iii MAT0511/003

CONTENTS

TOPIC 1 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 1

Outcomes 1

Section 1.1 Graphs 3

Section 1.2 Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the

Cartesian Plane 14

Section 1.3 Formulas we often use 34

Topic Summary 56

Checklist 57

TOPIC 2 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 59

Outcomes 59

Section 2.1 Relations and functions in R R 60

Section 2.2 Combining Functions 88

Topic Summary 96

Checklist 98

TOPIC 3 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS 99

Outcomes 99

Section 3.1 Drawing Lines 101

Section 3.2 Finding Equations of Lines 130

Section 3.3 Applications of Lines and Linear Functions 142

Topic Summary 174

Checklist 178
 iv

TOPIC 4 PARABOLAS 180

Outcomes 180

Section 4.1 Characteristics of Parabolas defined by

y = a(x h)2 + k 182

Section 4.2 Sketching Parabolas 207

Section 4.3 Finding the Equation of a Parabola 224

Section 4.4 Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions 233

Topic Summary 243

Checklist 246

TOPIC 5 HYPERBOLAS 248

Outcomes 248

Section 5.1 Characteristics of Hyperbolas 249

Section 5.2 Inverse Proportion 268

Topic Summary 273

Checklist 275

TOPIC 6 COMBINATIONS OF GRAPHS 277

Outcomes 277

Section 6.1 Graphs, Graphs and More Graphs 277

Topic Summary 296

Checklist 297
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TOPIC 7 STATISTICS 298

Outcomes 298

Section 7.1 Data Collection and Organisation 299

Section 7.2 Using Graphs to Represent Data 311

Section 7.3 Some Statistical Measurements 335

Section 7.4 Probability 347

Topic Summary 361

Checklist 368

ANSWERS 370

REFERENCES 401
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ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 1.1: Graphs

I Choose an appropriate scale (if an accurate graph is required) or mark ver-

tical and horizontal lines in a suitable way (if an illustration of information
is required) and plot given data, taking into account whether the graph
consists of separate dots, or whether the dots can be joined in some way.

I Interpret information conveyed by a given graph.

SECTION 1.2: Cartesian Coordinates and Graphs in the Cartesian Plane

I Represent solutions of equations or inequalities in one variable by means

of a onedimensional graph (i.e. on a number line).

I Find coordinates of a given point in the Cartesian plane, or, if the coordi-
nates are known, locate the point.

I Use a table of values to draw a graph.

I Use an equation to set up a table of values and hence draw a graph.

I If a graph represents an equation

find the x and yintercepts of the graph
determine whether or not a given point lies on the graph, i.e. whether or
not the coordinates of the point satisfy the equation of the graph
find values of x for which y > 0, y = 0 (i.e. the xintercept) or y < 0
recognise from the quadrant in which a point lies whether x > 0 or x < 0
and whether y > 0 or y < 0.
 2

SECTION 1.3: Formulas we often use

I Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

I Use the distance formula.

I Use the midpoint formula.

I Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at (0, 0) .

I Use the equation of a circle to find out whether a point lies on the circle or
not.

I Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at

(h, k) 6= (0, 0).

I Given the equation of a circle, find the centre and radius of the circle.

I Given the coordinates of the end points of the diameter of a circle, find the
equation of the circle.
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1.1
GRAPHS

1.1A
WHAT IS A GRAPH?
PICTORIAL What do you think of when you hear the word graph? Most of us think of
REPRESENTATION OF some kind of picture that represents certain information. As an example, look
INFORMATION at the graphs shown in Figures 1.1.1(a) and (b). They illustrate reading patterns
of shoppers in a shopping centre (Figure 1.1.1(a), taken from F & T Weekly, 11
September 1998), and education levels in South Africa in 1995 (Figure 1.1.1(b),
taken from the South Africa Survey, 1996 - 1997). In magazines and newspapers
graphs are often included because they look attractive, but the information they
convey may not always be immediately clear.

Figure 1.1.1(a)

Sometimes scatter graphs
are called scatter diagrams
and pie graphs are called pie
charts.
4
Education levels of people over the age of 20:1995
No education 13% Degrees 3%
Diplomas 7%
Gr 1 Std 5 24 %
Matric 19%
Std 6 Std 9 34%
Figure 1.1.1(b)
Graphs such as these can only be drawn after a substantial amount of data has
been collected. Certain representations of data result in scatter graphs, pie graphs
(such as Figure 1.1.1(b)), or bar graphs (for example Figure 1.1.1(a)). We deal
with these three types of graphs in the last topic of this book (Topic 7: Statistics).
Graphs can help us absorb at a glance much more information than we could
grasp if we were given the same information in written form. Consider the fol-
lowing hypothetical cricket match.
Suppose Paul is bowling. Michael makes 56 runs before he is caught by the
wicket keeper. Figure 1.1.2 shows the different paths of the ball during the first
over (six balls bowled). Obviously, the more overs there are, the more difficult it
is to show the different paths on the same sketch.
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Figure 1.1.2
 6

It does not matter if you are Suppose we have the following information.
not a cricket player. You will
be able to follow these ideas
even if you do not under- Approximate path Number of times the
stand cricket. followed by the ball ball travels that path
Towards third man 5
Towards fine leg 4
Towards square leg 4
Towards midwicket 2
Towards midon 10
Towards midoff 9
Towards cover 12
Towards point 7
Towards gully 2
Towards wicket keeper 1

Table 1.1.1

Table 1.1.1 is called a frequency table because it shows the frequency of a par-
ticular event (i.e. the number of times the event takes place). We can represent
the information in the frequency table differently, by means of a graph, using
dots to link corresponding items of information, as in Figure 1.1.3.

12

Number 10
of times
ball 8
travels
a given 6
path
4

third fine square mid- mid- mid- cover point gully wicket
man leg leg wicket on off keeper

Approximate path taken by the ball

Figure 1.1.3
 7 MAT0511/003

In the graph we see that

I the graph is a record of only one particular cricket match and we cannot
generalise the information to future matches
I there is no relationship between the different dots
I it would make no sense to join the dots
I the distances between the marks on the horizontal line that represent the
different paths of the ball are arbitrarily chosen, and it makes no difference
how we space the marks (it looks better to have the spaces between the
marks the same, but it makes no difference to our understanding if they are
different)
I the marks that represent the number of times the ball travels along the
different paths are carefully chosen so that the distances between them are
the same (the distance between 5 and 10 should be the same as the distance
between 10 and 15).

SCALE This leads to the idea of a scale. A scale makes use of small units to denote big-
ger units. On a graph we use a system of marks to indicate given intervals. For
example, we may consult a map where 1 centimetre represents 100 kilometres.
This means that if the distance between two towns on a map is 2,3 centimetres,
then the actual physical distance between the two towns is (2,3 100) kilome-
tres, i.e. 230 kilometres.

In any scale drawing the lengths of successive line segments must be the same.
For example,

0 km 10 km 20 km 30 km

A B C D

We define lines and line seg- is an acceptable representation of distance, since the length of line segment AB is
ments in Book 4. equal to the lengths of the segments BC and CD, and they all represent the same
distance. However,

0 km 10 km 20 km 30 km

A B C D

is not acceptable, because line segments AB and BC both represent 10 km, but
the length of AB 6= the length of BC.

When we draw graphs to represent certain information we need to decide what

type of graph to draw. For example, should we use a pie graph, bar graph or
some other type? If we draw graphs such as in Figure 1.1.3, we need to
 8

I decide what information should be represented along the horizontal line,

and along the vertical line

I decide how accurate the graph needs to be; if we need an accurate graph
(possibly for the purpose of using it to predict a value), we may need to
use squared paper (called graph paper)

I choose a suitable scale for each set of data we need to represent.

Let us now consider a graphical representation of two different problems. In

Example 1.1.1 we consider distance and time, with speed constant. In Example
1.1.2 we consider numbers of people performing a task, and the time they take
to complete it, all working at the same constant rate.

1.1.1

Suppose Mishak travels by car at an average speed of 80 km/h. Determine the

distance he has travelled after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 hours. Show this information on
a graph. Can we predict a pattern?

SOLUTION

Time (in hours) 1 2 3 4 5 6

Distance (in kilometres) 80 160 240 320 400 480

Table 1.1.2

500

400

Distance 300
(in km)
200

100

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (in hours)

Figure 1.1.4
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There are several facts to note about this graph.

I For time we have chosen a scale of 1 cm represents 1 hour, and time is

represented along the horizontal line.

I For distance we have chosen a scale of 1 cm represents 100 km, and dis-
tance is represented along the vertical line.

I There seems to be a straight line relationship between time and distance,

and we might predict that if additional points were to be included they
would follow the same pattern.

I It is logical to put a dot at zero, since it represents the fact that at the
beginning (i.e. when no time has yet passed) Mishaks car has travelled no
distance.

I We may join the dots by means of a straight line if we assume that Mishak
travels at a constant speed and does not stop.

We have already learnt that

distance = speed time

You may want to revise di- and we know that if d = st, with s constant, then d and t are in direct proportion
rect proportion. See Book 1, to each other. Hence we see a possible link between straight lines and direct
Topic 3. proportion. We will investigate this further in Topic 3.

1.1.2

Suppose Moses has a few hundred notices to fold and seal in envelopes. If he
works alone it will take him 8 hours to complete the task. He has several friends
who offer to help him. If each of his friends works at the same rate as he does,
the task will be completed by

8
I him and one friend (i.e. 2 people) in 2 hours, i.e. in 4 hours
8
I him and two friends (i.e. 3 people) in 3 hours, i.e. in 2 23 hours
8
I him and three friends (i.e. 4 people) in 4 hours, i.e. in 2 hours.

We now represent this information on a graph.

 10

9
8
7
Time (in
6
hours) to
5
complete
the task 4
3 X

2
1

1 2 3 4
Number of people carrying out the task

Figure 1.1.5

There are again several facts to note about this graph.

I The number of people is represented along the horizontal line, and time is
represented along the vertical line.

I We have chosen a scale of 1,5 cm represents 1 person on the people line

and 1 cm represents 2 hours on the time line.

I The graph clearly illustrates that the more people who help, the less time
the task will take.

I It makes no sense to include a dot a zero. If no people fold notices and seal
them in envelopes, the task will never be undertaken.

I It makes no sense to join the dots, because a dot at the point x, for example,
would indicate a time taken by 2 12 people.

I The shape of the graph suggests that we could include more dots, in posi-
tions corresponding to the natural numbers 5, 6, 7, etc., on the horizontal
line. However, we realise that in practice we cannot carry on indefinitely
including more people.

Example 1.1.2 illustrates a situation such as the more ... the less ..., and we can
represent this by means of the formula
In Example 1.1.2 we have c
c = 8.
t= ; c a constant,
n
where t represents time (in this case measured in hours) and n represents the
number of people. This formula represents indirect proportion.
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You may revise indirect pro- The graph of the equation t = nc that describes indirect proportion is not a straight
portion (also called inverse line. The graph of this equation is an example of a hyperbola, and we study
proportion) in Topic 3 of graphs such as these later, in Topic 5.
Book 1.

The examples in this study unit illustrate that graphs often arise out of the need
When we quantify some- to have a picture to represent specific data. Much data can be quantified, and
thing we take measurements graphs then illustrate numerical relationships between the variables involved. At
and give numerical informa-
times there are only two variables involved, such as the relationship between
tion.
distance and time (where speed is constant). We may also work with three or
more variables, but we do not do so in this module.

In the graphs we have been discussing we have used rather vague language, such
as

the line representing the number of people

dots corresponding to items of information
joining dots

but in order to use graphs properly we need to be more specific. We need to step
back from reallife examples and look at the basic characteristics of graphs in
general.

You already know (from the geometrical representations of numbers and inter-
vals that we dealt with in Topic 1 of Book 1) that a statement about a single
variable can be represented by a point, or an interval, or the union of intervals,
on the real number line. In the next section we extend this idea to the represen-
tation of statements involving two variables by a subset of the Cartesian plane.

1.1

1. (a) Use the given frequency table, and sketch (not on graph paper) a
graph to represent the information.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Average
daily 21 C 24 C 19 C 16 C 12 C 10 C 7 C 5 C 8 C 15 C 19 C 23 C
tempera-
ture

(b) Does the information represent a place in the northern or southern

hemisphere?
 12

2. A family travels by car from Polokwane to Pretoria. They leave Polok-

wane at 09:00. They stop twice, the first time to change a flat tyre, and the
second time just before Pretoria for petrol and cooldrinks. The journey is
illustrated by the graph in Figure 1.1.6.

300

Distance
(in km) 200

100

0 1 2 3 4
Time (in hours)

Polokwane Pretoria trip

Figure 1.1.6

From the graph, try to answer the following questions.

(a) How far had they travelled by 10:00?

(b) How long did they spend changing the tyre?
(c) How far is Polokwane from Pretoria?
(d) When did they reach the halfway stage between Polokwane and Pre-
toria?
(e) How long did they take to fill up with petrol and have something to
drink?
(f) What time did they reach Pretoria?
 13 MAT0511/003

3. The graph in Figure 1.1.7 represents the distance a car travels in 6 seconds,
from a stationary position.

90

80

70

60

50

Distance 40
travelled
(in metres) 30

20

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (in seconds)
Figure 1.1.7

Use the graph to answer the following questions.

(a) What does the dot at zero represent?

(b) How far has the car travelled in the first two seconds?
(c) What distance has the car travelled between the 2 second and 4 sec-
ond marks?
(d) Has the car travelled faster or slower during the phase from 2 to 4
seconds, than during the phase from 0 to 2 seconds?
(e) After how many seconds does the car begin to travel at a constant
speed?
 14

1.2
CARTESIAN COORDINATES AND GRAPHS IN
THE CARTESIAN PLANE

1.2A
THE CARTESIAN PLANE

Onedimensional graphs We introduced the idea of a number line in Book 1. Every real number can
be represented by a point on a number line and every point on a number line
represents a real number. We also use a part or parts of a number line to represent
the solution set of an equation or inequality in one variable. We can think of
this as a onedimensional graph. The graph of an equation or inequality in one
We discuss these in Topic 2 variable is thus the set of points on a number line representing all real numbers
of Book 2. which satisfy that equation or inequality.

For example, when we solve an equation in one variable, such as

2x + 3 = 15, x R
the solution is only one number, in this case
x = 6.

This solution can be represented on a number line.

0 6

The only point on the real
number line which represents
the solution of the equation.
The graph of the equation 2x + 3 = 15

Figure 1.2.1

If we solve an inequality in one variable, such as

x + 3 7, x R
the solution is an interval in R, and in this case we obtain
x 4, x R.
The solution can also be represented graphically, on a number line as in Figure
1.2.2.
 15 MAT0511/003

All these points represent

solutions of the inequality.

4
The graph of the inequality x + 3 7

Figure 1.2.2

Twodimensional graphs Since we often work with equations or inequalities in two variables we are inter-
ested in extending this notion of a graph to graphs in two dimensions. In order to
do this we must first define the Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinate plane.

What does the word coordinate mean? The word is pronounced (and some-
times written) as coordinate. From the Concise Oxford Dictionary we have
the idea that this is a mathematical word, relating to a system of magnitudes
used to fix position ....

Think of a map of Pretoria. One such map locates the Unisa Pretoria campus by
means of the symbols 23D4. If we do not understand this notation we will not
be able to use the map. In 23D4, 23 represents the map (page) number and D
and 4 tell us that we will find the place in the block where column D and row 4
cross each other. We could say that D and 4 are the coordinates of Unisa on this
map. Since the columns are marked differently from the rows it does not matter
whether we use the symbol D4 or 4D to locate the place we have identified.

What about the word plane? The easiest way to describe the meaning of the
word is to use its characteristics: it is an unbounded flat surface. In every-
day life we see examples of bounded surfaces; they have two dimensions only,
Remember: we also use the namely length and breadth. Mathematically a plane has no thickness, but the ob-
word width for breadth. jects we suggest as examples of planes obviously have some thickness. A table
top, a piece of writing paper or the floor have certain common characteristics:
they are bounded flat surfaces, and we can measure their length and breadth. As
we have already seen, a straight line has one dimension only, and a box has three
dimensions (height as well as length and breadth).

We often make use of the idea of coordinates when we give directions.

Suppose you live in a city where the roads and blocks form a rectangular grid.
Look at Figure 1.2.3. Suppose you live at A, and you want to explain to a friend
living at B how to reach you.
 16

Figure 1.2.3

The clearest instructions you could give might be the following.

Travel east until you have crossed 4 blocks.

From there travel north until you have crossed 2 blocks.

If you wanted to give your friend a note for future reference, you could possibly
write down something like this.

North

A 2

1
B
East
0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.2.4

This is a very rough sketch in a twodimensional plane that represents a given

situation. In this sketch the numbers represent the ends of complete blocks, i.e.
1 indicates that we have crossed 1 whole block, 2 indicates that we have crossed
2 blocks, and so on. We also need to be sure that we specify the starting and end
points. In Figure 1.2.4 we begin at B, and end at A.

The important numbers are 2 and 4, and you can see that it makes a big difference
to your directions whether you say 4 east, 2 north or 2 east, 4 north.

The idea of order is also important when we consider equations or inequalities

in two variables, and the graphical representation of their solutions.

ORDERED PAIRS
CARTESIAN COORDI-
NATE SYSTEM
We call this a rectangular
system because the horizon-
tal and vertical axes intersect
each other at right angles.
Note that it is also possi-
ble to set up nonrectangular
coordinate systems, but we
will not consider other sys-
tems in this module.
17 MAT0511/003
Consider the equation
y = 2x + 3, x Z
and consider some possible values of the independent variable (x) and corre-
sponding values of the dependent variable (y).
Possible value Corresponding Solution of the equation
of x value of y
3 3 x = 3 and y = 3
2 1 x = 2 and y = 1
1 1 x = 1 and y=1
0 3 x=0 and y=3
1 5 x=1 and y=5
Table 1.2.1
In mathematical notation we make use of ordered pairs to represent the infor-
mation given in the last column of Table 1.2.1. Instead of writing x = 2 and
y = 1, we can write this solution as follows.
(2, 1)
possible xvalue corresponding yvalue
(independent variable) (dependent variable)
Order is important in this notation, because for example x = 1 and y = 2
is not a solution (when x = 1 we obtain y = 1 and not y = 2). Hence we
recognise that there is a difference between (2, 1) and (1, 2).
In the same way that we represent a single variable such as x on the real number
line, we are also able to use two perpendicularly intersecting number lines to
create a plane in which we can represent ordered number pairs of the form (x, y).
These perpendicular lines form a rectangular coordinate system.
We call this the Cartesian coordinate system, and say that the plane that con-
sists of points which represent all possible pairs of ordered real numbers is the
Cartesian plane. The system was devised by Rene Descartes (15961650), who
was a French mathematician, philosopher and scientist.
In the Cartesian system we make use of specific terminology. Have a look at
Figures 1.2.5, 1.2.6 and 1.2.7.
 18

y
The vertical real number line is usually called
the y _ axis and labelled y.
Each point in the plane
is identified by an
ordered number pair.
The point P corresponds
to 2 on the x _ axis P ( 2,4) 4 4 is the y _ coordinate of the point P.
and 4 on the y _ axis.
3

Lengths of intervals on the
x _ axis should be the same.
5 4 3 2 1 1
0
2 is the x _ coordinate
of the point P.
Lengths of intervals
on the y _ axis should
be the same.
2
The horizontal real number
1 line is usually called the
x _ axis and labelled x.
2 3
x
The zero on both lines needs
1
to be labelled only once.
2 The point where the x _ axis
and y _ axis intersect represents
3 the ordered number pair (0,0).
It is called the origin. We do not
4 always label this point.
5

Figure 1.2.5

In Figure 1.2.5 we note the following.

Origin I The word origin is used to convey the sense of a starting point, i.e. a point
from which the counting process originates, or begins. The origin repre-
sents (0, 0).

Graph I The point P can be called the graph of (2, 4).

Coordinates I (2, 4) are the coordinates of P.

I 2 is called the xcoordinate of P; 4 is called the ycoordinate of P.

Coordinate axes I We apply the convention that we represent the independent variable (which
(Note that the plural of the we usually call x) on the horizontal axis, and the dependent variable (which
word axis is axes.)
 19 MAT0511/003

we usually call y) on the vertical axis. The horizontal axis is then called
the xaxis, and the vertical axis is called the yaxis.
For example, in Figure 1.1.4 (in Study Unit 1.1A) we represent time on
the horizontal axis, and distance on the vertical axis. How far you travel
depends on how long you travel, i.e. we have used time as the independent
variable and distance as the dependent variable. (Note that we could have
done this differently, with distance as the independent variable, since how
long you travel also depends on how far you go.)

The xyplane I If the axes are called the xaxis and the yaxis, then the plane is often
referred to as the xyplane.

Scale I We have the same scale on both axes. We often use the same scale on both
axes, but there are times when we need to use different scales. Unless we
need accurate graphs we do not need to measure the spaces between the
numbers on the axes so that they are exact, but they should look exact.

Point I We identify the point P by means of the ordered pair (2, 4) but we also
speak of the point (2, 4).

Quadrants I The axes divide the Cartesian plane into four quadrants. Note that the
The word quadrant is asso- points on the axes do not belong to any specific quadrant. See Figure 1.2.6.
ciated with one quarter of a
circle or sphere.
y
II I
We have used the Roman
numerals I, II, III and IV x < 0 , y >0 x > 0 , y >0
to label the quadrants. The
counting of the quadrants
follows an anticlockwise
direction. ( a , 0) All points on the x _ axis
x have a y _
a coordinate of
zero.
III IV
x < 0 , y <0 x > 0 , y <0

All points on the y _ axis ( 0 , b)

have an x _ coordinate of
zero.

Figure 1.2.6
 20

Finding the coordinates of If we are given some point P in the plane, we can determine its coordinates in
a given point the following way. Through P draw two lines, one perpendicular to the xaxis
When we use the word and the other perpendicular to the yaxis, as in Figure 1.2.7. These lines cut the
line we mean a straight xaxis where x = a and the yaxis where y = b. We then assign to the point P
line. the ordered pair (a, b). The first number in the pair is called the xcoordinate of
P and the second number the ycoordinate of P. Remember that we call (a, b)
an ordered pair since the order of the numbers is important. We say that P is the
point with coordinates (a, b) and we denote the point by P(a, b) or by P = (a, b).

3 P ( a , b)
b
2

x
3 2 1 1 2a 3 4
1

Figure 1.2.7

Using the coordinates to We can also reverse this process. If we are given the coordinates (a, b) we can
find a point use them to locate the point P in the plane. We can start with a: find the number
a on the xaxis and draw a vertical line through it. We then find the number b
on the yaxis and draw a horizontal line through it. The point where these two
lines intersect is the point P.

Plotting points The process of indicating the position of a point in the plane using its coordinates
is called plotting the point. In Figure 1.2.8 a few points have been plotted in the
Cartesian plane. As you would expect, the sketch (on the next page) clearly
shows that the point (1, 2) is not the same as the point (2, 1).
 21 MAT0511/003

3
(2,3)
2
( 2 ,1)
1
(0,0)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1

2 (1, 2 )
( 2 , 2 )
3

Figure 1.2.8

1.2.1

(a) Write down the coordinates of the points A, B, C and D given in Figure
1.2.9.
y

4 B

D 2

1
C
x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1 A

Figure 1.2.9
 22

(b) Draw a system of axes and plot the following points.

A (3, 1); B (1, 3); C(1, 0); D(0, 1)

(c) In which quadrants do the following points lie?

A(1, 5); B(10, 1)

(a) A = (2, 1)
B = (0, 4)
C = (4, 0)
D = (1 12 , 2)

Note that we do not have an accurate sketch on graph paper, so we cannot

be certain that the xcoordinate of D is exactly 1 12 . However, for the pur-
pose of this activity, since it seems that the xcoordinate of D lies exactly
halfway between 1 and 2, we may accept that it is 1 12 .

(b) The points are shown in the figure below.

y

3 B (1,3)

D (0,1) 1 A (3,1)
C ( 1 ,0)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1

Figure 1.2.10

(c) A (1, 5) lies in quadrant I.

B(10, 1) lies in quadrant III.
 23 MAT0511/003

1.2B
GRAPHS IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE
TERMINOLOGY Instead of the instruction plot the following points ... we may also be asked to
OF GRAPHS graph the points. This use of the word graph is more common in American
textbooks. However, it highlights the fact that in this sense a graph is a collection
of points, i.e. some subset of the Cartesian plane. We can often identify that
subset by means of an equation or inequality.

