainly of sharp, even, thin-
bedded cherts with recrystalline radiolarian intercalated with stringering shale beds and rare
volcaniclastic sediments. The succession obviously exhibits instability of the basin during the
time of deposition because of igneous activities. Stratigraphically, the age of these chert strata
is considered as belonging to the Permian-Triassic Period.
The Permian-Triassic succession of the Telong formation (PTrtl) is confined to the
central-south and central part of the Transect area (Malaysia), in Kampung Legeh and extends
eastwards to the Tanah Merah area. The Telong formation consists mainly of argillite, low-
grade metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks, and can be divided into four facies:
argillaceous (PTrtlag), arenaceous (PTrtlar), calcareous (PTrtlcl) and volcanic facies (PTrtlpy). No
fossil so far was found in the Transect area. However, based on bivalves and foraminifera
reportedly found in the similar lithology unit to the south of the Transect area, the age of this
formation may be assumed as Permian-Triassic.
The Triassic submarine fanglomerate, the Bu Yong formation (Trby), is unconformably
underlain by the Carboniferous-Permian and Permian-Triassic rocks. It crops out in the
central-northwestern part of the area, and consists of massive to thick-bedded, conglomerates,
conglomeratic sandstones, with both matrix- and clast-supported types. Clasts are mainly of
sandstones, quartz, cherts, and volcanic rocks.
The Panau beds (Kpn) are locally exposed only at Bukit Panau and Bukit Jambul, about 10
km north of the Tanah Merah town, in the eastern part of the Transect area. Nonconformity
between the Triassic granite and the overlying sandstone of the Panau beds can be observed at
an abandoned rock quarry at the foothill of Bukit Panau. This rock unit is evidently younger
than Triassic and is believed to be Cretaceous age based on plant fragments found in the fine-
grained sandstone beds at the foothill of Bukit Panau.
The unconsolidated sediments were deposited in both marine and non-marine
environments and can be subdivided into 3 formations in ascending order: the Simpang
Formation/Waeng formation (Qhsp/wg), Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk)
and Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Qhgl/tb). The non-marine Pleistocene deposits
consisting of Colluvium/Terrace and Former floodplain members of the Simpang
Formation/Waeng formation (Qpspr/wg) are dominantly characterised by gravel, sand, silt, and
laterite with abundant iron concretions. The marine Holocene sediments of the Gula
Formation/Tak Bai formation are subdivided into 5 members (bottom to top): Bagan Datoh
Member/Shallow marine member (Qhbdsmgl/tb), Teluk Intan Member/Tidal flat (Qhtitfgl/tb), Peat
swamp member (Qhpstb), Matang Gelugor Member/ Old beach member (Qhmtobgl/tb) and
Recent beach member (Qhrbgl/tb). However, the Peat swamp member is only exposed
extensively in Thailand. The oldest beach ridge of Old beach member exposed 12 km from
 -v-

the present shoreline at Ban Pa Wai, in the northern part of Sungai Padi District, Thailand. It
is characterised by sand, gravelly sand, and silt. The non-marine Holocene sediments of the
Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) are subdivided into four members:
Natural levee member, Abandoned channel member, Floodplain member and Flood basin
member. However, the Flood basin member is only observed in Malaysia. It is mainly
characterised by silty clay, sand, and gravel with abundant mottles and iron concretions.
The Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks are subdivided into two sub-units. The intermediate
volcanic association of the Muno Volcanics (PTrvtn/mn) is only represented by the small hill at
Ban Mu No, near the Mae Nam Kolok at the east of the Transect area. It comprises strongly
sheared and altered andesite, andesitic tuff and agglomerate. Serpentinite and relicts of
ultramafic and mafic rocks with podiform chromite deposit of the Ku Mung volcanic complex
(PTrvkm) are located as a narrow NE-SW trending body, occurring in the central part of the
Transect area. Pillow lava basalt, basaltic andesite and gabbro are well exposed along the Mae
Nam Sai Buri located in the central part of the Transect area. The unit is closely related with
the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab).
Generally, the Paleozoic rock sequences were intruded by two granitic rocks. The N-S
trending granitic rocks in the central part of the Transect area, consist of equigranular to
porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite with muscovite occurring as a secondary mineral
resulting from the alteration of K-feldspar and/or biotite. Many phases of granitic rock types
are also found in the eastern flank of the Ba Tu Ta Mong-Jeli granitic belt. The other belt
which trends N-S is located in the western part of the Transect area and consists of
porphyritic biotite-muscovite granite including aplite and pegmatite with associated Sn-
deposit.
North-South trending quartz dykes and some igneous stocks usually intrude the country
rocks, especially in the Ai Ka Po (CPak) and Ka Lu Bi (CPkl) formations in the central part of
the area. Contact metamorphism and associated late stage mineralisations can be observed in
the country rocks.
Structurally, the Paleozoic succession is characterised by strongly close fold especially in
the Silurian-Devonian succession. Triassic rock sequence generally exhibits open fold. The
strike-slip, normal, reverse and thrust faults are conspicuous and generally strike N-S, NW-SE
and NE-SW.
Historically, marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the Paleozoic and
Early Mesozoic Eras, nevertheless, large breaks can be observed due to instability of the
depositional basins during the Devonian-Carboniferous and Early Triassic periods.
Various mineral resources have been discovered and exploited since the last century and a
large number of them is related to granite intrusions and subsequent hydrothermal activities.
Gold is the most well known mineral resource that had been produced from the To Mo
(Thailand) and Kalai (Malaysia) areas for many years. Other minerals are chromite,
manganese, base metals, aggregates, kaolin, ball clay, barite, limestone and dimension stone
(granite). Most of these minerals have been produced for years, but production was stopped
recently owing to the economic situation. However, recent study indicates that there are many
interesting areas for mineral resources development in the future. New potential areas will be
outlined and appropriate exploitation proposed.
North-South trending quartz dykes and some igneous stocks intruded the country rocks,
especially in the Kalai area (close to the Malaysian-Thai border). Contact metamorphism
derived from igneous intrusion and its association with late stage mineralisations can be
observed in the country rocks.
 - vi -

CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE...................................................................................................................................ii
Executive Summary...................................................................................................................iii
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
2. Previous works and geologic setting ..................................................................................... 3
2.1 Previous works ................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.1 In Malaysia ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 In Thailand................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Geologic setting............................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Geologic setting of the Transect area in Malaysia ................................................... 5
2.2.2 Geologic setting of the Transect area in Thailand.................................................... 6
3. Lithostratigraphy ................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks .............................................................................. 9
3.1.1 Tiang schist/ Ban Sa formation (SDts/bs)................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl)............... 10
3.1.3 Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt)................................................................. 15
3.1.4 Telong formation (PTrtl)......................................................................................... 15
3.1.5 Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) .................................................................................... 17
3.1.6 Bu Yong formation (Trby)....................................................................................... 18
3.1.7 Panau beds (Kpn)..................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Quaternary geology ....................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1 Simpang Formation/Waeng formation (Qpsp/wg) .................................................... 23
3.2.2 Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) ............................................. 27
3.2.3 Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Qhgl/tb)........................................................... 30
3.3 Igneous rocks................................................................................................................. 33
3.3.1 Volcanic rocks ........................................................................................................ 33
3.3.2 Granitic rocks ......................................................................................................... 36
4. Structural geology and tectonics ......................................................................................... 43
5. Economic Geology/Mineral Resources............................................................................... 43
5.1 Metallic minerals ........................................................................................................... 44
5.1.1 Gold ........................................................................................................................ 44
5.1.2 Chromite ................................................................................................................. 47
5.1.3 Manganese .............................................................................................................. 47
5.1.4 Iron Deposits .......................................................................................................... 48
5.1.5 Alteration zones...................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Non-metallic minerals and others.................................................................................. 54
5.2.1 Granite .................................................................................................................... 54
5.2.2 River sand ............................................................................................................... 54
5.2.3 Clay......................................................................................................................... 55
5.2.4 Crystalline limestone .............................................................................................. 57
5.2.5 Barite ...................................................................................................................... 57
6. Discussion and conclusion .................................................................................................. 58
7. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. 61
8. References ........................................................................................................................... 62
9. Appendices .................................................................................................... 66
Appendix 1: List of samples in the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect on the
Malaysian side. .............................................................................................. 67
Appendix 2: List Of The Malaysian Working Group ........................................................ 70
 - vii -

Appendix 3: List of The Thai Working Group................................................................... 71

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: Map showing the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area. .......................... 1
Figure 2: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect
area in Malaysia. ................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect
area in Thailand..................................................................................................... 8
Figure 4: Photograph of augen-biotite gneiss in the Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation along
the Ban Ba La roadcut (left) and Mae Nam Kolok (right), Thailand.................. 10
Figure 5: Exposures of the lower part of the Mangga formation /Ai Ka Po /Ka Lu Bi
formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Malaysia (left) and Thailand (right). ............................ 13
Figure 6: Deformed and folded, reddish brown to yellowish brown, medium to thick, wavy
beds of paraconglomerates and sandstone, in the upper part of the Mangga
formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Thailand. ..... 13
Figure 7: Rhythmic sequence (left) and spotted slate (right) of sharp, even, very thin to
thin and well-bedded, laminated shales and siltstones to mudstones, at the upper
portion of the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Thailand. .
....................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 8: The Taku schist/Buke Ta formation in Malaysia (left) and in Thailand (right)
showing well-developed S1 cleavages................................................................ 16
Figure 9: Exposures of the arenaceous facies (left) and the pyroclastic facies (right) of the
Telong formation in Malaysia. ............................................................................ 16
Figure 10: Exposures of strongly folded, thin-bedded chert of the Ai Ba Lo formation
(PTrab) at Ban Ai Ba Lo, Thailand. ..................................................................... 19
Figure 11: Close-up photographs of both matrix- (right) and clast-supported (left),
conglomerate of the Bu Yong formation (Trby). ................................................. 19
Figure 12: Photograph of sandstone strata with cross -bedding of the Panau beds at Bukit
Panau, Malaysia. ................................................................................................. 20
Figure 13: Locations of boreholes in Malaysia. ................................................................... 21
Figure 14: Locations of boreholes in Thailand..................................................................... 22
Figure 15: Quaternary sediments of the Colluvium/Terrace member in Thailand............... 24
Figure 16: Idealised cross section along line A-A............................................................... 26
Figure 17: Idealised cross section along B-B. ..................................................................... 26
Figure 18: Sediments of the Floodplain member.................................................................. 29
Figure 19: Sediments of the Natural levee member. ............................................................ 29
Figure 20: Pleistocene crab fossils Macrophthalmus at Muno canal. .................................. 33
Figure 21: Photograph of serpentinite float (left) and pillow (lava) basalt outcrop (right) of
the Ku Mung igneous complex (PTrvkm) in Thailand.......................................... 36
Figure 22: Photograph of the highly altered andesite and andesitic tuff (left) and
agglomerate (right) of the Tanah Merah/Muno volcanic (PTrvtn/mn)................... 36
Figure 23: Photograph of the massive outcrop of ignimbrite near Temangan town. ........... 36
Figure 24: The Boundary Range Granite at Bukit Buloh Quarry, near Kota Bharu,
Malaysia. .................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 25: Photographs of the Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Ttgrkg/su) in Malaysia
(left) and in Thailand (right). .............................................................................. 42
 - viii -

Figure 26: Photographs of the Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) in Malaysia (left) and
in Thailand (right). .............................................................................................. 42
Figure 27: Photographs of the Kenerong Granite/ Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) in Malaysia (left)
and in Thailand (right) ........................................................................................ 42
Figure 28: Gold nuggets discovered by panning (a) and gravel bed with gold deposits (b).47
Figure 29: Chromite mine at Ban Bu Yong (a) and associated ultrabasic rocks at Ban Chang
Phuak (b) and Ban Ai Bue Nae (c)...................................................................... 49
Figure 30: The manganese mine at Ban Chang Phuak (left) and close-up outcrop of
psilomelane at this mine...................................................................................... 49
Figure 31: Photographs of the original country rocks of the Permo-Triassic Volcanic rock
in the Ban Muno area (a) and the alteration feature of the country rocks in the
Ban Muno area (b)............................................................................................... 54

LIST OF TABLES
Page

Table 1: Summary of manganese deposits in the study area (Malaysian side). .................. 50
Table 2: The composition of iron ore discovered in the Temangan area. ........................... 52
Table 3: The annual production of iron ore in the Temangan area...................................... 53
Table 4: Summary of clay reserves in the study area. ......................................................... 55
 -1-

1. Introduction

The Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area which was proposed by the Malaysian
and Thai Working Groups of the Malaysia-Thailand Border Joint Geological Survey
Committee (MT-JGSC) covers approximately 3,400 square kilometres along the border
(Figure 1). The area in Malaysia (1,890 square kilometres) is partially covered by eight
topographic map sheets (scale 1:50,000) of Kampung Ipoh (3766), Kampung Batu Melintang
(3767), Kampung Lubuk Bungor (3866), Kampung Nibong (3867), Rantau Panjang (3868),
Kuala Krai (3966), Tanah Merah (3967) and Kota Bharu (3968). The area in Thailand (1,500
square kilometres), is geographically covered by five topographic map sheets (scale 1:50,000)
of Ban Ko Sathon (5421 III), Amphoe Sungai Kolok (5321 II), Amphoe Waeng (5320 I), Ban
To Mo (5320 IV), and Amphoe Sisakorn (5321 III) Quadrangles.
E
1
0
1

4
5
'

E
1
0
2

0
0
'
N
6

1
5
'

N
6

1
5
'
Pasir Mas
S
#
Su-ngai Kolok
S #
# S
N
6

0
0
'

N
6

0
0
'
Rantau Panjang
THAILAND

Sukhirin Waeng
S
# S
#

Tanah Merah
S
#
N
5

4
5
'

N
5

4
5
'

MALAYSIA
Batu Melintang Jeli
S
# S
#
E
1
0
1

4
5
'

E
1
0
2

0
0
'

Symbols

Transect Area
International Boundary
Road N
Stream
Contour
Lake 5 0 5 10 15 Kilometers
S# Town
Figure 1: Map showing the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area.

Geomorphologically, the western side of the Transect area is of mountainous terrain (50-
60%) with thick forest especially in Thailand. Another 40-50% of the eastern and central
 -2-

parts are covered by relatively undulating terrain with rubber and oil palm plantation. The
low-lying area in the eastern part is covered by Quarternary deposits. In Malaysia, the highest
elevation is Gunung Ulu Kebeng (1,403 m above MSL) and in Thailand is Khao Ta We
(1,182 m above MSL).
The climate is Tropical Rainforest type (Koppen`s: Af climate). The mean annual
rainfall for 30 years (1951-1980) was 2,618.8 mm. The hottest month is May (28.4C in
average) and the coldest month is December (25.9C).
Detailed systematic geological mapping of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect
area in Malaysia was carried out during July-August 2001 and was re-checked during
November 2001 by geoscientists from the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia.
This was followed by detailed work on Quaternary Geology in January 2002. In Thailand,
fieldwork was carried out during September-October 2001 and was re-checked from January
to February 2002 by geoscientists from the Geological Survey Division and Economic
Geology Division of the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand. It was later followed by
a joint field check along the Transect area in Thailand (5-7 April 2002) and in Malaysia (9-11
April 2002) by geoscientists from both countries.
Discussions, exchange of ideas and informations on geology and mineral resources were
conducted. Agreement on mapping units were resolved based on lithological similarities that
enabled the Working Groups to delineate the geological boundaries. Unfortunately,
palaeontological evidence is currently not available because index fossils have not yet been
found within the Transect area. A geological report and geological map (scale 1:250,000)
covering the Transect area were jointly prepared by both parties. Attempts have been made to
resolve problems related to geological boundaries within the Malaysia-Thailand border with
consideration on economic potential.
Prior to this study, three major rock units known as the Tiang schist (Silurian-Devonian),
Mangga formation (inferred Permian) and Triassic granite were identified in Malaysia.
However, in Thailand only one rock unit considered as Silurian-Devonian in age and granites
were recorded in the southernmost part of the Thailand-Malaysia border area.
The main objective of this study is to better understand the local geology and solve
problems concerning the geological boundaries of the Paleozoic rocks to Quaternary
unconsolidated sediments, and the extension of granitic rocks (including the mineral
association) using stratigraphic succession, lithologic similarities, and fossils observed to
delineate these boundaries.
 -3-

2. Previous works and geologic setting

2.1 Previous works

2.1.1 In Malaysia
The eastern part of the Transect area was first mapped by H.E.F. Savage in 1922 to 1925
(Savage, 1925). Later MacDonald (1967) carried out a more detailed study on the geology
and mineral resources of Kelantan and north Terengganu on the scale 1:250,000. He
introduced the term Taku schist to describe a sequence of metamorphic rocks cropping out in
central Kelantan particularly along the Taku River.
In the early eighties Ab. Halim Hamzah and Mustafar Hamzah (in manuscript) remapped
the Tanah Merah area (covered by topographic map sheet no. 22 of 1: 63.360 scale) that was
previously covered by MacDonald. They introduced the stratigraphic term Sokor formation
for the succession of argillaceous, arenaceous, calcareous and volcanic facies exposed in that
area.
Mohd Nazan Awang (1985) drilled wells for groundwater investigation at Kampung
Bukit Bunga, near Ban Buke Ta of Thailand. Based on the cross section produced by him, the
thickness of the unconsolidated sediments in the Kampung Bukit Bunga area is estimated at
only 6 m and is composed of a sequence of clay at the top, followed by fine-grained sand and
pebbly coarse sand overlying the metasedimentary rocks.
Bosch (1986) studied the unconsolidated sediments within the Kelantan Delta based on
aerial photograph interpretation. Bosch (1988) later divided the Quaternary deposits into three
formations: the Gula Formation, Beruas Formation and Simpang Formation.
In 1989, the Regional Mineral Exploration Section of the Geological Survey Department
Malaysia (now known as the Minerals and Geoscience Deparment), carried out a gold
exploration project in the Bukit Kuang area, near Rantau Panjang as a follow-up to the
discovery of alluvial gold deposits during random sampling by the Kelantan Geological
Survey staff. From 1991 to 1995, the Industrial Minerals Project Section of the Minerals
Exploration Division, Geological Survey Department Malaysia carried out exploration for
ball clay deposits between central and north Kelantan.
Aw (1990) mapped the Sungai Aring area further south of the Transect area and he
introduced the term Telong formation which is correlatable with the Sokor formation.
Mohd Suhaili Ismail et al. (1993) carried out a reconnaissance survey for ball clay in
Kelantan State covering part of the Transect area. The survey covered mainly the coastal plain
and major river basins where ball clay was considered likely to occur. Zainol Abidin
Sulaiman et al. (1994, 1995a, 1995b and 1995c) carried out detailed studies on ball clay
deposits in several potential areas.
Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript) mapped the geology of the Batu
Melintang area covering topographic map sheets numbers 21 (Batu Melintang) and 12
(Belum) on the scale 1: 63,360 during 1994 to 1996.
Airborne geophysical study covering eastern part of the Malaysian sides Transect area
was carried out by CGG (Compagnie General de Geophysique) during the Central Belt
Project in 1980. Results of the study were later re-interpreted by Corpel & Pebeglia from
BRGM in 1987, which showed that the area was under low to intermediate magnetic anomaly
with few magnetic unconformities. The magnetic unconformity section was interpreted as a
fracture zone with gold mineralisation.
 -4-

2.1.2 In Thailand
The Transect area was first mapped by the Geological Survey Division, Department of
Mineral Resources (Muenlek et al., 1979) on scale 1:250,000 of sheet NB 47-8,5 (Changwat
Narathiwas and Takbai District; reprinted in 1985) and sheet NB 47-12 (Betong District;
reprinted in 1985).
Muenlek et al. (1979) had introduced the Silurian-Devonian rocks as the Ban To and
Betong Formations. The former consists of recrystallised limestones to marble, quartzite,
phyllite, phyllitic schist and mica-schist, and the latter comprises shales with Tentaculites
elegan, cherts, siliceous shales, meta-tuff, carbonaceous shales, argillite, mudstones,
sandstones and bedded recrystallised limestones.
Hutchison et al. (1978) proposed three geographical granite belts in the Malay peninsula
based on lithology and petrochemistry of the granite. The Eastern belt granitoids are
composed mostly of I-type, magnetite-series granitoids, which intruded the Paleozoic host
rocks during Permo-Triassic period. The Main Range granitoids (in the central belt area) are
composed mainly of S-type, ilmenite-series granitoids with minor intrusions of I-type,
magnetite-series granitoids. They also intruded the Paleozoic country rocks in the Permo-
Triassic age. The western belt granitoids consist of both I-type, magnetite-series granitoids
and S-type, ilmenite-series granitoids of Cretaceous age.
Muenlek et al. (1982) published a regional geological map, Narathiwat sheet scale
1:250,000. The individual granite pluton was preliminarily studied petrographically and
subsequently three granite phases were classified as gneissic granite, coarse-grained
porphyritic biotite granite and tourmaline-muscovite granite.
Hastings (1983) investigated peat swamps in Narathiwat by means of palynology.
Temporal and spatial changes of the vegetation were documented by analyzing the pollen and
spores obtained from sediments in the swamps. It is postulated that peat development began
under a herbaceous transitional to freshwater marsh, characterised by a relatively diverse
arboreal component and notable amount of Gramineae and Lycopodium. This peat swamp has
possibly mixed vegetation throughout its history. Based on the evidence, there would be a
possible change in sea level during the development of the swamp.
Cobbing et al. (1986) completed a Southeast Asian granite project including the
geological map of individual granite plutons, petrography, geochemistry and Rb/Sr age
determination studies. They suggested that the granites in the east coast of Thai-Malay
peninsula are mainly of Triassic age.
Vijarnsorn and Liengsakul (1986) studied peat swamps in Narathiwat and mentioned that
they occurred during the period 3,000 to 7,000 years BP. The old sand bar or mangrove clay
is mainly underlain by stiff clay of the Pleistocene surface.
Dheeradilok et al. (1991) mentioned that the Holocene shallow marine clay and tidal flat
deposits consisting of marine clay and peat were investigated along the Pattani coastal plain.
The transgression began about 8,500 years BP, and rose up to about 5 m above the present
mean sea level about 5,000 years BP. The last regressive phase began 2,500 years BP, and
reached the present mean sea level about 1,500 years BP.
Sawata (1991) reported that fossil crabs and cuttlefish bones were found in marine sandy
clays at Sungai Kolok, southern-most Thailand. The British Museum determined the
cuttlefish as Sepiabandensis adam (identified by Dr. M.K. Howarth) and the crabs are
Macrophthalmus (Vetinus) latreillei (Desmarest) (identified by Dr. S.F. Morris). Based on
these fossils, the sediments range in age from Pleistocene to Recent and were deposited in
estuaries or mangrove swamps.
GMT (1995) investigated the soil types and engineering properties of Phru To Daeng
swamp in the vicinity of Sungai Kolok District (TD7, TD8, TD9), and the areas of Tak Bai
 -5-

District, Ban Khok It, Ban Khok Ni and Khlong Bang Toei, (TD1, TD2, TD3, TD4, TD5 and
TD6). According to drill-hole results, the succession of Phru To Daeng near Sungai Kolok
District consists of 4 units: Residual deposits, Old alluvium Deposits (Terrace?), Nearshore
Deposits and Mangrove Deposits, respectively in asccending order. The sequence of
Quaternary geology at Tak Bai District can be divided into 6 units as follows: Old Alluvium
Deposits (Terrace?), River Lag Deposits, Back Swamp Deposits, Nearshore Deposits,
mangrove Deposits, and Overwash Deposits. The chemical analyses of clay minerals of Tak
Bai District revealed that they consist of kaolinite, illite, quartz, smectite and siderite. The
clay minerals at Sungai Kolok are composed of mainly kaolinite, illite, quartz, gibbsite,
feldspars, pyrite and goethite.
Chaimanee (1999) reported that there are two types of peat in the coastal area of
Thailand, i.e. topogeneous and ombrogeneous. These types of peat are usually associated with
an undulating beach barrier and lagoonal deposits.