The figures we have given so far consist of random isolated points in the Carte-
sian plane. However, many of the graphs we deal with consist of separate points
that follow a given pattern (for example the graph in Figure 1.1.5), or points that
can be joined together to form a particular curve or line in the plane. In Topic 3
you will learn more about lines, and in Topics 4 and 5 you will learn about two
specific curves, namely parabolas and hyperbolas.

Table of values In Example 1.2.1 we give a table consisting of specific numbers in the xrow,
and related numbers in the yrow. When we draw a graph from the information
contained in such a table, we refer to the table as a table of values. We may be
given the table of values, or we may be given an equation from which we can set
up an appropriate table of values. In either case, the table is just another way of
identifying the ordered pairs (x, y) that we use when we plot points that form the
graph.

1.2.1

Use the given table of values to draw a suitable graph.

x 3 2 1 0 1 2
y 5 3 1 1 3 5

SOLUTION
We plot the points (3, 5), (2, 3), (1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 3) and (2, 5) in the
Cartesian plane. This gives us the following graph.
 24

y
5

x
3 2 1 1 2 3
1

1
0 5

Figure 1.2.11

Note

Although the points lie on the same line, we may not join them, or include addi-
tional points, because in this case the only information we have is the information
that is contained in the table of values.

Consider the next example. In this case the relationship between the two quanti-
ties represented by the variables x and y has been expressed as an equation.

1.2.2

Suppose we have the equation y = x2 + 1, x R. Set up a table of values and

sketch a graph to represent this equation.

SOLUTION
Since x R, we can choose any values of x (the independent variable) and cal-
culate the corresponding values of y.

We choose x = 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 and 3, and have the following table of values.

 25 MAT0511/003

For convenience we break x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

up the expression x2 + 1 into x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
its component parts. We can y = x2 + 1 10 5 2 1 2 5 10
thus first calculate x2 , and
then x2 + 1.
From this table we plot points in the Cartesian plane as follows.

y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
3 2 1 1 2 3

Figure 1.2.12

We say that the equation
y = x2 + 1, x R, generates
the points that give us this
graph.
In this case we know that x is any real number, and hence we may also choose
any other real values of x. If we choose a few more values of x and calculate the
corresponding values of y, we see that all the points we find fit into the existing
pattern, and we conclude that in this case we can join the points and extend the
curve indefinitely to give the graph in Figure 1.2.13.
y

10

x
3 2 1 1 2 3

Figure 1.2.13
 26

Suppose we have the equation

y = x2 + 1, x R and 3 x 3.

We may again join the points shown in Figure 1.2.12 (since x R), but we may
not extend the curve any further, since we only have information relating to real
values of x between and including 3 and 3. Figure 1.2.14 shows the graph that
represents this situation.

10

1
x
3 3

Figure 1.2.14

Let us investigate further the terminology of graphs. Study the comments on the
opposite page in relation to Figure 1.2.15.

( p, q) ( c, d )

b
x

Figure 1.2.15

The coordinates of a point
on a graph satisfy the equa-
tion that defines the graph.
Intercepts on the axes and
equations of the axes
We deal with equations of
lines in Topic 3.
27 MAT0511/003
I The graph of an equation in two variables is the curve (or line) which con-
tains the points whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation. We say that
the ordered pair (x, y) satisfies an equation if substituting the given value
of x into the equation yields the corresponding value of y. For example
(1, 3) satisfies y = x + 2, since if x = 1 then y = 1 + 2 = 3
(1, 3) does not satisfy y = 3x 1, since if x = 1 then y = 3(1) 1 = 2 6= 3.
Thus, in Figure 1.2.15, if the graph represents an equation, then (c, d) sat-
isfies the equation and (p, q) does not satisfy the equation.
I The graph cuts the xaxis when x = b. We call this number the xintercept
of the graph.
I The point of intersection of the graph with the xaxis is the point (b, 0),
since y = 0 everywhere on the xaxis. If the graph represents an equation,
the coordinates (b, 0) satisfy that equation.
I The equation of the xaxis is y = 0.
I The graph cuts the yaxis when y = a. We call this number the yintercept
of the graph.
I The point of intersection of the graph with the yaxis is the point (0, a),
since x = 0 everywhere on the yaxis. If the graph represents an equation,
the coordinates (0, a) satisfy that equation.
I The equation of the yaxis is x = 0.
I Since (c, d) lies in quadrant I, we have c > 0 and d > 0.
Since a lies above the xaxis, we have a > 0.
Since b lies to the left of the yaxis, we have b < 0.
I The graph lies above the xaxis for all values of x such that x > b. (Another
way of understanding this is to interpret above the xaxis in the sense of
associated with positive yvalues.)
I The graph lies below the xaxis for all values of x such that x < b. (We can
interpret below the xaxis as associated with negative yvalues.)
 28

Figure 1.2.16 may be helpful. Study it together with Figure 1.2.6.

y
Positive numbers on the
y _ axis are above the
horizontal line

Negative numbers on the

x _ axis are on the left
of the vertical line
x
0
Positive numbers on the
x _ axis are on the right
of the vertical line

Negative numbers on the

y _ axis are below the
horizontal line

Figure 1.2.16

The words above and below, horizontal and vertical, are used here in a two
dimensional context, although in everyday life we usually use them in a three
dimensional context. For example, the first level of a building is above ground
level, and the basement is below ground level. We think of the floor as a hori-
zontal surface (with the dimensions length and breadth) and the walls as vertical
structures (whose height we can measure).

In the Cartesian plane we borrow the words vertical, horizontal, above and be-
low from everyday language, although they do not have exactly the same mean-
ing.
 29 MAT0511/003

1.2.2
y

( m , n)
y = ax 2 + bx + c

r s x

t
( p, q)

Figure 1.2.17

This graph is an example of The graph in Figure 1.2.17 represents the equation y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b
a parabola. We deal with and c are nonzero real numbers. Use the graph to answer the following ques-
graphs such as these later, in tions.
Topic 4.

(a) What are the xintercepts of the graph?

(b) What are the points of intersection of the graph with the xaxis?
(c) What is the yintercept of the graph?
(d) What is the point of intersection of the graph with the yaxis?
(e) Consider all points (x, y) on the graph. For what value(s) of x is y 0?
(f) For what value(s) of x does the graph lie below the xaxis?
(g) Explain what the following statements mean.
(p, q) satisfies the equation y = ax2 + bx + c.
(m, n) does not satisfy the equation y = ax2 + bx + c.
(h) How can you deduce from the graph that both statements in (g) are true?
(i) If (x, y) denotes a point on the graph, for what value of x will y reach its
smallest value?
(j) Replace ? with > or <.
p?0 m?0
q?0 n?0
r?0 t?0
s?0
 30

(a) The xintercepts of the graph are r and s.

(b) The points of intersection of the graph with the xaxis are (r, 0) and (s, 0).

(c) The yintercept of the graph is t.

(d) The point of intersection of the graph with the yaxis is (0,t).

(e) We know from (a) that y = 0 when x = r or when x = s. Now the points
on the graph for which y > 0 correspond to the sections of the graph above
the xaxis. The graph lies above the xaxis when x < r, and again when
x > s. Putting all this information together we have the answer
Make sure you understand
y 0 for all x R such that x r or x s.
why we use or and not
and.
(f) The graph lies below the xaxis for r < x < s (i.e. for all values of x
between, but not including, r and s).

(g) (p, q) satisfies y = ax2 + bx + c means that when we substitute x = p into

the right side of the equation, we will obtain y = q.
(m, n) does not satisfy y = ax2 + bx + c means that if we substitute x = m
into the right side of the equation, we will not obtain y = n.

(h) (p, q) will satisfy the equation y = ax2 + bx + c since the point (p, q) lies
on the graph that represents the equation.
(m, n) cannot satisfy the equation since the point (m, n) does not lie on the
graph.

(i) The lowest point on the graph is the point (p, q). Thus if (x, y) denotes a
point on the graph, the smallest value that y can attain is y = q. It reaches
this value when x = p.

(j) p > 0 m<0

q<0 n>0
r<0 t <0
s>0
 31 MAT0511/003

1.2
1. The graph in Figure 1.2.18 is one branch of the graph which represents the
The graph which represents equation y = x +k m + l, where x R, and where k, l and m are nonzero
the equation is a hyperbola real numbers.
which has two branches. We
study hyperbolas in Topic 5. y

P ( p, q)
a

b
x

y = _____
k +l
x +m

Figure 1.2.18

Answer the following questions related to the portion of the graph shown
in Figure 1.2.18.

(a) What is the xintercept of the graph?

(b) What is the point of intersection of the graph with the yaxis?
(c) If (x, y) is a point on the graph, for what value(s) of x is y 0?
(d) If (x, y) is a point on the graph, for what value(s) of x is 0 < y < a?
(e) How can we find out whether or not P = (p, q) lies on the graph?
(f) What values of x satisfy the inequality x +k m > l? (Hint: Remem-
ber that if x +k m > l then x +k m + l > 0.)
 32

2. Suppose the following line represents the equation

y = 2x + 1; x R, x 1.

1
x

Figure 1.2.19

(a) Does the point (3, 7) lie on the line?

(b) Does the point (2, 3) lie on the line?
(c) If (x, y) lies on the graph, for what values of x is 1 < y 1?
(d) What is the yintercept of the graph?

3. The graph in Figure 1.2.20 is a circle with centre O = (0, 0) and radius
We will study graphs of cir- 4 units. The circle has the equation x2 + y2 = 16. Each of the points
cles in Section 1.3. A, B, C, D, and E has coordinates (x, y), where x R and y R .

y
4
A

4 E
x
4 0

C 4

Figure 1.2.20
 33 MAT0511/003

(a) Match A, B, C, D and E with the following statements.

(i) 0 < x < 4 and 0 < y < 4
(ii) x > 4 and y = 0
(iii) 4 < x < 0 and 0 < y < 4
(iv) 0 < x < 4 and 4 < y < 0
(v) 4 < x < 0 and 4 < y < 0
(b) Let E be the point (5, 0). Show algebraically that E does not lie on
the circle.
(c) How can we show algebraically that B lies on the circle?
(d) What is the distance between the origin O and D?
(e) What is the distance between the two points of intersection of the
graph with the yaxis. What name do we usually give to the line that
passes through the centre and joins two points on the circle?
(f) What is the distance between the origin and the negative xintercept?
What do we usually call the line that joins the centre and a point on
the circle?
 34

1.3
FORMULAS WE OFTEN USE

1.3A
THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS, DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT
FORMULAS

If we look at Figure 1.2.17 in the last study unit it is clear that if we know the
values of p, q, r, s and t we will be able to answer questions such as the follow-
ing.

I How far apart are the xintercepts?

I How far below the xaxis is the yintercept?
I How far below the xaxis is the lowest point of the graph?

Let us assume p, q, r, s and t have the values shown in Figure 1.3.1 and let us
try to answer these three questions.

y 6

1- 3 - - x
1 6 6 3
2 41
3
?
2 41
?
r
(1, 3)

Figure 1.3.1

It should be clear that the
measurement of distance
cannot ever be a negative
number.
DISTANCE BETWEEN
TWO POINTS
Note that some books use
PQ to represent this line seg-
ment.
35 MAT0511/003
From the graph we find the following.
I The xintercepts are 4 units apart (the distance from 1 on the xaxis
to the origin is 1 unit; the distance from the origin to 3 on the xaxis is
3 units, and we thus have a total distance of 4 units).
I The yintercept is 2 14 units below the origin.
I The lowest point on the graph is 3 units below the xaxis (the ycoordinate
of the lowest point is 3, hence the distance between it and the correspond-
ing point on the xaxis is 3 units).
These distances are easy to find, but suppose now that we wanted to know the
length of the line from (1, 3) to (3, 0). We need various formulas that will
enable us to calculate distances such as these. The algebraic study of lengths and
distances based on the coordinate representation of points is part of coordinate
geometry or analytic geometry.
The distance between two points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is denoted by d(P, Q).
The distance between P and Q is defined as the length of the line segment
joining P and Q. We denote this line segment by means of PQ.
The distance between P and Q is the length of PQ
Figure 1.3.2
1.3.1
Suppose farm A is 6 km west of town B, and town C is 8 km south of farm A.
Farm D is 16 km west of town C, and town E is 12 km south of farm D. How
will we find the distance from town B to town E if we travel via town C?
SOLUTION
Diagrams make problems like these much easier to understand. We assume
north, south, west and east mean due north, south, west and east, i.e. the north
south line and the westeast line are perpendicular to each other.
 36

Have a look at Figure 1.3.3.

A 6 km
B

8 km

D 16 km
C

12 km

Figure 1.3.3

Suppose we draw the diagram to scale, so that 1 cm represents 4 km. If we

measure the line segments we find that

Length of EC = 5 cm
Length of CB = 2 12 cm.

Thus the total length is

1 1
Length of EC + Length of CB = (5 + 2 ) cm = 7 cm.
2 2

Now 7 12 cm represents (7 12 4) km. Hence the total distance between E and B is

30 km.

Suppose we have measurements which we cannot easily convert by means of

a scale to produce lines that we can measure accurately and hence determine
distance. We can then solve the problem by using the Theorem of Pythagoras.

THE THEOREM OF Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician. He was born round about 572 BC, and
PYTHAGORAS founded a famous school where philosophy, mathematics, music and the natural
sciences were studied.
 37 MAT0511/003

Consider Figure 1.3.4.

c
b

C B
a

A right triangle

Figure 1.3.4

We note the following.

We use the symbol 4 to rep- I 4 ABC is a right triangle. (It has a right angle, i.e. an angle that measures
resent any triangle. 90 , at C. On the sketch the right angle is marked by means of a small
square where the vertical and horizontal lines meet.)

I By convention, we denote the length of the side opposite the angle at A by

means of a; we use b for the length of the side opposite B and c for the
length of the side opposite C.

I The side opposite the right angle in any right triangle is called the
hypotenuse. In 4 ABC the hypotenuse is AB.

We have the following theorem.

THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS

The square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal in area to

the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. In terms
of Figure 1.3.4 we thus have

c2 = a 2 + b 2 . (1.3.1)

Consider Figure 1.3.5 on the next page.

In (iii) we have a right triangle where a, b and c denote, respectively, the lengths
of two sides and the hypotenuse. Consider the two big squares indicated by (i)
and (ii) in Figure 1.3.5. Each of these squares has sides of length a + b. Hence
Area = length breadth. the area of each square is the same, i.e. (a + b)2 .
 38

b a a b

a
a a c
b
c

c
b b a
c
b
a c b

b a b a
(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure 1.3.5

Congruent means identi-
cal in shape and size. There
are several conditions for
congruency and we discuss
them in Book 4.
Draw Figure 1.3.5 onto a piece of paper, using any convenient measurements
for a and b, making b larger than a. Cut up the first square (i), along the lines
shown so that you have six pieces (four right triangles congruent to the given
right triangle, one small square of side a and one big square of side b). Cut
up the second square (ii), along the lines shown, so that you have five pieces
(the square of side c, i.e the square on the hypotenuse, and four right triangles
congruent to the given triangle). Put all the squares and triangles back together
again so that you have the two big squares shown in (i) and (ii) of the sketch.

In both the squares in Figure 1.3.5 we can now remove the four triangles. Since
the two big squares were equal in area to begin with, it follows that what is left
after removing triangles that are equal in area, must still be equal in area.

We emphasise that an illus-
tration that a certain fact is
true in one specific case is
not a proof that it is true in
general.
This illustrates that the two remaining squares in the diagram (i) together have
the same area as the remaining square in the diagram (ii). In other words we have
a2 + b2 = c2 .
We can state the Theorem of Pythagoras in the following way.

If ABC is a right triangle with c the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the
lengths of the other two sides, then

a2 + b2 = c2 .

In words we state this as follows.

If 4 ABC is a right triangle then the square of the length of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
converse means reason-
ing in the opposite direc-
We can also formulate the converse of this theorem.
tion.

If 4 ABC is such that the lengths of the sides are a, b and c, and a2 + b2 = c2 ,
then 4 ABC is a right triangle with hypotenuse of length c.
 39 MAT0511/003

1.3.1

(a) Calculate the length of the hypotenuse in each of the following right trian-
gles.
(i) (ii)
H
m
12 c

P F

3 cm 5 cm

Q R
4 cm G

(b) Show that 4 ABC is a right triangle.

2 cm
A B

2 cm
2
cm

(a) (i) Let the length of the hypotenuse PR be q cm. Then

q2 =32 + 42

q2 =25

q = 5.

But we know that length cannot be negative, hence q = 5 and thus

the length of the hypotenuse is 5 cm.
 40

(ii) Let the length of the hypotenuse GH be f cm. Then

f 2 =52 + 122

f 2 =169

f = 169

f = 13.

We begin by considering b2 ,
since it appears that the right
angle is at B.
Since f > 0 it follows that f = 13. Hence the length of the hy-
potenuse is 13 cm.
(b) In 4ABC, if b2 = a2+ c2 , then 4 ABC is a right triangle. Now b = 2 cm,
c = 2 cm and a = 2 cm. Thus
a2 + c2 =( 2 cm)2 + ( 2 cm)2

=2 cm2 + 2 cm2

=4 cm2
and
b2 =(2 cm)2

=4 cm2
i.e. we have
b2 =a2 + c2

and hence 4 ABC is a right triangle.

Now try to do Example 1.3.1 again, in a different way.

1.3.2

Use the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the distance between the towns B
and E given in Example 1.3.1.
 41 MAT0511/003

We refer to Figure 1.3.3. By the Theorem of Pythagoras we see that in 4 DEC

d2 = e2 + c2
Note that we have used the = 162 + 122
same letter, c, to represent = 256 + 144
two different lengths in this = 400.
activity. In the first case c
represents the length of DE Since d 0 we have d = 20, i.e. the distance from E to C is 20 km.
in 4 DEC, and in the second
case c represents the length In 4 ACB
of AB in 4 ABC. Since C
occurs in both triangles it is a2 = c2 + b2
acceptable to use c to repre- = 62 + 82
sent the lengths of the side = 36 + 64
opposite C in each case, al-
= 100.
though we understand that c
in 4 DEC is not equal to c Since a 0 we have a = 10, i.e. the distance from B to C is 10 km. .
in 4 ABC.
Thus the distance from E to B is the sum of these two distances, i.e. 30 km.

In Activities 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 we have used the Theorem of Pythagoras to calculate
the length of the hypotenuse, where the lengths of the other sides have been
given. We can also use this theorem to calculate the length of one side of a right
triangle, if we know the length of the other side and of the hypotenuse.

1.3.2

Suppose 4 PQR is a right triangle, with the right angle at Q.

15 cm

P Q
4 cm

Calculate the length of QR.

 42

SOLUTION
Let the length of QR be p cm. By the Theorem of Pythagoras, p2 + 42 = 152 .
Now
p2 + 42 =152

p2 =225 16

p2 =209

p = 209.

Thus the length of QR is 209 cm. (209 is not a perfect square, or the product
of a perfect square and some other number, and we thus leave the answer as a
We discussed surds in Topic square root, i.e. in surd form.)
4 of Book 1.

DISTANCE FORMULA Not all lengths can be calculated by considering line segments as sides of right
triangles. We thus need another way of calculating distances. We have the dis-
tance formula. Consider Figure 1.3.6.

Q( x 2 , y 2 )
y2

y 2 y1

y1
P ( x 1, y 1 ) R ( x2 , y1 )

x
x1 x2
x2 x1

Figure 1.3.6

Note that this discussion
refers to points P and Q
in the first quadrant. We
will obtain the same for-
mula always, regardless of
the quadrants in which P
and Q lie.
Note that if Q lies directly
above P then
x1 = x2 and y2 > y1 .
Hence
y2 y1 > 0
and thus
p q
d(P, Q) = (y2 y1 )2
= y2 y1 .
43 MAT0511/003
We want to determine the distance between two points P and Q in the Cartesian
plane. We derive a formula based on the Theorem of Pythagoras, but once we
have the formula we do not need to create right triangles each time we need to
calculate a length, although this might help.
For convenience we use the notation (x1 , y1 ) to represent the coordinates of the
point P, and (x2 , y2 ) to represent the coordinates of the point Q. We locate a
third point in the plane, namely R, by completing a right triangle with PQ as
the hypotenuse. Since R is as far above the xaxis as P is, it has the same
ycoordinate as P, namely y1 . Since R is as far to the right of the yaxis as Q
is, it has the same xcoordinate as Q, namely x2 .
The length of PR is x2 x1 since the distance between P and R is the distance
between x1 and x2 on the xaxis, and x2 > x1 .
The length of QR is y2 y1 since the distance between Q and R is the distance
between y1 and y2 on the yaxis and y2 > y1 . Now, in the right triangle PQR, let
the length of the hypotenuse be r. Then, by the Theorem of Pythagoras we have
r2 = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .
p
Hence d(P, Q) = r = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 . (Since distance is nonnegative
we only consider the positive square root.) Hence we have the following formula.
DISTANCE FORMULA
The distance d(P, Q) between the points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is
given by
d(P,Q)= (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 . (1.3.1)
In each of the following calculate the distance between the given points. Leave
answers in surd form where necessary.
(a) A(3, 1); B(4, 5)
(b) O(0, 0); P(4, 3)
(c) P(1, 5); Q(2, 3)
 44

(a)
q
d(A, B) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2
q
= (4 3)2 + (5 1)2
q
= (7)2 + (6)2

= 49 + 36

= 85

Thus the distance between A and B is 85 units.

(b)
q
d(O, P) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2
q
= (4 0)2 + (3 0)2
q
= (4)2 + (3)2

= 16 + 9

= 25
= 5

Thus the distance between O and P is 5 units.

(c)
q
d(P, Q) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2
q
= (2 (1))2 + (3 (5))2
q
= (1)2 + (8)2

= 1 + 64

= 65

Thus the distance between P and Q is 65 units.

MIDPOINT FORMULA We now consider how to find the midpoint M(x, y) of the line segment that joins
P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ). Consider Figure 1.3.7.
 45 MAT0511/003

y
Q ( x2 , y2 )
y2

M ( x, y )
y S
x2 x

P ( x 1 , y 1)
y1 R
x x1
x
x1 x x2

Figure 1.3.7

One of the conditions that
determines that two triang
les are congruent is that a
side and two angles of the
one should be equal to the
corresponding side and two
angles of the other. You may
wish to come back to this
again once you have studied
Book 4.
In 4 MQS and 4 PMR we have the length of MQ equal to the length of PM
(since M is the midpoint of PQ). We also have QMS = M PR (since PRkMS,
the corresponding angles are equal) and M QS = PMR (since QSkMR we have
another pair of equal corresponding angles). Thus the triangles PMR and MQS
are congruent. Hence PR and MS have the same length. Now
length of PR = length of MS
x x1 =x2 x

2x =x2 + x1

x1 + x2
x= .
2

y1 + y2 x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 .
In a similar way we obtain y = 2 . Thus M(x, y) = 2 2

We have the following formula.

MIDPOINT FORMULA

The midpoint M(x, y) of the line segment from a point P(x1 , y1 ) to

another point Q(x2 , y2 ) is
2 y1 +y2
M(x, y)= x1 +x
2 , 2 (1.3.3)
 46

1.3.4

y1 + y2
Show how we obtain the ycoordinate of M, i.e. y = 2 .

As given in the derivation of x = x1 + x2

2 , we have that 4 MQS and 4 PMR are
congruent. It follows that the length of QS is equal to the length of MR. Now

length of QS =length of MR

y2 y =y y1

2y =y2 + y1

y1 + y2
y= .
2

1.3.4

Suppose P(1, 2) and Q(2, 5) are two points in the plane.

(a) Determine the distance d(P, Q) between P and Q.

(b) Determine the midpoint M(x, y) of the line segment joining P and Q.

(c) Check that M(x, y) is the midpoint by calculating the distance between M
and P, and between M and Q.

SOLUTION
(a)
q
d(P, Q) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 By (1.3.2).
Thus q
d(P, Q) = (2 (1))2 + (5 2)2
q
= 32 + (7)2

= 9 + 49

= 58.
 47 MAT0511/003

(b)

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M(x, y) = , By equation (1.3.3).
2 2
Thus
1 + 2 2 5
M(x, y) = ,
2 2

1 3
= , .
2 2

(c)
s
2 2
1 3
d(M, P) = 1 + 2
2 2
r
9 49
= +
4 4
r
58
=
4
58
=
2
s
2
1 2 3
d(M, Q) = 2 + 5
2 2
r
9 49
= +
4 4
r
58
=
4
58
=
2

Thus d(M, P) = d(M, Q), and hence M is the midpoint of the line segment
joining P and Q.