2.2 Geologic setting

2.2.1 Geologic setting of the Transect area in Malaysia

The geology was compiled based on completed geology and geochemical maps (scale
1:63,360) that were systematically mapped by earlier workers. This area was later studied by
the Malaysian Working Group on the scale of 1:50,000.
The Silurian-Devonian Tiang schist (SDts) is considered as the oldest rock unit. It is
highly folded and faulted, forming north-south trending moutainous belt distributed in the
western part of the Transect area. The rock predominantly comprises quartz-mica schist and
quartz garnet schist. This rock unit is unconformably overlain by the Mangga formation
(CPmg), which consists of low-grade metamorphic sequence of arenaceous, argillaceous,
pyroclastic, hornfelsic and calcareous rocks of probably Carboniferous-Permian age. The
formation is found at the southwestern part of the Transect area.
The Taku schist (CPtk) consisting of low to high grade metamorphic rocks of probably
Carboniferous age is found in the central to southeastern part of the Transect area. It is
unconformably overlain by the Telong formation (PTrtl), which is probably of Permo-Triassic
age. These rock units are found in the Tanah Merah area and the southern part of the Transect
area. It consists of argillite, low-grade metamorphosed rocks of mainly slate and phyllite, with
minor hornfels.
The Panau beds (Kpn) are locally exposed at Bukit Panau and Bukit Jambul, about 10 km
north of Tanah Merah town, located in the eastern part of the Transect area. The age of this
rock unit is believed to be Cretaceous; based on plant fragments found in the fine-grained
sandstone beds at the foothill of Bukit Panau.
Four granitic bodies were identified namely Merah (Trgrmr), Kemahang (Trgrkg), Lawar
(Kgrlw) and Kenerong (Kgrkn) Granites. The Triassic Merah granite (Trgrmr) is part of the Main
Range Granite exposed as a north-south trending mountainous belt, west of the Transect area.
It is moderate to strongly foliated in nature. The Triassic Kemahang Granite (Trgrkg) forms a
N-S trending mountainous area near the Jeli town which is located in the central part of the
Transect area. It is granodiorite, showing a strongly foliated with some gneissic textures
ocurred together with porphyritic granite. The minor intrusion of I-type, Jurassic to
Cretaceous Lawar granite (Kgrlw) is distributed in the northern part of the Transect area near
the border. It is sheared granite to granodiorite. The Cretaceous Kenerong granite (Kgrkn) is
exposed in the southeastern part in between the Kemahang and Noring Granite masses. It is
light grey to grey, leucocratic, and equigranular texture.
 -6-

The regional structures are aligned in the north-south direction with local variations to the
northwest-southeast and northeast-southwest. Apart from some local anticlines and synclines
indicated on the geological map, minor structures such as small scale tight folding and
parallel folding are common. Strata of the Tiang schist have moderate to steep dips. The
Mangga formation is fairly folded and moderate to steeply dipping. The folding and faulting
might have taken place probably during Triassic to Cretaceous, due to granite intrusions.
Faulting is widespread and present in all the rock units. Most of the faults are normal,
near vertical fractures in which only minor displacements have occurred. All major faults are
trending northwest to northeast i.e. the Kalai fault trends north-south direction along the
upper part of Sungai Tadoh. This fault is related to the Kalai-Tomo gold mineralisation zone.
Long fault is the longest fault observed trending northeast-southwest along Sungai Long and
part of Mae Nam Kolok. The Pergau fault trending northeast-southwest along part of Sungai
Pergau that flows from the boundary between the Noring Granite and Mangga formation.
The occurrence of olistostrome, exposed at the east-west highway (Tjia, 1989) and
serpentinite boulder at Sungai Tiang close to the Thailand border, indicates that the north-
south trending Bentong-Raub Suture zone is probably located in the western part of this area.
Schematic stratigraphic columns of the Transect area in Malaysia is shown in Figure 2.
2.2.2 Geologic setting of the Transect area in Thailand
The geology was compiled from completed systematic geological and geophysical maps
on the scale of 1:250,000 and re-checked with geological maps on the scale 1:50,000
produced by the Thai Working Group.
The oldest rocks are the Silurian-Devonian Ban Sa formation (SDts/bs) which are consist
mainly of medium- to thick-banded para-gneiss, augen gneiss with subordinate amphibolite
schist, schist and hornfels. The succession is only exposed near the Mae Nam Kolok at the
eastern side of the Ba Tu Ta Mong-Jeli granitic belt. The high-grade regional metamorphism
(amphibolite facies) is obviously recognised by the prograde of amphibole mineral group in
terms of petrography. No fossil assemblages found and the thickness of the succession is
indeterminable.
The Carboniferous-Permian clastic rocks mainly occur in the western part of the Transect
area, enclosed by two granite belts (the Sukhirin granite (Trgrsu) and Bu Do granite (Trgrbd))
with local occurrence in the central part of the Transect area. The succession is subdivided
into three formations, in ascending order: the Ai Ka Po (CPak), Ka Lu Bi (CPkl) and Buke Ta
(CPbt) formations. The Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) or the arenaceous facies, exposed as a
narrow N-S trend along the sharp ridge hill, is composed mainly of thin- to thick-bedded,
tuffaceous sandstones, quartzite, and metaconglomerates. The Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) or
the argillaceous facies is the gradational fining upward sequence from the former formation.
The succession consists of cycles of thin- to medium-bedded shales, sandstones and
conglomerates, with quartz veins and dykes at the lower part. At the upper part it consists of
sharp, even, very thin-bedded or rhythmic sequence of shales and siltstones intercalated with
very fine-grained sandstones. Local deformation and low-grade metamorphism took place in
the shear and contact zones resulting in the metamorphism of the original rocks to slate,
phyllite, phyllitic shale and spotted slate. The Buke Ta formation (CPbt) is locally distributed
at Ban Buke Ta and Mae Nam Kolok. This formation comprises predominantly schists, which
are wholly crystalline and generally schistosed. Narrow bands of amphibolite schist and
quartz schist occur in mica schists.
Fossil has not yet been found so far in these formations and the thickness of the
succession is still indeterminable. However, from evidences of intrusion by Triassic granite
and the stratigraphical position of the rocks, it can be assumed that the rocks are
Carboniferous-Permian age.
 -7-

The Permian-Triassic succession of the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) is confined to the

northwestern part of the Transect area. It consists mainly of sharp, even, thin-bedded cherts
with recrystalline radiolarian intercalated with thin shale beds and rare volcaniclastic
sediments. The succession obviously exhibits instability of the basin during the time of
deposition because of igneous activities. Stratigraphically, the age of these chert strata can be
considered as Permian-Triassic.
The Triassic submarine fanglomerate, Bu Yong formation (Trby), is unconformably
underlain by the Carboniferous-Permian and Permian-Triassic rocks. It crops out in the
northwestern part of the Transect area, consisting of massive to thick-bedded conglomerates
and conglomeratic sandstones, with both matrix- and clast-supported types. Clasts are made
up of sandstones, quartz, cherts, and volcanic rocks.
The Waeng formation (Pleistocene sediments), Sungai Kolok formation (Holocene fluvial
deposits), and Tak Bai formation (Holocene marine deposits including peat swamp, old and
recent beach sand deposits), cover most of the eastern part of the Transect area.
The Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks are subdivided into 2 sub-units: the Muno Volcanics
(PTrvmn) and the Ku Mung volcanic complex (PTrvkm) The intermediate volcanic association
of the Muno Volcanics (PTrvmn) is only represented by a small hill (not mappable) at Ban Mu
No, near Mae Nam Kolok in the eastern part of the Transect area. This unit comprises
strongly sheared and altered andesite, andesitic tuff and agglomerate. Serpentinite and relicts
of ultramafic and mafic rocks, with podiform chromite deposit of the Ku Mung volcanic
complex (PTrvkm) occur as a narrow, NE-SW trending body in the northwestern part of the
Transect area. Pillow lava basalt, basaltic andesite and gabbro are well exposed along Mae
Nam Sai Buri. The unit is closely related with the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab).
Generally, the Paleozoic sequences were intruded by two granitic rocks. The N-S
trending granitic rocks in the central part of the Transect area consist of equigranular to
porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite, with muscovite as secondary minerals resulting from
the alteration of K-feldspar and/or biotite. Many phases of granitic rock types are also found
in the eastern flank of the Ba Tu Ta Mong-Jeli granitic belt. The other belt, trending N-S, is
located in the western part of the Transect area. It consists of porphyritic biotite-muscovite
granite including aplite and pegmatite with associated Sn-deposit.
North-South trending quartz dykes and some other igneous stocks usually intruded the
country rocks, especially in the Ai Ka Po (CPak) and Ka Lu Bi (CPkl) formations in the
western part of the Transect area. Contact metamorphism and associated late stage
mineralisations can be observed in the country rocks.
Structurally, the Paleozoic succession is characterised by tightly folded isoclinal folds,
especially in the Silurian-Devonian succession. The Triassic sequence generally exhibits open
fold. The strike-slip, normal, reverse and thrust faults are conspicuous with three main N-S,
NW-SE and NE-SW directions.
Historically, marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the Paleozoic and
Early Mesozoic Eras, but the large breaks can be due to instability of the depositional basins
during the Devonian-Carboniferous and Early Triassic.
Schematic stratigraphic columns of the Transect area in Thailand is shown in Figure 3.
 -8-

ERA PERIOD FORMATION/ UNIT STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN LITHOLOGY

_ _ _ _ _ _ Marine deposits : old beach deposits, tidal flat deposits and shallow
_._._._._._._._.

QUATERNARY
Gula Formation ._._._._._._._._._
CENOZOIC _._._._._._._._._. marine deposits: clay, clayey sand and sand
Holocene ..............
_ _ _ _ _ _
_._._._._._._._. Terrestrial deposits : natural levee deposits, abandoned channel
Beruas Formation ._._._._._._._._._
_._._._._._._._._.
.............. deposits and flood plain deposits : clay, sandy clay, silty sand, sand,
............ granules and pebbles, minor lateritic pebbles present
_._. _._._._._._._
Pleistocene Simpang Formation ..............
._._._._._._._._._.
..........
.............
.............
Terrestrial deposits : former flood plain/colluvium deposits : clay,
CRETACEOUS Panau beds ..............
MESOZOIC

sand and some granules and pebbles, iron concretions present

JURASSIC
Conglomerate and interbedded of sandstone and argillite beds,
exhibits cross lamination and graded bedding. The sandstone
TRIASSIC
Telong Formation varies from very coarse-grained at the bottom and fine to medium-
grained at the top
............. Shale, slate, phyllite, schist and hornfels
PERMIAN Lenses of white marble within calc-silicate hornfels
Taku schist
Lenses of volcanic rock within argillites
Fine-grained metasandstone
.........
..........
PALEOZOIC

Quartz-mica schist and quartz-mica-garnet schist

..........
Metasandstone and metagraywacke with lenses of metatuff
CARBONIFEROUS Mangga formation ..........
Quartz-mica schist and quartz mica-garnet schist
Interbedded of metasandstone and metasiltstone with lenses of
metatuff
Interbedded of siliceous shale and chert
DEVONIAN
Tiang schist Quartz-mica schist and quartz-mica-chiastolite schist
SILURIAN

Figure 2: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area in Malaysia.

Figure 3: Schematic stratigraphic column of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area in Thailand.
 -9-

3. Lithostratigraphy
3.1 Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

3.1.1 Tiang schist/ Ban Sa formation (SDts/bs)

Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation is the oldest lithostratigraphic unit in the Transect area.
The term Tiang schist was introduced by Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript)
to describe a sequence of metamorphic rocks cropping out in the east of the Main Range
Granite in the Belum area. It is named after Sungai Tiang where good outcrops can be
observed. The term Ban Sa formation is proposed during this project to describe the high-
grade metamorphic rocks in Thailand. It is named after the Ban Sa village, near Mae Nam
Kolok where good outcrops are exposed.

Distribution
There are two localities of the Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation within the Transect area.
The western part of the unit forms a north-south belt from Ai Ku Sa stream (Thailand) to
Bukit Luat Lantai down to Kuala Sungai Machang in the south (Malaysia). It is in contact
with the Merah granite/Ba La granite (part of the Main Range Granite) to the west. Another
locality of this unit is restricted to stream-cut outcrops near Ban Sa and the road-cut outcrops
at Ban Ba La, the southern part of Waeng District, Narathiwat Province, Thailand.

Lithology
The Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation in Malaysia consists of quartz schist and quartz-mica
schist. The quartz-mica schist is strongly schistosed, well foliated, consisting essentially of
quartz and mica (commonly muscovite) with chlorite, calcite and pyrite as accessory mineral.
Although muscovite is predominant, biotite is fairly common. Lenses of amphibolite schist
comprising quartz-actinolite-tremolite schist and quartz-hornblende schist occur at several
localities along Sungai Tiang. Rohayu (1994) reported that sillimanite gneiss has been found
at higher terrain along the East-West Highway in the Belum area, 10 km southwest of the
Transect area. The presence of quartz-mica-chiastolite schist indicates that it might be the
result of both contact and regional metamorphisms. Although granite is not exposed in the
surrounding area of quartz-mica-chiastolite schist, it is believed that granite is sub-cropping
below the metamorphic rocks. The foliation has various trends and dip steeply both eastwards
and westwards resulting from intensive folding and faulting. The rock unit is highly folded
and faulted throughout the area and it is difficult to estimate its thickness (Mohamad Hussein
Jamaluddin et al., in manuscript).
In Thailand, the Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation, along the Mae Nam Kolok at Ban Sa and
road-cut succession at Ban Ba La, consists mainly of thin- to thick-bedded, light grey, biotite-
augen gneiss (40-90%) intercalated with grey banded schistose biotite gneiss (10-60%).
Augen biotite gneiss has well-developed gneissocity, 1 cm per band (Figure 2). It has 40-50%
phenocrysts by volume. The phenocrysts are composed mainly of K-feldspar, porphyroblastic
texture and are 0.5-1 x 2-4 cm in size. Groundmass is medium- to coarse-grained and shows
well-developed gneissic texture. Mineral composition consists of sheared quartz (30%),
feldspar (40%) and platy biotite (30%). The schistose biotite-gneiss outcrop at Ban Sa has a
similar lithology to the augen gneiss but with fewer phenocrysts than the former and is richer
in mica. Quartz-amphibolite schist at Ban Ba La has similar texture with the Ban Sa outcrop
 - 10 -

but more siliceous and calcareous compositions. Thin banded, dark brown biotite, hornblende
and actinolite are usually common.

Figure 4: Photograph of augen-biotite gneiss in the Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation along the Ban Ba La roadcut
(left) and Mae Nam Kolok (right), Thailand.

The rock displays well developed N-S and NE-SW trending S1-cleavages, which dip
steeply eastward (Ban Sa). Kink bands and S2-cleavages are generally recognised.

Age and correlation

No fossil assemblage is recorded and the thickness of the succession is indeterminable.
However, owing to the fact that the Tiang schist and a well-documented Silurian-Devonian
Kroh formation (about 20 km to the west of the Tiang schist in Malaysia) are only separated
by the Main Range Granite, it is believed that both of them might be of the same age.
Moreover, the high-grade regional metamorphism (amphibolite facies) in Thailand is
indicated by strongly metamorphosed, pelitic and quartzo-feldsparthic sources during the
Middle Paleozoic. Hence, the succession of the Tiang schist/ Ban Sa formation (SDts/bs) can
be dated as probably Silurian-Devonian age.

3.1.2 Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl)

The term Mangga formation was introduced in Malaysia by Mohamad Hussein
Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript) to describe the low-grade metamorphic sequences of
arenaceous, argillaceous, pyroclastic, hornfels and marble as well as schistose rocks in the
eastern part of the Belum area. It is named after the Sungai Mangga where this rock unit was
first mapped and good outcrops of this unit had been recorded. In Thailand, the terms Ai Ka
Po formation (CPak) and the Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) are introduced by the Thai Working
Group. They represent the sedimentary and locally low-grade metamorphic sequence of
clastic rocks that occur in the central to western parts of the Transect area. It is named after Ai
Ka Po and Ka Lu Bi villages where good outcrops are developed along roads and streams.

Distribution
The Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Malaysia is
well exposed in the upper reaches of Sungai Machang extending southeastwards to Kampung
Gunung. To the north, the Mangga formation is believed to have extended into the Thailand
frontier. This rock unit is well exposed in the western part of the Transect area and also
extends southwards to the Temengor and Sungai Jenera areas.
 - 11 -

In Thailand, the Mangga formation /Ai Ka Po formation /Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl )

is well exposed in the central and western parts of the Transect area. It is enclosed by two N-S
trending granitic belts (the Sukhirin granite (Trgrsu) to the east, and Bu Do granite (Trgrbd) to
the west). The Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) is well exposed along road-cuts and streams as a
narrow N-S trending strip along the sharp ridge landform. For example, it is located on a
sharp ridge hill near the Ka Lu BiLaem Thong village, west of the Le Pae-Jeli granitic belt,
and also the N-S trending sharp ridge from the north of Licho mountain range to Ai Ka Bu
village. The other belt is well exposed as a long sharp ridge west of Khao Soon Patthana
village, and a small narrow sharp ridge to the west of Chang Perk village. The Ka Lu Bi
formation (CPkl) is well exposed continuously along road-cuts and stream in low relief
terrains of the Sukhirin, Ka Lu Bi, To Mo-Phu Khao Thong, Ku Mung-Ka To, Ka To-Nam
Hom, Khao Soon Patthana, Ai Ba Lo-Chang Perk, and Ban So Wo areas.

Lithology
In Malaysia, the Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) is
represented by a low-grade metamorphic sequence that can be subdivided into 4 facies:
argillaceous (CPmgag), arenaceous (CPmgar), pyroclastic (CPmgpy), and calcareous (CPmgcl). The
argillaceous facies consists mainly of metamorphosed siliceous shale, slate, phyllite,
metasiltstone and hornfels. There are two argilliceous facies strata representing the lower and
upper parts of this formation. The upper part consists of hornfelsic rocks such as calc-silicate
hornfels. The best outcrop of hornfels is located near the junction to Felda Tumbi Rapat, near
Gunung Reng, Batu Melintang. The rocks are light grey in colour, very fine-grained, slightly
foliated and recrystallised with both quartz and calcite veinlets. Petrographically, the main
minerals are quartz with minor muscovite, biotite, diopsite and iron oxide. The chert is light
grey to grey with some impure thin-bedded cherts. The best outcrop is at Kilometre 173.2 of
the East-West Highway. So far, no radiolaria fossils were found. The slate and phyllite are
grey to dark grey and usually interbeded with metasiltstone.
The arenaceous unit consists of metasandstone and metagraywacke interbedded with
minor metasiltstone and schist (Figure 5). The schist comprises quartz-mica schist, quartz-
mica-garnet schist and quartz-mica-graphite schist. The pyroclastic rock unit is composed
mainly of rhyolitic tuff and occurs as lenses within the arenaceous and argillaceous strata.
The calcareous facies consists of impure marble and pure white marble that occurs as
lenses within other facies. Gunung Reng is a limestone lens within hornfelsic rocks that forms
karst topography at Kampung Gunung.
The Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl), which is
strongly deformed and metamorphosed, trends N-S and dips moderately to steeply either to
the west or east.
In Thailand, the rocks are less metamorphosed but thicker than those in Malaysia. This is
because of the low effect from intrusion by granitic rocks and the deeper depositional
environment, which can be observed in the lithologic succession.
The lower part, Ai Ka Po formation (CPak), is generally exposed as a narrow N-S trending
sharp ridge and is mainly composed of greenish grey, light grey, thin- to thick-bedded,
medium-grained, tuffaceous and quartzitic sandstones (Figure 5), and fine-grained clasts and
matrix-supported conglomerates. The rocks are locally metamorphosed especially at the
contact and shear zones to quartzite and metaconglomerates. Nevertheless, at least 3 large
quartz dykes (3-5 km long and 0.5-1 km wide) are recognised in the formation.
The strongly deformed and metamorphosed rocks of the Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) at Ka
Lu BiLaem Thong village, west of the Le Pae-Jeli granitic belt, are observed in stream
outcrops. The N-S trending formation, dipping moderately to steeply eastwards, consists of
 - 12 -