Note that we use the word
radius in two different
ways. It describes the line
segment from the centre to
any point on the circle; it
also describes the distance
from the centre to the point
on the circle, i.e. the length
of the line segment joining
the centre and a point on the
circle. Similarly the word
diameter denotes both the
line segment and its length.
CIRCLES WITH CEN-
TRE AT THE ORIGIN
48
1.3B
THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
We can also use the distance formula obtained in Study Unit 1.3A to find the
equation of a circle. We know that a circle is a set of points which lie at a fixed
distance r (called the radius) from a fixed point (called the centre). In any circle
the diameter is the line segment that passes through the centre, and joins any
two points on the circle. Consider the circle with centre (0,0) and radius 2 units
shown in Figure 1.3.8.
y
( x , y)
2
x
(0,0)
Figure 1.3.8
Let (x, y) be any point on the circle. Then, by the distance
p formula, the distance
from the origin to (x, y), i.e. the radius, is given by (x 0)2 + (y 0)2 . Thus
p
x2 + y2 = 2, i.e. the equation of this circle is x2 + y2 = 22 , or x2 + y2 = 4.
In general, if the radius is given by r we have the following formula.
STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A CIRCLE
WITH CENTRE AT (0, 0) AND RADIUS r
The equation of a circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r is
x 2 + y 2 = r2 (1.3.4)
Consider Example 1.3.5.
 49 MAT0511/003

1.3.5
Find the equation of the circle sketched below. The origin is the centre.
y

( 2 ,1)

Figure 1.3.9

SOLUTION
When the centre of a circle is the origin and its radius is r it has the equation
x2 + y2 = r2 . In Figure 1.3.9 the point (2, 1) lies on the circle, and hence the
coordinates of the point satisfy the equation of the circle. Thus
(2)2 + 12 =r2 .
We thus have
4 + 1 =r2
and hence
r2 =5.

Thus the equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = 5.

Now try the following activity.

1.3.5

Show that the point P(2, 3) does not lie on the circle with centre at the origin
and radius 4 units.
 50

The equation of the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 4 units is
x2 + y2 = 16.
If P lies on this circle then the coordinates of the point P must satisfy the equation
x2 + y2 = 16. Now, if we substitute x = 2 and y = 3 into the left side of the
equation, then
x2 + y2 = (2)2 + 32
= 4+9
= 13
6= 16.
Thus the coordinates (2, 3) do not satisfy the equation and hence P does not lie
on the circle.

Before we move on, try one more activity.

1.3.6

Consider the sketch below which shows the circle with centre at the origin and
radius 4 units, and the circle with centre at the origin and radius 5 units. The
point P lies between the two circles.

P ( x, y)

4 5 x

Figure 1.3.10

Describe algebraically the numerical boundaries of the distance between P and

the origin.
 51 MAT0511/003

The distance from P to the origin is

q p
d(P, O) = (0 x)2 + (0 y)2 = x2 + y2 .

P lies outside the smaller circle and inside the bigger circle. Thus the distance
between P and the origin is greater than 4 units and less than 5 units. We can
thus describe the distance between P and the origin by means of the inequalities
p
4 < x2 + y2 < 5
i.e.
42 < x2 + y2 < 52
i.e.
16 < x2 + y2 < 25.

CIRCLES WHERE THE We now consider a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r, as shown in Figure
CENTRE IS NOT THE 1.3.11.
ORIGIN y

r
( h , k)
( x , y)

Figure 1.3.11

Such a circle consists of all points P(x, y) whose distance to (h, k) is r. Again, by
using the distance formula, we obtain
q
(x - h)2 + (y k)2 = r

i.e. we have the following formula.

 52

THE STANDARD FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A

CIRCLE WITH CENTRE AT (h, k) AND RADIUS r

The standard form of the equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and
radius r is

(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 . (1.3.5)

1.3.6

(a) Consider a circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 4 units. We substitute
h = 1 and k = 2 into equation (1.3.5) and we obtain

(x 1)2 + (y (2))2 = 16.

This equation can be simplified, and we have

(x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 16.

(b) Consider also a circle with centre (3, 0) and radius 6 units. We substitute
h = 3 and k = 0 into equation (1.3.5) and we obtain

(x (3))2 + (y 0)2 = 62

which we simplify and write as

(x + 3)2 + y2 = 36.

1.3.7
(a) Give the standard equation of the circle with radius 3 units and centre
(3, 2).

(b) What are the centre and radius of the circle with equation

x2 + (y + 2)2 = 16?
 53 MAT0511/003

(a) The standard equation is

(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 .

We have h = 3, k = 2 and r = 3.
Thus we have
(x 3)2 + (y (2))2 = 32
and hence
(x 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 9.

(b) We rewrite the equation in the form (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 .

We have
(x 0)2 + (y (2))2 = 42 .
Hence the centre is (0, 2) and the radius is 4 units.

In the next activity you will use the fact that if we denote the diameter of a circle
by d and the radius by r, then d = 2r.

1.3.8

In Figure 1.3.12, PQ is a diameter of the circle. Find the equation of the circle.

( 1,3)
P

x
Q
(4, 1 )

Figure 1.3.12

Hint: Use the distance formula to find the diameter, and the midpoint formula to
find the centre.
 54

Diameter = length of line segment joining (1, 3) and (4, 1)

q
= (1 4)2 + (3 (1))2 By (1.3.2).
q
= (5)2 + 42

= 25 + 16

= 41
1
Hence radius = 41
2
r
q
Note that we write 1
as 1 41
2 4. = .
4
Midpoint of diameter = centre of circle

1 + 4 3 + (1)
Midpoint of diameter = , By (1.3.3).
2 2

3
= , 1 .
2

3
Hence centre = , 1 .
2

The equation of the circle is

(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 By (1.3.5).

q
where h = 2 , k = 1 and r = 41
3
4.

Hence
3 41
(x )2 + (y 1)2 =
2 4
and we write this as
3
4(x )2 + 4(y 1)2 = 41.
2
If we continue simplifying this equation we obtain

4x2 12x + 9 + 4y2 8y + 4 = 41

Note that when we simplify
the equation it is not imme-
i.e. we have
diately obvious that this rep-
4x2 12x + 4y2 8y = 28
resents a circle.
i.e.
x2 3x + y2 2y = 7.
 55 MAT0511/003

1.3

1. 4 ABC is a right triangle. The length of the hypotenuse is 10 units, and the
length of one other side is 4 units. Calculate the length of the third side.

2. Consider the points A(1, 1), B(4, 3) and C(4, 1). Show

(a) graphically
(b) algebraically

that 4 ABC is a right triangle.

3. Show that 4 ABC is not a right triangle, when A = (1, 1), B = (5, 3) and
C = (4, 2).

4. For each pair of points P and Q determine the distance d(P, Q) between
them and the midpoint M(x, y) of the line segment joining P and Q.

(a) P = (1, 7) Q = (3, 4)

(b) P = (1, 1) Q = (2, 3)
(c) P = (1, 2) Q = (3, 4)

5. Write down the standard equation of the circle with centre C and radius r.

(a) C = (0, 0) r= 2
(b) C = (1, 2) r=3

(c) C = (2, 3) r=2 3
(d) C = (0, 1) r=1

6. Determine the centre C and radius r of each circle defined below.

(a) x2 + y2 = 3
(b) (x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 36

7. Suppose AB is the line segment joining A and B, where A = (5, 4) and

B = (1, 2).

(a) Find the midpoint C of AB.

(b) Find the distance d(C, A) between C and A.
(c) Write down the equation of the circle that has AB as diameter.

8. Suppose AB is the diameter of a circle where A = (1, 1) and

B = (2, 3). Determine the equation of the circle.
 56

The Cartesian coordinate plane R R

Consists of points P, each represented by an ordered number pair

(x, y) called the coordinates of P.
The plane (also referred to as the xyplane) is divided into four
quadrants by a horizontal line (xaxis or independent variable axis)
and a vertical line (yaxis or dependent variable axis), such that
in quadrant I, x > 0 and y > 0
in quadrant II, x < 0 and y > 0
in quadrant III, x < 0 and y < 0
in quadrant IV, x > 0 and y < 0.
The axes are perpendicular to each other and intersect at the origin
O, where O = (0, 0).

Plotting points (given in a table of values or generated by some equation)

in R R to create graphs

Choose an appropriate scale.

If the graph represents an equation then the coordinates of the points
satisfy the equation.
If the coordinates of a point satisfy the equation of the graph then the
point lies on the graph.

Important information for any graph

the x and yintercepts of the graph

the equation of the yaxis is always x = 0
the equation of the xaxis is always y = 0
values of x for which y > 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies above the
We assume the point (x, y) xaxis)
lies on the graph.
values of x for which y < 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies below the
xaxis)
values of x for which y 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies above or on
the xaxis)
values of x for which y 0 (i.e. for which the graph lies below or on
the xaxis)

The Theorem of Pythagoras

In any right triangle ABC where C = 90 we have

c2 = a2 + b2 .
 57 MAT0511/003

Converse
If 4 ABC is such that
c2 = a2 + b2
then 4 ABC is a right triangle with hypotenuse of length c units.

Distance formula
The length of the line segment joining P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by
q
d(P, Q) = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .

Midpoint formula
The midpoint M(x, y) of the line segment joining P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is
given by
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M(x, y) = , .
2 2
Standard equation of a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius r is

x 2 + y2 = r 2 .

Standard equation of a circle with centre at (h, k) and radius r is

(x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 .

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 1.1

1. Choose an appropriate scale (if an accurate graph is required) or mark ver-

tical and horizontal lines in a suitable way (if an illustration of information
is required) and plot given data, taking into account whether the graph con-
sists of separate dots, or whether the dots can be joined in some way.
Examples 1.1.1, 1.1.2; Exercise 1.1 (1), (2)

2. Interpret information conveyed by a given graph.

Exercise 1.1 (3), (4)

SECTION 1.2

1. Represent solutions of equations or inequalities in one variable by means

of a onedimensional graph (i.e. on a number line).
Book 1, Topic 1: see Figure 1.1.1 and Table 1.2.1
 58

2. Find coordinates of a given point in the Cartesian plane, or, if the coordi-
nates are known, locate the point.
Activity 1.2.1
3. Use a table of values to draw a graph.
Example 1.2.1
4. Use an equation to set up a table of values and hence draw a graph.
Example 1.2.2
5. If a graph represents an equation
find the x and yintercepts of the graph
determine whether or not a given point lies on the graph, i.e. whether or
not the coordinates of the point satisfy the equation of the graph
find values of x for which y > 0, y = 0 (i.e. the xintercept) or y < 0
recognise from the quadrant in which a point lies whether x > 0 or x < 0
and whether y > 0 or y < 0.
Activity 1.2.2

SECTION 1.3

1. Use the Theorem of Pythagoras.

Equation (1.3.1); Activities 1.3.1, 1.3.2; Example 1.3.2
2. Use the distance formula.
Equation (1.3.2); Activities 1.3.3, 1.3.8; Example 1.3.4
3. Use the midpoint formula.
Equation (1.3.3); Activities 1.3.4, 1.3.8; Example 1.3.4
4. Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at (0, 0) .
Equation (1.3.4); Example 1.3.5
5. Use the equation of a circle to find out whether a point lies on the circle or
not.
Activities 1.3.5, 1.3.6
6. Find the standard equation of a circle with radius r and centre at
(h, k) 6= (0, 0).
Equation (1.3.5); Example 1.3.6; Activity 1.3.7
7. Given the equation of a circle, find the centre and radius of the circle.
Activity 1.3.7
8. Given the coordinates of the end points of the diameter of a circle, find the
equation of the circle.
Activity 1.3.8
 59 MAT0511/003

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 2.1: Relations and Functions in R R

I Identify the type of correspondence in any relation.

I Identify the domain and range in a given relation.

I Recognise when a relation is a function.

I Determine function values by substituting given domain values into the

formula (equation) that defines the function.

I Identify the natural domain of a function.

I Identify dependent and independent variables in a specific example, and

use functional notation correctly to express the relationship between the
variables.

I Recognise when two functions are equal.

SECTION 2.2: Combining Functions

I Obtain new functions from existing functions by addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division.

I Calculate the function value when the function is obtained from the sum,
difference, product or quotient of two other functions.

I Determine the natural domain of sum, difference, product or quotient func-

tions.
 60

2.1
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS IN R R

2.1A
TERMINOLOGY AND NOTATION
In the previous topic we looked at some specific subsets of the Cartesian plane,
consisting of points which all followed a particular pattern. In some cases the
points were plotted from a table of values which was either given, or set up from
a specific equation.

In mathematics, certain subsets of the Cartesian plane interest us more than oth-
ers. In order to deal with these ideas in more detail, we need appropriate termi-
nology and notation.

We have already introduced unfamiliar notation in the section heading, where

we refer to R R. We use this to denote the Cartesian plane. It indicates that
RR the Cartesian plane consists of all points which represent ordered number pairs
(x, y), where x is any real number, and y is any real number. We thus have the
following definition of the Cartesian plane.

Definition 2.1.1
The Cartesian plane represents R R, which
is the set {(x, y) : x R and y R}.

We have already considered various subsets of R R. We give these subsets a

RELATIONS special name.

Definition 2.1.2
A subset of R R is called a relation.

This just means that a relation in RR is any set of ordered number pairs. These
ordered pairs can sometimes be described by means of a simple rule.

Have a look at the next example.

 61 MAT0511/003

2.1.1

Write down a simple rule to specify the relations that are illustrated

(a) in Figure 2.1.1

(b) in Figure 2.1.2.

x
3 1 1
1

Figure 2.1.1 Figure 2.1.2

SOLUTION

(a) It is clear that the rule is draw a circle with centre at the origin and radius
3 units. From our knowledge of circles (discussed in Topic 1, Section
1.3) we can express this rule in terms of the equation x2 + y2 = 9.

(b) The relation in this case consists only of eight points, arranged in the form
of a square. We could state the rule as arrange dots in a square around
the origin corresponding only to each of the numbers 1, 0 and 1 on the
x and yaxes. A rule stated in this way could be ambiguous, and hence
we prefer to state the rule mathematically, as follows.

y = 1 for x {1, 0, 1}
y = 0 for x {1, 1}
y = 1 for x {1, 0, 1}

In (a) of Example 2.1.1 we can state the rule as an equation which links the value
of the dependent variable with a specific value of the independent variable.

DOMAIN AND RANGE
The range is sometimes re-
ferred to as the image set.
62
If
x 2 + y2 = 9
then
y2 = 9 x 2
i.e. we have the equation
y = 9 x2 ; x R, 3 x 3.
In (b) it is more difficult to give a suitable equation. In this case it is simpler to
give the relation as a set of ordered pairs:
{ (1, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1) }.
When we discuss the rule we use to establish a relation, we need to be very
clear about the values we choose for the independent variable, i.e. the values
we choose for the first coordinate of each ordered pair of the relation. We use
a specific word for the set of first coordinates, and also for the set of second
coordinates. These are given in the following definition.
Definition 2.1.3
The set of all first coordinates of the ordered
pairs of a relation is called the domain of the
relation. The set of all second coordinates is
called the range.
In Example 2.1.1 (a) we have
Domain = {x R : 3 x 3}
Range = {y R : 3 y 3}.
In (b) we have
Domain = {1, 0, 1}
Range = {1, 0, 1}.
2.1.1
Can you identify the rule that determines the relation shown in the following
table?
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 6 9 12 15 18 21

The sequence of terms in the
domain has a = 1 and d = 1.
The sequence of terms in the
range has a = 6 and d = 3.
CORRESPONDENCE
63 MAT0511/003
From your study of sequences (Topic 3 of Book 2) you will recognise that the
domain and range are both arithmetic sequences, where the general term has the
form a + (n 1)d. We consider two possible ways of identifying the rule that
determines the given relation.
First possibility
+5 +3+2
1 6 i.e. 1 6
+7 +3+2+2
2 9 i.e. 2 9
+9 +3+2+2+2
3 12 i.e. 3 12
From the pattern we can conclude that
y = x + 3 + 2 x = 3x + 3; x N, x 6.
Second possibility
Since d = 3 in the range, we could consider the following pattern.
(3 1)+3
1 6
(3 2)+3
2 9
(3 3)+3
3 12
This yields the same equation as before, i.e.
y = 3x + 3; x N, x 6.
The table in Activity 2.1.1 shows a correspondence that exists between two sets
of numbers. In each column in the table, a number in the x row is paired with, or
associated with, another number in the y row. For example, 1 is paired with 6 to
form the ordered pair (1, 6).
 64

The ordered pairs in this activity are given in a table. There are many reallife
cases in which variables are linked, such as the relationship between distance
and time when speed is constant, discussed in Example 1.1.1 (Topic 1). In the
example, Mishak was travelling at a constant speed of 80 km/h, and we make
use of the formula
d = 80 t
to calculate the distance he had covered after he had travelled for a certain time.

Onetoone This example shows a onetoone correspondence between two sets of data: a
correspondence set of numbers representing time, and a set of numbers representing distance.

Consider the data shown in Table 1.1.2 of Study Unit 1.1A. We represent this
data differently, as in Figure 2.1.3.

1 80

2 160

3 240

4 320

5 400

6 480
Time (in hours) Distance (in kilometres)
(Domain) (Range)

Onetoone correspondence

Figure 2.1.3

There is exactly one measurement of distance paired with each measurement of

time, i.e. there is exactly one element of the range paired with each value in the
domain. A correspondence of this type is called a onetoone correspondence.

Not all correspondences are of this type. For example, consider the graph of the
relation sketched in Figure 2.1.4 on the next page.
 65 MAT0511/003

y6
(2, 5)
3 r

2 -x
3
r
3
(2, 5)

Figure 2.1.4

We represent the domain and range of this relation in Figure 2.1.5. Since there
are infinitely many real numbers bigger than or equal to 3, the diagram only
shows selected domain and corresponding range elements.

2 5
3 5
0
Onetomany
0 3
correspondence
3

Domain Range

Onetomany correspondence

Figure 2.1.5

From the graph it is clear that all domain elements (except 3) are paired with
two different elements in the range. Figure 2.1.5 thus represents a onetomany
correspondence.

Manytoone We now consider a third type of correspondence. Suppose a shop has a ten
correspondence minute special, where selected items are sold for R5,00 each, regardless of the
actual price marked on the item. We then have, for example, the following pairs
Note that when decimals (10,98; 5,00), (6,44; 5,00), (11,23; 5,00) representing the original price and spe-
are involved we use a cial price of various items. In this case we have many different domain values
semi-colon (;) to separate
associated with only one range value, and we call this type of correspondence a
the numbers in the ordered
pairs. manytoone correspondence.

Figure 2.1.6 illustrates this type of correspondence.

 66

10,98
6,44 5,00
11,23

Domain Range
Manytoone correspondence

Figure 2.1.6

See whether you have understood the different types of correspondence by trying
to do the next activity.

2.1.2
Identify the correspondence represented in each of the following cases.

(a)
1
2 2
3
4
5

Domain Range
(b) Suppose x is any whole number that is a perfect square.

x
Domain Range

(c)
a p
b q
r
c

Domain Range
(d) The distancetime information given in Table 1.1.2 of Topic 1.
 67 MAT0511/003

(a) All five domain elements are paired with the same element in the range, to
give the ordered pairs

(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2).

The idea five to one tells us that the correspondence is manytoone.

Note that each ordered pair has a different first coordinate.
(b) The domain is the infinite set of all whole numbers that are perfect squares.
Consider for example the first three perfect squares: 0, 1, 4. Now

0 = 0

1 = 1 or 1

4 = 2 or 2.

We thus have
0 0
1 1
1
4 2
2

i.e. we have the ordered pairs (0, 0), (1, 1), (1, 1), (4, 2), (4, 2) and the
correspondence is onetomany. Note that there are now different ordered
pairs that have the same first coordinate.
(c) The ordered pairs are

(a, p), (a, q), (b, r), (c, p).

One of the domain elements (i.e. a) is paired with two different range el-
ements, namely p and q, and the correspondence appears to be oneto
many. However, two of the domain elements (a and c) are mapped onto one
range element, namely p, which suggests a manytoone correspondence.
This example, in which a onetomany correspondence and a manyto
one correspondence occur, illustrates a manytomany correspondence.
(d) Each time measurement is paired with a unique distance measurement and
each distance measurement is paired with a unique time measurement. The
correspondence is thus onetoone. All the ordered pairs have a different
first coordinate and a different second coordinate.

In mathematics we are particularly interested in relations in which the correspon-

dence is onetoone (see Figure 2.1.3) and manytoone (see Figure 2.1.6).
The important fact about these two types of correspondence is that each value of
x in the domain is associated with a unique value of y in the range.
 68

FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.1.4
A function f between two sets of real numbers A and B is a
relation in which each element of A is paired with a unique
element of B.

What does this definition tell us?

I The function f is a set of ordered pairs.

I The set A is the domain of f . For each x A there is a corresponding value

of y in B (sometimes called the image of x). The set of all images is the
range of f .

I The elements in f can be determined by some rule, or represented by a

table showing the correspondence between x and y, or represented by a set
of ordered pairs.

I The correspondence between the domain and the range is either oneto
one or manytoone, but never onetomany.

I Each ordered pair in f has a different first coordinate.

I If there is even just one domain value that is paired with more than one
range value, the relation is not a function.

Figure 2.1.7 represents some function f .

A B
f
x y C

Do you remember the mean- A = Domain of f C = Range of f (C B)

ing of the notation and ?
If not, see Book 1, Section Figure 2.1.7
1.2.

In order to work with functions, we need suitable notation. We generally denote

functions by lower case letters such as f , g, h, etc., although we occasionally use
capital letters F, G, etc.
 69 MAT0511/003

Domain and range Suppose we denote a function by means of f , and the ordered pairs by (x, y).
I D f denotes the domain of f .
I R f denotes the range of f .
I f (x) denotes the value of the function for a particular value of the inde-
pendent variable x (i.e. f (x) = y).
I The equation y = f (x) defines a function in x.

The functional notation f (x) was first introduced by the Swiss mathematician
Leonard Euler (17071783). We read
y = f (x)
as y is equal to f of x or y is a function of x and we understand this to mean
that y is the answer we obtain when we take the independent variable x, and
apply to it the rule which determines how the ordered pairs are formed.

For a function f , if we give the ordered pairs in terms of variables other than x
and y, for example if we have (a, b) f , then we write

We read this as b is equal to b = f (a).

f of a.
In this case we say that the equation b = f (a) defines a function in a, i.e. a is the
independent variable and b is the dependent variable.

I f (x) does not mean f x. The notation f (x) refers to the value in the
range associated with the domain element x. If the ordered pairs (x, y) are
elements of f then we write
y = f (x) = ..... some rule (such as an equation) which tells us
what to do with x in order to obtain y.
Hence f (x) is the value of y for some x D f . If x is an element of the
domain of f , then f (x) is an element of the range of f .
I f (x) is not the function f . The function f is the set of all ordered pairs
(x, y) or (x, f (x)) in R R, whereas f (x) is a single number in R.
Remember
f (x) R
f RR
i.e. f (x) 6= f .
 70

For example, suppose f is the function defined by

y = f (x) = x2 ; x N, 1 x 6.

Then
f = {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25), (6, 36)}
whereas

f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9, f (4) = 16, f (5) = 25, f (6) = 36.

Functions also called map- Different words are sometimes used for functions. If we have a function f such
pings that
y = f (x) = x 3
i.e. if the function f is defined by y = x 3, then some authors may write

f : x x 3.

They may refer to f as a mapping, and read this statement as:

The function f maps each x D f onto y R f , where y is determined by the
rule y = x 3.

Read Definition 2.1.4 again. From the discussion immediately after Definition
2.1.4, we know that the word each in the definition is important. Consider the
two graphs in Figure 2.1.8.

y y

x x

Figure 2.1.8

Suppose we draw a vertical line through each graph. We then have the following
figures.
 71 MAT0511/003

y
y
4 2

x x
2 1

Figure 2.1.9 Figure 2.1.10

In Figure 2.1.9

I the definition of a function is satisfied, since the correspondence between

the domain and range is onetoone (for example 2 in the domain is paired
only with 4 in the range), i.e. each element of the domain is paired with a
unique element of the range.
I every vertical line through the graph cuts it in only one place.

In Figure 2.1.10

The definition of a function
is not satisfied even though
there are two specific ele-
ments in the domain that are
paired with unique elements
in the range, namely the two
xintercepts.
I the definition of a function is not satisfied, since the correspondence be-
tween the domain and range is onetomany (for example 1 in the do-
main is paired with both 2 and 2 in the range), i.e. there are many ele-
ments in the domain that are associated with two different elements in the
range
I there is a vertical line (through the graph) which cuts the graph in more
than one place.

We can thus apply the following useful test when a relation is represented graph-
ically.

THE VERTICAL LINE TEST

Suppose a relation consists of some subset of RR, so that the elements

of the relation are pairs represented by (x, y), where x R and y R.

I If at all x in the domain of the relation a vertical line cuts the

graph of the relation only once, then the relation is a function.

I If there is at least one x in the domain of the relation where a

vertical line cuts the graph of the relation more than once, then
the relation is not a function.
 72

2.1.3
Identify which of the following relations (represented by sets of ordered pairs, a
rule, or a graph) are functions? Explain why they are functions if they are, and
why they are not, in the cases where they are not.

(a) f = {(1, 3), (3, 1), (2, 4), (4, 2)}

(b) y = g(x) = 3x 2

(c) The relation f shown in the following figure.

y

y = f (x)

(d) k = {(x, y) R R: y = 1}

(e) m = {(x, y) R R: (x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4}

(f) The relation g shown in the figure below.

y

y = g(x)

x
1
 73 MAT0511/003

(a)
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
The correspondence is onetoone, hence f is a function.

(b) For any real value we assign to x, we will obtain a unique value for y, and
hence g is a function.

(c) A vertical line through the graph at any point on the xaxis will only cut
the graph once. Hence f is a function.

(d) Domain Range

10

_2
1

1
0

100

Whatever real value we select for x, it is always mapped to the number 1.

The correspondence is thus manytoone and hence k represents a func-
tion.

We discussed circles in (e) We recognise that the equation represents a circle with centre (1, 2) and
Topic 1. radius 2. In other words the domain of the relation is [1, 3]. A vertical
line drawn through any x in the interval (1, 3) will cut the graph twice,
and hence m does not represent a function. Note that we cannot say that
because a vertical line through x = 1 or x = 3 cuts the graph only once,
the relation is a function. This has to be true for all values in the domain.

(f) Dg = {x R : x 1}
Any vertical line drawn through the graph of g for x > 1 will cut the
graph twice. Hence g is not a function.
 74

2.1B
SUBSTITUTION
Read the Useful Hint in Study Unit 2.1A again. We have

y = f (x) = ....

where the dots indicate a rule which tells us what to do with x in order to obtain
y. This suggests that we may also think of a function as a process.

Function considered as a We use the idea of a function as a machine which processes or transforms some
process input element to produce an output element. If f is a function then the set of
input elements is the domain of f ; the set of output elements is the range of f .

Function machine

Processes x
x according to a rule f (x)
for f
output element
input element

Domain of f Range of f

Figure 2.1.11

Compare this with the following example.

Figure 2.1.12
 75 MAT0511/003

Here tomatoes are the input elements, the machine is a liquidiser, the process is
liquidising food and the output is tomato juice.

Suppose a function is defined by a rule, for example, f (x) = x2 3x. We want to

find the output when the function has operated on (or processed) a specific input
element. We represent
f (x) = x2 3x
in terms of boxes and we have
2
f( )= 3 .

If the input element is , we find the output element by putting into each of
the boxes. We have

2
f( ) = 3 .

Then we carry out the operations indicated (i.e. squaring, multiplying by 3) and
we have
f () = 2 3.

Now we will do the same thing where the input element is a specific number.
Using the same rule
f (x) = x2 3x
and the input element 2, we find the output by putting 2 into each box.

2 2 2

2
f( ) = 3 .

We end up with
2
f ( 2 ) = 2 3 2 .

Written in the usual mathematical way we have

f (2) = 22 3 2
= 46
= 2.
 76

Substitution This process of replacing the variable x in the rule of a function with a number,
Check for yourself: do you or with some other variable or expression, is called substitution.
remember what an expres-
sion is? See Book 1, Topic Before moving on, check that you have understood the concepts of input, process
1 if you have forgotten.
and output by studying Table 2.1.1. We use the example above, where

f (x) = x2 3x.

The process or rule that defines the function can be expressed in words, as fol-
lows.

square the number

x f (x)
from the square, subtract the product of the
number and 3

The function machine

Input Apply the function machine Output

(the number we square subtract the product (the answer
choose) the number of the number and 3 we find)
3 9 9 3(3) 18
0 0 0 3(0) 0
1 1 1 3(1) 2
5 25 25 3(5) 10

Table 2.1.1

We note that

I all possible input values form the domain of the function

I the rule is expressed as y = x2 3x

I the set of all the possible output values is the range of the function

I some of the points that are generated by applying this process are
(3, 18), (0, 0), (1, 2) and (5, 10).

In Table 2.1.1 the input elements are all integers. The table shows the various
operations that are carried out on these input elements to yield the output ele-
ments. Now consider the next example. In this case the input elements are no
longer only integers.
 77 MAT0511/003

2.1.2

Suppose we have the function f defined by

y = f (x) = x2 3x.

Consider the input elements 1, a and x + 1. Find the corresponding function

values (i.e. output elements).

SOLUTION
By substitution we know that if

f (x) = x2 3x
then
f (1) = (1)2 3(1)
= 1+3
= 4.
Also,
f (a) = a2 3a

which cannot be simplified further. Remember, if the input is a, we replace every

x with a, and then simplify if possible.

To determine the output when the input is x + 1, we need to calculate f (x + 1),

i.e. we replace each x with x + 1. We have

f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 3(x + 1)
= x2 + 2x + 1 3x 3
= x2 x 2.

This example shows that the output element (function value) may be a number,
or an expression in the same variable as the variable that appears in the given
rule, or an expression in some other variable.

Now apply these ideas in the next activity.

2.1.4

(a) If f (x) = x2 + x + 4, calculate the following.

(i) f (1), f (2), f (3), 3 f (1), f (2)
(ii) f (x), f (x)
 78

(iii) f (x + c), f (x) + c

(iv) f (x2 1)
2
(b) If f (x) = 2xx +21 , determine the following.

(i) f (1), f (0), 2 f (3), f (2)

(ii) f (x)
(iii) f (x 2)
(iv) f (x) (x 2)
(v) f (x2 + 1)

(a) If f (x) = x2 + x + 4, then we have the following answers.

(i)

f (1) = (1)2 + 1 + 4 = 1 + 1 + 4 = 4
f (2) = (2)2 + 2 + 4 = 4 + 2 + 4 = 2
f (3) = (3)2 + 3 + 4 = 9 + 3 + 4 = 2
3 f (1) = 3(4) = 12
f (2) = (2)2 + (2) + 4 = 4 2 + 4 = 2

(ii)

f (x) = (x)2 + (x) + 4 = x2 x + 4

f (x) = (x2 + x + 4) = x2 x 4

(iii)

f (x + c) = (x + c)2 + (x + c) + 4
= (x2 + 2cx + c2 ) + (x + c) + 4
= x2 2cx c2 + x + c + 4
= x2 + (1 2c)x c2 + c + 4
f (x) + c = x2 + x + 4 + c

(iv)

f (x2 1) = (x2 1)2 + (x2 1) + 4

= (x4 2x2 + 1) + x2 1 + 4
= x4 + 2x2 1 + x2 1 + 4
= x4 + 3x2 + 2
 79 MAT0511/003

2
(b) If f (x) = 2xx +21 , then we have the following.

(i)

2(1)2 + 1 3
f (1) = = = 1
1 2 3
2(0) + 1 1
f (0) = =
02 2
2
2(3) + 1
2 f (3) = 2 = 2(19) = 38
32
2(2)2 + 1 9
f (2) = = which is undefined.
22 0

(ii)
2(x)2 + 1 2x2 + 1
f (x) = =
(x) 2 x 2
(iii)

2(x 2)2 + 1 2(x2 4x + 4) + 1

f (x 2) = =
(x 2) 2 x4
2
2x 8x + 9
=
x4

(iv)

2x2 + 1
f (x) (x 2) = (x 2)
x2
2x2 + 1 (x 2)2
=
x2
2x + 1 x2 + 4x 4
2
=
x2
x2 + 4x 3
=
x2

(v)

2(x2 + 1)2 + 1
f (x2 + 1) =
(x2 + 1) 2
2(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + 1
=
x2 1
2x + 4x2 + 3
4
=
x2 1
 80

In (b)(i) of Activity 2.1.4 you were asked to calculate f (2), but when 2 is substi-
tuted for x into the expression that represents f , we are unable to find an answer.
Substituting x = 2 gives zero in the denominator of the expression, and it is thus
undefined.

In many cases we are told what the domain of a particular function is, for exam-
ple we may have the function g defined by

y = g(x) = 3x + 1, x R.

In this case we are given the information that the domain is R.

In other cases we may not be told what the domain is, but, as in (b)(i) of Activity
2.1.4, certain values of the independent variable lead to an undefined expression.
For example, if the function k is defined by
1
y = k(x) =
x1
then, when x = 1 the denominator is zero, and k(x) will thus be undefined.

How do we choose a suitable domain when the domain is not specified? For
example, if k and l are functions defined respectively by
1
k(x) = and l(x) = x + 1,
x1
what are Dk and Dl ?

NATURAL DOMAIN It is clear that x = 1 will be the only possible value of x for which k(x) is unde-
fined; no values of x will give an undefined expression for l(x). We thus work
according to the convention that the domain is the largest set for which the func-
tion is defined. This domain is called the natural domain of the function. Hence
In set notation, A B is the
Dk = R {1} and Dl = R. With reference to (b)(i) of Activity 2.1.4, x = 2 is not
set of all elements in A, ex-
in the natural domain of f , i.e. D f = R {2}.
cluding elements that are in
B. Hence R {2} is the set
of all real numbers except 2.

2.1.3

Note that in this module we (a) What is the natural domain of the function k defined below?
are only considering func-
tions in R R. k(x) = x 1

(b) State the natural domain of the function g, where

p
g(x) = x2 1.
 81 MAT0511/003

SOLUTION
We know that the square root of a negative number is not a real number.

(a) The function k is defined for all x R such that

x 1 0
i.e. such that
x 1.

Hence Dk = {x R: x 1}.

(b) The function g is defined for all x R such that x2 1 0. Now

x2 1 0

x2 1

x 1 or x 1.

You may want to revise the Thus Dg = {x R : x 1 or x 1}.

solution of inequalities. See
Topic 2 of Book 2.

Try the following activity.

2.1.5

Find D f in each case.

(a) f (x) = 1
x2 + 1

Do not become confused be- (b) f (a) = 1 3a
cause the variable given in
(b) and (c) is no longer x. p1
(c) f (p) = 5p + 1
Remember that we can use
any symbol for the variable.
 82

(a) Because x2 + 1 1 we know x2 + 1 6= 0, and hence f (x) exists for all

x R ; i.e. we have D f = R .
(b) f (a) exists for all a R such that

1 3a 0
Dividing an inequality by i.e. such that
a negative number changes 3a 1
the direction of the inequa- i.e. such that
lity sign. 1
a .
3
1
Hence D f = {a R : a 3 }.
(c) f (p) exists for all p R such that
5p + 1 6= 0
i.e. such that
5p 6= 1
i.e. such that
1
p 6= .
5
Hence D f = {p R : p 6= 51 }.

Before we move on to the following study unit try the next activity which deals
with some concepts you learnt about in Topic 1 as well as some of the concepts
discussed in this study unit.

2.1.6

The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales are related by the formula
9
TF = 32 + TC
5
where TF denotes temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit and TC denotes
temperature measured in degrees Celsius.

(a) When the formula is expressed in this way, which is the independent vari-
able and which is the dependent variable?
(b) Explain why this equation defines a function.
(c) Rewrite this equation in the form

TF = f (TC ) = ...... .
 83 MAT0511/003

(d) What is the value of the function f when TC = 0 (i.e. when the temperature
is zero degrees Celsius, which is the freezing point of water)?

(e) Can you describe D f ?

(f) Set up a table of values by choosing six possible values of the independent
variable and then using the given formula to calculate the corresponding
values of the dependent variable.

(g) Plot the points obtained in (f), using a suitable scale on each axis.

(h) Can these points be joined and can the line or curve formed be extended in
some way?

(a) The independent variable is TC .

The dependent variable is TF .

(b) For every possible value of TC , only one possible value of T F can be
paired with it. Hence the set of ordered pairs (TC , TF ) is a relation in which
each element of the domain is paired with a unique element of the range.

(c) TF = f (TC ) = 32 + 95 TC

(d) f (0) = 32 + 95 (0) = 32, i.e. the temperature 0C is equivalent to 32 F.

(e) We know that TC will always be some real number. If you have studied
physics you may know that temperatures range from a theoretical mini-
mum of approximately 273 C to over 200 million C (at the centres of
certain stars known as massive blue stars). Mathematically we could de-
scribe D f as R, because the equation

9
TF = 32 + TC
5
is defined for all real numbers . However, in practice all the measurements
of temperature will be rational numbers, never less than the theoretical
minimum of approximately 273 C.

(f) See the table below.

TC 10 0 10 20 30 40
TF 14 32 50 68 86 104

(g) The independent variable (TC ) is represented on the horizontal axis. Values
extend from 10 to 40. We mark off equal segments (the length we choose
is not important) representing 10 units along the horizontal axis.
 84

The dependent variable (TF ) is represented on the vertical axis. The values
extend from 14 to 104. We mark off equal segments representing 10 units
along the vertical axis.

TF
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

TC
10 10 20 30 40

Figure 2.1.13

The dashed line in Figure
2.1.13 indicates that in prac-
tice many real numbers are
excluded from the domain.
(h) Since it is possible to have an infinite number of variations in the measure-
ments of TC we know that there will be infinitely many possible values of
TF , and hence it makes sense to join the dots, as shown in the hashed line
in Figure 2.1.13. From (e) we know that we can continue the line in both
directions, up to the point that corresponds to TC = 273 on one side, and
up to some unknown point on the other side.

EQUAL FUNCTIONS A function may be defined by means of a particular rule or equation. Sometimes
the two equations may look different but may in fact define the same function.
 85 MAT0511/003

For example,
y = 8x3 + 1
and
y = (2x + 1)(4x2 2x + 1)
generate the same ordered pairs, and thus define the same function. While this
seems to make sense, we need to know what we mean by the same function.
We have the following definition.

Definition 2.1.5
Two functions f and g are equal if D f = Dg and f (x) = g(x)
for all x D f .

2.1
1. The rule for a function h states that h assigns to each natural number a
value that is three times as big as that number. Write down in functional
notation the equation that defines h.

2. Consider the equation

2x + 3y = 2.

(a) Explain why this equation defines a function in x. Write the rule in
functional notation where

y = f (x) = ... .

(b) Explain why this equation also defines a function in y. Write the rule
in functional notation where

x = f (y) = ... .

3. Consider the function f defined by

y = f (x) = x2 + 3, x N0 .

(a) What is the domain of this function?

(b) Use six domain values and set up a table of values for this function.
(c) If you plot dots to represent the six ordered pairs you have found
from the table of values, can you then complete the graph by joining
the dots?
 86

4. Write down D f for each of the functions f defined below.

(a) f (x) = 3x + 2
(b) f (x) = x x
1

(c) f (x) = x + 2

(d) f (x) = x2 + 2

(e) f (x) = 2x 1
(f) f (x) = 1
2x 1

(g) f (x) = x2 + 3 + 1

(h) f (x) = x2 3 + 1

3
(i) f (x) = x

5. If a function f is defined by y = f (x) = 3x + 1, find the following.

(a) f (1)
(b) f (0)
(c) f (x2 )
(d) f (x)
p
2 3
6. If f (x) = xx+
1 , determine the following.
(a) f (2)
f (4)
(b)
f (4)
(c) f (x 1)

(d) f ( x)
f (a)
(e)
f (a)
7. The function g is defined by
1
g(x) = .
2x + 1
(a) Calculate
(i) g( 14 ) correct to two decimal places
(ii) g(4).
(b) Determine Dg .
 87 MAT0511/003

8. Determine whether f = g, where the functions f and g are defined as fol-

lows.
x4 1
(a) f (x) = ; g(x) = x2 1
x2 + 1
x2 1
(b) f (x) = ; g(x) = x 1
x+1
 88

2.2
COMBINING FUNCTIONS

2.2A
ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION AND
DIVISION
We know that a function f in R R, defined by y = f (x)

I consists of ordered pairs (x, y)

I has domain (input) and range (output) which are subsets of R

I the elements of the domain are the values assigned to the independent vari-
able x

I the elements of the range are the values f (x) obtained for the dependent
variable y, i.e. y = f (x).

Just as machines can work together to perform more complicated tasks, so func-
tions can be combined to form more complicated functions. The most obvious
way to produce new functions from existing ones is to use the four arithmetic
operations (i.e. addition, subtraction, muliplication and division). For example,
it would make sense to define the sum f + g of two functions f and g so that we
have
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x),
i.e. we obtain the output element ( f + g)(x) by adding the two output elements
See Topic 2 in Book 1. f (x) and g(x). Since the outputs f (x) and g(x) are real numbers they obey all the
rules that apply to operations on real numbers.

Have a look at Figure 2.2.1.

 89 MAT0511/003

x x

f ( x) g ( x)

f ( x) + g ( x)
= ( f + g) ( x)

Figure 2.2.1

Consider two functions f and g, and the four arithmetic operations, namely ad-
dition, subtraction, multiplication and division. We now define the sum, differ-
ence, product, and quotient functions.

Definition 2.2.1
The sum f + g of two functions f and g is defined by

( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

for all x D f Dg .

Definition 2.2.2
The difference f g of two functions f and g is defined by

( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

for all x D f Dg .
 90

Definition 2.2.3
The product f g (which we sometimes write as f g or f g)
of two functions f and g is defined by

( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

for all x D f Dg .

We usually write the product as f (x)g(x), without using the multiplication signs
or .

Definition 2.2.4
f
The quotient f g (which we also write as g ) of two functions
f and g is defined by

f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)

for all x D f Dg such that g(x) 6= 0.

In these definitions note the following.

f
I f + g, f g, f g and g are also functions.

I We must think carefully about the domain of the new function. For exam-
ple Definition 2.2.1 makes sense only if x is a number for which both f
and g are defined, i.e. the domain of f + g is the set of all elements which
are common to the domain of f and to the domain of g. Thus the domain
of f + g is the intersection of the domains of f and g. We write

D f +g = D f Dg .

I
f + g = g + f and f g = g f
but
f g
f g 6= g f and 6=
g f

Commutativity is discussed This is consistent with what we already know: addition and multiplication
in Topic 2 of Book 1. in R are commutative operations, but subtraction and division are not.

I In the case of the quotient of two functions we have to apply the additional
condition that the denominator may not be zero.
 91 MAT0511/003

Table 2.2.1 summarises the definitions of the sum, difference, product and quo-
tient functions generated by f and g, as well as the respective domains.

It is important to memorise Name Definition/rule Domain

and understand this Table Sum of f and g ( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) D f +g = D f Dg
2.2.1 Difference f g ( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) D f g = D f Dg
between f and g
Product of f and g (f
g)(x) = f (x)g(x) D f g = D f Dg
f f (x)
Quotient of f and g (x) = D f /g = D f Dg
g g(x)
Note that we sometimes {x Dg : g(x) = 0}
write gf as f /g.
Table 2.2.1

The following definitions arise from the definitions summarised in Table 2.2.1.

I The reciprocal of g, denoted by 1g , is defined as

1 1
(x) = .
g g(x)
Note that this arises from the definition of the quotient function, where we
have f equal to the constant function defined by f (x) = 1. We thus have

D1/g = R Dg {x Dg : g(x) = 0} = Dg {x Dg : g(x) = 0}.

This applies to all powers of I The square of f , denoted by f 2 , is defined as

functions.
f 2 (x) = f (x) f (x).

This arises from the definition of the product function. It is clear that
Df2 = Df .

2.2.1
Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 2x 1 and g(x) = x2 + 3.
Calculate ( f + g)(6).

SOLUTION
( f + g)(6) = f (6) + g(6)
= 2(6) 1 + (6)2 + 3
= 13 + 39
= 26
 92

Now try the next activity.

2.2.1
Suppose f and g are functions defined by
1
f (x) = and g(x) = x.
x3

(a) Write down D f and Dg .

(b) In each of the following cases determine the equation of the function and
write down the corresponding domain.
f
(i) f + g (ii) f g (iii) f g (iv)
g

(a) D f = {x R : x 6= 3} Division by zero is undefined.

Dg = {x R : x 0} The square root of a negative number
is undefined.

(b) (i)
1
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = + x
x3
D f +g = D f Dg = {x R : x 0 and x 6= 3}

(ii)
1
( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) = x
x3
D f g = D f Dg = {x R : x 0 and x 6= 3}

(iii)

1 x
( f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) = x =
x3 x3
D f g = D f Dg = {x R : x 0 and x 6= 3}

(iv)

f f (x) 1/(x 3) 1
(x) = = =
g g(x) x x(x 3)

D f /g = D f Dg {x Dg : g(x) = 0}
= {x R : x > 0 and x 6= 3}

Note that x = 0 is excluded since g(0) = 0.

 93 MAT0511/003

Now that you have studied the solution for the activity, it may be a good idea to
consolidate your understanding by trying the next activity. Note that the domain
in each answer in Activity 2.2.1 is a set, so it must be expressed in suitable
notation. For example, in (b)(ii) it is incorrect to write
D f g = x 0 and x 6= 3.
D f g is a set in R, whereas x is a number in R.

2.2.2

Suppose f , g and h are functions defined by

1 x2
f (x) = x 2, g(x) = and h(x) = 2 .
x+1 x x2

(a) Write down D f , Dg and Dh .

(b) In each of the following cases determine the equation of the function and
the corresponding domain.
(i) 1/ f (ii) h/g (iii) f /g (iv) g h

(a) D f = {x R : x 2} The square root of a negative number

is undefined.
Dg = {x R : x 6= 1} Division by zero is undefined.

Dh = {x R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2} h(x) = x2 ,
(x 2)(x + 1)
and division by zero is undefined.
(b) (i)
1 1
(1/ f )(x) = =
f (x) x2
D1/ f = {x R : x > 2}

(ii)
x2
h h(x) (x 2)(x + 1)
(x) = =
g g(x) 1
x+1
1 x+1
=
x+1 1
= 1
Dh/g = Dh Dg {x Dg : g(x) = 0}
 94

Consider the two diagrams below.

1 2

Dh
1

Dg

Thus Dh Dg = {x R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}. Now we consider

{x Dg : g(x) = 0}. Since g(x) = x + 1 we see that g(x) 6= 0 for all
1
/
x R {1}, i.e. for all x Dg , and hence {x Dg : g(x) = 0} = 0.
Thus Dh/g = R {1, 2}.

Note
When we determine (h/g) and find that (h/g)(x) = 1, we may be
tempted to say that Dh/g = R , but we have to keep in mind the way
in which Dh/g is defined.
(iii)

f f (x) x2
(x) = =
g g(x) 1
x+1
= (x + 1) x 2

D f /g = D f Dg {x Dg : g(x) = 0}
= {x R : x 2} {x R : x 6= 1} 0/
= {x R : x 2}

(iv)

(g h)(x) = g(x) h(x)

1 x2
=
x+1 (x 2)(x + 1)
1 1
=
x+1 x+1
= 0

Dgh = Dg Dh
= {x R : x 6= 1} {x R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}
= {x R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}
= R {1, 2}
 95 MAT0511/003

2.2

1. If f (x) = x2 1 and g(x) = x 2, find each of the following (leave your
answers in surd form where necessary).

(a) ( f + g)(2)
(b) ( f g)(3)
(c) ( f g)(4)
(d) ( f /g)(6)

2. If p(t) = 1t and q(t) = 3t + 1, find each of the following.

(a) (p + q)(1)
(b) (p q)(3)
(c) (p q)(2)
(d) (p/q)(4)

In Questions 36, for the given functions f and g, find an equation for each
of the following.

(a) ( f + g)(x)
(b) ( f g)(x)
(c) ( f g)(x)
(d) ( f /g)(x)
(e) ( f 2 g2 )(x)
(f) ( f 2 + g2 )(x)
(g) D f +g
(h) D f /g

3. f (x) = x2 + 3x 10 g(x) = x + 5

4. f (x) = x g(x) = 3x 2

5. f (x) = x g(x) = 3x 2

6. f (x) = x2 1 g(x) = 1
2
x 1
 96

The Cartesian plane is represented by R R.