thin- to medium-bedded, medium-grained, greenish grey quartzite with quartz veinlet and
base metal sulfide deposit fillings. The large N-S trending quartz dyke intrusion is obviously
recognised.
The N-S trending sharp ridge from the north of the Licho mountain range to Ai Ka Bu
village, east of the To Mo town, is represented by deformed sedimentary rocks of the Ai Ka
Po formation (CPak). This N-S trending formation which dips steeply eastwards, consists of
greenish grey to light grey, thin- to thick-bedded, medium-grained, tuffaceous sandstones
including fine-grained, matrix-supported conglomerates. The rocks are locally
metamorphosed at the contact and shear zones to quartzite and metaconglomerates. The large
N-S trending quartz dyke is found in the northern part.
The Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) at Khao Soon Patthana village and a small narrow sharp
ridge to the west of Chang Perk village, are located in the central part of To Mo Quadrangle.
The succession is strongly deformed and metamorphosed because it is intruded by acid to
intermediate igneous rocks. The N-S trending rocks, which dip in various directions, consist
of thin- to medium-bedded, fine- to medium-grained, greenish grey quartzite and silicified
shales. It is recognised that the base metal sulphide deposit is clearly observed in fine-grained
rocks.
The Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) is the argillaceous facies conformably overlying the
former formation. The succession comprises cycles of thin- to medium-bedded, shales,
sandstones and conglomerates with quartz veins and dykes at the lower portion, and sharp,
even, very thin-bedded or rhythmic sequence of shales and siltstones intercalated with very
fine-grained sandstones in the upper portion. Local deformation and low-grade
metamorphism took place within the shear and contact zones resulting in metamorphism of
the original rocks to slate, phyllite, phyllitic shale and spotted slate. Repeated sequence of
rocks is usually observed.
The lower portion of the Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) is well exposed at Sukhirin-So Wo
road and Sukhirin-Ai Ba Jo village road, Nam Tok village and north of Ku Mung village. It is
noted that this sequence is exposed close to the Ai Ka Po formation (CPak). The rocks which
trend NNW-SSE to NNE-SSW and generally dip westwards, consist of deformed and folded,
fining upward sequence of shales, sandstones and conglomerates (Figure 6).
Paraconglomerates (60%), reddish brown to yellowish brown when weathered, have medium
to thick (0.5-1.5 m thick) and wavy beds. Their texture comprises 20-30 % clasts of angular to
subangular, low sphericity and poorly sorted, various sizes from pebble to cobble (1-2 to>5
cm in diameter) of smoky to white quartz veins (95%), and pale brown sandstones (5%).
Orientation of clasts commonly follows the S1-cleavage direction. Matrix of rocks is fine- to
medium-grained, brownish orange (weathered), dirty sandstones exhibiting well-developed
cleavages in various directions. Sandstone (10%), reddish brown when weathered, is thin- to
medium-bedded, fine-grained sandstones. Siltstones and shales (30%) are 0.5-1.2 m thick in
each cycle. The rocks, grey to dark grey, very thin to thin, even and well-bedded, are
deformed as indicated by the presence of small kink bands and folds in several outcrops.
Local deformation and low-grade metamorphism took place in shear and contact zones,
for example, at 3 km west of Sukhirin District. The sequence is cross-cut in various directions
by quartz veinlets, gash veins, and tight folds in strata which are well-developed. Argillaceous
rocks are metamorphosed to phyllite and phyllitic shales. Furthermore, these rocks in the area
between Phu Khao Thong-Ka Lu Bi-Ai Ti Mung villages show felsic igneous intrusion in the
country rocks and the original pelitic rocks are metamorphosed to hornfels and spotted slate.
In low relief terrain, the upper portion of the Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) is widely exposed
as slightly deformed rocks in the Sukhirin-To Mo area. Strongly deformed or sheared rocks
are situated at the KataNam Hom and Khao Soon Patthana villages, to the north and
 - 13 -

northwest of the Transect area. The lithological unit is only investigated from the road-cut and
stream outcrops because deep weathering has taken place in the succession.
The successions at the To Mo area are N-S to NNE-SSW trending with various dipping
angles and directions. They consist of a rhythmic sequence of dark grey to greenish-grey
(fresh) and brownish red (weathered), sharp, even, very thin to thin and well-bedded,
laminated shales (60%) interbedded with grey to greenish grey, thin-bedded siltstones to
mudstones (40%). At the uppermost sequence, the rocks are intercalated with dark grey to
black, even, thin-bedded, carbonaceous shales with high calcite veinlets and red, purplish red
shales. Generally, tight, asymmetrical folding, deformation and low-grade contact
metamorphism are observed in the rocks, especially in the fault zone area. This resulted in the
conversion of the original rocks to slate, phyllite, phyllitic shales and spotted slate (Figure 7).

Figure 5: Exposures of the lower part of the Mangga formation /Ai Ka Po /Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in
Malaysia (left) and Thailand (right).

Figure 6: Deformed and folded, reddish brown to yellowish brown, medium to thick, wavy beds of
paraconglomerates and sandstone, in the upper part of the Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka
Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Thailand.
 - 14 -

Figure 7: Rhythmic sequence (left) and spotted slate (right) of sharp, even, very thin to thin and well-bedded,
laminated shales and siltstones to mudstones, at the upper portion of the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi
formation (CPmg/ak/kl) in Thailand.

The successions in the Sukhirin-So Wo area trend N-S to NNE-SSW and generally dip
steeply in various directions. They are composed of weathered rhythmic sequence. The
carbonaceous material content in this succession is more than that of the To Mo succession in
the south. Generally, strong deformation and metamorphism such as tight, asymmetrical
folding are observed in this area because the succession is located near the major N-S fault
zone. Furthermore, exposures of the N-S volcanic-dykes, which intruded the country rock,
resulted in low-grade metamorphism of the original pelitic rocks to be spotted slate zone in
several locations.
The rock succession at the Ai Ka Bu-Khao Soon Patthana village and the Ai Ba Lo-Chang
Perk area trends N-S to NNE-SSW with foliations dipping in various directions as a result of
intensive folding and faulting. These are mainly low-grade metamorphic rocks such as thin-
banded, dark grey, grey, brownish grey and bluish grey, phyllite, phyllitic shale, phyllitic
schist and schist with well-developed S1, S2 cleavages. The original rocks should be the
rhythmic sequence. Tight, asymmetrical and recumbent folds are well observed, especially in
the fault zone area. The rock sequence in contact with the granite pluton usually shows relict,
altered texture, and spotted slate.
The succession in the Ka To area is well studied at Du Sung YoKa To, Ka To-Nam Hom
and Ka To-Ai Sue Rae road-cuts. Generally, the rock structures are controlled by the NE-SW
fault. Locally, the rock unit has well-developed S1 and S2 cleavages. Low-grade
metamorphic rocks such as thin banded, dark grey, grey, brownish grey and bluish grey,
phyllite, phyllitic shale, phyllitic schist and schist with quartz veinlets and gash veins are
common. Tight, asymmetrical and recumbent folds are well observed. In the fault zone, there
are several rock types, such as mixed rocks, sheared rocks of conglomerate, quartzite, spotted
slate, minor intrusive of volcanic rocks and aplite.

Age and correlation

No fossil assemblage is present and the thickness of the succession is indeterminable. The
pooly preserved fossils such as Paleaojera sp., brachiopod of Costiferina sp. and gastropod
found by MacDonald (1955) in the Mangga formation at Kampung Belimbing, in the Batu
Melintang area (Malaysia), may locally indicate a Permian age. However, the age of the
succession was assigned as Carboniferous-Permian by the Malaysian and Thai Working
Groups, based on lithologic and stratigraphic correlations.
 - 15 -

3.1.3 Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt)

The Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt) is the metamorphic rock equivalent to the
Mangga formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl). The term Taku schist
was introduced by MacDonald (1967) to describe a sequence of metamorphic rocks cropping
out in central Kelantan (Malaysia). It was named after Sungai Taku (30 km south of Tanah
Merah town) where good outcrops were observed. The term Buke Ta formation is proposed
during this project to describe the low-grade regionally metamorphosed argillaceous rocks in
Thailand. It is named after Ban Buke Ta, near Mae Nam Kolok where good outcrops were
observed.

Distribution
In Malaysia, the Taku schist outcrops occupy a broad belt in central north Kelantan State;
from the railway line south of Sungai Galas to Tanah Merah in the south eastern part of the
Transect area. The western margin trends northward from Sungai Galas, along Sungai Kenik,
passing Ulu Sungai Taku and then Sungai Sokor at Kuala Bertam to the Kemahang granite
mass. The eastern margin roughly follows the downstream direction of Sungai Lebir and part
of Sungai Kelantan.
In Thailand, only one stream outcrop was observed at Ban Buke Ta, in the central part of
the Transect area near the Malaysia-Thailand border.

Lithology
In Malaysia, the Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt) comprises predominantly schists
which are wholly crystalline and completely schistosed (Figure 8). Mica schist which is the
main rock type consists of quartz-mica schist, mica-garnet schist and quartz-mica-garnet
schist. Narrow bands of amphibolite schist and even narrower bands of quartz schist occur in
the mica schists. The occurrence of carbonate schist is rare. Hornfels are found in contact with
the granitic body.
In Thailand, the Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt) consists of thin banded, dark
grey to black, amphibolite schist interbedded with pale grey quartz-amphibolite schist (Figure
8). The horizon commonly exhibits well-developed S1 cleavage in the NW-SE direction with
steeply dipping westwardly but the S2 cleavage is indeterminable. Petrographic study
indicates that the essential minerals are the amphibole group such as hornblende, tremolite,
and actinolite (Salyapongse, personal communication).

Age and correlation

The age of the Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt) is still uncertain because its origin
remains a controversy (Khoo, 1983). However, MacDonald (1967) considered the age of the
Taku schist to be pre-Carboniferous as he believed that the Taku schist is overlain
unconformably by the Permain to Triassic Telong formation. The Malaysian and Thai
Working Groups considered an age of Carboniceous-Permian being equivalent to the Mangga
formation/Ai Ka Po formation/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl).

3.1.4 Telong formation (PTrtl)

The term Telong formation was introduced by Aw (1990) after the rock sequence
cropping out along part of the Sungai Telong in the Sungai Aring area, Kelantan (Malaysia).
 - 16 -

Distribution
In Malaysia, the formation is exposed at Kampung Legeh and extends eastwards to the
Tanah Merah area, on the eastern part of the Transect area. However, it is not exposed in
Thailand because most of the outcrops are covered by thick Quaternary sediments.

Lithology
The Telong formation consists mainly of argillite, low-grade metasedimentary and
metavolcanic rocks. In early eighties, Ab. Halim Hamzah and Mustafar Hamzah (in
manuscript) mapped Sungai Sokor area, in the southern part of the Transect area. They
distinguished four facies in the Sokor formation (now known as the Telong formation (PTrtl))
namely argillaceous, arenaceous, calcareous and volcanic facies. The argillaceous facies
consists of greenish to reddish grey to black slate, phyllite, schist and hornfels. Pyrite is
abundant in the carbonaceous rocks. The arenaceous facies consists of fine-grained sandstone
and metasandstone (Figure 9). The calcareous facies is composed of grey marble that crops
out at Gua Setir, located at the southwest of the Transect area.

Figure 8: The Taku schist/Buke Ta formation in Malaysia (left) and in Thailand (right) showing well-
developed S1 cleavages.

Figure 9: Exposures of the arenaceous facies (left) and the pyroclastic facies (right) of the Telong formation in
Malaysia.

Age and correlation

There is no palaeontological evidence in the Transect area. However, based on
lithological correlation with similar rock units exposed further to the south of this area
(Sungai Aring and Kuala Betis areas in Kelantan), the age of the formation is believed to
 - 17 -

range from Late Permian to Triassic (Ab. Halim Hamzah and Mustafar Hamzah, in
manuscript).
Chronostratigraphically, the Permo-Triassic Telong formation can be correlated with the
Permo-Triassic Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) in Thailand.

3.1.5 Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab)

The term Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) is introduced by the Thai Working Group to
describe a sequence of deeper marine sedimentary rocks cropping out in Cha Nae District,
Narathiwat Province (Thailand). It is named after the Ai Ba Lo road which cuts across the
rock formation in the Ku Mung-Ai Ba Lo area, Cha Nae District, on the western side of
Narathiwat Province. In Malaysia, the Ai Ba Lo formation is not currently observed.

Distribution
The formation is continuously exposed (5 km long and 1-2 km wide) in the Ku Mung area
extending southward to the upper part of the Khao Soon Patthana area, northwest of the
Transect area. The rocks are generally NNE-SSW trending with steeply dipping to east and
west, resulting from the plastic characteristics of the rocks, and intensive folding and faulting.

Lithology
Two road-cut outcrops along Mae Nam Sai Buri (Ai Sue Re-Bu Yong) show good
exposures of the repeated sequence of highly folded succession in 2-3 km long. The rocks
consist mainly of white to smoky white, sharp, even, thin-bedded cherts with recrystalline
radiolarians intercalated with stringering shale beds and rare volcaniclastic sediments. This
horizon commonly exhibits well-developed, N-S trending cleavages (S1) that are steeply
dipping but the S2 cleavage is indeterminable. Tight, recumbent and overturned folds are
usually observed, hence thickness of the rock cannot be estimated (Figure 10). It is noted that
the rock exposures are close to the red colour of weathered mafic volcanic rocks.
The Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) exposed at the Ai Ba Lo village (new road-cut) consists
of white to smoky white, sharp, even, very thin banded (1-2 cm) cherts with recrystallised
radiolarians intercalated with stringering of thin-bedded carbonaceous shales with rare
volcaniclastic sediments. Tight, recumbent and overturned folds are usually observed. It is
noted that the rocks are exposed close to the ultramafic, mafic igneous rocks and serpentinite.

Age and correlation

There is no palaeontological evidence in the Transect area. However, the age of the chert
strata is presumably Permian-Triassic Period based on stratigraphical grounds.
This formation can be correlated with the Telong formation in Malaysia in terms of
chronostratigraphy because both successions obviously exhibit instability of the basin during
the time of deposition due to igneous activities. The Working Groups have the opinion that
the Permo-Triassic basin in Thailand (the western side of the Transect area) should be deeper
than in Malaysia (the eastern side of the Transect area).
 - 18 -

3.1.6 Bu Yong formation (Trby)

The submarine fan Triassic rocks are only exposed in Thailand. The term Bu Yong
formation (Trby) is introduced by the Thai Working Group after rock exposures along the Bu
Yong road-cut and outcrops along the stream across the rock formation in the Ku MungBu
Yong area, Cha Nae District in the western side of Narathiwat Province. In Malaysia, the Bu
Yong formation is not currently exposed.

Distribution
The formation is confined to the very sharp ridge mountain at the Bu Yong-Em Se area
located in the lower portion of the northwestern part of the Transect area. Good exposures of
the succession are found along a stream at Bu Yong and along the road-cut at the Em Se
village.

Lithology
The formation is unconformably overlain the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) and the
Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl), and trending NE-SW,. It consists of
massive to thick-bedded conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone, with both matrix- and clast-
supported (Figure 11) with various types of clasts ranging in size from 1-30 cm in diameter.
Clasts are made up of subangular to rounded, pale brown sandstones (5-30%), white to smoky
quartz (30-40%), white to grey cherts (10-70%), brownish grey to bluish grey phyllite (0-
20%) and volcanic rocks (5-10%). The difference in composition of clasts in the rocks is
reflected by the original source rocks. Matrix of the rock is reddish brown, fine- to medium-
grained, dirty sandstone.

Age and correlation

Based on the relationship with the unconformably underlying Permo-Triassic and
Carboniferous-Permian successions, this unit is younger than Permo-Triassic age. Historically
and sedimentologically, the formation is assigned, therefore, to be deposited in the proximal
submarine fan environment during the Triassic period.

3.1.7 Panau beds (Kpn)

The term Panau beds is a name given to a sequence of continental, channel lag deposit,
sedimentary rocks cropping out at Tanah Merah town. The term is introduced by the
Malaysian Working Group after a sedimentary sequence cropping out at an abandoned quarry
at the foothill and peak of Bukit Panau, about 30 km north of Tanah Merah town, Kelantan,
southeast of the Transect area. The unit is not currently observed in Thailand.

Distribution
The Panau beds crop out only at the Bukit Panau area. Nonconformity between the
granite and the overlying Panau beds can be observed at an abandoned rock quarry at the
foothill of Bukit Panau.

Lithology
 - 19 -

The Panau beds consist of interbedded thin argillite beds, laminated fine-grained
sandstone, poorly sorted pebbly sandstone and paraconglomerate. The argillite rocks are
maroon in colour. Some of the argillite rocks are channel lenses within the sandstone beds.
This indicates that the rocks were deposited in a channel lag, in oxygenated and continental
environments.
The argillite rock consists of maroon, sandy shale and some pebbly sandstone and light
greyish to light brownish siliceous shale. The thickness of the beds varies from 1 cm to 1.5 m.
Most of the sandy shale shows coarsening upward sequence, in which sand-sized quartz
grains can be observed towards the top part of the bed. Some of the argillite beds contain
plant fragments.
The arenaceous rock consists of light grey poorly sorted sandstone, mostly pebbly and
laminated fine-grained sandstone. The laminated fine-grained sandstone exhibits cross
bedding which can be observed at the foothill and peak of Bukit Panau (Figure 12). The
pebbles within the pebbly sandstone are up to 3 cm in diameter. Some sandstone beds show
graded bedding. The clasts are angular to subrounded.

Figure 10: Exposures of strongly folded, thin-bedded chert of the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) at Ban Ai Ba Lo,
Thailand.

Figure 11: Close-up photographs of both matrix- (right) and clast-supported (left), conglomerate of the Bu Yong
formation (Trby).
 - 20 -

Figure 12: Photograph of sandstone strata with cross -

bedding of the Panau beds at Bukit Panau,
Malaysia.

Mineralogically, the sandstones are arkosic due to high content of feldspar which is
mostly altered to kaolinite. This indicates that the nearby Boundary Range Granite may be a
provenance of this rock unit.

Age and correlation

The nonconformity structure between the granite and the overlying unit can be observed
at an abandoned Bukit Panau quarry, indicating that the Bukit Panau bed is younger than the
granite. The presence of plant fossils, most probably fragments of Frenelopsis sp., Otozamites
sp., Calamites sp., and Pecopteris sp. probably indicates Cretaceous age.

3.2 Quaternary geology

Fieldwork for the Quaternary geology study in Malaysia was carried out in the period 15-
28 January 2002. In Thailand, fieldwork was carried out from 17 September to 2 October
2001 and later from 8 January to 2 February 2002. A total of 103 shallow holes were drilled
in both sides of the Transect area.
Quaternary deposits of the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect area were formed in
both marine and non-marine environments. These deposits can be subdivided into three
formations, in ascending order: the Simpang Formation/Waeng formation (Qpsp/wg), Beruas
Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) and Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Qhgl/tb).
The Colluvium/Terrace member (Qpctsp/wg) and Former floodplain member (Qpffpsp/wg) of the
Simpang Formation/Waeng formation are dominantly characterised by gravel, sand, silt and
laterite, with abundant iron concretions.
The young fluviatile sediments of the Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk)
are subdivided into four members: Pengkalan member (Qhpkbr), Floodplain member (Qhfpbr/sk),
Natural levee (Qhnlbr/sk) and Abandoned channel (Qhchbr/sk). It is mainly characterised by silty
clay, sand, and gravel with abundant mottles and iron concretions.
The marine Holocene sediments of the Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation were
subdivided into five members, from bottom to top: Bagan Datoh Member/Shallow marine
member (Qhbdsmgl/tb), Teluk Intan Member/Tidal flat (Qhtitfgl/tb), Peat swamp member (Qhpstb),
Matang Gelugor Member/Old beach member (Qhmtobgl/tb) and Recent beach member
(Qhrbgl/tb). The oldest beach ridge of the Old beach member occurs at 12 and 6 km from the
present shoreline in the Thai and Malaysian sides, respectively. It is characterised by sand,
gravelly sand, and silt.
 - 21 -

The locations of boreholes in Malaysia and Thailand are shown in Figures 13 and 14,
respectively.

102 00' 102 05' 102 10' 102 15'

7 Pengkalan Kubur
1.4 1
1.5 1
3 1.2
1.2 4
2.2 1 Tumpat
1
17
1
5
2.8 16
6
1 6
10'
4.3 1 10'
18 6 1.5
1.2 1.3
THAILAND 12
5.1 1.7
1.3 15 8
Kota
4.4 0.4 0.5 Bharu
19 1 5.3
14
2.7
1 21
10.8 4.5
9
6
1.5
6 20 6.5 6
05'
2 7 30 05'

7.2 0.5 13 1.5

31 22
4.9 0.3 7.2
1 0.6
6 24 6.8 Pasir 5
32 25 Mas 23 10 n
34 1.5 S. Kelant a
2 4.9 1.5 1.9
33 6 0.7 6 7.5 4.4
2 5.8 28
9 Rantau 1.5
27 5.5 11
Panjang 26
35 36 3.5
6 3.2 6.4 2.3 5.3 6
00' 3.5 1 5.2 00'
37 3.5
1.5 29
4.4 1.5
5.5
102 00'

The Malaysia - Thailand Border

Joint Geological Survey Committee
- Quaternary Geology Study
5 Kg. 5
55' S Kok 55'
. Lanas
LEGEND e
la
n
ta
District n

River

Main road

Secondary road 5 5
50' 50'

Railway
Tanah Merah

Shallow holes location

Machang
a a - borehole number
b b - water table
5 39 5
c c - depth of borehole 45' 1.4 45'
40 8
2.5
6.2
Scale 38
Km 5 0 5 Km 0.5
Temangan 5

102 05' East of Greenwich 102 10' 102 15'

Figure 13: Locations of boreholes in Malaysia.

 - 22 -

Figure 14: Locations of boreholes in Thailand.

Methodology
Shallow holes have been drilled using the Edelmen auger (Dutch auger) and the Guts
auger (Gouge auger) depending on the soil or sediment types occurring in the selected
localities. The localities were selected based on aerial photograph interpretation. A total of
103 boreholes had been drilled throughout the Transect area (40 holes in Malaysia and 63
holes in Thailand). The average depth is 3.5 m and the maximum depth is 7.0 m. The auger
hole spacing is between 5 and 10 km, to represent the units as demarcated by the aerial
photograph interpretation.
Besides the present survey, this report has also incorporated the data available from
previous works on Quaternary geology, hydrogeology, mineral resources, and aerial photo
interpretation.

Morphology
The area overlain by Quaternary sediments is generally flat and low-lying, is utilised for
paddy (Oryza sativa), rubber and palm tree cultivations. Several isolated sand ridges, trending
almost parallel to coastline, are located close to the coastal area. At the river mouths where
the sediments are dumped into the sea, the coastline builds seaward especially in the Kelantan
delta (Bosch, 1988). The old fluvial channel scars can be observed from aerial photographs of
the flat and low-lying areas close to the present river systems. Small rivers can be seen
surrounded by levees.
 - 23 -

In Malaysia, exposures at Kampung Bukit Lata, near Bukit Perdah area are generally hilly
and are made up of highly to completely weathered volcanic rocks of the Tanah Merah
volcanics. The equivalent rock unit is also exposed at Ban Mu No, Thailand.
In Thailand, the pre-Quaternary areas can be geomorphologically distinguished as high
mountain and terrace in the western part, undulating and rolling landforms at the central and
flat areas in the eastern part. The topography of the Sungai Kolok area has basically shown
remarkable higher level of high mountain range in the western part gradually decreasing to
the coastal plain in the east. The highest elevation at Khao Ta We is 1,182 m above MSL, and
1-2 m in the flat areas of Ban Khok Yang, Ban Pa Da Do, and Tak Bai town.