R R = {(x, y) : x R and y R}

A subset of R R is called a relation.

Consider any relation

r = {(x, y) : x A and y B}.

A is the domain of the relation.

The range of the relation is the set {y : (x, y) r and x A}.

Types of correspondence

Type Example

onetoone
1 4
3 2
5 0

onetomany
2
4
2

manytoone
10 5
5
0 0

manytomany
2 1
4 2

6 3

8 4
 97 MAT0511/003

A function f is a set of ordered pairs in R R in which different ordered

pairs have different xcoordinates, i.e. each element of D f is paired with
a unique element of Rf .
The equation y = f (x) = ... (i.e. some rule which tells us what to
do with x in order to obtain y) defines a function in x. We call f a
function in x.
Substitution
Example
If

y = f (x) = x 3x
we may substitute x = 1 and we obtain
p
f (1) = 1 3(1)

= 1 + 3

= 2.

Natural domains of functions

When no domain is specified we work according to the convention that we
use the biggest set of real numbers for which the equation that defines the
function makes sense.
Equality of functions
The functions f and g are equal if
D f = Dg
and
f (x) = g(x) for all x D f (or x Dg ).
The sum of functions
( f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) for all x D f Dg .

The difference of functions

( f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) for all x D f Dg .

The product of functions

( f g)(x) = ( f g)(x) = ( f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for all x D f Dg .

The quotient of functions

f f (x)
( f g)(x) = (x) =
g g(x)
for all x D f Dg such that g(x) 6= 0.
 98

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 2.1

1. Identify the type of correspondence in any relation.

Activity 2.1.2
2. Identify the domain and range in a given relation.
Definition 2.1.3
3. Recognise when a relation is a function.
Definition 2.1.4, Activity 2.1.3
4. Determine function values by substituting given domain values into the
formula (equation) that defines the function.
Example 2.1.2, Activity 2.1.4
5. Identify the natural domain of a function.
Example 2.1.3, Activity 2.1.5
6. Identify dependent and independent variables in a specific example, and
use functional notation correctly to express the relationship between the
variables.
Activity 2.1.6
7. Recognise when two functions are equal.
Definition 2.1.5

SECTION 2.2

1. Obtain new functions from existing functions by addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division.
Definitions 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3 and 2.2.4; Activities 2.2.1, 2.2.2
2. Calculate the function value when the function is obtained from the sum,
difference, product or quotient of two other functions.
Example 2.2.1
3. Determine the natural domain of sum, difference, product or quotient func-
tions.
Activity 2.2.2
 99 MAT0511/003

STRAIGHT LINES

OUTCOMES

After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 3.1: Drawing Lines

I Draw a line using a table of values.

I Find the slope of a line using the coordinates of two points on the line.

I Draw a line using two points (we usually use the x and yintercepts).

I Draw a line using one point on the line and the slope of the line.

I Draw a line which is parallel or perpendicular to a given line.

I Draw vertical and horizontal lines.

I Draw graphs of linear functions with restricted domains.

SECTION 3.2: Finding Equations of Lines

I Find the slopeintercept form of the equation of a line.

I Find the pointslope form of the equation of a line.

I Find the twopoint form of the equation of a line.

I Find the general equation of a line.

 100

SECTION 3.3: Application of Lines and Linear Functions

I Find the point of intersection of two lines.

I Find the vertical distance between corresponding points on two lines, or

between a point on a line and the corresponding point on the horizontal
axis.

I Apply your knowledge of linear functions and straight lines to simple

problems involving linear cost and income functions, breakeven points,
profit and loss.

I Sketch the graphs of linear inequalities.

I Sketch the graph of the solution set of a system of linear inequalities.

I Recognise equations which show direct or joint proportion and apply these
concepts to various reallife situations.
 101 MAT0511/003

3.1
DRAWING LINES

From Definition 2.5.1 in
Section 2.5 of Book 2 it fol-
lows that equation (3.1.1) is
linear since it can be written
as 2x y 1 = 0.
3.1A
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A LINEAR
EQUATION USING A TABLE OF VALUES
We consider the following linear equation in two variables
y = 2x 1; x R. (3.1.1)
How can we represent this equation graphically? In order to answer this question
we

I set up a table of values

I plot the corresponding points on a system of axes

I join the points in a meaningful way.

For convenience we use in- x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

teger values of x from 3 to y = 2x 1 7 5 3 1 1 3 5
3.
Table 3.1.1
 102

y
5

x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
1

Figure 3.1.1

In Figure 3.1.1 we plot the points (3, 7), (2, 5), (1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 1),
(2, 3) and (3, 5) which we obtain from Table 3.1.1. It is obvious from Figure 3.1.1
that we can join all the points by means of one straight line that passes through
all of them (see Figure 3.1.2). If you are not sure that this is so, you can choose
any noninteger value of x between 3 and 3, calculate the corresponding value
of y and plot the point you find. Repeat this process until you are convinced that
the points whose coordinates satisfy the equation all lie on the straight line.
 103 MAT0511/003

4 y = 2x 1

x
5 4 3 2 1 0
1 2 3 4 5
1

Figure 3.1.2

In Figure 3.1.2 we note the following.

I The graph is a straight line and hence the equation y = 2x 1,

i.e. 2x y 1 = 0, is called a linear equation.

We have already discussed
constants. See the discus-
sion regarding polynomials
in one variable after Activity
1.1.1 in Topic 1 of Book 2.
I The yintercept is 1, and this is the constant in the equation y = 2x 1.
I As the value of x increases so the value of y increases, i.e. the line slants
upwards from left to right.
I Since x R the dots can be joined and the line can be extended indefinitely
in both directions.

LINEAR FUNCTIONS
The definition of a linear
function is given in the next
study unit.
It is incorrect to write
l = y = 2x 1, since l is not
equal to the equation.
104
We also note that the equation y = 2x 1 expresses a relationship between x and
y in which y is given in terms of x. From the graph in Figure 3.1.2 it is obvious
that for each xvalue there is a unique yvalue and thus the equation defines a
function in x. Hence we can write
y = f (x) = 2x 1
and f is called a linear function. Figure 3.1.2 represents the graph of f . We
sometimes refer to a graph such as this as the line l defined by y = 2x 1, and
write
l : y = 2x 1,
where the colon means defined by or represented by.
Now try the following activity.
3.1.1
Consider the equation y = 2x + 3.
(a) Set up a table of values, using integer values of x from 3 to 3, and draw
the line l, where
l : y = 2x + 3.
(b) From the graph give the yintercept of the line.
(c) Does the line slant upwards or downwards?
(a) Table of values
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y = 2x + 3 9 7 5 3 1 1 3
The line l is sketched in Figure 3.1.3. on the next page.
 105 MAT0511/003

y = 2x + 3 7

x
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
1

Figure 3.1.3

(b) The yintercept is 3 (the same as the constant in y = 2x + 3).

(c) The line slopes downwards from left to right, i.e. as the value of x increases
so the value of y decreases.

In the next few study units we shall consider various techniques that will help us
to draw lines without having to set up tables of values.
 106

3.1B
LINEAR FUNCTIONS AND LINES
Equation (3.1.1) and the equation in Activity 3.1.1 are two examples of linear
equations of the form
y = mx + c,
where m and c are constants. Both equations represent functions. In general we
have the following definition.

Definition 3.1.1
Suppose m and c are fixed real numbers (i.e. constants). A function f
defined by

y = f (x) = mx + c

is called a linear function.

There are two special linear functions which have specific names.

I If m = 0 then f (x) = c, and f is called a constant function. Note that f

maps every real number onto the real number c.

I If m = 1 and c = 0 then f (x) = x, and f is called the identity function. This

function is called the identity function because it maps each real number
onto itself. It is sometimes denoted by i, i.e.

i(x) = x for all x R.

Once you have worked through this section you will be able to draw the graphs
See Exercise 3.1, question of the functions defined by f (x) = c and f (x) = x. We shall leave this as an
13. exercise.

In Definition 3.1.1, the term linear is used because the graphs of all linear
functions are straight lines. However, not all straight lines are the graphs of
Note that when we speak linear functions. Think, for example, of a line that is parallel to the yaxis. It
about a line we mean a has only one xvalue in its domain, but this xvalue is associated with infinitely
straight line.
many yvalues. It therefore does not represent a function.

In the next study unit we consider lines defined by the equation y = mx + c and
consider how we interpret c and m.

yINTERCEPT
The yintercept of a graph is
the ycoordinate of the point
where the graph cuts the
yaxis.
SLOPE or GRADIENT
107 MAT0511/003
3.1C
THE yINTERCEPT AND SLOPE OF A LINE
From Figures 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 in Study Unit 3.1A we see that the yintercepts of
the lines defined by y = 2x 1 and y = 2x + 3 are respectively 1 and 3. We
can check this algebraically by substituting x = 0 into each of the equations since
x = 0 for every point on the yaxis. By substituting x = 0 into y = 2x 1 and
then into y = 2x + 3 we obtain
y = 2(0) 1, i.e. y = 1
and
y = 2(0) + 3, i.e. y = 3
which confirms what we see on the graphs.
In general, if we substitute x = 0 into y = mx + c we obtain
y = m(0) + c, i.e. y = c.
Thus c is the yintercept of the line defined by y = mx + c.
The three lines l1 : y = x + 1, l2 : y = 2x + 1 and l3 : y = 21 x + 1 are drawn
on the same system of axes in Figure 3.1.4. What do the lines have in common
and how do they differ?
y
3 l2
l1
2
1
l3
x
3 2 1 1 2 3
1
Figure 3.1.4
From Figure 3.1.4 we see that all the lines have the same yintercept. However,
the directions of the lines are different, i.e. two lines slant upwards and one slants
downwards; also each line has a different steepness. Mathematically we use
the term slope or gradient to describe the differences in steepness and direction.
 108

In everyday language we speak about a gradient of 1 in 100 which means that

for every 100 units (e.g. 100 metres) travelled horizontally we

I rise 1 unit (e.g. 1 metre) if we travel uphill, and

I drop 1 unit (e.g. 1 metre) if we travel downhill.

It is clear then that a hill with a gradient of 1 in 30 is steeper than a hill with a
gradient of 1 in 100.

3.1.2

Consider the line l, defined by y = 2x + 1, drawn in Figure 3.1.5. Points P(x1 , y1 )

and Q(x2 , y2 ) lie on the line and R is the point (x2 , y1 ).
y
Q ( x 2 , y2 )

P ( x 1 , y1 ) R ( x 2 , y1 )
1

x
_12
y = 2x +1

Figure 3.1.5

(a) Calculate the lengths of QR and PR if x1 = 1 and x2 = 3.

y y
(b) Calculate x2 x1 using the values determined in (a).
2 1
(c) Compare your answer to (b) with the coefficient of x in y = 2x + 1.
 109 MAT0511/003

(a) The length of QR = y2 y1 , and the length of PR = x2 x1 .

If x1 = 1 then y1 = 2 1 + 1 = 3.
If x2 = 3 then y2 = 2 3 + 1 = 7.
Hence QR = 7 3 = 4 and PR = 3 1 = 2.
(b)
y2 y1 4
= = 2
x2 x1 2

y y
(c) The value of x2 x1 is the same as the coefficient of x in the equation
2 1
y = 2x + 1.

If we assume that the points P and Q on the line l in Figure 3.1.5 are P(1, 3)
and Q(3, 7), we see that as we move from P to Q there is a vertical change of
4 units and a horizontal change of 2 units. The ratio of the vertical change to the
horizontal change is 42 , i.e. 2.

We say that the line has a slope of 2. This gives us the steepness and direction
of the line. No matter which points P and Q we take on the line,we will always
find that
the difference between the ycoordinates of P and Q
the difference between the xcoordinates of P and Q
is equal to 2 as long as we subtract the coordinates in the same order in both the
numerator and denominator.

Note that if P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) are two different points on the line then
y2 y1 (y1 y2 ) y1 y2
= = .
x2 x1 (x1 x2 ) x1 x2
In other words, the answer is the same regardless of which point we use as the
starting point, provided we subtract in the same order in the numerator and de-
nominator.

Now we consider the line with general equation y = mx + c. Suppose two differ-
ent points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) lie on this line. Since P and Q lie on the line
the coordinates of P and Q must satisfy the equation y = mx + c. Thus we have

y1 = mx1 + c

and
y2 = mx2 + c.
If we subtract the first equation from the second we obtain

y2 y1 = mx2 mx1
 110

i.e. we have
y2 y1 = m(x2 x1 )
and hence
y2 y1
m = since x2 6= x1 .
x2 x1
From this expression it is clear that the value of m is the same no matter which
two points we choose on a specific line. We call m the slope of the line. It is
determined by considering vertical change in relation to horizontal change. We
have the following definition.

Definition 3.1.2
If two different points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) are on a line l, then
the slope (or gradient) of l is defined by

y2 y1
m= , x2 6= x1 .
x2 x1

Note

I We have already shown that

y2 y1 y1 y2
= .
x2 x1 x1 x2
Thus the formula for the slope of a line can be given by
y2 y1 y1 y2
m= or m = .
x2 x1 x1 x2

I Different authors use different words to describe the way we determine the
slope m of a line. The following all describe m.
y2 y1 change in y vertical change rise
m = = = =
x2 x1 change in x horizontal change run

Now try the following activity.

3.1.3

Find the slope of each of the lines given in the following three figures. For easier
referencing use m1 for the slope of l1 , m2 for the slope of l2 , etc.
 111 MAT0511/003

y
l3

l2

(2,2)
l1
(4,1)
x
(0,0)

( 1 , 3)

Figure 3.1.6

l6

l5 (0,1)

x
( 1, 0)

l4
(1, 2)

( 5 , 3 )

Figure 3.1.7
 112

l8
l7
( 2 , 2) (4 , 2)

( 2 , 4 )

Figure 3.1.8

10 1
l1 : m1 = =
40 4
20 2
l2 : m2 = = = 1
20 2
3 0 3
l3 : m3 = = = 3
1 0 1
2 (3) 2 + 3 1
l4 : m4 = = =
15 4 4
0 (2) 2
l5 : m5 = = = 1
1 1 2
1 (2) 3
l6 : m6 = = = 3
01 1
22 0
l7 : m7 = = = 0
4 (2) 6
l8 is not defined by an equa- 2 (4) 6
l8 : m8 = = which is undefined.
tion of the form y = mx + c. 2 (2) 0
See Study Unit 3.1E.
 113 MAT0511/003

What deductions can we make about different lines and their slopes from the
graphs in Activity 3.1.3?

When we compare the
magnitudes of the different
slopes we are actually
considering the numbers
without their signs.
I A line with positive slope slants upwards from left to right. See Figure
3.1.6.
I A line with negative slope slants downwards from left to right. See Figure
3.1.7.
I A horizontal line (i.e. a line parallel to the xaxis) has a slope of zero. See
Figure 3.1.8.
I The slope of a vertical line (i.e. a line parallel to the yaxis) is undefined.
I For positive slopes, the bigger the slope, the steeper the line. In Figure
3.1.6 compare l1 , l2 and l3 . We see that l3 is steeper than l2 , and l2 is
steeper than l1 . We have
1
m3 > m2 > m1 , since 3 > 1 > 4 ,
i.e. magnitude of m3 > magnitude of m2 > magnitude of m1 .
I For negative slopes, the smaller the slope (i.e. the bigger the magnitude of
the slope) the steeper the line. In Figure 3.1.7, l6 is steeper than l5 and l5
is steeper than l4 . We have
m6 < m5 < m4 , since 3 < 1 < 14 .
Note however that

magnitude of m6 > magnitude of m5 > magnitude of m4 since 3 > 1 > 14 .

We summarise the conclusions of this study unit as follows.

slope of l yintercept of l

l : y = mx + c
|{z} | {z }
line equation

l horizontal m=0
l vertical m is undefined
(i.e. a vertical line cannot be described by the
equation y = mx + c)
l slants upwards m>0
l slants downwards m<0
l1 steeper than l2 magnitude of m1 > magnitude of m2
 114

3.1D
USING TWO POINTS, OR ONE POINT AND THE SLOPE,
TO DRAW A LINE
In Study Unit 3.1A we consider how to draw lines using tables of values. This
is not the most efficient way of drawing lines. We now look at the following two
methods.

I If we know that two different points lie on the line (i.e. that their coor-
dinates satisfy the equation of the line), we can plot these points and join
them by means of a straight line. We call this the twopoint method. Note
that to draw an accurate line it is best to plot three wellspaced points in-
stead of just two points.

I If we know that one point lies on the line (i.e that its coordinates satisfy
the equation of the line) and we know the slope of the line, we can plot the
point and through the point draw a line with the given slope. We call this
the pointslope method.

3.1.1

THE TWOPOINT Draw the line l : y = 3x + 2 using two points on the line.
METHOD
SOLUTION
Although we can use any two points on l, the most convenient points to use are
those with one of the coordinates equal to zero. Thus we first determine the x
and yintercepts of the line l.

To obtain the xintercept, let y = 0.

Then 0 = 3x + 2, i.e. x = 23 .

To find the yintercept, let x = 0.

Then y = 3(0) + 2 = 2.

Now we have two points, namely ( 32 , 0) and (0, 2), which lie on l. We plot these
points and draw a line through them to give the line l. See Figure 3.1.9 on the
next page.
 115 MAT0511/003

l : y = 3x + 2
1

x
0 _2
2 1 3 1 2

Figure 3.1.9

3.1.2
THE POINTSLOPE Draw the lines l1 and l2 , where
METHOD
2
(a) the line l1 has slope 3 and passes through the point (1, 2)

(b) l2 is the line with slope 23 and (1, 1) is a point on this line.

SOLUTION
2
(a) We can think of a slope of 3 as

change in y of + 2
change in x of + 3
or as
vertical change of + 2 units
.
horizontal change of + 3 units
We begin at the point (1, 2) and move two units up (positive direction)
and three units to the right (positive direction) and arrive at the point (2, 4).
 116

We plot these two points and draw a line through them.

y

3
(2,4)
2

( 1 , 2) 2

x
4 2 0
2 4

Figure 3.1.10

(b) We can write 23 as 2

3 or as 2
3 . Suppose we use 2
3 . We interpret 2
3 as

vertical change of 2 units

.
horizontal change of + 3 units
Thus we can start at the point (1, 1) and move two units down (i.e. in a
negative direction) and three units to the right (in a positive direction) to
arrive at (4, 1). We plot the two points and draw a line through them.
2
Alternatively we can use 3 and interpret this as

vertical change of + 2 units

.
horizontal change of 3 units

We start at (1, 1) and move two units up and then three units to the left and
arrive at (2, 3). Now we plot and join the points (1, 1) and (2, 3). See
Figure 3.1.11 on the next page.
 117 MAT0511/003

4
3
( 2 , 3 )

2 2

(1,1)

x
4 2 0 2 2 4
(4 , 1)
3
2

Figure 3.1.11

Now try the following activity.

3.1.4

An equation of the form The equation of the line l is given by 2y + 4x 3 = 0.

ay + bx + d = 0 where a 6= 0
can be written as y = mx + c,
where m = ba and c = da . (a) Use the x and yintercepts of l to draw the line l.

(b) Rewrite the equation in the form y = mx + c and then draw the line l by
using the slope of the line and a point through which the line passes.

(a) To obtain the xintercept, let y = 0. Then

3
2(0) + 4x 3 = 0, i.e. x = .
4
To obtain the yintercept, let x = 0. Then
3
2y + 4(0) 3 = 0, i.e. y = .
2
 118

We plot the points ( 34 , 0) and (0, 32 ), and draw a line through them.

_3
2

3_ x
0 4

Figure 3.1.12

(b)

2y + 4x 3 = 0

2y = 4x + 3

3
y = 2x +
2

The slope of l is thus 2. We know from (a) that l passes through the point
( 34 , 0). We use ( 34 , 0) and the slope of 2 to sketch the line. We interpret
the slope of 2 as 2 1 , i.e. as

vertical change of 2 units

.
horizontal change of + 1 unit

The line is sketched in Figure 3.1.13 on the next page.

 119 MAT0511/003

( _34 ,0)
x
0

( _47 , 2 )
1

Figure 3.1.13

3.1E
RELATED PAIRS OF LINES
We now look at pairs of lines which have special slope properties.

Remember: Vertical lines do

not have a slope, and thus
must be treated separately. It
is clear that vertical lines are
also parallel.
PARALLEL LINES
Two (or more) nonvertical lines are parallel if they have the
same slope. Conversely, if two (or more) lines have the same
slope they are parallel.

3.1.3
Suppose l1 and l2 are the two lines
l1 : y = 12 x + 1 and l2 : y = 21 x + 3.
The two lines are parallel since they have the same slope. We draw the lines
using the yintercept of each line and the pointslope technique described in
 120

Example 3.1.2. See Figure 3.1.14 below.

y 1
y = _2 x + 3

y = 2_1x +1

2
3

x
0

l2
l1

Figure 3.1.14

From Figure 3.1.14 we notice that there is a vertical distance of 2 units between
the two lines. Since the lines are parallel we can also obtain l2 by shifting l1 two
units upwards, or l1 by shifting l2 two units downwards.

This means that if we have any two nonvertical lines which are parallel, then
we can obtain the one from the other by a suitable vertical shift, either upwards
or downwards.

PERPENDICULAR LINES

Remember: Horizontal lines
have slope 0 and vertical
lines have no slope, and we
deal with them separately.
Horizontal and vertical lines
are perpendicular to each
other.
Consider two lines which are not parallel to either the xaxis
or yaxis and which have slopes m1 and m2 . If m1 m2 = 1
then the lines are perpendicular. Conversely, if the lines are
perpendicular then m1 m2 = 1.
We say that when two lines are perpendicular their slopes are
1
negative reciprocals of each other, i.e. m2 = .
m1

The slope property of perpendicular lines is not as obvious as that of parallel

lines. You need not be able to prove this property; you just need to apply it.
 121 MAT0511/003

3.1.4

The line l1 is defined by the equation 2x 3y = 6.

The line l2 passes through the point (1, 2) and is perpendicular to l1 .
Draw the two lines on the same system of axes.

Note: If m1 m2 = 1 then
2 1
3 m2 = 1, i.e. m2 = 2 , i.e.
3
m2 = 32 .
SOLUTION
The equation 2x 3y = 6 can be written as y = 23 x 2.
Hence the slope of l1 is 23 and the yintercept is 2.
Since l2 is perpendicular to l1 , the slope of l2 is 32 .
We again use the pointslope technique described in Example 3.1.2 and we ob-
tain the following graphs.

2 (1,2)
l1
1

x
5 4 3 2 1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 ( 3 , 1)

2
l2
3

Figure 3.1.15
 122

The following activity gives you practice in drawing lines such as the ones we
have been describing.

3.1.5

The lines l1 , l2 and l3 are such that

I l1 is defined by y = 2x 1

I l2 is parallel to l1 and passes through the point (1, 1)

I l3 is perpenduclar to l1 and passes through the point (2, 3).

Draw the three lines on the same system of axes.

I The equation of l1 is y = 2x 1. Hence the slope of l1 is 2 (i.e. 21 ) and the

We can also move 2 units
downwards and 1 unit to the
left.
yintercept is 1. We thus begin at 1 on the yaxis, and move 2 units
upwards and 1 unit to the right since the slope is positive. This gives us
the point (1, 1) and we draw the line through (0, 1) and (1, 1).
I l2 is parallel to l1 and thus has slope 2. It passes through (1, 1). We thus
draw the line through (1, 1) that is parallel to l1 .

I l3 is perpendicular to l1 and thus has slope 12 . It passes through (2, 3).

We can also move 1 unit We thus begin at the point (2, 3), and move 1 unit upwards and 2 units to
downwards and 2 units to the left since the slope is negative. This gives us the point (0, 2) and we
the right. draw the line through (0, 2) and (2, 3).

The graphs are shown in Figure 3.1.16 on the next page.

 123 MAT0511/003

y
5

4 l2
l1
(0,3) 3

( 1 , 1 ) 1 (1,1)

x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
( 0 , 1)

( 0 , 2)

( 2 , 3)
3
l3
4

Figure 3.1.16

In the last example in this study unit we consider how to draw vertical and hori-
zontal lines.

3.1.5

On the same system of axes draw the lines l1 and l2 , where

I l1 : y = 3

I l2 : x = 2.
 124

SOLUTION
The equation for l1 has the form y = mx + c, where m = 0 and c = 3. Thus l1
is horizontal (see the summary at the end of Study Unit 3.1C), i.e. parallel to the
xaxis, and has yintercept 3. Thus we obtain l1 by drawing a line parallel to
the xaxis passing through the point (0, 3). (The equation y = 3 means that
for each value of x, y = 3.)