3.2.1 Simpang Formation/Waeng formation (Qpsp/wg)

In Malaysia, the term Simpang Formation was introduced by Suntharalingam and Teoh
(1985) for clay, silt, sand, gravel and peat deposited in a terrestrial environment before the
most recent major low sea level. Suntharalingam (1987) mentioned that it can be divided into
an upper clay member and a lower sand member that may now be interpreted as Former
floodplain member and Colluvium/Terrace member, respectively. The formation is overlain,
to a large extent, by the younger Beruas and Gula Formations.
In Thailand, the term Waeng formation is introduced by the Thai Working Group during
this project.

Distribution
In Malaysia, this unit is exposed in the undulating terrain south of the Rantau Panjang and
Pasir Mas areas and extends to the Tanah Merah and Machang areas where it is underlain by
Pre-Quaternary rock units.
In Thailand, the Simpang Formation/Waeng formation is exposed at Ban Ai Su Re, Ban
Ai Ku Sa, Ban Ka Lu Bi, Ban Cha Nae, Ban Dusong Yo, Ban So Wo, Ban Buke Ta, Waeng
District, Sungai Kolok District, Sungai Padi District, Ban Mu No, Ban Ai Su Re, of Waeng
District, Sungai Padi District, and the western part of Sungai Kolok District.

Lithology
The Simpang Formation/Waeng formation is made up of light-grey to yellowish-brown
clay, sandy with medium to coarse sand, granules and pebbles. The clay is moderate to hard
in strength, and at depth is commonly stiff and difficult to penetrate using auger or hand drill.
The unit also contains moderately to abundant yellow to reddish-brown mottles with some
iron concretions.
The Simpang Formation/Waeng formation is subdivided into Colluvium/Terrace, and
Former floodplain members as follows:

Colluvium/Terrace member (Qpctsp/wg)

The Colluvium/Terrace member refers to the sequence of gravel beds, lateritic layers, and
residual sediments. In Malaysia, this unit is exposed to the south of the Rantau Panjang area,
southern part of Pasir Mas District, Tanah Merah District and Machang District. In Thailand,
this unit is exposed at Ban Ai Su Re, Ban Ai Ku Sa, Ban Ka Lu Bi, Ban Cha Nae, Ban
Dusong Yo, Ban So Wo, Ban Buke Ta, Waeng District, Sungai Kolok District, Sungai Padi
District, and Ban Mu No. These sediments are composed mainly of sand, gravelly sand,
 - 24 -

clayey sand, gravel, gravel beds, and laterite, friable to very firm, abundant mottle, red to
reddish brown, poorly sorted, and moderate amounts of iron concretions.
In Thailand, the Colluvium/Terrace member is further subdivided into three units, in
ascending order: the Gravel beds, Lateritic layers, and Residual sand units.

a) Gravel beds unit

The Gravel beds unit is locally exposed at Ban Ai Su Re. Gravel beds with sand lenses,
semi-consolidated, commonly characterise this unit. Clasts of gravel beds vary from gravel to
boulder (Figure 13). They are made up of sandstone, quartz, chert, granite, and schist. The
sand layers are characteristically reddish brown to red, medium- to coarse-grained, poor to
moderately sorted, moderately cemented and, subangular to subrounded. This unit is 15-20 m
thick and dips to the south (185/05-10, dip direction/dip angle).

b) Lateritic layers unit

This unit is exposed mainly at undulating landforms of Waeng District, Sungai Padi
District, and the western part of Sungai Kolok District (Figure 15).
The sediments obtained from shallow boreholes SK-40, SK-43, SK-45, SK-46, SK-48,
and SK-51 of Waeng District are mainly characterised by sand, silty sand, gravelly sand, and
gravel, yellow colour. Abundant mottles, strong brown to red and iron concretions are also
common. The thickness of this unit varies from 2-6 m.
Moreover, this unit at borehole SK-36 located in the northern part of Sungai Padi District
is indicated by clayey sand, brownish yellow, sand sizes 300-420 of upper residual sand
unit with gradual contact at the depth of 2.3 m. The thickness is more than 5 m.

c) Residual sand unit

This Residual sand unit overlies the Lateritic layers unit with gradational contact. The
unit comprises mainly clayey sand, friable to firm, light olive brown to brownish yellow, very
well sorted, sand sizes 300-420 . Most of the sand is fine- to medium-grained, subrounded
with sparse iron concretions.

Figure 15: Quaternary sediments of the Colluvium/Terrace member in Thailand.

This very thick sequence (>15 m) is underlain by Triassic Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin

granite (Trgrkg/su) at the northern part of Sukhirin District. The sequence consists of weathered
porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite and is characterised by sand, gravelly sand, loose to
friable, moderately sorted. The thickness ranges from 5 to approximately 25 m.
 - 25 -

Former floodplain member (Qpffpsp/wg)

Dheeradilok et al. (1991) defined the Former floodplain member as the Pleistocene
Fluvial deposits member. They considered that a former plain surface was developed during
the Pleistocene time and was overlain by Holocene sediments. The Former floodplain is
characterised by silty clay and sandy clay, very firm, light grey to yellowish brown,
moderately to abundant brown to mottled red. A small amount of iron concretion is generally
present in this member. Figure 16 displays the contour (depth in metres) of Former floodplain
member in Thailand, with the elevation decreasing eastwards.
The Former floodplain member consists mainly of silty clay and sandy clay, very firm,
light grey to yellowish brown, moderate to abundant mottles, yellowish brown to red and
small to moderate amount of iron concretions. The thickness varies from 5 to approximately
10 m.
The Former floodplain member is underlain by the Colluvium member and the Holocene
sediments. Sediments of this member obtained from borehole SK-16 are peat and peaty clay
of the Peat swamp member (Qhpstb), with sharp contact. The Former floodplain member has a
sharp contact with the overlying shallow marine sediments at borehole SK-20 (Figure 16).
From borehole SK-2, this unit also has a very clear contact with underlying shallow marine
sediments at the depth of 3.7 m (Figure 17).
The maximum depth (>7 m) is considered to be the surface of the Former floodplain
surface at Ban Khok Rama, Wat Khosit of Tak Bai District, and the depth decreases
westwards to 2 m at Ban To Wo, Ban Kwa Lo Ma Tae, Ban Khok Po, and Ban Ta Se in
Thailand.

Provenance and environment of deposition

The Simpang Formation appears to consist mainly of a composite of alluvial fan and
stream deposits (Suntharalingam and Teoh, 1985). The yellow, brown, orange and light grey
colour of the sediments and the presence of stiff, mottled clays suggest that the formation was
subjected to frequent exposure and subsequent desiccation and weathering (Loh, 1992). The
sediments are believed to have been derived from granitic and metasedimentary rocks
occurring to the south and west of the Transect area.

Age and correlation

No fossil is found to indicate the exact age of the Simpang Formation in Malaysia.
However, it is believed that the formation is Pleistocene age based on its physical
characteristics, position of the deposits, and its correlation with similar sediments occurring at
the east and west coasts of Peninsular Malaysia.
In Thailand, a Pleistocene age is given for this formation. Dheeradilok et al. (1991)
studied Quaternary geology in the Pattani coastal plain, and designated the age of the Gravel
beds member and the Former floodplain member as Lower Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene,
respectively.
 - 26 -

Figure 16: Idealised cross section along line A-A.

Figure 17: Idealised cross section along B-B.

 - 27 -

3.2.2 Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk)

The term Beruas Formation was introduced by Suntharalingam (1987) for clay, silt, sand,
gravel and peat deposited in a terrestrial environment after the most recent major low sea
level stand. This unit overlying the Simpang Formation also includes currently deposited
sediments by streams.
The Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation is subdivided into Pengkalan member
(Qhpkbr), Floodplain member (Qhfpbr/sk), Natural levee member (Qhnlbr/sk) and Abandoned
channel member (Qhchbr/sk). In Malaysia, Flood basin/swamp member also occurs in several
isolated areas.

Distribution
In Malaysia, the Beruas Formation covers most of the Kota Bharu map sheet (no. 3968)
and the Rantau Panjang map sheet (no. 3868) on the scale 1:50,000. It covers the Sungai
Golok/Mae Nam Kolok valley and most of the Sungai Kelantan valley, and extends from
Rantau Panjang, Tumpat, Kota Bharu to Pasir Mas. At present, most of the land underlain by
this sediment is utilised for wet paddy cultivation.
In Thailand, the Floodplain member is locally exposed between undulating landforms in
the western part of Sungai Kolok and Sungai Padi Districts. The unit is also distributed
throughout flat areas of Ban To Wo, Ban Khok Klang, Ban Pu Po, Ban Khok Ya Mu and
northern part of Ban Mu No.

Lithology
Generally, the formation is made up predominantly of sandy clay, clay and sand with
minor gravels. Most sandy clay and clay occur along the Sungai Golok/Mae Nam Kolok and
within most of the other river valleys in the area. The sand is made up predominantly of
quartz. Suntharalingam and Teoh (1985) mentioned that the lithology, heavy mineral
contents, grain size characteristics and colour, of the Beruas Formation indicate that this
formation is mainly fluvial deposits related to the existing river system.
Clays have been derived from sediments brought down by rivers such as Sungai
Golok/Mae Nam Kolok and Sungai Kelantan as well as by their tributaries. The formation
represents long continued accumulations of fine-grained suspended sediments resulting from
flooding. After deposition ceased, soil was formed on the top of these sediments.
Fine mica flakes are present in most of the boreholes. The mica, predominantly
muscovite, is derived from the mica schist (of the underlying Taku schist and part of the
Telong Formation) as well as the granite at the upper reaches of the Sungai Golok/Mae Nam
Kolok and Sungai Kelantan valleys.
In Malaysia, Mohd Suhaili Ismail et al. (1993) reported that potential ball clay deposits
occur at Kampung Kajang Sebidang, Kampung Kubang Sawa, Kampung Palas Merah, near
Pengkalan Kubur as well as at Kampung Bukit Pak Junos, Kampung Batu Karang and
Kampung Gual Tok Cha, in the Pasir Mas area. The ball clay is believed to have been derived
from the leaching out of feldspar minerals in the volcanics of the underlying Telong formation
as well as the Kemahang granite exposed in the south of the Transect area.

Pengkalan member(Qhpkbr)
The term Pengkalan member was introduced by Suntharalingam (1987) for inland swamp
deposits. The Pengkalan member in the Transect area is composed of clay, silt, humic clays
 - 28 -

(with in situ plant remains) and carbonaceous materials. It occurs only at several isolated
areas in Malaysia; especially in the Gual Periok area, which covers an area of about 10 square
kilometres.
Humic clays and some in situ compact decomposed plant remains were observed in some
boreholes such as in borehole number 8 at Kampung Kubang Batang and borehole number 19
at Kampung Kubang Pak Hitam. In borehole number 8, humid clay with decomposed wood
occurs at a depth between 2.5 and 4.4 m. In borehole number 19, it occurs at a depth from 3.1
to 9 m.

Floodplain member (Qhfpbr/sk)

The Floodplain member is characterised by silty clay and sandy clay, firm, light grey to
yellowish brown, moderately to abundant mottle, brownish yellow to red. Small amount of
iron concretions generally occur in this member (Figure 18a). It was deposited during the
Holocene and is underlain by the stiff clay of the Former floodplain member of the Simpang
Formation/Waeng formation.
Generally, kaolin sequences observed in the Floodplain member are characterised by
clayey sand, gravelly sand, moderately sorted, subangular to subrounded, white, very loose to
friable. The environment of deposition is floodplain origin, showing fining upward sequence
(boreholes SK-29, SK-31, and SK-37) (Figure 18b, 18c and 18d). The average thickness
varies from 1 to approximately 3 m, whereas the maximum thickness varies from 2 to
approximately 5 m.
The Floodplain member is gradually in contact with the underlying Colluvium, Peat
swamp, Shallow marine, and Abandoned channel members (Figure 16 and 17).

Natural levee member (Qh nlbr/sk)

The Natural levee member is defined as the young Holocene sediments that overlie the
floodplain deposits. It is exposed locally along the Sungai Golok/Mae Nam Kolok (both in
the Malaysian and Thai sides), Ban Li Yae and Ban Pa Dang Yo (in Thailand). It was
deposited during the Holocene and overlies the Pengkalan member.
This member is characterised by sand, silt, and clayey silt, loose to friable, yellow, small
amount of mottle, brownish yellow to red, moderately to very well sorted, and the sand size is
approximately 150 (Figure 19). The thickness varies from 2 to approximately 4 m.

Abandoned channel member (Qhchbr/sk)

This member is characterised mainly by sand, gravelly sand, and clay sand, loose to
friable, white, subangular to subrounded, very poor sorted, and the sand size varies from 600-
2,000 . The sand is composed mainly of quartz, rock fragments, and dark minerals. The
sequence, 2 to 3 m thick, generally shows fining upward succession. The Abandoned channel
member generally interfingers with the underlying Floodplain member.
 - 29 -

18a 18b

18c 18d

Figure 18: Sediments of the Floodplain member.

Figure 19: Sediments of the Natural levee member.

In Malaysia, borehole number 1, sunk at Kampung Geting exhibits fluvial channel

deposits characterised by poorly sorted, medium to coarse sand and abundant granules and
 - 30 -

pebbles even though it is located very close to the coast. These sediments are most likely
deposited in the former channel of the Sungai Geting, which trends parallel to the coastline.
In Thailand, the abandoned channel member is defined as sediments that are deposited in
recent alluvial deposits. The unit is generally distributed in meanders of Mae Nam Kolok at
Ban Pa Da Do, Ban Khok Ya Mu, Ban Khok Klang, and Ban Ba Ngo Yi No.

Provenance and environment of deposition

Based on its present position as well as the characteristics mentioned above, it is believed
that the sediments of the Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) have been
deposited during Holocene in fluviatile environment.

Age
The age of the Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation ranges from Holocene to the
present day. It is contemporaneous in age with marine deposits of the Gula Formation
(Suntharalingam and Teoh, 1985).
Bosch (1986) has carried out radiocarbon dating on some of the peat of the Holocene
sediments in the Kelantan Delta. The results indicate that the age ranges from 7,100 + 120
yrs. BP to 4,350 + 100 yrs. BP.

3.2.3 Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Qhgl/tb)

The Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation is subdivided (bottom to top) into the Bagan
Datoh Member/Shallow marine member (Qhbdsmgl/tb), Teluk Intan/Tidal flat member
(Qhtitfgl/tb), Peat swamp member (Qhpstb), Matang Gelugor/Old beach member (Qhmtobgl/tb) and
Recent beach member (Qhrbgl/tb).

Distribution
In Malaysia, this formation is exposed in the present coastal area, stretching from
Pengkalan Kubor area (near the estuary of the Sungai Golok) to the Tumpat and Kota Bharu
coastal areas.
In Thailand, this formation occurs mainly in the northeastern part of the Transect area at
Ban Khok Thurian, Ban Khok Yang, Ban Khok Nibong, Ban Khok Mu Ba, Ban Pu Yu, and
Ban To Daeng. It can be traced up to about 6 and 12 km inland from the present coastline in
the Malaysia and Thailand respectively.

Lithology
The formation is made up mainly of clay, silty clay, peaty clay and sand. The recent
beach sand and sand ridges trending parallel to the present coastline in Pengkalan Kubor and
Tumpat areas are also considered as part of this unit.

Bagan Datoh Member/Shallow marine member (Qhbdsmgl/tb)

The Bagan Datoh Member/Shallow marine member in Malaysia is represented by clay,
silt and sand deposited in shallow marine, offshore environment. It consists mainly of light
grey, light greenish grey and light bluish grey clayey sand and medium- to coarse-grained
sand with shell fragments.
 - 31 -

This member is widespread and wedge out gradually southwestwardly with increasing
thickness on the shoreline of the Transect area. The member also extends into the upland area
as far as 12 km from the present shoreline.
This member is characterised mainly by clay, silty clay, and sand, very soft to soft,
greenish grey to grey, sand sizes 80-300 , moderately to very well sorted, small amount of
shell fragments, interbedded with thin sand lenses. Thickness of the sequence varies from 2 m
to approximately >25 m (at present shoreline; GMT, 1995).
The Bagan Datoh Member/Shallow marine member is in sharp contact with the
underlying Former floodplain member of the Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation and
the overlying Tidal flat member of Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Figures 16 and 17).

Teluk Intan Member/Tidal flat member (Qhtitfgl/tb)

This unit is represented by sand, clay, and silt deposited in an inshore environment. It
consists of light grey to olive greenish-grey clay, slightly sandy to sandy with yellowish-
brown mottles as well as some roots and plant remains. The sand is composed mainly of
quartz with some feldspar and mica flakes. The presence of transported humic materials
suggests the tidal influence. The presence of mottled clays indicates frequent exposure.
Therefore, it is interpreted that this unit had been deposited in a tidal flat environment. In
Thailand, the presence of jarosite is also noticed. The shell fragment occasionally occurs in
sand lenses. The thickness of this member varies from 1 to 3 m.
In Malaysia, it occurs in the Pengkalan Kubur and Tumpat areas. In Thailand, this
member occurs mainly in the northeastern part of the Transect area, at Ban Khok Thurian,
Ban Khok Yang, Ban Khok Nibong, Ban Khok Mu Ba, and Ban Pu Yu. It was deposited
gradually overlying the Shallow marine member.

Peat swamp member (Qhpstb)

This investigation defined the Peat swamp member as the younger sediments that were
deposited in the area behind the Old beach ridge. The member is exposed locally in Thailand
at the low land of Ban To Daeng, at the northeastern part of Sungai Kolok District and the
eastern part of Sungai Padi District.
The Peat swamp member is represented by peat, peaty clay, and silty clay, friable, dark to
dark grey, moderately decomposed, with small amount of shell fragments. The thickness
varies from 1 to 4 m (GMT, 1995).

Matang Gelugor Member /Old beach member (Qhmtobgl/tb)

The member is characterised by beach zones in the inland areas. The member is clearly
seen and defined by aerial photos and remote sensing imagery.
The name Matang Gelugor Member has been introduced by Suntharalingam and Teoh
(1985) to define the succession of clayey sand to sand that forms sand ridges exposed in the
present coastal areas. In Malaysia, these sediments are composed mainly of light grey to
bright yellowish brown, poorly sorted, angular to subrounded, medium to coarse sand with
subordinate pebbles. It consists mainly of quartz, some feldspar and minor mica flakes. It
occurs as prominent sand ridges aligned parallel to subparallel with the present coastline and
can be traced up to about 6 km inland. These sand ridges form narrow zones about 3 km wide
at its maximum and trend up to 8 km long in northwest-southeast direction, in the Pengkalan
Kubor and Tumpat Districts.
 - 32 -

In Thailand, the oldest beach ridge occurs 12 km from present shoreline at Ban Pa Wai
(borehole SK-26) located in the northern part of Sungai Padi District (Figure 14). The
member is characterised by sand, gravelly sand, loose to friable, very dark grey to light
yellowish brown, subangular to subrounded, moderately sorted.
The middle beach ridge is formed at Ban Khok Chum Bok (borehole BKS-3), Ban Plak
Chang, and Ban Khok Ka Po, which is approximately 0.5 to 2 km wide. It is characterised by
sand and sandy gravel, loose, light grey to brownish yellow, sand sizes 200-2,000 , and
gravel 2-5 mm, moderately sorted.
The Old beach member is mainly formed adjacent to the present shoreline. The member is
composed mainly of sand, gravelly sand, loose to friable, white, sand sizes 420-1,400 ,
subangular to subround, moderately sorted. The thickness varies from 1 to approximately 5 m.

Recent beach member(Qhrbgl/tb)

The Recent beach member (Qhrbgl/tb) is defined as the recent beach and is exposed locally
at Tak Bai District, Narathiwat Province (in the northeastern corner of the Transect srea).
The member is characterised by sand and sandy gravel, loose, light to brownish yellow,
sand sizes 200-1,000 , gravel 2-4 mm, moderately sorted. The thickness varies from 2 to
approximately 5 m. The member is gradually in contact with the underlying Shallow marine
member.

Provenance and environment of deposition

Based on its present position as well as the above mentioned characteristics, it is believed
that the sediments of this formation have been deposited in a marine environment, namely,
old beach, recent beach, tidal flat, peat swamp and shallow marine environments. The
sediments have been transported by major river systems such as Sungai Kelantan and Mae
Nam Kolok and were later deposited in those environments.

Age
No index fossil was found in Malaysia. However, Tjia et al. (1977) presented a series of
radiocarbon dating from northern Pahang and Terengganu. The oysters and molluscs indicate
an age ranging from 5580+130 yrs. BP to 185 yrs. BP. Therefore, based on correlation with
similar sediments exposed in the coastal area of Peninsular Malaysia, it is believed that the
age of this unit is Holocene.
Sawata (1991) studied crab fossils at Muno Canal (Ban Ko Sathon map sheet), in
Thailand (Figure 20). Dr. S.F. Morris of the British Museum has determined the crabs as
Charybdis (Charrybdis) aff. sinhaleya. The genus Charybdis belongs to the family
Portunidae, which is a group of predatory, swimming crabs, living in very shallow inshore
water. Morris (1978) mentioned that crab fossils such as Macrophthalmus (an inshore form)
lived on relatively soft sandy muds ranging from littoral to 20 m deep. The age of the fauna is
almost certainly Pleistocene, but crabs do not enable us to subdivide this period.
 - 33 -

Figure 20: Pleistocene crab fossils Macrophthalmus at Muno canal.

Vijarnsorn and Liengsakul (1986) studied peat swamps in Narathiwat and concluded
that the thickness varies from 0.4 to 3 m. The member was deposited during the period 7,000
to 3,000 yrs. BP.

3.3 Igneous rocks

Exposures of igneous rocks are widely distributed in the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok
Transect area. The volcanic rocks occur as flow and pyroclastics in the sedimentary
succession, whereas the plutonic rocks occur as batholiths and small stocks.