Note: x = 2 cannot be writ- We have not yet come across an equation for a straight line of the form x = c.
ten as y = mx + c. The equation x = 2 means that x = 2 for all values of y. If we plot any two points
with xcoordinate 2, for example (2, 1) and (2, 1), and join them with a straight
line, we have a straight line parallel to the yaxis which has xintercept 2.

The two lines l1 and l2 are drawn in Figure 3.1.17.

y

3
l2
2

1 (2,1)

x
3 2 1 0
1 2 3
1 ( 2 , 1)

2
l1
3

Figure 3.1.17

Note that l1 represents a linear function, but l2 does not. Can you explain why?
 125 MAT0511/003

3.1F
GRAPHS OF LINEAR FUNCTIONS WITH RESTRICTED
DOMAINS
We stated in Study Unit 3.1B that graphs of linear functions are straight lines.

Throughout this section we have assumed that the equations defining lines were
valid for all real numbers.

Suppose we have a linear function f which is defined on a domain that does not
include all possible values of x for which the equation makes sense. We then say
that the domain is restricted. How do we draw the graph of f in a case such as
this? Look at the following example.

3.1.6

Suppose f is the linear function defined by

y = f (x) = 3x + 2,

where D f = {x R : 1 < x 2}.

(We have already drawn the line l defined by y = 3x + 2 in Example 3.1.1 in

Study Unit 3.1D.) Note that D f is a halfopen, halfclosed interval, with end-
points x = 1 and x = 2; 1
/ D f and 2 D f .

We consider the endpoints 1 and 2.

Now f (1) = 3(1) + 2 = 5 and f (2) = 3(2) + 2 = 4.

Hence R f = {y R : 4 y < 5}. We know that 4 R f because 4 = f (2)

and 2 D f . However, even though f (1) = 5, 1
/ D f and hence 5
/ Rf .

The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.1.18.

 126

( 1, 5 ) 5

2
y = f (x)
1

_2
x
3 2 1 3 1 2 3
1

4 ( 2 , 4)

Figure 3.1.18

We use a solid dot to indicate that the point (2, 4) is included whereas the open
dot indicates that the point (1, 5) is excluded.

Now try the following activity.

STOP!
By now you have read this comment many times. Have you actually been doing
the activities yourself before reading the solutions? Only you know the answer
to this question, but we emphasise again that the more you try to do on your
own the more you will understand!
 127 MAT0511/003

3.1.6

Draw the graph of the function f , where

y = f (x) = 3x 3

and
D f = {x R : x < 2}.

The yintercept is 3 and the gradient is 3.

We note that f is defined on the open interval ( , 2) with only one endpoint,
namely 2. Now f (2) = 3(2) 3 = 6 3 = 3.

The graph of f is shown in Figure 3.1.19. It extends indefinitely downwards

since R f = ( , 3).

3 (2,3)

2
y = f (x)
1

x
3 2 1 1 2 3
1

Figure 3.1.19
 128

3.1
In each of questions 14 find the x and yintercepts and use them to draw
the line defined by the given equation.
1. y = 3x 1
2. 2x + y = 2
3. x + 2y = 4
4. 2x 4y = 6

In each of questions 58 calculate the slope, if it exists, of the line which

passes through the given pair of points.
5. (3, 4); (1, 2)
6. (2, 7); (2, 4)
7. (1, 2); (1, 2)
8. (3, 4); (6, 4)

In each of questions 912 draw the line which passes through the given
point and has slope m.
9. (0, 1) m=4
10. (2, 3) m=0
11. (1, 2) m = 14
2
12. (2, 0) m= 3

13. Suppose f is the constant function defined by y = f (x) = 1 and i is the

identity function defined by i(x) = x for all x R. Draw the graphs of f
and i on separate systems of axes.
14. On the same system of axes draw the lines l1 , l2 , l3 , l4 and l5 where
l1 : y = 2x + 1
l2 : y = x + 1
l3 : y=1
l4 : y = x+1
l5 : y = 2x + 1.
What is the slope of l3 ?
15. The line l1 passes through the points (3, 8) and (1, 3).
The line l2 passes through (1, 8) and (3, 2).
The line l3 passes through (1, 1) and (4, 1).
 129 MAT0511/003

(a) Without drawing the lines, how do you know that l2 is parallel to l1 ?
(b) Without drawing the lines, how do you know that l3 is perpendicular
to l2 ?

16. Find p if the line l1 , through (1, 2) and (2, 5), is parallel to the line l2 which
passes through (0, 2) and (2, p).

17. Find q if the line l1 , through (1, 1) and (2, 3), is perpendicular to the
line l2 , through (2, 4) and (q, 1).

18. Suppose line l1 is defined by 2y + x = 1. Line l2 is parallel to l1 and

passes through the point (1, 2). Line l3 is perpendicular to l2 and passes
through the point (1, 2).
Draw all three lines on the same system of axes.

19. Suppose l1 and l2 are the two lines

l1 : y = 2x + 3 and l2 : 2y + 4x + 1 = 0.

Explain, without drawing the lines, how you could draw l2 if you had
already drawn l1 .

20. See the comment immediately below Figure 3.1.17. Can you explain why
l1 represents a function, and why l2 does not?

In each of questions 2124 the function f is defined by y = f (x) = 2x 1.

Draw the graph of f for the given domain.

21. D f = {2, 1, 0, 1, 2}

22. D f = {x R : x > 1}

23. D f = {x R : 2 < x 1}

24. D f = R (i.e. the natural domain of f )

 130

3.2
FINDING EQUATIONS OF LINES

3.2A
SLOPEINTERCEPT METHOD, POINTSLOPE METHOD
AND THE TWOPOINT METHOD
In Section 3.1 we concentrated on drawing lines according to information given
about the gradients and points lying on the lines. We now consider how we can
work backwards, and determine from any given line the equation that defines it.

We can obtain the equation of any line if we know

I the slope and the yintercept of the line (we use the slopeintercept method
and obtain the slopeintercept form of the equation)

I the slope of and a point on the line (we use the pointslope method and
obtain the pointslope form of the equation)

I any two points on the line (we use the twopoint method and obtain the
twopoint form of the equation).

Slopeintercept method Look at Figure 3.2.1 below. It shows a line l with slope m and yintercept c.
Suppose P(x, y) is any point on the line l.
y

P (x , y )

yc

(0, c)
x 0
x
0
l

Figure 3.2.1
 131 MAT0511/003

yc
Since (0, c) and (x, y) are two points on l and the slope is m we have m = .
x0
Now
yc
m=
x0

mx = y c

y = mx + c.

This is just one of the possible forms of the equation of a line. We call this the
slopeintercept form, and this was the first form given in Study Unit 3.1B.

SLOPEINTERCEPT FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that has slope m and yintercept c is

y = mx + c. (3.2.1)

Pointslope method If we know the slope of a line l and one point (other than the yintercept) that
lies on the line, how do we obtain an equation that defines the line?

Figure 3.2.2 is the sketch of a line l with slope m. The line goes through the point
Q(x1 , y1 ). Let P(x, y) be any other point on the line.
y

P (x , y )

y y1

Q(x1 ,y1 )
x x1

x
0

Figure 3.2.2
 132

Since P(x, y) and Q(x1 , y1 ) are points on the line l and the slope is m we have
y y1
m=
x x1
i.e. we have the equation
y y1 = m(x x1 )

and this is another form of the equation of a line. We call this the pointslope
form.

POINTSLOPE FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that passes through the point Q (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m is
y y1 = m (x x1 ) . (3.2.2)

Twopoint method If we have two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on a line l then we can also find the
equation of l.

According to Definition 3.1.2, the slope m of l is

y2 y1
m= .
x2 x1
By using equation (3.2.2) we obtain

y2 y1
y y1 = (x x1 ).
x2 x1

This form is known as the twopoint form.

TWOPOINT FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

The equation of a line that passes

through
the points P(x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is
y2 y 1
y y1 = x2 x1 (x x1 ). (3.2.2)

Equation (3.2.3) can easily be simplified, and the equation of a line would not
usually be left in this form.

The terms in the pointslope form of the equation of a line can be rearranged to
obtain the slopeintercept form. You can see this in the following activity.
 133 MAT0511/003

3.2.1

The line l has slope 45 and passes through the point (1, 2).

Give the equation for l in

(a) pointslope form

(b) slopeintercept form.

(a) Substituting m = 45 and (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 2) into equation (3.2.2) we get

4
y2 = (x + 1). Pointslope form.
5

(b) We rearrange the terms in the pointslope form of the equation.

Thus
4
y2 = (x + 1)
5

4 4
y= x +2
5 5

4 6
y= x+ . Slopeintercept form.
5 5

Activity 3.2.1 shows that once we have the equation in pointslope form we can
rewrite it in slopeintercept form. We can also rewrite the twopoint form in
pointslope form and in slopeintercept form.
 134

3.2.2

Suppose the line l passes through the points (5, 2) and (3, 4). Write the equa-
tion for l in twopoint form, and then simplify it so that we have the equation
in

(a) pointslope form

(b) slopeintercept form.

Suppose we have P(x1 , y1 ) = (5, 2) and Q(x2 , y2 ) = (3, 4). From (3.2.3) we
have
4 (2)
y (2) = (x 5) . (1)
3 5

(a) Now the slope m of l is

4 (2) 6 3
m= = = .
3 5 8 4
If we simplify (1) we obtain the pointslope form of the equation, i.e. we
have
3
y (2) = (x 5)
4
and the equation becomes
3
y + 2 = (x 5). (2)
4
Note that if we interchange P and Q, and use the point (3, 4), the point
slope form of the equation becomes
3
y4 = (x (3))
4
i.e.
3
y4 = (x + 3). (3)
4
Note that (2) and (3) are equivalent, i.e. they have the same solutions.
(b) If we use equation (2) we obtain
3 15
y= x+ 2
4 4
i.e.
3 7
y= x+ .
4 4
 135 MAT0511/003

If we use equation (3) we obtain

3 9
y= x + 4
4 4
i.e.
3 7
y= x+ .
4 4
Obviously in practice we do not need to obtain the answer in more than
one way.

3.2B
SOME SPECIAL LINES
We now return to the slopeintercept form of the equation of a line, namely
y = mx + c.
We recall that the slope of a horizontal line is m = 0. Hence if l is a horizontal
line (i.e. l is a line parallel to the xaxis) that passes through the point (p, q),
then its equation is y = q, which has the form y = 0x + q (see Figure 3.2.3). The
special line with equation y = q is the graph of the constant function referred to
in Study Unit 3.1B.

A vertical line does not have a slope and thus it does not have an equation of
the form (3.2.1) or (3.2.2). However, it follows from Figure 3.2.3 that if l is a
vertical line (i.e. l is a line parallel to the yaxis) that passes through the point
(p, q), then its equation is x = p.
y

y=q
q ( p,q)

x =p

x
0 p

Figure 3.2.3
 136

It has already been stated that any function f defined by

y = f (x) = mx + c

is called a linear function, and the graph of every linear function is a straight line.

Figure 3.2.3 shows that not all lines represent linear functions. The vertical line
defined by x = p has the same xvalue for every yvalue, and hence does not
represent a function.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES

The equation of the horizontal line through the point (p, q) is

y = q. (Slope m = 0.)

The equation of the vertical line through the point (p, q) is

x = p. (It has no slope.)

3.2C
THE GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE
It would be useful if we could find some general equation which would describe
any line, including vertical lines.

The following equations

I y = 2x + 1 Slopeintercept form

I y 4 = 3(x + 1) Pointslope form

I y=2 Horizontal line

I x = 1 Vertical line

can be rewritten as
 137 MAT0511/003

I 2x y + 1 = 0

I 3x y + 7 = 0

I 0x + y 2 = 0

I x + 0y + 1 = 0

respectively, and each equation has the form

px + qy + r = 0

where p, q and r are constants, and where p and q are not both zero.

GENERAL EQUATION OF A LINE

Every line has an equation of the form

px + qy + r = 0, (3.2.4)

where p, q and r are constants and p and q are not both zero.
Also, every equation of the form of (3.2.4) where p and q are not
both zero, is the equation of a line.

If q 6= 0 then (3.2.4) can be written as

px r
y=
q q
p
which is in slopeintercept form and represents a line with slope q and
yintercept qr .

The special case where p = 0 gives y = qr which is the equation of a horizontal

line with yintercept qr .

If q = 0 but p 6= 0 then (3.2.4) can be written as x = pr , which represents a

vertical line with xintercept pr .
 138

3.2.3
Refer to Example 3.1.4 in Study Unit 3.1E. The line l1 is defined by the equation
2x 3y = 6. The line l2 passes through the point (1, 2) and is perpendicular to l1 .

Find the equation of l2 in the form px + qy + r = 0.

Since 2x 3y = 6 can be written as y = 23 x 2 it follows that the slope of l1 is 23 .

Thus the slope of l2 is 32 .

Let the equation of l2 be y = mx + c.

Since the slope is 32 we have

3
y = x + c. (1)
2
The line passes through the point (1, 2). We thus substitute x = 1 and y = 2 into
(1) and obtain
3
2 = (1) + c.
2
We thus have
3
c = 2+
2
and thus
7
c= .
2
Hence the equation for l2 is
3 7
y = x+
2 2
which we can write in the form

2y + 3x 7 = 0.

We have said that practice is essential, but you do not need to do all the questions
in the following exercise now. You may want to do the evennumbered questions
now and the oddnumbered questions later.
 139 MAT0511/003

3.2

In each of questions 122 find a general equation of the form px + qy + r = 0

for the line l with the stated properties.

1. The slope of l is 4 and the yintercept is 14 .

3
2. The yintercept of l is 2 and the slope is 72 .
2
3. The slope of l is 3 and l passes through (2, 5).

4. The point (1, 3) lies on l and the slope of l is 7.

5. l passes through (2, 1) and (1, 2).

6. Two points on l are (4, 3) and (5, 7).

7. l is parallel to the xaxis and passes through (2, 3).

8. l is perpendicular to the xaxis and passes through (2, 3).

9. l is parallel to the yaxis and passes through (7, 10).

10. l is perpendicular to the yaxis and passes through (7, 10).

11. l is the xaxis.

12. l is the yaxis.

13. l passes through (0, 1) and is parallel to the line with equation y = 3x + 1.

14. l passes through (1, 1) and is parallel to the line with equation
2x + 3y 4 = 0.

15. l is parallel to the line with equation x = 1 and passes through (1, 0).

16. l is parallel to the line with equation y = 2 and passes through (1, 0).

17. l passes through (0, 1) and is perpendicular to the line with equation
y = 3x + 1.

18. l passes through (1, 1) and is perpendicular to the line with equation
2x + 3y 4 = 0.

19. l is perpendicular to the line with equation x = 1 and passes through (2, 3).

20. l is perpendicular to the line with equation y = 2 and passes through (2, 3).

21. l passes through (7, 1) and is parallel to the line that passes through (5, 2)
and (3, 3).
 140

22. l passes through (2, 5) and is perpendicular to the line that passes through
(5, 2) and (3, 3).

In each of questions 2326 rewrite the equation in slopeintercept form and

then give the slope and yintercept of the line defined by the equation.

23. 2x 3y + 4 = 0

24. 2x + 5y 2 = 0

25. y + 7 = 3(x + 2)

26. y 3 = 2(x 1)

27. Two lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to each other and intersect at (1, 3).
The slope of l1 is 43 .

(a) What is the slope of l2 ?

(b) Determine the yintercept of l1 .
(c) Determine the xintercept of l2 .

In each of questions 2831 the graph of a linear function f is drawn. Give

a formula for f and write down D f and R f .

28. 29.
y y

(0,1) 2
3
x x
0 (1,0) 0
2
 141 MAT0511/003

30. 31.
y

y
( 1 , 1 )

x
x 0
0

( 3, 2 ) ( 8, 2 ) ( 2 , 2)

32. Equations (3.2.1), (3.2.2) and (3.2.3) respectively give the slopeintercept,
pointslope and twopoint forms of the equation of a line. The slope
intercept form involves the yintercept. Suppose you have both the x and
the yintercepts of a line and both are nonzero (see the sketch below).
Show that
x y
+ = 1.
a b
This is called the twointercept form of the equation of a line.
y

b
l

a x
 142

3.3
APPLICATIONS OF LINES AND LINEAR
FUNCTIONS

3.3A
THE INTERSECTION OF LINES AND THE VERTICAL
DISTANCE BETWEEN LINES
POINT OF INTERSEC- In Topic 2 of Book 2 we solved systems of two equations in two unknowns al-
TION gebraically. In this topic we have learnt how to represent linear equations graph-
ically. Can we now interpret the solution of a system of linear equations graphi-
cally? We answer this question in the following example.

3.3.1

Consider the following system of equations

3x + 4y = 12
.
x y = 1

We represent the two equations graphically in Figure 3.3.1 by drawing the lines
l1 : 3x + 4y = 12 and l2 : x y = 1. (Note that the xintercept of l1 is 4 and
the yintercept is 3. The xintercept of l2 is 1 and the yintercept is 1.)
y

111111111111
000000000000
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
l2 : x y = 1

000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
3
P

000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111 l1 : 3x+ 4y = 12

000000000000
111111111111
1

000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
1 0 4
x

000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
Figure 3.3.1

We find the coordinates of P
in Example 3.3.2.
143 MAT0511/003
The lines intersect at the point P. All the points on line l1 satisfy the equation
3x + 4y = 12 and those on line l2 satisfy the equation x y = 1. Since P is the
point of intersection of the lines it lies on both lines and hence the coordinates of
P satisfy both equations. Thus the coordinates of P give the solution of
3x + 4y = 12
.
x y = 1
Although in theory we can solve a system of linear equations graphically we
do not usually do so, since regardless of how accurate the sketch is we are not
necessarily able to read off the exact coordinates of the point of intersection.
To determine the exact coordinates of the point of intersection we need to use
algebraic methods.
Although we do not usually solve systems of linear equations graphically, graphs
enable us to visualise cases in which systems of linear equations can have
I only one solution (as in Example 3.3.1)
I no solution
I infinitely many solutions.
The next activity illustrates the last two situations.
3.3.1
(a) Suppose
l1 : y = x 1
and l2 : 2x 2y + 4 = 0.
Draw these two lines on the same system of axes. What can you deduce
about the number of solutions of the following system?
y = x1
2x 2y + 4 = 0
(b) Suppose
l3 : y = 2x + 1
and l4 : 4x 2y + 2 = 0.
Draw these two lines on the same system of axes. What can you deduce
about the number of solutions of the following system?
y = 2x + 1
4x 2y + 2 = 0
 144

(a)
1010
111111111111
000000000000
y

000000000000
111111111111
000000000000
1111111111111010
0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
l2

0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000000
111111111111 1010
1110
00
0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
2

0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 1010
l1

000000000000
111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
1
0
000000000000
111111111111 1
0
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000
1111111111111
1110
00
000000000000
111111111111
2 0
1
0 1
x

0000000000000
1111111111111
000000000000
111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 1010
1

0000000000000
1111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 10
1010
10
Figure 3.3.2
We note that the two lines have the same slope. We can deduce this al-
gebraically, since the equation for l2 can be rewritten as 2y = 2x + 4, i.e.
as y = x + 2, and thus the slope of both l1 and l2 is 1. Since the lines are
parallel and have different yintercepts, they never intersect. Since there
are no points of intersection, the system

y = x1
2x 2y + 4 = 0
has no solution.
(b)
y

1
l4
x
1_2 0

l3

Figure 3.3.3
 145 MAT0511/003

Lines l3 and l4 are said to co- Note that the two lines are the same, i.e. the one line lies on top of the other
incide, and are called coin- and hence all points on the lines are points of intersection of the two lines.
cident lines. When we rewrite the equation of l4 , namely

4x 2y + 2 = 0

in slopeintercept form, we obtain

y = 2x + 1

which is the equation of l3 .

Since there are infinitely many points of intersection, the system

y = 2x + 1
4x 2y + 2 = 0

has infinitely many solutions.

We now consider lines that are not parallel and not coincident, where there is
only one point of intersection.

3.3.2

We usually find the coordi- Consider Figure 3.3.1. We now find the coordinates of P. Since P(x, y) lies on
nates of the point of inter- both l1 and l2 , the coordinates of P must satisfy the equations
section algebraically.
3x + 4y = 12
and x y = 1.

Thus we solve the system

3x + 4y = 12
.
x y = 1

By multiplying the second equation by 3 we obtain the equivalent system

3x + 4y = 12
.
3x 3y = 3

Subtracting the first equation from the second produces the equivalent system

3x + 4y = 12
.
7y = 15
 146

15 15
Thus y = 7. By substituting y = 7 into 3x + 4y = 12 we obtain
60
3x + = 12.
7
Now
60
3x + = 12
7

60
3x = 12
7

84 60
3x =
7

24
x=
37

8
.x=
7
Thus
8 15
P= , .
7 7

VERTICAL DISTANCE We now see how we can obtain the vertical distance between corresponding
BETWEEN CORRE- points on two lines. Figure 3.3.4 shows two lines l1 and l2 , defined by y = f (x)
SPONDING POINTS ON
0110
and y = g(x) respectively. The lines intersect at P(a, b).

0000000000000
1111111111111
TWO LINES y

0000000000000
1111111111111 1010
In this case corresponding
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1 0
1 1010 l1 : y = f(x)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
( x , g( x ))
0000000000000
1111111111111
1010 10
( x , f( x))
points are points that have
the same first coordinates.
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 0
1 1010
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 1010 1010
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
1010 10
b P (a,b)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 1010 0
1
10
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
( x, g( x))

0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 1010 0 a
x

0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
l2 : y = g(x)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
( x , f (x))
1010
Figure 3.3.4
 147 MAT0511/003

Note that if x > a then line l1 lies above line l2 and if x < a then l2 lies above l1 .

We emphasise that the rea- So for x > a, the point (x, f (x)) lies directly above (x, g(x)). Since f (x) is bigger
son for identifying which than g(x), the vertical distance between the two points is given by
point lies above the other is
to make sure we can iden- f (x) g(x).
tify the bigger of the two
ycoordinates so that we can
subtract in the correct order.
Note that distance is nonnegative and thus we must subtract the smaller number
from the larger number.

For x < a, the point (x, g(x)) lies directly above the point (x, f (x)) and thus the
vertical distance between the two points is given by

g(x) f (x).

From Section 2.2 of Topic 2 we know that combining two functions by the op-
eration of subtraction creates another function. Since we know that x D f Dg
The function d can also we can define a new function, the difference function d, by
be considered in terms of
the distance formula. (See d(x) = f (x) g(x) if f (x) g(x)
Study Unit 1.3A.) Suppose
P and Q are respectively or
points on the graphs of g d(x) = g(x) f (x) if g(x) f (x).
and f , so that P = (x, g(x))
and Q = (x, f (x)). If Q lies The function value d(x) is the vertical distance between corresponding points
above P, then f (x) > g(x),
on the lines defined by y = f (x) and y = g(x) for any given x such that x D f Dg .
i.e. f (x) g(x) > 0. If Q lies
directly above P, then they
have the same xcoordinate, Since the xaxis is the line defined by y = 0, we can also find the vertical distance
and p between a point on the xaxis and the corresponding point on any other non
d(P, Q) = ( f (x) g(x))2 vertical line. In Figure 3.3.5 the line l is defined by y = f (x) and its xintercept
= f (x) g(x).
is a.
Thus if P and Q are any y
two corresponding points
on the two graphs then
the distance between the
( x, f ( x))
points depends on their x
coordinate, and hence we
use the notation d(x) to de-
note the distance, instead of
d(P, Q).
( x,0)
x
( x , 0) 0 a

( x , f( x )) l : y = f( x )

Figure 3.3.5

For x > a, l lies below the xaxis. For any x D f the vertical distance between
 148

a point on l and the corresponding point on the xaxis is thus given by

d(x) = 0 f (x)
= f (x).

Note that f (x) < 0 when x > a since the ycoordinate of each point on the line l
is negative for these values of x.

For x < a, l lies above the xaxis. For any x D f the vertical distance between a
point on l and the corresponding point on the xaxis is thus given by

d(x) = f (x) 0
= f (x).

Note that f (x) > 0 when x < a since the ycoordinate of each point on the line l
is positive for these values of x.

3.3.2

Figure 3.3.6 shows the two lines

l1 : y = f (x) and l2 : y = g(x)

representing functions f and g.

x
0 1 4

P (x , y)
2
l2 : y = g( x)

l1 : y = f(x)

Figure 3.3.6
 149 MAT0511/003

(a) Find the equation for each of the functions f and g.

(b) Determine algebraically P(x, y), the point of intersection of the two lines.

(c) What is the vertical distance between the two lines when x = 3?

(d) If x < 85 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between corre-
sponding points on the two lines is 9 units.

(e) When x = 1 find the vertical distance between l1 and the xaxis.

(f) Find the values of x for which

(i) f (x) > 0

(ii) g(x) 0
(iii) f (x) g(x) < 0.

(a) The slope of l1 is 42 , i.e. 12 , and the yintercept is 2. Thus

1
f (x) = x 2.
2
The slope of l2 is 12 , i.e. 2, and the yintercept is 2. Hence

g(x) = 2x + 2.

(b) We solve the system )

y = 1
2x 2 .
y = 2x + 2
We have
1
x 2 = 2x + 2.
2
Hence
5
x=4
2
and thus
8
x= .
5
8
If we substitute x = 5 into y = 2x + 2 we get
16 6
y= +2 = .
5 5
Hence
8 6
P= , .
5 5
 150

(c) At x = 3, l1 lies above l2 . Thus the vertical distance between corresponding

points on the lines is given by

d(x) = f (x) g(x).

Hence

d(3) = f (3) g(3)

1
= (3) 2 (2(3) + 2)
2
3
= 2 (6 + 2)
2
3
= 2+4
2
1
= 3 .
2

Thus, when x = 3 the vertical distance between the lines is 3 21 units.

(d) If x < 85 then l2 lies above l1 and the vertical distance between correspond-
ing points on the lines is given by

d(x) = g(x) f (x)

1
= 2x + 2 ( x 2)
2
5
= x + 4.
2
We must find the value of x such that d(x) = 9.

Now
d(x) = 9

5
x+4 = 9
2

5
x=5
2

x = 2.

Thus, when x = 2 the vertical distance between the lines is 9 units.

(e) When x = 1 then l1 lies below the xaxis. Thus the vertical distance
between a point on l1 and the corresponding point on the xaxis is given
by
d(x) = f (x).
 151 MAT0511/003

So

d(1) = f (1)
1
= ( (1) 2)
2
5
= ( )
2
5
= .
2
Thus, when x = 1 the vertical distance between l1 and the xaxis is
5
2 units.

(f) (i) The values of x for which f (x) > 0 are the values of x for which the
line l1 lies above the xaxis. It is clear from Figure 3.3.6 that

f (x) > 0 when x > 4.

Note that x = 4 is excluded since f (4) = 0 and we are only consider-

ing f (x) > 0.
(ii) The values of x for which g(x) 0 are the values of x for which the
line l2 lies above or on the xaxis. From Figure 3.3.6 we have

g(x) 0 when x 1.

Here x = 1 is included since g(1) = 0 and now we are considering

g(x) = 0 or g(x) > 0.
(iii)

f (x) g(x) < 0

f (x) < g(x).

Thus we must find the xvalues for which f (x) < g(x), i.e. the xvalues
for which the graph of f lies below the graph of g. In other words, we
must find the values of x for which l1 lies below l2 . Thus f (x) < g(x)
when x < 85 .

A REALLIFE We end this study unit with a discussion and an activity that relates to the man-
APPLICATION ufacturing or retail business. A manufacturer is interested in the breakeven
point. This is the point at which manufacturing costs equal income. For exam-
ple, if the cost of producing certain items is given by the linear function f , and
the income derived from selling the items is given by the linear function g, then
the point of intersection of the graphs of f and g is the breakeven point. See
Figure 3.3.7 on the next page.
 152

When the graph of f lies below the graph of g, there will be a profit; when the
graph of f lies above the graph of g there will be a loss.

income
function
g
Profit

Cost in
rands cost function
P (a, b) f
Breakeven point
Loss

x
c a d
Number of items

Figure 3.3.7

P(a, b), the point of intersection of the graphs of f and g, is the breakeven
point, i.e. the point at which production cost is equal to income.

We clarify the meaning of the words profit and loss by means of this example.

Suppose the costs involved in a beltmaking business are:

leather costs
rental for a warehouse
salaries for the people who are employed
costs of other items purchased
packaging
advertising
transport
administrative costs.

All these items make up the expenses.

Some of these items stay the same, regardless of how many belts are produced,
for example rental and administrative costs. These costs are called fixed costs.
 153 MAT0511/003

When the belts are sold, a certain amount is earned per belt. The total amount
earned is the income.

Profit = income expenses.

If income exceeds expenses, then there will be a profit.

Loss = expenses income.

If income is less than expenses, then there will be a loss.

In Figure 3.3.7 you can see that for x > a the graph of the income function g
lies above that of the cost function f , i.e. income is greater than cost and hence
a profit is made. For x < a the graph of the cost function f lies above that of the
income function g, i.e. production costs are greater than income and hence a loss
is made.

Since d > a a profit is made when x = d. This profit is g(d) f (d) (i.e. the
difference between the income obtained from selling d items and the cost of pro-
ducing d items). If x = c then a loss is made, and the loss is equal to f (c) g(c)
(the difference between the cost of producing c items and the income obtained
from selling c items).

3.3.3
A company manufactures soccer balls. The companys daily fixed costs (i.e.
rental, phones, stationery, etc.) are R1 800.

One soccer ball costs R50 to manufacture and it is sold for R80.

(a) Give an equation for the function f which describes the cost of producing
x soccer balls per day.

(b) Give an equation for the function g which gives the income obtained if x
balls are sold per day.

(c) Draw the graphs of f and g on the same system of axes.

(d) Find the breakeven point P.

(e) Does the company make a profit or incur a loss if 100 balls are produced
and sold per day? What is the profit or loss?
 154

(a) Total daily cost = (cost per item) (number of items) + fixed costs.
Hence y = f (x) = 50x + 1 800.

(b) Total daily income = (selling price per item) (number of items).
Thus y = g(x) = 80x.

(c)
y

g
Cost 5 400
in f
rands 3 600 P ( x, y )

1 800

x
20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of soccer balls

Figure 3.3.8

(d) In order to find P(x, y) we solve the system

y = 50x + 1 800
.
y = 80x

We obtain
50x + 1 800 = 80x
i.e. we have
30x = 1 800
and hence
x = 60.
Thus
y = 80 60 = 4 800.

The breakeven point is (60, 4 800).

(e) Since 100 > 60, a profit is made when 100 balls are sold. This profit is
(g(100) f (100)) rands.
Now

g(100) f (100) = 80(100) (50(100) + 1 800)

= 8 000 5 000 1 800
= 1 200.

Thus the profit is R1 200.

 155 MAT0511/003

3.3B
GRAPHS OF LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN TWO
UNKNOWNS
So far in this topic we have considered the graphical representation of linear
equations as well as of the solution of a system of linear equations. We now
consider graphs of linear inequalities. We also show graphically the solution of
a simple system of linear inequalities.

3.3.3

When we look at the sketch of any straight line in the Cartesian plane we see that
You will see later why we the line divides the plane into two half planes. Consider Figure 3.3.9(a) below
sketch l as a dashed line in and Figure 3.3.9(b) on the next page. The line l defined by y = 3x 2, which is
the two figures. represented by a dashed line, divides the plane into two halves.

6
Q( x,y ) l
The shading in the sketch 4
denotes that all points above
the dashed line are included, ( 1, y) 2
P ( x, 3x 2)
not only those that can be
x
seen here.
2 1 1 2
2

4
( 1 , 5 )
6

Figure 3.3.9(a)
 156

6 l

The shading in the sketch 4 (2,4)

denotes that all points below
the dashed line are included, 2 (2 , y)
not only those that can be
seen here.
x
2 1 1 2
2
P (x, 3x 2)
4

6
R ( x,y )

Figure 3.3.9(b)

Since l is the graph of the function defined by y = 3x 2 all points P on l have

coordinates of the form (x, 3x 2).

We now note the following with respect to Figure 3.3.9(a).

I The point (1, 5) lies on l since the coordinates satisfy y = 3x 2. Now

any point which has the same xcoordinate as (1, 5) and lies in the
shaded region has the form (1, y), where y > 5 (i.e. the ycoordinate
of (1, y) is bigger than 5 since the point lies above (1, 5)).

I A point Q(x, y) which has the same xcoordinate as P lies in the shaded
region, i.e. lies above P, if y > 3x 2.

I The shaded region consists of all points Q(x, y) such that y > 3x 2. Thus
the shaded region is the graph of y > 3x 2.

I We have indicated l by a dashed line. This means that the graph of the
inequality y > 3x 2 excludes points on this line. If we want the graph of
y 3x 2 then l must be represented by a solid line which denotes that
points on this line are also included. This is how we indicate the difference
between the graphs of y > 3x 2 and y 3x 2.
 157 MAT0511/003

We note the following with respect to Figure 3.3.9(b).

I The point (2, 4) lies on l. Any point which has the same xcoordinate as
(2, 4) and lies in the shaded region has the form (2, y) where y < 4 (i.e. the
ycoordinate of (2, y) is smaller than 4, since the point lies below (2, 4)).

I A point R(x, y) which has the same xcoordinate as P lies in the shaded
region, i.e. lies below P, if y < 3x 2.

I The shaded region consists of all points R(x, y) such that y < 3x 2. Thus
the shaded region is the graph of y < 3x 2.

I The line l is represented by a dashed line which indicates that the points
on the line are excluded. If we want to show the graph of y 3x 2 then l
must be represented by a solid line.

In general we state the following.

I The graph of y > mx + c is the region that lies above the line defined by
y = mx + c.

I The graph of y mx + c is the region that lies above or on the line defined
by y = mx + c.

I The graph of y < mx + c is the region that lies below the line defined by
y = mx + c.

I The graph of y mx + c is the region that lies below or on the line defined
by y = mx + c.

I The graph of x > c is the region that lies to the right of the vertical line
defined by x = c.

I The graph of x c is the region that lies to the right of or on the vertical
line defined by x = c.

I The graph of x < c is the region that lies to the left of the vertical line
defined by x = c.

I The graph of x c is the region that lies to the left of or on the vertical
line defined by x = c.
 158

3.3.4
Sketch the graph of 2x + 3y 1 0.
(Hint: First rewrite the inequality in the form y mx + c or y mx + c.)

We have
2x + 3y 1 0.
Hence
3y 2x + 1
and thus
2 1
y x+ .
3 3
Thus the graph of the inequality is the region lying below or on the line defined
by y = 23 x + 31 . The graph is sketched in Figure 3.3.10.
y

_1
3

x
_1 2x + 3y 1 = 0
2

Figure 3.3.10

If you are unsure which region to shade when drawing the graph of an inequality
you can use test points. For example, consider Activity 3.3.4. You may have
drawn the line defined by 2x + 3y 1 = 0 without changing the equation into the
form y = 23 x + 31 . Now choose a point that is not on the line. For example,
choose a point below the line, such as (0, 1). If you substitute the coordinates
of this point into the left side of the inequality 2x + 3y 1 0, you will obtain
2(0) + 3(1) 1 = 4, and 4 0. The coordinates satisfy the inequality and
hence you know that you must shade the region below the line.
 159 MAT0511/003

If you choose, for example, the point (0, 2) which lies above the line, and sub-
stitute the coordinates into the left side of the inequality, you will then obtain
2(0) + 3(2) 1 = 5, but 5 0. The coordinates do not satisfy the inequality and
thus you cannot shade the region above the line.

So far we have considered graphs which represent only one linear inequality. In
the next example we sketch the graph of a system of linear inequalities.

3.3.4

Sketch the graph of the following system of linear inequalities.

x y 4

2x + y 8
(3.3.1)
x 0

y 2

SOLUTION
We first rewrite the inequalities in the form y ... or y ... . We then have the
following equivalent system.

y x+4


y 2x + 8
(3.3.2)
x 0


y 2

We now draw the lines defined by:

y = x+4
y = 2x + 8
x = 0
y = 2.

We then shade the region that is simultaneously

below or on the line defined by y = x + 4

below or on the line defined by y = 2x + 8

to the right of or on the yaxis (the line defined by x = 0)

above or on the line defined by y = 2.

 160

The shaded region in Figure 3.3.11 is the set of all points that satisfy system
(3.3.2) and hence system (3.3.1). Thus the shaded region is the graphical repre-
sentation of the solution set of (3.3.1), and hence is the graph of the system.
y
x =0
8 xy = 4
or y = x + 4

Note that all the lines are

represented as solid lines in
4
this case.

y =2

x
4 0
4
2x + y = 8
or y = 2 x + 8

Figure 3.3.11

The profit P in rands for x tables and y chairs is given by

P = 140x + 80y.

Various methods are available to determine the point Q(x, y) in the shaded region
of Figure 3.3.12 that gives the maximum profit. We apply an appropriate method
to find the coordinates of Q. We then substitute these coordinates into the profit
equation. This will give us the answer to the question.

We do not expect you to solve such problems at this stage. We include this
example as an illustration of one of the many reallife applications of graphs of
linear inequalities.

DIRECT PROPORTION
You do not need to have
studied the concepts that we
use from physics, chemistry,
etc. We use them to show
you further applications of
straight lines.
161 MAT0511/003
3.3C
DIRECT PROPORTION AND THE USE OF LINES IN THE
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
In the natural sciences we often come across direct proportion. For example, in
physics we have Hookes Law which states that
the force F needed to keep a spring stretched x units beyond its natural length
is directly proportional to x.
Figure 3.3.12
We first read about direct proportion in Topic 3 of Book 1 and there is a speed
time problem dealing with direct proportion at the beginning of this book, in
Study Unit 1.1A. We remind you of the definition of direct proportion.
Definition 3.3.1
If the variables x and y are related by an equation
y = cx; where c R , c 6= 0 (3.3.5)
then y is directly proportional to x. The constant c is called the
constant of proportionality.
 162

Note

I In some textbooks the phrase y varies directly as x is used instead of y is

directly proportional to x. The constant c may also be called the constant
of variation.

I The equation y = cx defines a linear function in x, and thus we can write

y = f (x) = cx. The graph of this function f is a straight line with slope c
and yintercept 0, i.e. it passes through the origin.

3.3.5

Suppose y is directly proportional to x, and that y = 20 when x = 8.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that de-
scribes this relationship.

(b) Find y when x = 3.

SOLUTION

(a) Since y is directly proportional to x we have

y = cx. (3.3.6)

If we substitute x = 8 and y = 20 into (3.3.6) we have

20 = c 8
i.e.
20 5
c= = .
8 2
5
Thus the constant of proportionality is 2 and the equation is

5
y= x.
2

(b) When x = 3 we have y = 5 15

2 3 = 2 .

Note: It is not necessary
to remember the formula for
Hookes Law.
For the definition of a New-
ton see Example 5.1.4 in
Topic 5 of Book 1.
Here the derived unit for c is
N.cm1 . In physics we usu-
ally use metres for length,
in which case the derived
unit for the spring constant
would be N.m1 .
163 MAT0511/003
The next activity relates to Hookes Law, which we stated earlier. We use Defi-
nition 3.3.1 to write Hookes Law as
F = cx
where F is the force (measured in Newtons), x is the length of the spring beyond
its natural length (measured in centimetres) and the constant of proportionality,
c, is the spring constant.
3.3.5
Suppose a spring has a natural length of 20 cm. Suppose a force of 30 N
(Newtons) is required to hold the spring stretched 2 cm beyond its natural length.
(a) Use Hookes Law to find the constant of proportionality c. Write down an
equation to describe this relationship.
(b) What force is required to keep the spring stretched to a length of 25 cm?
Hint: Apply the method of Example 3.3.5.
(a) According to Hookes Law,
F = cx. (3.3.7)
When we substitute x = 2 and F = 30 into (3.3.7) we obtain
30 = c 2
i.e. we have
c = 15.
Thus
F = 15x. (3.3.8)
(b) If the spring is stretched to 25 cm then it is stretched (25 20) cm, i.e.
5 cm, beyond its natural length. Thus we substitute x = 5 into (3.3.8) and
obtain
F = 15 5 = 75.
Hence a force of 75 N is required to keep the spring stretched to a length
of 25 cm.
 164

It often happens that one quantity does not depend on just one other quantity. For
example, suppose the quantities x, y and z are related by the equation

z = cxy; where c R , c 6= 0.

Now z depends on two quantities x and y, and we say that z is jointly propor-
tional to x and y, or z varies jointly as x and y.

3.3.6

You will encounter these A number of examples of direct and joint proportion can be found in geometry.
formulas in Book 4. We consider the following.

(a) The circumference C of a circle of radius r is given by C = 2r.

C is directly proportional to r.
2 is the constant of proportionality.

(b) The area A of a square of side x is given by A = x2 .

A is directly proportional to the square of x, or to x2 .
1 is the constant of proportionality.

(c) The area A of a triangle with length l and base b is given by A = 12 lb.
A is jointly proportional to l and b.
1
2 is the constant of proportionality.

Now see whether you have understood Example 3.3.6 by trying to do the next
activity.
 165 MAT0511/003

3.3.6

Fill in the missing words, numbers or symbols in the following.

(a) The perimeter P of a square of side x is given by P = 4x.

P is ................ to ................ .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

(b) The area A of a circle of radius r is given by A = r2 .

A is ................ to ................ .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

(c) The volume V of a rectangular box of length l, breadth b and height h is

given by V = lbh.
V is ................ to ............... .
....... is the constant of proportionality.

(a) P is directly proportional to x.

4 is the constant of proportionality.

(b) A is directly proportional to the square of r, or to r2 .

is the constant of proportionality.

(c) V is jointly proportional to l, b and h.

1 is the constant of proportionality.

We consider the statement given in Example 3.3.6(b), namely the area A of a

square of side x is given by A = x2 , i.e. A is directly proportional to x2 . In this
formula, although A depends only on the variable x, it is not directly proportional
to x. A is directly proportional to x2 . We show this by means of two graphs.

Suppose we consider several different squares, whose sides are x cm long and
whose areas are A cm2 .

Sides x cm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Square of sides (x2 cm2 ) 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
Area (A cm2 ) 0 1 4 9 16 25 36

Table 3.3.1
 166

Figure 3.3.13(a) shows the graph we obtain when we plot the ordered pairs (x, A)
and Figure 3.3.13(b) shows the graph we obtain when we plot the ordered pairs
(x2 , A).

y
y

40 40

Area A 30 Area A 30
in cm 2 in cm 2
20 20

10 10

x x
2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40
x in cm x 2 in cm 2

Figure 3.3.13(a) Figure 3.3.13(b)

From Figures 3.3.13(a) and 3.3.13(b) we see that the graph in Figure 3.3.13(b) is
a straight line, which shows direct proportion. Thus A is directly proportional to
x2 . The fact that the graph in Figure 3.3.13(a) is not a straight line indicates that
A is not directly proportional to x.

Explicit and implicit formu- In all the cases discussed so far we have worked with explicit formulas. Now if
las are defined in Study Unit we have, for example, the implicit formula in v, g and h
2.4B of Book 2.
v2 = 2gh

then we say:

The square of v is jointly proportional to g and h and 2 is the constant of

proportionality.

Use this comment, and the method used in Example 3.3.5, to attempt the next
activity.

3.3.7

The period T of a planet is defined to be the time it takes the planet to com-
plete one revolution around the sun, i.e. to travel around the sun once. Keplers
Third Law of Planetary Motion states that the square of the period T is directly
proportional to the cube of the planets average distance d from the sun.
 167 MAT0511/003

(a) Suppose that the period of the planet earth is approximately 365 days and
that the earths average distance from the sun is approximately 150 mil-
lion kilometres. Find the constant of proportionality and write down the
equation that describes the relationship.
(b) The planet Jupiter is approximately 750 million kilometres from the sun.
Find the period of Jupiter.

(a) Keplers Third Law states that

T 2 = cd 3 . (3.3.9)
Note the way we use scien- If we substitute T 365 and d 150 106 into (3.3.9) we obtain
tific notation to simplify the
numbers in the calculation. (365)2 c(150 106 )3
i.e.
133 225 c(3 375 000 1018 )
i.e.
1, 33225 105 c(3, 375 106 1018 )
i.e.
1, 33225 105 c(3, 375 1024 )
i.e.
1, 33225 105
c
3, 375 1024

3, 947 1020 .

The constant of proportionality is approximately 3, 947 1020 and thus

T 2 (3, 947 1020 )d 3 . (3.3.10)

(b) We substitute d 750 106 into (3.3.10). We obtain

T 2 (3, 947 1020 ) (750 106 )3
= (3, 947 1020 ) (7, 5 108 )3
= 3, 947 1020 (7, 5)3 1024
= 3, 947 (7, 5)3 104
1665, 14 104 .

Now since T > 0, we have T = T 2 .
Hence p
T 1665, 14 104 = 40, 81 102 = 4 081.
Thus the period of Jupiter is approximately 4 081 days.
 168

We have looked at various problems involving direct proportion. Can we use

straight lines to help us establish direct proportionality between two sets of data?
Suppose we have two sets of data A and B and suppose each value (y) in A
depends on a value (x) in B. Suppose we plot the points (x, y) on a graph. If
we can draw a straight line through these points, which also passes through the
origin, then we can write
y = cx
and hence say that y is directly proportional to x.

We use this method to establish or prove certain natural science laws. The fol-
lowing example illustrates this.

3.3.7

Hookes Law is stated at the Consider an experiment to prove Hookes Law for a certain spring. Suppose we
beginning of this study unit. determine the force (in Newtons) required to hold this spring stretched at 1 cm,
2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm beyond its natural length. Suppose we obtain the
following results.

Length x of spring beyond

its natural length (cm) 1 2 3 4 5

Force F in Newtons (N) 8 17 24 31 40

Because we can never mea- We now plot the ordered pairs (x, F) and we obtain the graph in Figure 3.3.15.
sure completely accurately
there is always a degree of
error in experimental data.
The points will thus not all 50
lie on the line.
40 X

Force F
in
Newtons 30 X

20
X

10 X

1 2 3 4 5
Length x in cm

Figure 3.3.14
 169 MAT0511/003

From Figure 3.3.14 we see that the experimental points lie approximately on the
straight line through the origin with equation of the form F = cx. Thus we have
verified Hookes Law.

Example 3.3.7 shows that we can use a straight line which goes through the
origin to establish a relationship of direct proportion between two variables. This
is one of the easiest relationships to establish.

In experimental work it is very difficult to fit equations to curves that are not
straight lines. When we plot data and obtain a graph that is not a straight line,
we try to make an intelligent guess regarding the equation that represents the
relationship between the variables. We do not expect from you to be able to
carry out procedures such as these in this module.

Now try some questions from the following exercise.

3.3

In each of questions 14 find the point of intersection of the lines l1 and l2

which are defined by the given equations.

1. l1 : 3x + y = 1
l2 : x = 2

2. l1 : y = 34 x 2
l2 : 2x + y = 1

3. l1 : x + 4y = 3
l2 : 2x y = 4

4. l1 : x 1 = 0
l2 : 2y + 3 = 0
 170

5. The line l3 passes through the point of intersection of l1 and l2 , and is

parallel to l1 . Find the equation of l3 if

l1 : y = 2x 3
l2 : y = 3x + 4.

6. The line l3 passes through (2, 3) and the point of intersection of l1 and l2 ,
where

l1 : y = 3
l2 : 2x + y 3 = 0.

Find the equation of l3 .

7. The line l3 passes through the point of intersection of lines l1 and l2 , and
is perpendicular to l2 , where

l1 : y + 2x = 3
l2 : x 1 = 0.

Find the equation of l3 .

8. On the same system of axes sketch the lines l1 , l2 and l3 , where

l1 : y = x
l2 : y = x + 2
l3 : y = 13 x + 1.

Remember that in this case
corresponding points are
points with the same first
coordinate.
(a) Find algebraically P(x, y), the point of intersection of l1 and l3 , and
Q(x, y), the point of intersection of l2 and l3 .
(b) How do we know that l1 and l2 will never intersect?
(c) For any given x, determine the vertical distance between correspond-
ing points on l1 and l2 .
(d) When x = 2 determine the vertical distance between l1 and l3 .
(e) If x > 0 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between
corresponding points on l2 and l3 is 4 units.

9. The lines l1 and l2 , where l1 : y = f (x) and l2 : y = g(x), are sketched in

Figure 3.3.15.

(a) Find an equation for f and for g.