3.3.1 Volcanic rocks

In Malaysia, the volcanic rocks consist of several phases distributed in the Tanah Merah,
Machang and Rantau Panjang areas. Pyroclastic deposits are considerably more abundant
than lava flows. Most of the tuff deposits are ranging from rhyolitic to andesitic composition
which can be divided into crystal and lithic tuff. Pyroclastic rocks of a predominantly
rhyolitic character are far more abundant than those of an andesitic character. Most of the
rhyolitic rocks are classified in between pyroclastic and volcanic flows, and may be better
regarded as ignimbrite.
In Thailand, the majority of volcanic rocks are basic to intermediate in composition. Most
of them are trending NNW-SSE to NW-SE, and exposed within the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu
Bi formations (CPmg/ak/kl) and Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab). Minor volcanic extrusions are
locally located in the alluvial plains adjacent to Mae Nam Kolok. According to previous
works, these volcanics are correlatable with the Permo-Triassic volcanics, which are present
elsewhere in the country.
 - 34 -

Ku Mung igneous complex (PTrvkm)

Outcrops of the Ku Mung igneous complex (PTrvkm) are restricted in a narrow NE-SW
trending zone in the lower part of Sukhirin Quadrangle and in the upper portion of To Mo
Quadrangle, in the northwestern part of the Transect area. The igneous complex is composed
of pillow (lava) basalt, serpentinite, relicts of ultramafic and mafic rocks with podiform
chromite deposits.
The Ku Mung igneous complex (PTrvkm) consists of serpentinite, exposed along the road-
cut from Ai Su Re-Bu Yong and in the Ai Ba Lo areas. The serpentinite is characteristically
green, light green and greenish white, sheared and patched layers (Figure 21). The unit is
closely associated with other sheared or mixed rocks. However, in the fresh outcrop, it is
noted that relicts of the ultramafic rocks e.g. dark grey to black, dense pyroxenite, dark
greenish grey peridotite and greenish grey dunite and mafic rocks with podiform chromite
deposits are altered to serpentinite.
Pillow (lava) basalt, diabase, basaltic andesite and gabbro are well exposed along Mae
Nam Sai Buri, located in the lower part of Sukhirin Quadrangle i.e. the central part of the
Transect area. Pillow lava is represented by the thick layer of dark greenish grey to black,
dense, massive, basalt and diabase. On the surface, the rocks are pillow shaped ranging in size
from 20 to 30 cm in diameter. Mineral composition is mainly of pyroxene, and altered low
An-content plagioclase which is interpreted to have been affected by sea water. This unit is
also exposed in a stream at the Ai Ba Lo area and associated with the Ku Mung igneous
complex (PTrvkm) and Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab).
Gabbro is exposed as a massive body which is characterised by dark grey to black with
white layer of feldspar. Mineral composition is pyroxene and plagioclase. Red to purplish-red
rocks are observed on the weathered layer.
Generally, these rocks are strongly deformed, indicated by closely-spaced cleavages
which can be clearly observed. The cleavage and the main fracture are aligned along the NE-
SW direction.
Historically and tectonically, the age of the rocks are determined to be Permo-Triassic. In
Malaysia, no outcrop of this rock unit has been observed.

Tanah Merah/Muno volcanics (PTrvtn/mn)

In the Malaysia side, the Tanah Merah/Muno volcanic (PTrvtn/mn) is composed of andesite
flow, andesitic tuff and agglomerate but predominantly pyroclastics. It is mostly extrusive in
nature, probably contemporaneous with the deposition of the associated sediments and
pyroclastics. Locally, the andesite occurs as dykes or irregular bodies in sedimentary rocks.
The most impressive andesite in the Transect area is located in the Tanah Merah area, to the
east of the Temangan Ignimbrite. Good exposures can be observed along the Tanah Merah-
Machang expressway near the bridge crossing Sungai Kelantan.
The andesite is typically porphyritic, grey-green and black varieties, generally fine-
grained containing abundant pyroxene phenocrysts and occasionally feldspar phenocrysts or
both. They are set in a holocrystalline groundmass comprising feldspar, pyroxene and opaque
minerals. The minerals are randomly oriented, hence no flow structure is visible. Andesine is
the most common feldspar and it occurs both as phenocrysts and in the groundmass.
Orthoclase has rarely been recorded. The clinopyroxene phenocrysts are mainly represented
by augite. Magnetite is probably the most abundant opaque minerals, and is usually confined
to the groundmass. A little interstitial glass has been observed, whereas quartz is rare.
Secondary minerals consist of hornblende, calcite, chlorite, epidote, magnetite and sericite.
 - 35 -

In Thailand, the Tanah Merah/Muno volcanic (PTrvtn/mn) is strongly deformed as indicated

by the presence of well-developed NE-SW S1-cleavage, which can be observed at the earth
quarry in the Mu No-Pa Se Mas area. These volcanic rocks have undergone argillic alteration
in which iron concretions and clay minerals are present.
The volcanic rocks comprise strongly sheared, highly altered andesite, andesitic tuff and
agglomerate (Figure 22). Exposures of these volcanic rocks are limited to the small hill at Ban
Muno, adjacent to Mae Nam Kolok (Sungai Kolok Quadrangle) in the eastern part of the
Transect area.
Andesite and andesitic tuff are characterised by the presence of thin to medium layers of
light grey and pale greenish grey rocks. The colour changes to white, light brown to reddish
brown on weathered or altered surfaces. The rocks are composed mainly of mica and
hornblende. Clay or other altered minerals such as talc or dickite are commonly found in the
alteration zone.
Agglomerate is characterised by the abundance of rhyolitic clasts within thin to medium
layers (30-40 cm). The colours of these rocks are generally pale brown, pale purple grey to
light greenish grey with white spots (1-5 cm in diameter). Volcanic clasts are white or
yellowish grey in colour.
MacDonald (1967) assigned this rock unit as Carboniferous to Triassic in age. Aw
(1990), and Ab. Halim Hamzah and Mustafar Hamzah (in manuscript) reported that the main
volcanic activities occurred during Permo-Triassic period. Accordingly, the Malaysian and
Thai Working Groups have assigned the age of the volcanic rocks as Permo-Triassic.

Temangan Ignimbrite (Trvtg)

The Temangan ignimbrite presents a prominent ridge about 10 km long and 800 m wide,
trending approximately N-S. The nature of contact can be observed in the Temangan area
which shows the N-S trending ridge cutting the shale and sandstone (Figure 23). This
evidence suggests an intrusive nature for the ignimbrite which intruded along the Lebir Fault
zone (Aw, 1967). However, the rock unit is currently not exposed in Thailand.
The ignimbrite forms a hard massive outcrop with minor flow structure. The texture on
the whole is quite homogenous and there is no visible change either laterally or vertically.
The colour varies from pink to dark brown, while in slightly altered rock it is greenish grey.
The porphyritic nature is conspicuous, with phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar set in a
feldsitic matrix. In some specimens, fragments of shale and some black lenses of pumiceous
material are included. More than three-quarters of the phenocrysts are of quartz. Shape of the
phenocrysts varies from euhedral crystals with hexagonal outline to highly angular fragments.
The feldspar phenocrysts include potash feldspar and plagioclase. The feldspar phenocrysts,
and a little green biotite are set in a matrix of glass shards and cryptocrystalline material.
The age of these rocks is interpreted by the Working Groups to be Triassic.
 - 36 -

Figure 21: Photograph of serpentinite float (left) and pillow (lava) basalt outcrop (right) of the Ku Mung
igneous complex (PTrvkm) in Thailand.

Figure 22: Photograph of the highly altered andesite and andesitic tuff (left) and agglomerate (right) of the
Tanah Merah/Muno volcanic (PTrvtn/mn).

Figure 23: Photograph of the massive outcrop of

ignimbrite near Temangan town.

3.3.2 Granitic rocks

The Malayan orogeny is presumed by the subduction of a continental crustal plate (the
western part) and an oceanic crustal plate (the eastern part) which is accompanied by the
granite emplacements. Geologically, the granites are distributed as linear masses parallel to
the Bentong-Raub Suture.
In Malaysia, Hutchison (1977) divided the granites into three belts based on lithology and
petrochemistry of the granite: Main Range Belt, Central Belt and Eastern Belt. The Main
 - 37 -

Range granite is composed of S-type, ilmenite series granitoids which intruded into Paleozoic
host rocks during the Permo-Triassic period. The Central Belt granite is composed mainly of
S-type, ilmenite series granitoids of Triassic age with minor intrusion of Cretaceous I-type,
magnetite series granitoids. The Eastern Belt granite consists mainly of I-type, magnetite
series granitoids and intruded into Paleozoic host rocks during the Permo-Triassic period.
Later, Cobbing et al. (1986) divided the granite into two provinces: Main Range granite
and Eastern granite, with assumption that the Central and Eastern Belts are similar. The Main
Range granite has been regarded to be constituted exclusively of S-type granites of mainly
Triassic age (Bignell and Snelling, 1977; Hutchison, 1977; Cobbing et al., 1986; Hutchison,
1996). In contrast, the Eastern province granite is dominated by I-type with subordinate
compositional overlap S-type granites of Permo-Triassic age. Small I-type plutons of
Cretaceous age are present in the central part of the Peninsular Malaysia (Bignell and
Snelling, 1977; Hutchison, 1977).
The study of granite geology in the Transect area in Thailand was very limited due to
security problems caused by guerrilla activities in last three decades. However, there was an
effort from local DMR workers who were assigned to carry out a geological mapping
programme in the southern part of the country.
Muenlek et al. (1982) recorded three granite phases which were classified as gneissic
granite, coarse-grained porphyritic biotite granite and tourmaline-muscovite granite.
Finally, Cobbing et al. (1992) completed the Southeast Asian granite project including
geological map of individual granite plutons, petrography, geochemistry classification and
Rb/Sr age determination, and classified the granite in Southeast Asia into three granite
provinces. The eastern granite province is composed mainly of Triassic I-type, magnetite
series granitoids with minor compositional overlapping with S-type granitoids. The minor
intrusion of isolated Cretaceous I-type, magnetite series is also present in this province. The
western granite province consists of a mixture of S-type and I-type granites of Cretaceous
age. The Main Range granite province and Northern Thai migmatite province are composed
mainly of Triassic S-type, ilmenite series granitoids. However, minor intrusions of isolated
Cretaceous I-type, magnetite series granite plutons can be found in the northern Thai
magmatite granite province.
Granitic rocks exposed in the Transect area can be divided into two major granite
provinces such as Main Range Granite and Eastern Granite with small isolated plutons.

Main Range Granites

a) Merah granite/Bu Do granite (Trgrmr/bd)

In Malaysia, the Merah granite/Bu Do granite (Trgrmr/bd) is widely distributed in Sungai
Perak, western part of the Transect area. The granite is characterised by grey, fine- to
medium-grained showing a distinct preferred orientation of biotite and K-feldspar phenocryst.
The rock is holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic granular texture. Mineral composition is
quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (20-30%), plagioclase (20-30%), biotite (5-10%) and some
amount of sphene, apatite, zircon, and epidote. Flakes of biotite are mostly kinked, deformed
and interspaced between other minerals.
In Thailand, the Merah granite/Bu Do granite (Trgrmr/bd) in the Bu Do batholith formed an
elongated north-south trending mountain range, starting from Pattani Province in the east
coast, extending southward to Yala and Narathiwat Provinces north of the Malaysia-Thailand
border. It is composed of mainly ilmenite series with S-type affinity granitoids and is
typically related to cassiterite mineralisation. The major rock forming minerals are quartz, K-
feldspar, plagioclase (An10-30), and biotite, whereas subordinate muscovite and tourmaline are
 - 38 -

locally present as accessory minerals. Late stage leucocratic granites are abundant including
aplite, pegmatite dykes, and quartz-feldspar veins. It is noteworthy that the major granitic
rocks in the Bu Do granite batholith are generally non-foliated to slightly foliated. However,
these rocks have been locally foliated along the margin and are called the marginal facies.
Distribution of the Merah granite/Bu Do granite (Trgrmr/bd) is limited to the western end of
the Transect area adjacent to Ai So Falls, southwest of the Ku Mung village in Cha Nae
District. It is noticeable that the majority of the Bu Do granites is exposed outside of the
Transect area. Granite outcrops are widely exposed along Ai So stream and the adjacent area
and are widespread along the N-S trending zone from the Malaysia-Thailand border to
Sisakorn District (Bu Do mountain range), in the central part of Sisakorn Quadangle,
northeast of the Transect area.
Petrographically, the rocks consist of mainly quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase and biotite,
which are more or less, compositionally equivalent to those of the western belt granitoids.
However, the majority of these granites commonly show deep weathering features. Therefore,
detailed petrography and geochemistry studies of these granites cannot be carried out for the
time being.
Bignell (1972) has conducted a geochronological study for the Malaysian granites using
both K/Ar and Rb/Sr methods. He concluded that the Main Range Granite is 200-230 Ma in
age and granite emplacement took place during Triassic. Later on, Cobbing et al. (1992)
reported the Rb/Sr isochron age of 207 Ma for Songkhla granitoid and 221 Ma for Satun
granitoid. According to field observation mentioned earlier by Cobbing et al. (1992), the Bu
Do granite batholith is geographically located within the Main Range granite province, which
is represented by the Songkhla pluton. Therefore, the age of the intrusion of the Bu Do granite
is also Triassic.
The Merah granite/Bu Do granite (Trgrmr/bd) is, therefore, assigned by the Malaysian and
Thai Working Groups to be of Triassic S-type granite.

Eastern granite province

Eastern granite province occupies the area to the east of the Bentong-Raub Suture
extending to the eastern side of the Ku Mung igneous complex (PTrvkm). In the Transect area,
there are four granite plutons exposed, namely, Boundary Range Granite (Trgrbr/ty), Kemahang
Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su), Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) and Kenerong
Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl).

a) Boundary Range Granite (Trgrbr)

In Malaysia, the Boundary Range Granite (Trgrbr) is widely distributed to the eastern part
of the Transect area. This granite, exposed at Bukit Panau, ranges from granite to granodiorite
in composition. It is fine- to medium-grained megacrystic biotite granite with pink K-feldspar
phenocrysts (Figure 24).
These granites consist of quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (20-30%), plagioclase (20-35%),
biotite (5-10%) and/or muscovite with occasionally hornblende. Allanite and sphene are fairly
common in parts as accessory minerals. Inclusions of zircon and apatite are often abundant in
the biotite. Chlorite, sericite, and magnetite are common as secondary alteration products.
 - 39 -

Figure 24: The Boundary Range Granite at Bukit Buloh

Quarry, near Kota Bharu, Malaysia.

In Thailand, the similar unit (Tan Yong granite) is widespread at Sungai Padi District,
outside the Transect area. They are composed of medium- to coarse-grained, leucocratic,
porphyritic biotite granite. However, the proportion of biotite in the groundmass is much less
than those of the Kemahang/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su). It is noticed that muscovite, which has
been derived from biotite is commonly abundant.
For the purpose of correlation, a sample of granite from Kuala Krai situated about 70 km
from Kota Bharu, Malaysia was dated at 227 + 6 Ma (Bignel and Snelling, 1977). In
Thailand, Ishihara et al. (1980) proposed Rb/Sr model age of 252 Ma for the Tan Yong pluton
granitoids. Later on, Cobbing et al. (1992) proposed Rb/Sr isochron age determination of 228
5 Ma for Tan Yong granitoids.
The Boundary Range Granite (Trgrbr) is, therefore, assigned by the Malaysian and Thai
Working Groups to be a mixture of Triassic I- and S-type granites.

b) Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Ttgrkg/su)

This irregular granite mass which forms the mountainous range east and west of Jeli
town, Kelantan that extents to Sukhirin range in Thailand. In Malaysia, it covers Bukit Jeli,
Bukit Kemahang, Bukit Kusial and several smaller hills. In Thailand, the granite of the
Sukhirin batholith is largely distributed in Sukhirin and Waeng Districts adjacent to the
Thailand-Malaysia border, extending northward to Jo I Rong and Sungai Padi Districts. The
granite body typically forms N-S trending mountain range starting from Narathiwat Province
in the eastern coast of the Thai peninsula and extending southward to Sukhirin District. It then
continues to the Jeli town in the Malaysia side. Several isolated granite plutons were also
found along the east coast of the Thai peninsula.
In Malaysia, the Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su) consists of predominantly
grey, medium- to coarse-grained megacrystic biotite-hornblende granite to granodiorite in
composition (Figure 25). The feldspar phenocrysts have an average length of 2 cm but some
of them may reach 10 cm and show definite orientation. It also contains abundant biotite with
marked lineation of feldspar phenocrysts at a number of localities. Many varieties seem to be
gneissic and show typical cataclastic textures such as deformed feldspar crystals, strained
polarization and elongated quartz. Late phase microgranodiorite, microgranite and
leucogranite or Cretaceous Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) occur in patches and as
dykes. Quartz veins and lenticles are very common at some localities.
 - 40 -

The Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su) in Thailand occurs as a major

proportion of the rock unit and it covers most of the central part of the Transect area. Granite
outcrops are well exposed along the road cut from Ban Ba La (Waeng District) to Ban Phu
Khao Thong (Sukhirin District) via the HaraBa La wild life sanctuary. Large granite
boulders are abundantly present along the road cut from the Waeng town to Sukhirin town. It
is also noticed that most of the granite outcrops in the Sukhirin batholith are poorly exposed
due to deep weathering surface and dense vegetation.
The Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su) in Thailand consists mainly of
porphyritic biotite granite with good primary granite texture, where sphene can be locally
found as an accessory mineral in this rock. It is characterised by weakly developed, N-S
trending foliation. The proportion of biotite mafic mineral in this rock is relatively higher than
those of the Bu Do granite unit. However, the proportion of biotite in this rock occasionally
drops in conjunction with the presence of muscovite. Various sizes of biotite-rich cognate
xenoliths, quartz blebs and quartz strings are locally distributed in the Sukhirin granite
batholith.
Petrographically, the granites are of light grey, medium- to coarse-grained, megacrystic,
biotite-hornblende granite. K-feldspar megacrysts are up to 40% by volume and are lath shape
to tablet with some equant crystals. The megacrysts range in size from 1x2 cm to 3x12 cm.
Groundmass is composed of medium- to coarse-grained, single to cluster, quartz (20-35%,
2x2 to 5x8 mm in size), light grey to pale grey, euhedral to subhedral crystals, stubby, K-
feldspar (30-40%, 2x10 to 3x15 mm in size), and chalky white, subhedral to euhedral, stubby,
plagioclase (15-20%, 2x10 mm in size), whereas dark grey to black, single, flake to book,
euhedral, biotite (15%, 2-5 mm in size) is the only mafic mineral found in this rock. Sphene,
allanite, clinozoisite, monazite and apatite are the accessory minerals.
Various sizes of biotite-rich cognate (xenolith), quartz strings and quartz blebs are
recognised in this granitic rock, especially along the margin of the granite pluton. It is
noticeable that the population and size of K-feldspar megacrysts increase from east to west.
MacDonald (1967) suggested that the age of Kemahang Granite is Triassic based on age
determination. According to field observation as mentioned earlier by Cobbing et al. (1992),
the Sukhirin granite can be correlated with the Tan Yong granite pluton. Therefore, the
intrusion of the Sukhirin granite would have occurred in the Triassic period.
The Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Ttgrkg/su) is, therefore, assigned by the Malaysian
and Thai Working Groups to be Triassic I-type granite.

c) Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm)

The Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) is exposed at Kampung Lawar (Malaysia) and
extends northward to the To Mo area (Thailand). In Thailand, it is composed of granite to
granodiorite, which is cut by dolerite and aplite dykes. The granite probably forms an
offshoot of the Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl). Outcrops are exposed in the
southern part of Licho-Balu mountain range near To Mo gold mine, extending southward
across the border to Malaysia. They are composed of granodiorite, granite, dolerite, pegmatite
and aplite, which are exposed as dykes, veins and veinlets. The granitic rocks are well
exposed along the stream at the electric power plant in Ai Ka Po village and also at an
abandoned quarry of To Mo gold mine.
The Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) is characterised by light grey, fine-grained,
equigranular biotite-hornblende granite which is partly sheared and modified. It is also
noticeable that the intrusions of aplite, pegmatite and leucocratic granite as dykes and sills has
initiated contact metamorphism of the country rocks and subsequently gold mineralisation has
been introduced within the contact aureole (Figure 26).
 - 41 -

Microscopically, it is granite to granodiorite in composition. The major minerals are

quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (20-30%), plagioclase (20-30%) and biotite (<10%) with
occasionally hornblende. Secondary minerals are epidote, chlorite and sericite. Quartz and
feldspars are normally sheared and crushed, whilst biotite has altered to chlorite. This rock is
strongly sheared and crushed to such an extent that it can be classified as cataclasite.
Intrusion of the Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) in Thailand has initiated various
types of hypabyssal rocks, which formed long tabular shaped N-S trending bodies and are
widespread in the north of the To Mo granite pluton. The above mentioned hypabyssal rocks
are composed of dacite and andesite dykes. These dykes are locally formed as 1-2 km long N-
S trending ridges and are exposed in the Khao Soon Patthana area and in the Ai Ka Po area. It
is noted that these shallow intrusive rocks also contain a large proportion of silica rich
materials, which represent restrictively in vugs. Moreover, the andesitic tuff that trends NE-
SW can be locally found in the Ka To area.
The To Mo granite is correlatable with Cretaceous Lawar granite (Cobbing et al. 1992).
Therefore, the intrusion of the granite would have happened in the Cretaceous age. Mohamad
Hussein Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript) mentioned that this I-type granite is believed to be
an offshoot body of the Cretaceous Noring Granite which crops out to the south of the
Transect area.
The Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) is, therefore, assigned by the Malaysian and
Thai Working Groups to be Cretaceous I-type granite.

d) Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl)

The Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) is part of the Cretaceous plutons of the
Eastern Belt (Cobbing et al., 1986). In the Transect area, Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite
(Kgrkn/bl) lies between the Kemahang and Noring Granite masses.
In Malaysia, the granite is light grey to grey in colour, leucocratic, fine- to medium-
grained, equigranular granite with foliated and unfoliated variations. It is holocrystalline
hypidiomorphic to allotriomorphic granular texture, granite to granodiorite in composition
(Figure 27). The main mineral constituents are quartz (30-35%), K-feldspar (20-30%),
plagioclase (25-35%) and biotite (<10%). Accessory minerals comprise apatite, opaque
minerals and subordinate muscovite. Altered minerals are sericite and chlorite. Alkali feldspar
comprises predominantly orthoclase and some microcline. Intergrowth of quartz and feldspar
forms myrmekitic texture.
In Thailand, the Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) typically shows various types
of granite, which forms a granite complex body. They intrude as subordinate late stage granite
intrusions, which occur as dykes and veins including leucocratic granite and pegmatite into
the Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Trgrkg/su). The Ba La granite unit can be lithologically
subdivided into four phases:
1. The first granite phase is represented by the NNW-SSE foliated, dark grey, medium-
grained (1-3 mm), equigranular to porphyritic biotite granite. K-feldspar phenocrysts are up to
3-5% by volume and are mainly of 1-3 cm in diameter equant crystals. The mineral
composition of groundmass including 30% quartz, 50-60% K-feldspar and plagioclase and
15-20% flakes and elongated cluster biotite.
2. The second granite phase is characterised by N-S trending foliation, pale grey to light
grey, equigranular, fine-grained, leucocratic granite including feldspar-rich pegmatite. The
mineral composition consists of 30-40% quartz, 50-65% feldspar and 3-5% biotite, whereas
red garnet is the only accessory mineral found in this rock.
 - 42 -

Figure 25: Photographs of the Kemahang Granite/Sukhirin granite (Ttgrkg/su) in Malaysia (left) and in Thailand
(right).

Figure 26: Photographs of the Lawar granite/To Mo granite (Kgrlw/tm) in Malaysia (left) and in Thailand
(right).

Figure 27: Photographs of the Kenerong Granite/ Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) in Malaysia (left) and in Thailand
(right)

3. The third granite phase is composed mainly of dark greenish grey fine-grained
equigranular granodiorite, slightly-moderately foliated in N-S direction. The mineral
composition consists of quartz, feldspar and biotite. This phase generally occurs as dykes and
veins trending WSW-ENE to NW-SE. The xenoliths of two-phase variants granites are
locally included in this granite phase.
 - 43 -

4. The fourth granite phase consists mainly of minor intrusions of pegmatite and aplite
veinlets, trending N-S, NE-SW and E-W. Cross-cutting relationship can be observed clearly
along the road cut at the top of the mountain and also at the Sirinthorn waterfall.
Bignell (1972) reported that the western part of the Eastern Belt Granite in Malaysia that
lies immediately east of the Bentong-Raub Suture gave the age of 64-69 Ma, which indicates
granite intrusion during the Cretaceous. According to field observation as mentioned earlier
by Cobbing et al. (1992), it can be concluded that the age of intrusion of Ba La granite is
Cretaceous.
The Kenerong Granite/Ba La granite (Kgrkn/bl) is, therefore, assigned by the Malaysian and
Thai Working Groups to be Cretaceous I-type granite.

4. Structural geology and tectonics

Peninsular Malaysia was formed as a result of collision between Sinoburmalaya to the
west and Eastmal-Indosinia blocks to the east. The collision zone is represented by the
Bentong-Raub Suture which can be traced northward into Thailand and southward into the
Banka and Billiton Islands. This collision accompanied by the major tectonic event during
Late Triassic has resulted in rock deformation in the Malay-Thai Peninsula.
Pre-orogeny sedimentary successions in the Transect area are generally folded into a
series of synclines and anticlines. Folding is characterised by tight, asymmetric and open
folds, which cause the repeated and overturn sequence in the older sedimentary rock. The
NW-SE and N-S trending fold axes are sub-parallel to the long axis of the Malay Peninsula
and most of the bedding planes dip towards the east with various dip angles.
Faulting is widespread throughout the Transect area. Owing to the thick soil cover and
deep tropical weathering, fault zones are seldom exposed at more than a few places along
their traces. Faults are generally varies in width characterised by fractured, sheared or
mylonitised rocks. There are several faults, which are mainly of strike-slip and normal faults,
trending N-S, NW-SE and NE-SW. Of these, the NE-SW trending fault is the main fault of
the Transect area. The major faults are Long-Kolok fault (NE-SW), Pergau fault (NE-SW),
Kalai-To Mo fault (N-S) and Ka To-Bu Yong fault.
The formation of the Thai peninsula resulted from the collision between Shan Thai block
to the west and Indochina block to the east, which happened during Middle to Upper Triassic.
The continent-continent collision has caused uplifting and faulting along a N-S direction. On
one hand, uplifting resulted in the formation of the Bu Do mountain range and LichoBa Lu
mountain ranges, which trend in a N-S direction. On the other hand, the formation of N-S
trending fault zones has caused a widespread deposition of post collisional sediments in an
approximately N-S longitudinal basin. Pre-collisional rocks are fractured along a N-S
direction which can be observed in the Ka Lu Bi (CPkl), Ai Ka Po (CPak) and Ai Ba Lo (PTrab)
formations. However, major structures in this area may have been destroyed by the younger
Cretaceous Ba La granite intrusion and multi direction fractures. Finally, younger NE-SW
fractures, which can be prominently observed in both igneous and sedimentary host rocks,
may have resulted from the movement of Long-Kolok fault along the Malaysia-Thailand
border.

5. Economic Geology/Mineral Resources

The mineral resources along the Malaysia and Thailand border are well-developed for the
last century. Various types of metallic and non-metallic minerals have been discovered and
 - 44 -

exploited in both countries to generate and accelerate the economy. The exploration activities
are actively conducted to discover more mineral deposits.
In Malaysia, the Kelantan State is well endowed with mineral resources of metallic and
non-metallic minerals. These include deposits of gold, manganese, iron, ball clay and barite as
well as granitic rock as construction material. These have been mined for several years. In the
near future the potential to develop ball clay, granite, and limestone for industrial raw
materials can be significantly increased. Gold exploration within the area is still being carried
out by the Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia. Apart from these, hot springs
found in this area and the vicinity is potential tourist attractions.
In Thailand, the occurrences of various minerals have been recorded in Narathiwat
Province. Galena discovered at Ban Khok Ko, Sungai Padi District, kaolin deposits exploited
in Sungai Padi District, and silica sand from the weathered granite are good examples. Within
the Transect area, the most important mineral resources i.e. gold, chromite, manganese, and
their related geology have been revealed. Although the minerals were mined for several years
in the past, some potential areas still remained. For example, at the Ban Muno area of Sungai
Kolok District, the volcanic alteration is so strongly characterised that it could be a metallic
minerals potential area.
In the Transect area, abandoned mining areas, quarries and some potential areas are
investigated and economically assessed. Unfortunately, in some areas, exploration and
exploitation of mineral resources are prohibited due to security reasons.

5.1 Metallic minerals

5.1.1 Gold
In Malaysia, gold is the most important metallic mineral that has been mined for years.
The Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia identified at least 30 gold anomalies
covering a total area of about 2,161 square kilometres in Kelantan State. However, Bukit
Kuang and Kalai gold areas are located in the Transect area.
In Kelantan, gold mining activity has started since the 1920s. In 1997, there were six
alluvial gold mining areas in Kelantan that produced 111 kilograms of gold with revenue of
RM 3.42 million. The first gold mine was situated at the Pulai area in Gua Musang. Starting
from here, mining activities were widely distributed throughout the state from Sungai Galas
and Sungai Pergau areas up to the Kalai area along the border of Kelantan State (Malaysia)
and Narathiwat Province (Thailand). Rookeowell (1923) reported that the headwater of
Sungai Pergau such as Tekok, Chinong and Chupan (situated in Kalai) were the most
important gold areas.

Bukit Kuang gold area

In early 1989, the former Geological Survey of Malaysia discovered alluvial gold flakes
during reconnaissance geochemical survey at the Bukit Kuang area. Subsequently, Ab. Halim
Hamzah et al. (1991) conducted systematic gold exploration at the Bukit Kuang area. This
gold exploration included the sampling of stream sediments (covering 30 square kilometres)
and followed by grid soil sampling (0.6 square kilometres) over Bukit Kecil which could be
the source of the gold mineralisation in the area. A total of 123 stream sediments, 124 heavy
mineral concentrates (stream), 23 rocks, 784 soils and 608 concentrates from soil samples
were collected. The stream sediments and rock samples were analysed for gold and 16 others
elements (Ag, As, Co, Cu, Hg, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sn, Pb, U, Sb, Bi, Zn, and W). The heavy
mineral concentrates (stream) were analysed for Au and 13 other elements (Pb, Ni, Co, Ag,
 - 45 -

Mo, Cu, Zn, As, Sn, W, U, Sb, and Bi) and the soil samples were analysed for Au, As, Pb, Co,
Hg, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Ba. Hence, the concentrate samples from soil were analysed for Au.
Geologically, this area is underlain by Permian volcano-sedimentary rocks such as quartzite,
shale and tuff.
The results indicated that the southern half of the area is significant for gold. The weak
Au-Pb-Zn-Mn-Fe-Ni-Co anomalous stream sediment values are correlatable with the higher
Au anomalous heavy mineral concentrate (stream) results. Based on this result, five
anomalous zones were defined, two of which coincide with N750 and N2900 trending aerial
photo lineaments. These two zones are classified as Priority 1 and the remaining three are
Priority 2 targets.
Stream sediment gold results showed that 20% of the samples are above 50 ppb, and 7%
above 100 ppb. The maximum value is 1.55 ppm. Heavy mineral concentrate (stream) gold
results showed that 15% of the samples are above 50 mg/m3 and 5% samples are above 100
mg/m3. The maximum value is 805 mg/m3.
The grid soil sampling results from the Bukit Kecil area coincided with the results shown
by the stream sediment and heavy mineral concentrates. Gold flakes were commonly
observed in soil concentrate samples. At the southern half of Bukit Kecil, the idealised
correlation between the higher Au tenor results and the more anomalous soil Au value (> 50
ppb Au) is identified. The best Au zones coincide with intersection of lineaments. A few
intersections of lineaments show that the Au value in soil is above 200 ppb and the highest
gold tenor value in soil concentrate is 359 mg/m3.

Kalai gold area

This area is underlain by metasedimentary rocks, which are close to the granite intrusion.
The metasediments consist of interbedded metargillites and metarenites of the Mangga
formation, Tiang schist and hornfelsic rocks of the Telong formation. Minor intrusion
especially quartz veins/stringers and microdiorite veins can be observed in the study area.
Prior to 1923, prospecting and mining in the Kalai area were carried out mainly for gold.
After 1923, there was no record of exploration work until 1980s when the former Geological
Survey Department of Malaysia and Malaysia Mining Corporation (MMC) separately carried
out exploration in the Transect area. From the year 1987 to 1995, 14 Prospecting Permits (PP)
and 4 mining certificates (MC) were issued. At present, local people are still working for gold
in Kampung Lawar by panning.
Rookewell (1923) reported that the Ulu Pergau area comprised of 2.8 square kilometres
of mineral potential land i.e. 1.6 square kilometres (at Berching and Rezorback, 0.4 square
kilometres (Tekok) and 0.8 square kilometres (at Chupan and Chinong). Large amounts of
Gold in these areas had been mined from the ore bodies and alluvial deposits by Chinese
miners from the Chinong and Chupan areas. The ore occured in hard, grey to yellow
ferruginous quartz veins and in many cases the gold could be clearly visible by the naked eye.
These veins strike nearly N-S, with dips varying from 70 to 85 degrees towards the East.
Their thickness varies from eight to 38 cm at Berching and Razorback, around 2 m at Tekuk,
which is about 244 m below the Berching outcrops, and 60 90 cm at Chinong and Chupan.
Rookewell also found 18 old tunnels, which were driven above the water table into the
hillside (because they were no pumps to handle the water at that time) where miners had
mined on the surface.
Chu et al. (1982) carried out reconnaissance geochemical sampling in the Upper Pergau
area, covering Kampung Kalai Baru in the north, up to Batu Melintang and Kampung
Bendang Lawar in the southern part, with an areal coverage of about 63 square kilometres.
Subsequently, Safeen Baharuddin (1987) carried out follow-up geochemical sampling in that
 - 46 -

area. Stream sediment results showed that the area has mineral potential for gold and lead.
The highest tenor of the gold value in heavy mineral concentrate was 1,574.68 mg/m3, located
at a tributary of Sungai Tadoh. Other elements also showed potentially high values i.e. tin
(Sn) and lead (Pb) in the north, nickel (Ni) in the central part and lead (Pb) and uranium (U)
in the southern part. The background values of gold from various types of rock samples
analysed (Mr. Amran of Malayan Mining Corporation and Mr. Safeen Baharuddin; personal
communication) show that: slate - 0.006 ppm to 0.007 ppm, phyllite - 0.005 ppm to 0.035
ppm, schist - 0.011 ppm, tuff: 0.007 ppm to 0.029 ppm and granodiorite 0.009 ppm.
The stream sediment results obtained from reconnaissance survey for gold carried out by
Mohd Azmer Ashaari et al. (1995) in the Kampung Kalai and Bukit Berching areas, within
the contacts of the sediment and granite bodies showed that maximum gold (Au) value was
132 ppb and the highest grade and tenor in heavy mineral concentrate were 214 ppm and 383
mg/m3, respectively.
Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin et al. (in manuscript) also carried out reconnaissance
geochemical sampling for 18 elements (including Au) on stream sediments and heavy mineral
concentrates collected in the area close to the granite intrusion underlain by interbedded
metargillite and metarenites of the Mangga and the Telong formations. Based on these
geochemical data, the Kalai area was interpreted as a geochemical anomalous area and rated
as Priority 1, which covers about 14 square kilometres i.e from Kampung Kalai Baru in the
southern part to the north close to the Malaysia-Thailand border. An immediate follow-up
study was proposed. The geochemical sampling results showed that the area is potential for
gold (Au) and Barium (Ba). The highest tenor for gold in heavy mineral concentrate was
391.874 mg/m3, located at a tributary of Sungai Tadoh and the lower tenor ranges from 013
ppm to 0.948 ppm. Gold (Au) recovered from the stream sediments ranges from 0.013 ppm to
0.948 ppm.
Gold is the most well known mineral in the To Mo area, located in the Sukhirin District,
Narathiwat Province, which covers Ban To Mo sheet (5320 IV) in a series of topographic
map (scale 1:50,000). It is a primary deposit and has been exploited since the late 1890s. The
first production came out during the year 1936-1940 when a French company called Societe
de Mines d Or de Litcho exploited gold deposits by underground mining. As much as 6,000
ounces (170 kg) of gold were recovered during that period. In 1984, the deposit was back into
the limelight with renewal of the mining right by Cholasin Co. Ltd. During 19901996, the
production was recorded at 230 kilograms (Nuchanong, 1999).
Before the mining operation was stopped, gold was mined along quartz veins 30-50 cm in
width; production reduced when the gold reserve was no more economic. Subsequently, in
1994, the Cholasin Company employed the Mineral Resources Office, Region 1 (Songkhla) to
explore gold deposits around the To Mo area, especially, along Khlong Ti Moong and its
branches covering an area of about 20 square kilometres to the northwestern part of the To
Mo mine. The results revealed the presence of some gold in stream sediments with the
average grade ranging from 0.057 to 0.106 g/ton. It is interesting to recognise that gold is
disseminated in quartz veins, which occurred in the area, the grade is up to 0.42 g/ton
(Fuangthong et al., 1994).
The gold potential area in Thailand is confined to Cretaceous granodiorite, granite,
andesite and quartz veins/dykes, which intruded the Carboniferous-Permain rocks. Gold
mineralisation occurs in N-S trending quartz veins. These veins are 0.1 to 2.2 m thick, and the
common associated minerals are pyrite and arsenopyrite, which are usually below 3 %.
Mineable reserve calculated by Cholasin at the beginning of the operation was 100,000 tons at
7 g/ton of gold metal.
 - 47 -

(a) (b)
Figure 28: Gold nuggets discovered by panning (a) and gravel bed with gold deposits (b).

During the reconnaissance exploration, stream sediment samples were collected along
Khlong Ai Ti Moong and its tributaries extending northward from the To Mo area. Generally,
gold was recovered by panning in gravel bed, varies from dust up to 3 mm in size (Figure 28).
The gold potential area covers about 80 square kilometres.

5.1.2 Chromite
In Thailand, chromite has been mined at Bu Yong hill, Ban Ai Sue Rae of Cha Nae
District, topographic map Amphoe Si Sakhon sheet (5321 III). The deposit was discovered as
podiform in the Permian-Triassic ultrabasic rocks. Ultrabasic rocks intruded the Permo-
Carboniferous shale, slaty shale, phyllitic shale and phyllite, along a well defined zone
trending NE-SW. Chromite samples collected from the mine are massive, euhedral crystals
with brown to dark brown colours and average chemical analysis revealed Cr2O3 = 42.5 %,
Fe2O3 = 18.2 % and Cr/Fe ratio 2.37/1 (Suwannasing, 1962).
During the joint field checks, ultrabasic rocks were found extending southward at Ban Ai
Ba Lo, Ban Chang Phuak and Ban Ai Bue Nae of Cha Nae District (Figure 29). However, no
chromite deposit has been reported in Malaysia.

5.1.3 Manganese
In Malaysia, manganese ores are located at Gual Periok and Rantau Panjang areas. There
are four manganese deposits discovered at Bukit Lubuk Itek, Bukit Gharu, Bukit Tandok and
Bukit Pak Junus at the Gual Periok area, whereas, Bukit Kuang at Rantau Panjang area (Table
1). MacDonald (1967) reported that the Japanese Company had mined manganese in the year
1953 at the Bukit Tandok area, Bukit Gharu in 1937 and Bukit Lubuk Itek in 1942. Up to
1954, a number of companies investigated the areas and concluded that these mines were no
longer economical. In 1959, the Eastern Minerals and Trading continued to mine these
deposits.
In Thailand, three manganese mines are located along the mountainous areas, Ban Ai Ba
Lo in the Ban To Mo map sheet (5320 IV). Mineral samples were collected from Ban Chang
Phuak mine and were identified to be psilomelane and rhodonite (Figure 30). Generally, they
occur in quartz veins that cut into phyllitic shale of Permo-Carboniferous age.
According to field investigation, the occurrences of manganese are still present in these
areas, covering an area of about 6 square kilometres. However, these areas are now being
reserved for forestry conservation under the name of Suan Pa Sirikit.
 - 48 -

5.1.4 Iron Deposits

In Malaysia, there are two iron ore deposits are found at Temangan (N5o 40, E102o 8) and
Bukit Kuang (N5o 55, E101o 57), Kelantan. Other occurrences in Kelantan State (outside the
Transect area) are at Chaning Estate, Kuala Krai (N5o 27, E102o 12), Ulu Anak Sungai
Telong (N5o 39, E102o 04), Gua Musang (N4o 53, E101o 58), Sungai Tasin (N5o 14, E102o
01) and Kuala Bala (N5o 26, E10o 55).

Temangan
The Temangan deposit is situated within a broad westward curve of Sungai Kelantan. The
terrain is below 1,200 m high and expressed as hilly to undulating. The mine is situated along
the north-south trending 220 m high ridge. The deposit was probably discovered in 1921.
Ishihara Sangyo Koshi initiated prospecting activities, but this company did not consider the
deposit to be of economic interest. In 1934, the Southern Mining Company re-prospected the
area, and estimated the reserves to be 6 million tonnes. This company commenced production
during 1935 but did not export any ore until 1937. All production ceased in 1941 and the
mine remained idle throughout the period of Japanese occupation. Ore which had previously
been stockpiled, was smelted locally at Temangan Bharu during and after the Japanese
occupation, until the supply was exhausted.
 - 49 -

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 29: Chromite mine at Ban Bu Yong (a) and associated
ultrabasic rocks at Ban Chang Phuak (b) and Ban Ai Bue Nae
(c).

Figure 30: The manganese mine at Ban Chang Phuak (left) and close-up outcrop of psilomelane at this mine
 Table 1: Summary of manganese deposits in the study area (Malaysian side).

Year Table 1: Summary ofMethod

manganese
of deposits in the study area (cont.)
Locality Area study Reserve Grade Remarks
vestigation investigation

Gual Periok 1955 Solid ore; limonite and Pitting (20 60,702.8 m2 4,200 Mn 46.5 Shale striking
area: manganese boulders. holes) (only 4,046.9 % to the north
(N5o 56 m2 of potential and dipping
E102o 2) area) towards the
Bt. Lubuk Itek east. A few
manganese ore
with sizes up to
2.4m in
diameters are
noted.

Bukit Gharu 1955 Residual deposit from Trenching and 64,749.7 m2 4,500 Mn 33 % Country rock
shale- Psilomelane with Pitting (48 consists of
some pyrolusite in the holes). shale. Mined
red earth as by Japanese
concretionary masses, company
solid boulders, (Production:
limonite-magnetite and 100,000 tonnes
maganiferous shale. Mn ore). The
opencast mine:
240 m length,
50 m width and
2.5 m depth.

- 50 -
Country rock
Bukit Tandok Has been Residual deposit from Trenching Not Not Up to 65 of shale;
 mined since shale (psilomelane with mentioned mentioned % Mn reddish in
1935 a little pyrolusite occur colour with
as reniform, botryoidal quartz and
and mammillary calcite veins
concretions in the red and a little
earth and clay). quartzite.
Mined by
Japanese
company
(production:
69,124 tonne)

Bukit Pak Secondary deposit of Pitting Not 42,000 Average: Country rock
Jurus limonite pebbles and (47 holes) mentioned 8.13% of shale.
psilomelane and small Mn
sizes of solid (No
manganese. economic
value)

Rantau 1960 Secondary deposit with Pitting 121,875 m2 1,226,145 2.02% Country rocks
Panjang area iron boulders: (42 holes) Mn of sandstone
haematite & limonite 58 % Fe and Quartzite.
N5o 55 E101o

- 51 -
57
 - 52 -

There was little interest shown on the iron ore deposit immediately after the war, but in
1955 the deposit was re-prospected by a Malaysian-Japanese group and the result showed the
iron ore deposit was still economical for mining. The Oriental Mining Company commenced
production in 1958 and exhausted the deposit by the end of 1965. The ore body lies along the
north-south line of the rock contact between the Taku schist to the west and shales to the east.
Just east of this contact there is a large quartz-porphyry dyke, which follows the regional
strike but transgresses the bedding. East of the dyke, interbedded shale, volcanic and
pyroclastic rocks are present.
Diamond drill core has shown that beneath the main ore bodies, siderite veins and veinlets
cut the shale. The shale in most places is grey or greyish-white in colour and contains some
arenaceous and tuffaceous bands. An interesting mineralogical occurrence observed on a
schist-tuff contact consists of a sheared and highly altered rock in white and apple green
bands, and contains the chrome mica, fuchsite, and a chromium-bearing pyroxene.
The ores are essentially limonite with subordinate hematite and often contain a significant
percentage of manganese. Two varieties of limonite were noted, hard brownish black and
bluish-banded ore. The banded ore contains large cavities up to 3 m in diameter, and these are
lined with hard, black, botryoidal ore. Some of the large cavities contain well-developed
stalactites and stalagmites of limonite, and the smaller ones had pseudomorph of psilomelane
after manganite. The more massive iron ore contains large cavities, but they are usually much
smaller than those in the banded ore.
The main ore bodies were formed as secondary deposits as the result of solution and re-
deposition by circulating waters of pre-existing iron-bearing materials, and information as to
an adequate source of the iron was found in some of the deeper diamond-drill holes. After the
consolidation of the shale a period of crustal disturbance produced shearing and faulting along
the shale-schist contact. These showed that shale had been subjected to hydrothermal activity
in the form of silicification, pyritisation, and impregnation by veins of siderite and it is
thought the siderite was the parent from which the limonite and hematite were derived.
Prolonged weathering produced a secondary limonitic ore from the siderite and country rocks
by the process of solution and redeposition. The manganese originally associated with the
primary carbonate mineralisation was redeposited in the same manner. Minor crustal
movements caused east-west faulting with some displacement of the ore bodies. The
hydrothermal solutions produced the quartz-porphyry dyke located east of the Temangan
deposit. It appears significant that iron ore occurs at intervals along the length of the dyke and
the Temangan deposit is located where the dyke reaches it maximum width.
The ore composition is medium grade and most of it contains a considerable percentage of
manganese. Representative analyses are shown in Table 2. Its production is presented in
Table 3.

Table 2: The composition of iron ore discovered in the Temangan area.

Constituent Percentages
Sample
Fe SiO2 Al2O3 Mn P S H2O
Average 1937 49.86 7.71 4.44 3.00 0.071 0.02 10.42
Average 1941 54.69 4.28 2.71 2.13 0.076 0.04 10.65
Average 1937-41 56.30 4.10 1.55 2.26 0.076 0.04 10.56
Average of 21 samples 56.57 2.47 1.47 3.78 0.037 0.05 4.26
Average of 8 samples 53.07 4.96 - 2.07 - - -
from adits
 - 53 -

Table 3: The annual production of iron ore in the Temangan area.

Year Production (Long Tonnes)

1935 150,000
1936 127,000
1937 130,000
1938 150,000
1939 180,000
1940 200,000
1941 200,000
1942-57 Nil
1958 293,717
1959 402,751
1960 593,219
1961 617,739
1962 497,823
1963 464,503
1964 476,237
1965 373,225
Total 4,856,214

Bukit Kuang
An iron ore deposit in this area appears as boulders of limonite and hematite and their
primary body is believed to be at depth. The ore reserve is estimated to be 1.5 million tonnes
with a grade of 55% Fe. There is no record of production and detailed description of iron ore
from this area.

5.1.5 Alteration zones

Iron deposit has not yet been found in Thailand. However, there is a burrow pit at Ban
Muno, 6 km from Sungai Kolok, on the topographic map Ban Ko Sathon sheet (5421 III). The
country rocks consist of weathered andesitic tuff, agglomerate of Permo-Triassic age (Figure
31). The geology is related to a strong and very complicated alteration. Generally, clay
minerals and pyrite are widespread, and the large number of thin quartz veins cut the country
rocks.
Accordingly, it is interesting to note that this area is also potential for base metals and
gold deposits. During field checks, 53 soil samples were collected for chemical analysis.
Subsequently, the results reveal that Cu = 13-310 ppm, Pb = 4-190 ppm, Zn = 3-94 ppm, Au
= 4-59 ppb (detection limit = 3 ppb). The results mentioned above revealed significant
mineralisation.
The exposure at Kampung Bukit Lata near the Bukit Perdah area extends eastward in
Malaysia. They are classified as a part of the Tanah Merah volcanics which are composed of
tuffaceous argillite and andesitic tuff. The rocks consist of iron enrichment. Clay minerals
altered from feldspar phenocrysts, quartz and also pyrite are widespread in the volcanic rocks.
Currently, mineral resources in this area are not considered to be economical
 - 54 -

(b)

(a)
Figure 31: Photographs of the original country rocks of the Permo-Triassic Volcanic rock in the Ban Muno area
(a) and the alteration feature of the country rocks in the Ban Muno area (b).

5.2 Non-metallic minerals and others

In Malaysia, non-metallic minerals such as granite, limestone, sand, clay, soil and barite,
were developed and exploited in the Kelantan State. In 1997, a value of RM 36.2 million was
attributed to non-metallic minerals mined in Kelantan. This income came largely from mining
clay/soil (RM1.6 million), sand (RM4.4 million), limestone aggregate (RM3.8 million), barite
(RM0.2 million) and granite aggregate (RM26.1 million).

5.2.1 Granite
Granite resources suitable for construction material is abundant in Malaysia. However,
there is only one quarry site, Sebarang Bina Quarry situated near Kemahang currently
producing road aggregates and construction materials.
Pink porphyritic Noring granite and fine-grained foliated/non-foliated Kenerong granite
has potential sources for dimension stone. Perhaps the Kemahang granite is suitable for
feldspar extraction indicated by the high feldspar content. A detailed study should be done for
its economic potential.
5.2.2 River sand
In Malaysia, sand deposited in the river valley particularly that of Sungai Pergau can be
used for construction material.
 - 55 -

5.2.3 Clay
In Malaysia, there are five clay deposits with an estimated reserve of 20.3 millions tonnes
of ball clay and 51.5 million tonnes of mottled clay found in the Pengkalan Kubur area (Mohd
Suhaili Ismail et al., 1993), Bukit Pak Junos (Zainol Abidin et al., 1994) and Kampung
Bakong Kechik, Kampung Gertak 3 and Padang Lichin, Gual Lensa and Kampung Cherang
Hangus (Zainol Abidin et al.,1995a). Summary of their reserves is shown in Table 4.

Gual Lemsa and Kampung Cherang Hangus ball clay

Follow-up ball clay investigation in these areas leads to discovery of a deposit covering
823 hectares in the Gual Lemsa and Kampung Cherang Hangus areas, Pasir Mas. Two types
of ball clay, namely, mottled ball clay and unmottled ball clay were identified. The ball clays
occur as lenses (Zainol Abidin et al., 1995a).

Table 4: Summary of clay reserves in the study area.

Measured reserved
No. Potential area Type of clay (million metric
tonne)
Kampung Geretak Tiga
Ball clay 1.8
1. and Kampung Padang
Mottled clay 3.9
Lichin.
Gual Lemsa and Cherang Ball clay 10.3
2.
Hangus Mottled clay 23.2
Ball clay 2.4
3. Kampung Bakong Kechik
Mottled clay 14.4
4. Pengkalan Kubur Ball clay 1.2
Ball clay 4.6
5. Bukit Pak Junus
Mottled clay 10.0
Total: Ball clay 20.3
Mottled clay 51.5

The mottled ball clay occurs mainly at the upper part of the deposit. Its thickness ranges
from 0.2 to 8.0 m with an average of 2.3 m. This red clay has medium plasticity and medium
to good green strength. The fired colour at 1,1000C is light pink to light red. The clay is
comparable with some of the ball clays used for local tile, vitrified clay pipe, art ware and
brick industries.
The unmottled ball clay layers have an average thickness of 1.2 m. The clay, light grey in
colour, has generally medium to good green strength and medium to good plasticity. Its Si02
content ranges from 48.0 to 62.2%. The A12O3 content ranges from 24.5 to 33.6% and the
Fe2O3 content ranges from 1.14 to 2.6%. The fired colour at 1,1000C is predominantly off-
white. The clay is comparable with some ball clays currently being used by the local tile,
sanitary ware, tableware and artware industries.
The minimum reserve of the clay deposit based on a 200 m grid bore hole spacing is
estimated at 33.5 million tonnes, comprising 23.2 million tonnes of mottled ball clay and 10.3
million tonnes of unmottled ball clay. The overburden is estimated to be 44 million tonnes.
 - 56 -

Kampung Geretak Tiga and Kampung Padang Lichin ball clays

Result of a follow-up clay investigation in these areas, a deposit covering 77 hectares has
been discovered. Two types of ball clay, namely mottled ball clay and unmottled ball clay
were identified. The ball clays occur as lenses (Zainol Abidin et al., 1995b).
The mottled ball clay occurs mainly at the upper part of the deposit. The thickness of the
clay ranges from 0.1 to 6.5 m with an average of 2.3 m. The clay, largely red in colour, has
medium plasticity and good green strength. The fired colour at 1,1000C is light pink. The clay
is comparable with those used for the local tile, vitrified clay pipe, art ware and brick
industries.
The unmottled ball clay layers have a thickness of up to 4.0 m. The clay, light grey in
colour, has medium to good green strength and medium plasticity. Its SiO2 content ranges
from 46.5 to 56.5%. The A12O3 content ranges from 27.9 to 35.0% and the Fe203 content
ranges from 1.23 to 2.26%. The fired colour at 1,1000C is predominantly off-white. The clay
is comparable with those currently being used for the local tile, sanitary ware, table and art
ware industries.
The minimum measured reserve of the deposit is estimated at 5.7 million tonnes
comprising 3.9 million tonnes of mottled ball clay and 1.8 million tonnes of unmottled ball
clay. The overburden is estimated to be 8.7 million tonnes.

Kampung Bakong Kechik ball clays

Follow-up ball clay investigation in this area has resulted in the delineation of a deposit
covering 292 hectares in the Kampung Bakong Kechik area, Pasir Mas. Two types of ball
clay, namely mottled ball clay and unmottled ball clay were identified. The ball clays occur as
lenses.
The mottled ball clay occurs mainly at the upper part of the deposit. The thickness of the
clay ranges from 0.5 to 8.0 m with an average of 3.3 m. The clay, largely red in colour, has
medium to high plasticity and medium to good green strength. The fired colour at 1,1000C
ranges from light brown to red. The clay is comparable with those used for the local tile,
vitrified clay pipe, art ware and brick industries.
The unmottled ball clay layers have an average thickness of 1.9 m. The clay, light grey in
colour; has generally good green strength and medium plasticity. Its Si02 content ranges from
51.6 to 69.6%. The A12O3 content ranges from 21.3 to 30.7% and the Fe203 content ranges
from 1.15 to 2.37%. The fired colour at 1,1000C is predominantly off white. The clay is
comparable with those currently being used for the local tile, sanitary ware, tableware and art
ware industries.
The minimum measured clay reserve of the deposit based on a 200 m grid borehole
spacing is estimated at 16.8 million tonnes comprising 14.4 million tonnes of mottled ball
clay and 2.4 million tonnes of unmottled ball clay. The overburden is estimated to be 3.6
million tonnes (Zainol Abidin et al., 1995c).

Pengkalan Kubur area ball clay

A reconnaissance survey revealed two potential areas (on the basis of quality, thickness
and extent of the unmottled ball clay deposit) at Kampong Kajang SebidangKampong
Kubang SawaKampong Palas Merah and Kampong Ninchang in Tumpat District. The
unmottled ball clays occur as lenses. The total reserve is 1.2 million tonnes (Mohd Suhaili
Ismail et al., 1993).
 - 57 -

At the Kampong Kajang SebidangKampong Kubang SawaKampong Palas Merah area,

the unmottled ball clay layers have thicknesses ranging from 1.3 m to 2.1 m and the colour is
light grey. Its SiO2 content ranges from 53.0 to 56.8 %. The Fe2O3 content ranges from 1.32 -
1.79 % and the TiO2 content ranges from 0.58 - 0.89 %. The fired colour at 1,100 0C is off-
white.
At the Kampong Ninchang area, the ball clay layers have an average thickness of 1.1 m
and are light grey in colour. Its SiO2 content is high (65.2 %). The Fe2O3 and TiO2 contents
are 1.64 % and 0.74 % respectively. The fired colour at 900 0C, 1,000 0C and 1,100 0C is off-
white.

Bukit Pak Junus area ball clay

Follow-up ball clay investigation in this area has resulted in the delineation of a deposit
covering 362 hectares in the Bukit Pak Junus area, Pasir Mas (Zainol Abidin et al., 1994).
Two types of ball clay, namely, mottled ball clay and unmottled ball clay were identified. The
ball clays occur as lenses.
The mottled ball clay occurs mainly at the upper part of the deposit. The thickness of the
clay ranges form 0.2 to 6.4 m with an average of 1.9 m. The clay, largely red in colour, has
medium to high plasticity and medium to good green strength. The fired colour at 1,1000C
ranges form pink to mainly orange and reddish brown. The clay is comparable with those
used for the local tile, vitrified clay pipes, art ware and brick industries.
The unmottled ball clay layers have an average thickness of 1.32 m. The clay, light grey
in colour, has generally good green strength and medium plasticity. Its Si02 content ranges
from 53.0 to 70.7%. The A1203 content ranges from 17.5 to 31.0% and the Fe203 content
ranges from 0.96 to 2.46%. The fired colour at 1,1000C is predominantly off-white. The clay
is comparable with those already used for the local tile, sanitary ware, tablewares and art ware
industries.
The measured reserve of the clay deposit is estimated at 14.6 million tonnes comprising
10 million tonnes of mottled ball clay and 4.6 million tonnes of unmottled ball clay. The
overburden is estimated to be 15 million tonnes.

5.2.4 Crystalline limestone

Outcrops of crystalline limestone are observed at Gunung Reng, close to Sungai Tadoh. It
occurs as lenses trending N-S and continuing near the border area. In the southern part, these
rocks can also be observed at the Gua Setir area. The rock is light grey to grey, thin bedded to
massive. Sometimes it shows light- and dark-banded layers. Detailed study is recommended
in the near future to determine the potential of this rock for dimension stone and others such
as cement, calcium carbonate powder, quick lime and hydrated lime industries.
The Gunung Reng area may have the potential to be developed for the tourism industry
due to its beautiful panoramic scene.

5.2.5 Barite
In Malaysia, barite deposit was discovered only at Bukit Pencuri in the District of Tanah
Merah which is associated with hematite. The percentage of BaSO4 analysed from three
samples collected is shown below:
 - 58 -

BaSO4 (%) Fe2O (%) Specific Gravity

Sample 1 57.6 38.1 4.5
Sample 2 64.6 32.5 4.6
Sample 3 79.2 7.11 4.0

The barite ore can be used as a weighting agent in drilling fluid for oil-well exploration.
Currently, this mine is closed. There was no production recorded from this abandoned mine.

6. Discussion and conclusion

Discussion
i. Lithostratigraphically, the Silurian-Devonian Tiang schist/Ban Sa formation (SDts/bs)
is considered as the oldest rock unit in the Transect area. The rock unit crops out at
two localities i.e. in the west, it forms a north-south belt from Ai Ku Sa stream
(Thailand) to Bukit Luat Lantai down to Kuala Sungai Machang (Malaysia), and in
the east it is restricted to stream outcrops near Ban Sa and road-cut outcrops at Ban
Ba La, the southern part of Waeng District, Narathiwat Province, Thailand. It
consists mainly of medium- to thick-banded paragneiss and augen gneiss with
subordinate amphibolite schist, schist and hornfels. No fossils were found within
this rock unit.
ii. The succession of Carboniferous-Permian clastic rocks can be subdivided into two
formations in ascending order: the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl)
and the Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt).
a. In Malaysia, the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) is
represented by the Mangga formation (CPmg), a low grade metamorphic
sequence that was subdivided into 4 facies: argillaceous (CPmgag), arenaceous
(CPmgar), pyroclastic (CPmgpy), and calcareous (CPmgcl) facies. The argillaceous
facies consists mainly of metamorphosed siliceous shale, slate, phyllite,
metasiltstone and hornfels. The arenaceous facies consists of metasandstone
and metagraywacke interbedded with minor metasiltstone and schist. The
pyroclastic facies is composed mainly of rhyolitic tuff occurring as lenses
within arenaceous and argillaceous strata. The calcareous facies consists of
impured marble and pure white marble that occur as lenses within the
argillaceous, arenaceous and pyroclastic facies. The rock units are exposed at
the upper reaches of Sungai Machang extending southeastwards to Kampung
Gunung.
b. In Thailand, the Mangga/Ai Ka Po/Ka Lu Bi formation (CPmg/ak/kl) is
represented by the Ai Ka Po formation (CPak) and the Ka Lu Bi formation
(CPkl). The Ai Ka Po formation is exposed as a narrow N-S trending ridge.
This formation is composed mainly of thin- to thick-bedded, tuffaceous
sandstone, quartzite and metaconglomerates. The Ka Lu Bi formation (CPkl) is
the gradational fining upward sequence from the former formation. The
succession, well exposed at low relief terrain, consists of cycles of thin- to
medium-bedded, shales, sandstones and conglomerates with quartz vein and
dyke at the lower part. In the upper part, sharp, even, very thin bedded or
rhythmic sequence of shales and siltstones are intercalated with very fine-
grained sandstones.
c. The Taku schist/Buke Ta formation (CPtk/bt) is well distributed in the
southeastern part of the Transect area within Malaysia, whereas in Thailand, it
 - 59 -

is locally distributed at Ban Buke Ta and Mae Nam Kolok. These rock units
comprise predominantly schists, which are wholly crystalline and generally
completely schistosed. Mica schist is the main rock type, which consists of
quartz-mica schist, mica-garnet schist and quartz-mica-garnet.
Local deformation and low-grade metamorphism took place in the shear and contact
zones, and metamorphosed the original rocks to slate, phyllite, phyllitic shale and
spotted slate. No fossil has been found in these formations and the thickness of the
succession is still indeterminable. However, evidences shown by the intrusion of the
well-dated Triassic granite and the stratigraphic position of the rocks enable the
working group to assume that the age of the rocks is Carboniferous-Permian.
iii. The Permian-Triassic succession of the Ai Ba Lo formation (PTrab) is confined to
the northwestern part of the Transect area (within Thailand). It mainly consists of
sharp, even, thin- bedded cherts with recrystalline radiolarian intercalated with
stringering shale beds and rare volcaniclastic sediments. The succession obviously
exhibits instability of the basin during the time of deposition because of igneous
activities. Stratigraphically, the age of these chert strata is considered as belonging
to the Permian-Triassic Period.
iv. The Permian-Triassic succession of the Telong formation (PTrtl) is confined to the
central-south and central part of the Transect area in Malaysia i.e. in Kampung
Legeh and extends eastwards to the Tanah Merah area. The Telong formation
consists mainly of argillite, low-grade metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. It
can be divided into four facies namely: argillaceous (PTrtlag), arenaceous (PTrtlar),
calcareous (PTrtlcl) and volcanic facies (PTrtlpy). No fossils were found so far in the
Transect area. However, based on the bivalves and foraminifera reported found in
the same lithology unit to the south of the Transect area, the age of this formation
may be assumed as Permian-Triassic.
v. The term Bu Yong formation (Trby) is introduced by the Working Groups after the
Bu Yong road cut and the stream across the rock formation in the Ku Mung-Bu
Yong area, Cha Nae District on the western side of Narathiwat Province, Thailand.
The Triassic submarine fanglomerate or the Bu Yong formation (Trby) is not
observed in Malaysia. It is unconformably underlain by the Carboniferous-Permian
and Permian-Triassic rocks. It crops out in the central part of the Transect area. The
Bu Yong formation consists of massive to thick-bedded, conglomerates,
conglomeratic sandstones, with both matrix- and clast-supported types. Clasts are
made up of sandstones, quartz, cherts, and volcanic rocks.
vi. The Panau beds (Kpn) are locally exposed at Bukit Panau and Bukit Jambul about 10
km north of the Tanah Merah town (in Malaysian side) located in the eastern part of
the Transect area. Nonconformity between the Triassic granite and the overlying
sandstone of Panau beds can be observed at an abandoned rock quarry at the foothill
of Bukit Panau. The age of this rock unit is evidently younger than Triassic and is
believed to be Cretaceous; based on plant fragments found in the fine-grained
sandstone beds at the foothill of Bukit Panau.
vii. The unconsolidated sediments within the Transect area were deposited in both
marine and non-marine environments. The Working Group has recognised three
formations (in descending order) i.e. Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation (Qhgl/tb),
Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok formation (Qhbr/sk) and Simpang Formation/Waeng
formation (Qpsk/wg).
a. The marine Holocene sediments of the Gula Formation/Tak Bai formation are
subdivided (from top to bottom) into five members: Recent beach member
 - 60 -

(Qhrbgl/tb), Matang Gelugor Member/Old beach member (Qhmtobgl/tb), Peat

swamp member (Qhpbstb), Teluk Intan Member/Tidal flat (Qhtitfgl/tb), and Bagan
Datoh Member/Shallow marine members (Qhbdsmgl/tb). However, the Peat
swamp member is only exposed extensively in Thailand.
b. The non-marine Holocene sediments of the Beruas Formation/Sungai Kolok
formation can be subdivided into four members: Natural levee member,
Abandoned channel member, Floodplain member and Pengkalan member.
However, the Pengkalan member is only observed in Malaysia. It is mainly
characterised by silty clay, sand, and gravel with abundant mottles and iron
concretions.
c. The non-marine Pleistocene deposits consist of the Colluvium/Terrace and
Former floodplain members of the Simpang Formation/Waeng formation
which is dominantly characterised by gravel, sand, silt, and laterite.
viii. The Permo-Triassic volcanic rocks are subdivided into two sub-units: the
intermediate volcanic association of the Tanah Merah/Muno Volcanics (PTrvtn/mn)
and the Ku Mung volcanic complex (PTrvkm). In Malaysia, the Tanah Merah/Muno
volcanic (PTrvtn/mn) is composed of andesite flow, andesitic tuff and agglomerate
but predominantly pyroclastics. It is mostly extrusive in nature, probably
contemporaneous with the deposition of the associated sediments and pyroclastics.
In Thailand, the Tanah Merah/Muno volcanic (PTrvtn/mn) is only represented by a
small hill in Ban Mu No, near Mae Nam Kolok at the east of the Transect area. It
comprises strongly sheared and altered andesite, andesitic tuff and agglomerate.
Serpentinite and relicts of ultramafic and mafic rocks with podiform chromite
deposit of the Ku Mung volcanic complex (PTrvkm) are located as a narrow NE-SW
trending body in the central part of the Transect area. Pillow (lava) basalt, basaltic
andesite and gabbro are well exposed along Mae Nam Sai Buri located in the
central part of the Transect area. The unit is closely related with the Ai Ba Lo
formation (PTrab).
ix. The Temangan Ignimbrite (Trvtg) presents a prominent ridge about 10 km long and
800 m wide, trending approximately N-S. The nature of the contact can be observed
in the Temangan area, which shows the N-S trending ridge cutting the shale and
sandstone. This evidence suggests an intrusive nature for the ignimbrite, which
intruded along the Lebir Fault zone (Aw, 1967). However, the rock unit is currently
not found in Thailand. The ignimbrite forms a hard massive outcrop with minor
flow structure. The texture on the whole is quite homogenous and there is no visible
change either laterally or vertically.

Conclusion
i. Problems on the discontinuity among time rock unit boundaries between the
Paleozoic rocks to Quaternary deposits, and the extension of granitic rocks
(including the mineral association), in both the Malaysian and Thai sides have been
satisfactorily resolved.
ii. Historically, marine sedimentation took place continuously throughout the
Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic Eras, but nevertheless, the large breaks can be
observed due to instability of the depositional basins during the Devonian-
Carboniferous and Early Triassic.
iii. The Paleozoic rock sequences were intruded by the two bodies of granitic rocks.
The N-S trending granitic rocks in the central part of the Transect area consist of the
 - 61 -

equigranular to porphyritic biotite-hornblende granite with muscovite occuring as

secondary mineral resulting from the alteration of K-feldspar and/or biotite. Many
phases of granitic rock types are also found in the eastern flank of the Ba Tu Ta
Mong-Jeli granitic belt. The other belt is located as a N-S trending body in the
western part of the Transect area, consisting of porphyritic biotite-muscovite granite
including aplite and pegmatite with associated Sn-deposit. Structurally, the
Paleozoic succession is characterised by strongly deformed close fold especially in
the Silurian-Devonian succession. Triassic rock sequence generally exhibits open
fold. The strike-slip, normal, reverse and thrust faults are conspicuous with three
main N-S, NW-SE and NE-SW directions.
iv. The N-S trending quartz dykes and some other igneous stocks intruded the country
rocks, especially in the Kalai area in the northern part of the Transect area close to
the Malaysian-Thai border. The contact metamorphism resulted from the igneous
intrusion and its association with the late stage mineralisations can be observed in
the country rocks.
v. Based on the geochemical exploration results carried out earlier in the Transect area
(especially in Malaysia), it is believed that mineral deposits with remaining reserves
are still widespread. However, many parts of high potential areas in both the
Malaysian and Thai sides have been reserved for watershed and forest areas.
Therefore, no immediate exploitation of the economic minerals can be done and
renewals of the existing mining leases will have to follow very tight procedures.
Security is another important issue that has caused the problem in mining in the
proximity of the Malaysia-Thailand border. In the future, when mineral prices
increase and the mining technology developed to a high efficiency in order to
minimize environmental impacts, the situation of appropriate cooperation,
integration of planning and management among the authorities concerned under the
governments initiation will hopefully be improved. Then, the mining industry may
make resume in both countries.

7. Acknowledgements
The Malaysian and Thai Working Groups would like to thank the Malaysia-Thailand
Border Joint Geological Survey Committee for their support and encouragement, the Minerals
and Geoscience Department Malaysia and Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand for
support and funding of this project. Thanks are also due to the Malaysian police and army
officials, and to the Thai military, provincial and border police officials for their help,
especially in security matters.
Thanks are extended to Director of the Geological Survey Division, Department of
Mineral Resources, Thailand, Director of Technical Services Division, Minerals and
Geoscience Department, Malaysia and Director of Minerals and Geoscience Department
Kelantan State for their encouragements during the study.
Last but not least to all Department of Mineral Resources, and Minerals and Geoscience
Department staffs especially from Kelantan State Office for their support and assistance
during the field work.
 - 62 -

8. References
Ab. Halim Hamzah and Mohd Azmer Ashaari, 1991. Gold exploration in Bukit Kuang,
Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Report No: EMR 2/1991. (in Malay).

Aw, P.C., 1978. An Evaluation of the Barite Resources of Peninsular Malaysia. Geological
Survey Malaysia, Report No: MX(N)1/1978.

Aw, P.C., 1967. Ignimbrite in the Central Kelantan, Malaya. Geological Magazine, 104, 13-
17.

Aw, P.C., 1990. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Sungai Aring Area, Kelantan.
Geological Survey Malaysia Memoir, 12. 116 p.

Bignell, J.D., 1972. The geochronology of the Malayan granites. Ph D. Thesis, University of
Oxford, 174,175, 291 (unpublished).

Bignell, J.D. and Snelling, N.J., 1977. Geochronology of Malayan granites. Overseas
Geological and Mineral Resources, 47. Institute of Geological Sciences, London. 77 p.

Biswas, B., 1973. Quaternary changes in sea-level in the South China Sea. In Proceedings of
Regional Conference SE Asia, Geology Society Malaysia Bulletin, No. 6, 229-256.

Bosch, J.H.A., 1986. Young Quaternary Sediments in the coastal plain of Kelantan,
Peninsular Malaysia. Geological Survey Malaysia. Quaternary Geology Section
Report No. QG/2 of 1986, 42 p.

Bosch, J.H.A., 1988. The Quaternary Deposits in the Coastal Plains of Peninsular Malaysia,
Geological Survey Malaysia. Quaternary Geology Section Report No. QG/1 of 1988,
87 p.

Chaimanee, N. and Tiyapairat, S., 1983. Quaternary Geology and Silica Sand Deposits in
Songkhla; Geological Survey Division, DMR, Bangkok, 67 p. (in Thai).

Chaimanee, N., 1999. The Lowland Peat of Thailand: Evolution and Human-Induce hazards,
In Proceedings of the CCOP 35, part-II Technical Reports, Subic Bay, Zambales, The
Plilippines, 251-263.

Chu, L.H., Muntanion, H., Sidik, A., Chand, F. and Troup, A., 1982. Regional
geochemistry of South Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia. Geochemical Report
1.,59 p.

Cobbing, E.J., Mallick, D.I.J., Pitfield, F.E.J. and Teoh, L.H., 1986. The granites of the
South East Asian Tin Belt. Journal of the Geological Society, London. 143, 537-550.

Cobbing, E.J., Pitfield, P.E.J., Darbyshire, D.P.F. and Mallick, D.I.J., 1992. The granites
of the Southeast Asian tin belt. British Geological Survey, Overseas Memoir, 10,
London HMSO, 369 p.
 - 63 -

Corpel, J., and Pebeglia, N., 1987. Malaysia-Airborne Magnetic Survey, Central Belt
Project. A reinterpretation report. French-Malaysia Technical Cooperation.

Dheeradilok, P., Tiyapan, S. and Teerarungsigul, N., 1991. The coastal deposits of Pattani
area, southern Thailand, The Inqua International Symposium on Stratigraphy and
Correlation of Quaternary deposits of the Asian and Pacific Regions, CCOP/TP.22,
87-106.

Fuangthong, S., Maneeprapan, K., Chaiyasen, S. and Sukkhwan, N., 1994. Report on
General Geological and Geochemical Surveys in the area of Khlong Ti Moong,
Sukhirin District, Narathiwat Province, Thailand, technical report submitted to
Cholasin Co. Ltd., 31 p. (in Thai).

GMT, 1995. The Geotechnological Investigation Report, Pigul Thong Project, Narathiwat, 53
p. (in Thai).

Hastings, P., 1983. Polynology and the Vegetation Development of a lowland peat swamp in
Narathiwat, Thailand, In Proceedings of the Annual Technical Meeting 1992, edited;
Thanasuthipitak T., Publication Department of Geological Sciences, Chaing Mai
University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 121-131.

Hutchison, C.S., 1977. Granite emplacement and tectonic subdivision of Peninsular

Malaysia. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 9, 187-207.

Hutchison, C.S., 1996. Geological Evolution of South-east Asia. Second Edition. Geological
Society of Malaysia. 368 p.

Hutchison, C.S. and Taylor, D. 1978. Metallogenesis in South-East Asia. Journal of

Geological Society, London, 135, 407-428., 7 figs, 5 tab.

Kaewyana, W. and Kruse, G.A.M., 1987. On the Muddy Coast Deposits of an Area North
of Songkhla, Southern Thailand, CCOP/ROPEA-R. , 17 p.

Khoo, T.T., 1983. Nature of the contact between the Taku schist and adjacent rocks in the
Manik Urai area, Kelantan and its implications. Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Malaysia, 16,139-158.

Loh, C.H., 1992. Quaternary Geology of the Teluk Intan Area, Perak Darul Ridzuan.
Geological Survey Malaysia, Quaternary Geology Bulletin III, 52 p.

MacDonald, S., 1955. Brief notes on the geology of the valleys of the Pergau and Lebir,
Kelantan. Geological Survey, Federation of Malaya (unpublished).

MacDonald, S., 1963. Field notes volume I, Geologist Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia
(unpublished).

MacDonald, S. 1967. Geology and mineral resources of North Kelantan and North
Terengganu. Geological Survey Malaysia Memoir, Vol. 10, 202 p.
 - 64 -

Mohd Azmer Ashari, Che Abdul Rahman Jaafar and Ong, W.S., 1995. Reconnaissance
Geochemical Exploration for Gold in Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Report
No: EMR 03/95. (in Malay).

Mohd Suhaili Ismail, Mohd Pauzi Abdullah, Loh, C.H. and Teoh, L.H., 1993.
Reconnaissance Ball Clay Investigation in Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia,
Report No: IM 11/93. (in Malay).

Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin, Mohd Badzran Mat Taib, Mohd Sari Hasan,
Selvarajah, M., Askury Abd. Kadir and Mohd Asbi Mohd Zin (in manuscript).
Geology and mineral resources of the Belum area (Sheet 20 and Sheet 11), Perak.
Geological Survey Malaysia (in Malay).

Mohamad Hussein Jamaluddin, Mohd. Badzran Mat Taib and Mohd Sari Hasan (in
manuscript). Geology and mineral resources of the Batu Melintang area (Sheet 21
and Sheet 12), Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia (in Malay).

Mohd Nazan Awang, 1985. Groundwater investigation at Bukit Bunga, Tanah Merah,
Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia Annual Report 1985. pp. 264-291 (in Malay).

Mohd Suhaili Ismail, Mohd Pauzi Abdullah, Loh, C. H. and Teoh, L.H., 1993. Ball Clay
Reconnaissance Study, Kelantan. Industrial Mineral Project, Peninsular Malaysia.
Report no. IM 11/93 (in Malay).

Morris, 1978

Muenlek, S., Meesook, A. and Thongchit, P., 1982. Geology and mineral resources of Sheet
Narathiwas and Betong, southern Thailand. Geological Survey Divivision Report,
Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, Thailand, 1-56: (in Thai).

Muenlek, S., Meesook, A. and Tongchit, P., 1979. Geological map of Changwat
Narathiwat-Kolabaharn, Amphoe Betong, scale 1:250,000, Geological Survey
Division, DMR, Bangkok, Thailand.

Nuchanong, T., 1999. Gold Exploration and Discovery in Thailand; Economic Geology
Technical Report, DMR, Bangkok, 106 p.

Rohayu Che Omar, 1994. Petrochemistry of the Palaeozoic rocks along the East-West
Highway, Gerik-Jeli, Perak/Kelantan. National University of Malaysia MSc. Thesis,
381p. (in Malay).

Rookewell, J., 1923. Kelantan Gold-Report of the consulting Engineer. Straits Times,
February 12, 1923.

Safeen Baharudin, 1987. Gold Investigation in Batu Melintang area, Kelantan. Geological
Survey Malaysia. (in Malay).
 - 65 -

Savage, H.E., 1925. A preliminary account of the geology of Kelantan. Journal Malayan
Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 3, part 1, pp. 61-73.

Sawata, H., 1991. Note on fossil locality of crabs and cuttlefish bone in Pleistocene marine
sandy clay at Sungai Kolok, southeast-most Thailand, Geological Research Project,
Prince of Songkhla University, Thailand, Warta Geologi, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 1-10.

Suntharalingam, T., 1987. The geology of the Quaternary sediments in the coastal plain of
Beruas, Geological Survey Malaysia Quaternary Geology Bulletin 2, 70 p.

Suntharalingam, T. and Teoh, L.H., 1985. Quaternary Geology of the Coastal Plain of
Taiping, Perak. Geological Survey Malaysia, Quaternary Geology Bulletin I, 64 p.

Suwannasing, A., 1962. Chromite Deposits of Thailand, Economic Geology Division DMR,
Bangkok, 19 p. (in Thai).

Tjia, H.D., 1989. Tectonic History of the Bentong-Bengkalis Suture. Geologi Indonesia.
12(1): pp.89-111.

Tjia, H.D., Fujii, S. and Kogoshi, K., 1977. Changes of sea-level in the southern South
China Sea area during Quaternary times, CCOP Technical Publication, 5, pp. 11-36.

Vijarnsorn, P. and Liengsakul, M., 1986. Formation and Characterization of the Peat
Swamps in Narathiwat Province, peninsular Thailand, In Proc. of the workshop on
Economic Geology, Tectonics sedimentary Processes and Environment of the
Quaternary in Southeast Asia, Thiramongkol N. (editor), pp. 87-100.

Zainol Abidin Sulaiman, Loh, C. H. and Teoh, L.H., 1994. Follow up study of ball clay in
Bukit Pak Junus, Pasir Mas, Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Industrial
Mineral Project, Peninsular Malaysia. Report no. IM 2/94 (in Malay).

Zainol Abidin Sulaiman and Loh, C. H., 1995a. Follow up study of ball clay in Kampung
Cherang Hangus, Pasir Mas, Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Industrial
Mineral Project, Peninsular Malaysia. Report no. IM 2/95 (in Malay).

Zainol Abidin Sulaiman and Loh, C. H., 1995b. Follow up study of ball clay in Kampung
Padang Lichin, Pasir Mas, Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Industrial Mineral
Project, Peninsular Malaysia. Report no. IM 1/95 (in Malay).

Zainol Abidin Sulaiman and Loh, C. H., 1995c. Follow up study of ball clay in Kampung
Bakong Kechik, Pasir Mas, Kelantan. Geological Survey Malaysia, Industrial Mineral
Project, Peninsular Malaysia. Report no. IM 4/95 (in Malay).
 - 66 -

9. Appendices
 Appendix 1: List of samples in the Batu Melintang-Sungai Kolok Transect on the Malaysian side.

Sample no. Northing Easting Locality Description Unit

JMG/MT2/A/3767/R1 5o 41.034 101o 43.62 East-West Highway Quartz-mica schist Tiang schist
Granite of the Jeli
JMG/MT2/A/3867/R2a
igneous complex
JMG/MT2/A/3867/R2b Microdiorite(?).

JMG/MT2/A/3867/R2c 5o 42.247 101o 50.277 Near Jeli town, Jeli Microgabbro(?) Kemahang granite

JMG/MT2/A/3867R2d1 Aplite(?)

JMG/MT2/A/3867/R2d2 Microgranite(?)

- 67 -
JMG/MT2/A/3767/R3a Km 105.2 East-West Highway Hornfels Mangga Formation
5o 42.857 101o 45.375
JMG/MT2/A/3767/R3b (junction to FELCRA Tumbi Rapat) Bedded hornfels Mangga Formation
Km 100.8 East-West Highway
JMG/MT2/A/3767/R4 5o 41.288 101o 43.662 Schist Tiang schist
(Bukit Taboh)
JMG/MT2/A/3767/R5 5o 41.034 101o 43.620 East-West Highway Quartz-mica schist Tiang schist

JMG/MT2/A/3767/R6 5o 46.600 101o 43.747 Abandoned Kalai gold mine Hornfels Mangga Formation

JMG/MT2/A/R7 5o 46.880 101o 45.568 Sungai Paku Duduk Granite Kemahang Granite

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R1 Sungai Golok Schist Telong Formation

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R2 Lanchang River Schist. Telong Formation

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R3 Schist Taku schist

5o 50.5 101o 53.7 Kolok River, near Bukit Bunga
JMG/MT2/B/3867/R4 Granite Minor granitic intrusion

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R5 5o 49.554 101o 52.972 Kampung Renap Sheared granite Kemahang Granite
 Sample no. Northing Easting Locality Description Unit

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R6 5o 53.775 101o 56.313 Kampung Rahmat Sandstone Telong Formation

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R7 Granite Kemahang Granite

o o
JMG/MT2/B/3867/R8 5 49.640 101 56.154 Sebarang Bina Quarry Granite Kemahang Granite

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R9 Granite Kemahang Granite

Highly weathered
JMG/MT2/B/3867/R10 5o 56.595 101o 59.478 Kampung Gual Rimau Telong Formation
volcanic rock
JMG/MT2/B/3867/R11 5o 56.174 102o 00.491 Kampung Tandak Tuffaceous shale Telong Formation

JMG/MT2/B/3867/R12 5o 52.132 102o 00.361 Felda Kemahang Granite Kemahang Granite

JMG/MT2/C/3967/R1 5o 53.177 102o 10.383 Foot of Bukit Panau Sandstone Panau beds
Cross laminated fine-
JMG/MT2/C/3867/R2 5o 53.622 102o 10.631 Top of Bukit Panau Panau beds
grained sandstone
Barite with iron-oxide
5o 52.719 102o 04.239

- 68 -
JMG/MT2/C/3867/R3 Bukit Penchuri abandoned quarry Telong Formation
coating
JMG/MT2/C/3967/R4 5o 51.632 102o 11.658 Sungai Bagan Estate Granite Boundary Range Granite

JMG/MT2/C/3867/R5 5o 53.978 101o 59.727 Felda Kemahang 3 Metasandstone Telong Formation

JMG/MT2/C/3867/R6 5o 53.794 102o 00.606 Felda Kemahang 3 Metargillite Telong Formation

Highly weathered
JMG/MT2/C/3967/R7 5o 55.239 102o 05.974 Kampung Bukit Perah Telong Formation
argillite
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R1 5o 41.995 102o 09.078 Near Temangan town Ignimbrite Temangan Ignimbrite

JMG/MT2/D/3966/R2 5o 41.773
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R3a
o o
5 52.342
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R3b
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R4 5o 46.351
102o 08.949 Near Temangan town Ignimbrite Temangan Ignimbrite
Grey, medium-grained
equigranular granite
102 15.185 Timor-Barat Quarry, Bukit Buloh Boundary Range granite
Pink, medium-grained
equigranular granite
Greenish, fine to
102o 09.571 Tanah Merah-Machang main road Tanah Merah volcanics
medium-grained andesite
 Sample no. Northing Easting Locality Description Unit

JMG/MT2/D/3966/R5 5o 40.387 102o 13.778 FELCRA Berangan Mek Nab Hornfels Telong Formation
Hornfelsic
JMG/MT2/D/3966/R6 5o 39.595 102o 11.691 FELCRA Ladang Temangan Telong Formation
metasandstone
JMG/MT2/D/3867/R7 5o 43.914 102o 01.162 Hujan Waterfall, Ulu Kusial Quartz-mica schist Taku schist
Hornfelsic
JMG/MT2/D/3867/R8 5o 47.011 102o 02.221 Kampung Jelakong Pak Lembek Telong Formation
metasediments
JMG/MT2/D/3867/R9 5o 46.529 102o 01.729 Lata River Granodiorite(?) Kemahang Granite
Light grey, crystalline
JMG/MT2/D/3866/R10 5o 40.128 102o 55.556 Gua Setir Telong Formation
limestone
Fine to medium-grained
JMG/MT2/D/3867/R11 5o 40.460 102o 02.320 Road to Kampung Perala Minor intrusion
granitic rock
Coarse-grained
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R12 5o 45.400 102o 15.800 Highway to Pasir Putih equigranular biotite Boundary Range Granite
granite
Abandoned quarry near Kampung Coarse-grained

- 69 -
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R13 5o 42.856 102o 13.454 Boundary Range Granite
Jambu Lawar equigranular granite
Doctors quarters, Tanah Merah
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R14 5o 48.582 102o 09.336 Andesite Tanah Merah volcanics
District Hospital
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R15 5o 45.400 102o 15.800 Sungai Jibok, near Temangan Andesite Tanah Merah volcanics
Near abandoned Temangan Iron
JMG/MT2/D/3966/R16 5o 40.3 102o 18.9 Indurated shale Telong Formation
Mine
Kampung Pangkal Chuit-Temangan
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R17 5o 42.8 102o 10.2 Andesite Tanah Merah volcanics
trunk road
JMG/MT2/D/3967/R18 5o 49.3 102o 9.5 Near Bukit Maka, Tanah Merah Andesite Tanah Merah volcanics
 - 70 -

Appendix 2: List Of The Malaysian Working Group

(Minerals and Geoscience Department Malaysia)

Consultant Field Geologists

Mr. Yunus bin Abdul Razak Mr. Loh Chiok Hoong
Mr. Mohammed Hatta bin Abdul Mr. Ibrahim bin Amnan
Karim Mr. Lai Kok Hoong
Dr. Chow Weng Sum Mr. Askury bin Abdul Kadir

Field Geologists
Mr. Mohd Sari bin Hassan Head of Sector A
Mr. Mohd Badzran bin Mat Taib Head of Sector B
Mr. Mohamad Hussein bin Hj. Head of Sector C
Jamaluddin
Mr. Mat Niza bin Abdul Rahman Head of Sector D
Mr. Azmi bin Ismail
Mr. Zaidi bin Daud
Mr. Ab. Rashid bin Ahmad
Mr. Ahmad Zamani bin Samat

Technical Assistants
Mr. Nai Pian a/l Nai Wan Mr. Ibrahim bin Wan
Mr. Khalid bin Mat Hashim Mr. Abdul Ghani bin Awang

GIS
Mr. Mustafar bin Hamzah Mrs. Norsham binti Samsudin

Drivers
Mr. Nanjon a/l Rajoo Mr. Md Razuki bin Hanapi
Mr. Zamberi bin Dollah Mr. Razlan bin Daud
Mr. Ismail bin Mr. Razman bin Ismail
Mr. Selim bin Sulaiman Mr. Zarbani bin Mat Junos
Mr. Abu Bakar bin Mr. Ramli bin Awang
 - 71 -

Appendix 3: List of The Thai Working Group

(Department of Mineral Resources Thailand)

Consultant
Geologists
Dr. Thanis Wongwanich
Mr. Somkiat Maranate
Mr. Lertsin Raksaskulwong
Mr. Adichat Surinkum
Field
Mr. Sirote Sulyapongse
Dr. Assanee Meesook
Dr. Sunya Sarapirome
Mr. Kampon Maneeprapun

Field Geologists
Mr. Somboon Khositanont Head of Igneous Sector
Mr. Naramase Teerarungsigul Head of Geologic and Quaternary Sectors
Mr. Suvapak Imsamut Head of Stratigraphic Sector
Mr. Thawatchai Tepsuwan Head of Mineral Resources Sector
Mr. Winut Puthiang
Mr. Nitmit Sornklang
Mr. Kitti Khaowiset
Ms. Surasak Meetuwong

Technical Assistants
Mr. Thawin Kleemla Mr. Santi Srichum
Senior Sergeant Major Kiatisak Ms. Bareeya Ketpuk
Sonklin

GIS
Dr. Sunya Sarapirome Ms. Wilai Wechsri
Mr. Wanida Romruen

Drivers
Mr. Suthep Jungsamrarn Mr. Kasem Lek-ngarm
Mr. Chamlong Ketsathit Mr. Pojanamai Kasemsilp
Mr. Kumpol Pongpankum Mr. Chom Ketkaew
Mr. Worakot Thani Mr. Wiwat Charnchuwong
Mr. Prathum Pramoenchai Mr. Thaworn Jittakharm