(b) Determine P(x, y), the point of intersection of l1 and l2 .
(c) What is the vertical distance between l1 and l2 when x = 5?
(d) Determine the two points on the xaxis at which the vertical distance
between them and the respective corresponding points on l2 is 6 units.
 171 MAT0511/003

(e) Find the values of x for which

(i) f (x) 0
(ii) g(x) < 0
(iii) f (x) g(x).

l2
l1

1
P ( x , y)
x
0 1 3
1

Figure 3.3.15

10. The lines l1 and l2 , where l1 : y = h(x) and l2 : y = k(x), are sketched in
Figure 3.3.16. The point of intersection of the two lines is P(2, 2).
y

l1

l2
P (2,2)

x
0 1

Figure 3.3.16
 172

(a) Find an equation for h and for k.

(b) Determine the yintercept of l1 .
(c) What is the vertical distance between the two lines when x = 5?
(d) If x < 2 find the value of x for which the vertical distance between
corresponding points on the two lines is 10 units.
(e) Find the values of x for which
(i) h(x) > 0
(ii) h(x) 2 0.

11. A woman decides to earn some extra money by baking banana cakes at
home and selling them. Her daily fixed costs are R24. It costs her R6 to
bake one banana cake and she sells it for R12.

(a) Give a formula for the function f which describes the daily cost of
producing x banana cakes per day.
(b) Give a formula for the function g which represents her income if she
sells x cakes per day.
(c) Draw the graphs of f and g on the same system of axes.
(d) How many cakes must she bake and sell in order to break even?
(e) If her profit was R30 on a certain day, how many cakes did she bake
and sell that day?

12. A small factory produces and sells Tshirts. The daily fixed costs are R800
and the cost of producing one Tshirt is R10. The Tshirts are sold for R18
each.

(a) Draw the graphs representing cost and income on the same system of
axes, and determine the breakeven point.
(b) If 80 Tshirts are produced and sold, is there a profit or loss, and what
is the profit or loss?
(c) If a profit of R1 200 was made on a certain day, how many Tshirts
were produced and sold that day?

13. In each of the following, give the inequality represented by the graph.
(a) (b)
y
y

2x y = 2

x
x
y = x
 173 MAT0511/003

(c) (d)
y y

x x
(1,0) ( 0, _ 2 )

14. Sketch the graph of each of the following linear inequalities.

(a) x + 2 0
(b) y 2x
(c) x + 2y > 3
(d) x 2y 3

15. Sketch the graph of the following system of linear inequalities.

y x1

y x 32
y 4


2x 3

16. Fill in the missing words, numbers or symbols in the following.

(a) The volume V of a cube with side x is given by V = x3 .

V is ................ to ............... .
........ is the constant of proportionality.
(b) The area A of an equilateral triangle(i.e. a triangle in which all sides
are equal) of side x is given by A = 43 x2 .
A is ................ to ............... .
......... is the constant of proportionality.
(c) The volume of a box with length x, breadth x and height h is given by
V = hx2 .
V is ................ to ................ .
......... is the constant of proportionality.

17. Write an equation for each of the following statements, using k as the
constant of variation.

(a) p is directly proportional to q.

(b) r is directly proportional to the square root of s.
(c) p is jointly proportional to the cube of q and the square of r.
(d) The square of p is jointly proportional to s and the cube root of r.
 174

18. Suppose z is directly proportional to x, and z = 30 when x = 6.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that
describes this relationship.
(b) Find z when x = 11.

19. Suppose p is jointly proportional to q and the square of r, and p = 36 when

q = 3 and r = 2. Find the constant of proportionality and write down an
equation that represents this relationship.

20. This question is adapted from Stewart, Redlin and Watson (see the Refer-
ences).
The cost of printing a magazine is jointly proportional to the number of
pages in the magazine and the number of magazines produced.

(a) Write an equation for this joint proportion if it costs R240 000 to
print 4 000 copies of a 120page magazine.
(b) How much would it cost to print 5 000 copies of a 92page maga-
zine?

A linear function f is defined by

y = f (x) = mx + c,

where m and c are constants.

If m = 0 then f (x) = c, and f is called a constant function.

If m = 1 and c = 0 then f (x) = x and f is called the identity function.
The graph of f is a straight line l with slope m and yintercept c.

slope of l yintercept of l

l : y = mx + c
|{z} | {z }
line equation
l horizontal m=0
l vertical m is undefined
(i.e. a vertical line cannot be described by
the equation y = mx + c)
l slants upwards m>0
l slants downwards m<0
l1 is steeper than l2 magnitude of m1 > magnitude of m2
 175 MAT0511/003

The graphs of all linear functions are straight lines, but not all straight
lines are the graphs of linear functions, e.g. a line parallel to the yaxis
is not the graph of a function.

Suppose the lines l1 and l2 are

l1 : y = m1 x + c1
l2 : y = m2 x + c2 .

If l1 and l2 are parallel then m1 = m2 ; and conversely, if m1 = m2

then l1 and l2 are parallel.
If l1 and l2 are perpendicular then m1 m2 = 1; and conversely, if
m1 m2 = 1 then l1 and l2 are perpendicular.
All vertical lines are parallel. All horizontal lines are parallel.
A vertical line and a horizontal line are perpendicular.

Different forms of the equation of a straight line

Slopeintercept form
The equation of a line that has slope m and yintercept c is

y = mx + c.

Pointslope form
The equation of a line that passes through the point Q(x1 , y1 ) and has
slope m is given by
y y1 = m(x x1 ).
Twopoint form
The equation of a line that passes through the points P(x1 , y1 ) and
Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by

y2 y1
y y1 = (x x1 ).
x2 x1

General form
The general form of the equation of a line is

px + qy + r = 0

where p, q and r are constants and p and q are not both zero.
The equation of the horizontal line through the point (p, q) is given
by
y = q.
The equation of the vertical line through the point (p, q) is given by

x = p.
 176

Coordinates of the point of intersection of two lines

If two lines represented by the equations y = f (x) and y = g(x) intersect at
a point P, then the coordinates of P are found by solving the system

y = f (x)
.
y = g(x)

0110
Distance between (x, f (x)) and (x, g(x))

0000000000000
1111111111111
y

0000000000000
1111111111111 1010
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1 0
1 1010 l1 : y = f(x)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
( x , g( x ))
0000000000000
1111111111111
1010 10
( x , f( x))

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 0
1 1010
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 1010 1010
0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
1010 10
b P (a,b)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 0
1 1010
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 1010
( x, g( x))

0000000000000
1111111111111
0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
0 a
x

0
1
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111 1010
l2 : y = g(x)

0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000
1111111111111
( x , f (x))

10
The vertical distance d(x) between corresponding points on lines l1 and l2
is given by
d(x) = f (x) g(x) when x > a
and
d(x) = g(x) f (x) when x < a.

Distance between (x, f (x)) and (x, 0)

y

( x, f ( x))

( x,0)
x
( x , 0) 0 a

( x , f( x )) l : y = f( x )
 177 MAT0511/003

The vertical distance d(x) between corresponding points on the line l and
the xaxis is given by

d(x) = 0 f (x) = f (x) when x > a

and
d(x) = f (x) 0 = f (x) when x < a.

Breakeven point, profit and loss

income
function
g
Profit

Cost in
rands cost function
P (a, b) f
Breakeven point
Loss

x
c a d
Number of items

The breakeven point is the point of intersection of the graphs of the

cost function f and the income function g, i.e. the point at which
cost = income.
When g(x) > f (x) a profit is made and profit = g(x) f (x).
When g(x) < f (x) a loss is made and loss = f (x) g(x).

Graphs of linear inequalities

Inequality Graph
y > mx + c region above the line defined by y = mx + c
y mx + c region above or on the line defined by y = mx + c
y < mx + c region below the line defined by y = mx + c
y mx + c region below or on the line defined by y = mx + c
x>c region to the right of the line defined by x = c
xc region to the right of or on the line defined by x = c
x<c region to the left of the line defined by x = c
xc region to the left of or on the line defined by x = c
 178

Direct and Joint Proportion

Term Examples
directly proportional y = cx
y is directly proportional to x
c is the constant of proportionality

T 2 = 4 1020 d 3
T 2 is directly proportional to d 3
4 1020 is the constant of proportionality

jointly proportional z = cxy

z is jointly proportional to x and y
c is the constant of proportionality

v2 = 2gh
v2 is jointly proportional to g and h
2 is the constant of proportionality

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 3.1

1. Draw a line using a table of values.

Activity 3.1.1

2. Find the slope of a line using the coordinates of two points on the line.
Activity 3.1.3

3. Draw a line using two points (we usually use the x and yintercepts).
Example 3.1.1; Activity 3.1.4(a)

4. Draw a line using one point on the line and the slope of the line.
Example 3.1.2; Activity 3.1.4(b)

5. Draw a line which is parallel or perpendicular to a given line.

Examples 3.1.3, 3.1.4; Activity 3.1.5

6. Draw vertical and horizontal lines.

Example 3.1.5
 179 MAT0511/003

7. Draw graphs of linear functions with restricted domains.

Activity 3.1.6

SECTION 3.2

1. Find the


slope intercept form of the equation of a line

point slope form of the equation of a line

two point form of the equation of a line

general equation of a line.

Activities 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.2.3; Exercise 3.2

SECTION 3.3

1. Find the point of intersection of two lines.

Example 3.3.2 (and discussion directly after it); Activity 3.3.2

2. Find the vertical distance between corresponding points on two lines, or

between a point on a line and the corresponding point on the horizontal
axis.
Activity 3.3.2

3. Apply your knowledge of linear functions and straight lines to simple

problems involving linear cost and income functions, breakeven points,
profit and loss.
Activity 3.3.3

4. Sketch the graphs of linear inequalities.

Example 3.3.3; Activity 3.3.4

5. Sketch the graph of the solution set of a system of linear inequalities.

Example 3.3.4

6. Recognise equations which show direct or joint proportion and apply these
concepts to various reallife situations.
Examples 3.3.5, 3.3.6, 3.3.7; Activities 3.3.5, 3.3.6, 3.3.7
 180

PARABOLAS

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 4.1: Characteristics of Parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k

I Recognise the role of a with respect to the parabola defined by y = ax2 .

I Recognise the role of k with respect to the parabola defined by y = ax2 + k.

I Recognise the role of h with respect to the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 .

I Determine various characteristics of a parabola defined by

y = a(x h)2 + k.

I Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y = f (x) = a(x h)2 + k.

SECTION 4.2: Sketching Parabolas

I Sketch parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k.

I Sketch parabolas defined by y = ax2 + bx + c.

I Use the discriminant to determine the number of times a parabola cuts the
xaxis.

I Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y = ax2 + bx + c.

SECTION 4.3: Finding the Equation of Parabola

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given three unrelated points on
the parabola.

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the vertex and another
point on the parabola.

I Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the xintercepts and one
other point on the parabola.
 181 MAT0511/003

SECTION 4.4: Using Parabolas and Quadratic Functions

I Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve a quadratic inequal-

ity.
px + q
I Solve a rational inequality of the form rx + s > 0 (where > can be re-
placed by <, or ) by using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by
y = (px + q)(rx + s).

I Find maximum and minimum values of quadratic functions in certain ap-

plied problems.

Polynomials are dealt with
in Topic 1 of Book 2.
We do this by means of com-
pleting the square.
182
4.1
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARABOLAS
In the last topic we dealt with lines. Many lines are graphs of linear functions.
Remember that a linear function is defined by a polynomial expression of de-
gree 1. We now consider functions which are defined by certain polynomial
expressions of degree 2. These are called quadratic functions and their graphs
are called parabolas.
Definition 4.1.1
A function f defined by
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c, R and a 6= 0,
is called a quadratic function in x. The graph of a quadratic
function is called a parabola.
Note that in the above definition we require a 6= 0. Why is this necessary? Well,
if a = 0 then f will reduce to a linear function. Can you explain why this is so?
From now on, when we deal with quadratic equations or functions, we assume
a 6= 0 without stating this each time.
We have already come across examples of parabolas. See, for example, Figure
2.3.1, in Study Unit 2.3B of Book 2, as well as Figures 1.2.17 and 1.3.1 in Topic
1 of this book.
In Study Unit 1.2C of Book 2 we showed that we can write ax2 + bx + c in the
form a(x h)2 + k. In this section we now consider parabolas whose equations
are written in the form y = a(xh)2 +k. The constants a, h and k relate to certain
characteristics of parabolas. In the next section we look at parabolas defined by
the general equation y = ax2 + bx + c.
Since quadratic polynomials (i.e. polynomial expressions of degree 2) are de-
fined for all real numbers, the domain of a quadratic function is R. We can thus
sketch the graph of a quadratic function by plotting some points that lie on the
graph and joining them with a smooth curve.
 183 MAT0511/003

In the next three study units we use tables of values to find separate points, which
we then plot and join, to sketch three different types of parabolas. We consider
parabolas defined by

I y = ax2
I y = ax2 + k
I y = a(x h)2 + k.

The sketches of these parabolas illustrate the roles of a, h and k in determining

the shape and position of the parabola with respect to the x and yaxes.

4.1A
PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y = ax2
In this study unit we consider parabolas defined by y = ax2 . We look at some
of their characteristics and consider how different values of a affect the shape of
the parabolas.

4.1.1

Consider the parabolas defined by the following equations.

(a) y = x2 (b) y = 12 x2 (c) y = 2x2

I Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from
3 to 3.
I For each case plot the points and join them by means of a smooth curve.

Draw all three graphs on the same system of axes.

SOLUTION

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y = 12 x2 9
2 2 1
2 0 1
2 2 9
2

y = 2x2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18
 184

y 6
r 18 y = 2x2 r

16
The arms of the parabolas
y = x2
open upwards. Note that the 14
value of a influences how
close together the arms of
12
the parabola are. 10
r r
r 8 r
y = 21 x2
6
r r
r 4 r

r r 2 r r
r r
r r
r - x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.1

Before we discuss the properties of the parabolas shown in Figure 4.1.1, try the
following activity.

4.1.1

On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by the following equa-
tions.

(a) y = x2 (b) y = 12 x2 (c) y = 2x2

I Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from
3 to 3.
I For each case plot the points and join them by means of a smooth curve.
 185 MAT0511/003

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y = 12 x2 92 2 12 0 21 2 29

y = 2x2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18

y 6
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
r - x
r r
r r
r r 2 r r

r 4 r
r r
The arms of the parabo-
las open downwards. Once 6
y = 12 x2
again note that the value r 8 r
of a influences the extent r r
to which the arms of the 10
parabola are close together
or far apart from each other. 12

14
y = x2
16
y = 2x2
r 18 r

Figure 4.1.2

STANDARD PARABOLA We first consider the parabola defined by y = f (x) = x2 which is sketched in
Figure 4.1.1. This is known as the standard parabola. It has the following
characteristics.

If f denotes a function then
the graph of f is symmetric
with respect to the yaxis if
f (x) = f (x). In this case
f (x) = (x)2 = x2 = f (x).
I It is symmetric with respect to the yaxis, i.e. the line defined by x = 0.
We call this line the axis of symmetry of the parabola. This means that
if we fold the sketch of the parabola along the yaxis, then the left arm of
the parabola lies directly on top of the right arm. Symmetry with respect
to the yaxis also means that each point on the left arm of the parabola has
 186

a corresponding point (with respect to the yaxis) lying on the right arm.
For example, (2, 4) lies on the left arm of the standard parabola. The
corresponding point (with respect to the yaxis) is (2, 4), which lies on the
right arm. See Figure 4.1.3.

y6

y = x2

(2, 4)r r (2, 4)

- x
(0, 0)

Figure 4.1.3

I The arms of the parabola open upwards; we say the parabola is concave
up.

I If we look at the graph of y = x2 from left to right we see that the curve
falls to the origin and then rises. Mathematically we say that the func-
tion f decreases on the interval (, 0) and increases on the interval
(0, ).

I The parabola has a turning point, called the vertex. This is the point of
intersection of the parabola and its axis of symmetry. In this case the
vertex is the point (0, 0).

I As x increases the function value f (x) decreases to 0 and then increases,

and thus 0 is the minimum value of the function. We know this even
without looking at the graph. Algebraically we have x2 0 for all x R
and thus f (x) has a minimum value of 0.

I D f = R and R f = [0, ).

PARABOLAS DEFINED From Figure 4.1.1 we see that the parabolas defined by y = 12 x2 and y = 2x2 have
BY y = ax2 , a > 0 the same characteristics as the standard parabola. We also note the following.

I The parabola defined by y = 2x2 is narrower than the standard parabola,

i.e. its arms are closer together than the arms of the standard parabola.

I The parabola defined by y = 21 x2 is wider than the standard parabola.

 187 MAT0511/003

PARABOLA DEFINED From Figure 4.1.2 we see that the parabola defined by y = x2 is a reflection
BY y = x2 of the standard parabola in the xaxis. In other words we can obtain the new
parabola by turning the standard parabola upsidedown. We use the phrase
reflection in the xaxis to suggest that the xaxis behaves as a mirror, and
reflects one graph to give another.

4.1.2

Write down characteristics, similar to those given for the standard parabola, for
the parabola defined by
y = f (x) = x2 .

I The parabola is symmetric with respect to the yaxis.

I The arms of the parabola open downwards, i.e. the parabola is concave
down.
I As we move from left to right the curve rises to (0, 0) and then falls, i.e.
the function f increases on (, 0] and decreases on [0, ).
I The vertex is the point (0, 0).
I As x increases the function value f (x) increases to 0 and then decreases,
and thus 0 is the maximum value of f (x). Algebraically, since x2 0 for
all x R, we have x2 0 for all x R and thus f (x) has a maximum
value of 0.
I D f = R and R f = (, 0].

PARABOLAS DEFINED In Figure 4.1.2 we note that the parabolas defined by y = 12 x2 and y = 2x2
BY y = ax2 , a < 0 have the same characteristics as the parabola defined by y = x2 . We also note
the following.

I The parabola defined by y = 2x2 is narrower than the parabola defined

by y = x2 .
I The parabola defined by y = 12 x2 is wider than the parabola defined by
y = x2 .

We can now state the general role of a.

 188

THE ROLE OF a WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA

DEFINED BY y = ax2

I The sign of a determines whether the parabola opens up-

wards or downwards.
If a > 0, it opens upwards.
If a < 0, it opens downwards.

I The numerical value of a determines how close together

In Topic 1 of Book 1 we
use the term magnitude
or how far apart the arms of a parabola are.
for numerical value. The bigger the numerical value of a, the
narrower the parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the
wider the parabola becomes.

Table 4.1.1

4.1B
PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y = ax2 + k
We investigate the relationship between parabolas defined by y = ax2 + k and the
parabola defined by y = ax2 for a fixed value of a. In other words we consider a
specific value of a and different values of k.

PARABOLAS DEFINED We first consider an example in which a = 1.

BY y = x2 + k

4.1.2
(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined as follows.
(i) y = f (x) = x2
(ii) y = g(x) = x2 + 2
(iii) y = h(x) = x2 3
Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from
3 to 3, plot the points and join them by means of smooth curves.
(b) (i) What is the relationship between the graphs of g and f ?
(ii) What is the relationship between the graphs of h and f ?
 189 MAT0511/003

SOLUTION
(a)

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y = x2 + 2 11 6 3 2 3 6 11

y = x2 3 6 1 2 3 2 1 6

y 6

12
r r
10
r r y = g(x) = x2 + 2
8
y = f (x) = x2
r r 6 r r

r 4 r y = h(x) = x2 3
r r
r2
r r r r
r - x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
r 2 r
r
4

Figure 4.1.4

(b)
Algebraically, x2 0 and
hence x2 + 2 2, i.e. we
have g(x) 2.
(i) The graph of g is the same as that of f except that it has been shifted
2 units upwards. The graphs of f and g have the same characteristics,
except that the vertex of the graph of g is no longer (0, 0).
Dg = R and the graph of g
has the yaxis as its axis of symmetry
is concave up, and
has vertex (0, 2).
Thus g(x) has a minimum value of 2 and hence Rg = [2, ).
 190

(ii) The graph of h is the same as that of f except that it has been shifted
3 units downwards. Thus Dh = R and the graph of h has the yaxis
as its axis of symmetry, is concave up and has vertex (0, 3). The
We know that x2 0 and graph of h has its lowest point when x = 0, and thus the minimum
thus x2 3 3. Hence value of h(x) is 3 and hence Rh = [3, ).
h(x) 3.

PARABOLAS DEFINED Now try the following activity in which a 6= 1.

BY y = ax2 + k, a 6= 1

4.1.3

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined as follows.

(i) y = p(x) = 32 x2
(ii) y = q(x) = 32 x2 + 1
(iii) y = r(x) = 32 x2 2

Set up one table of values for all three cases, using integer values of x from
3 to 3.

(b) State the characteristics of the graphs of q and r in relation to those of the
graph of p.

(a)

x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = 32 x2 27
2 6 32 0 23 6 27
2

y = 32 x2 + 1 25
2 5 12 1 21 5 25
2

y = 32 x2 2 31
2 8 72 2 27 8 31
2
 191 MAT0511/003

y 6
4
2
4 3 2 1 r 1 2 3 4
r - x
r r
r 0 r
r 2
r r y = q(x) = 23 x2 + 1
4
r r y = p(x) = 32 x2
r 6 r

r 8 r y = r(x) = 23 x2 2
10

r 12 r
r r
14
r r
16

Figure 4.1.5

q(x) 1 since 32 x2 0 and
thus 23 x2 + 1 1.
r(x) 2 since 23 x2 0
and hence 23 x2 2 2.
(b) The graph of q is the same as that of p except that it has been shifted 1 unit
upwards. Thus Dq = R; the axis of symmetry of the graph is the yaxis, it
is concave down and the vertex is (0, 1). Thus q(x) has a maximum value
of 1, and hence Rq = (, 1].
The graph of r is the same as that of p except that it has been shifted 2
units downwards. Thus Dr = R; the axis of symmetry of the graph is the
yaxis, it is concave down and (0, 2) is its turning point. Hence r(x) has
a maximum value of 2, and hence Rr = (, 2].

In the following table we summarise the effect of k on parabolas defined by

y = ax2 + k for a fixed value of a.
 192

THE ROLE OF k WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA

DEFINED BY y = ax2 + k

For a fixed value of a the parabola defined by y = ax2 + k has the

same shape as the parabola defined by y = ax2 . It is obtained by
shifting the parabola defined by y = ax2

I k units upwards if k > 0

Note: k > 0 when k < 0. I k (i.e. the numerical value of k) units downwards if k < 0.
For example, if k = 3, then
The vertex of the parabola defined by y = ax2 + k is (0, k).
k = (3) = 3.
The vertex (0, k) is

I above the xaxis if k > 0

I at the origin if k = 0

I below the xaxis if k < 0.

Table 4.1.2

We have often mentioned the importance of using mathematical terminology

and notation correctly. Note the difference between the expressions lowest (or
highest) point and the smallest (or biggest) value. Consider this terminology in
relation to parabolas defined by y = ax2 or y = ax2 + k. Consider the parabola
defined by y = f (x) = ax2 + k, where a > 0 and k < 0. (See Figure 4.1.6.)

6y

f
- x

r
A(0, k)

Figure 4.1.6

In Figure 4.1.6 we note that

I all points (x, y) on the graph satisfy the equation y = f (x)

I the lowest point on the graph of the function f is the vertex, A

I the smallest value of f (x) is k, the ycoordinate of the vertex

 193 MAT0511/003

I the smallest value of f (x) occurs when x = 0, which is the xcoordinate of

the vertex.

We have just discussed the case where a > 0 and k < 0. You may find it helpful
to formulate similar statements for the case a < 0.

4.1C
PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y = a(x h)2 + k
In the previous two study units we looked at parabolas defined by y = ax2 and
y = ax2 + k. We now consider parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k.

We determine the effect of h by keeping the values of a and k fixed, and then
considering different values of h.

PARABOLAS DEFINED In the next example and activity we assume a = 1 and k = 0, i.e. we consider
BY y = (x h)2 parabolas defined by y = (x h)2 .

4.1.3

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by

(i) y = f (x) = x2 (ii) y = g(x) = (x 1)2

by setting up one table of values for both functions, using integer values of
x from 3 to 4.

(b) What is the relationship between the graphs of g and f ?

SOLUTION
(a)
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

x1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16

y = (x 1)2 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
 194

y 6
r 16 r

14

12

10
r r r r
8

y = f (x) = x2 6
r r 4 r r y = g(x) = (x 1)2

2
r r r r
r r - x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.7

(b) Both functions have the same domain and range, and both graphs have the
same shape. However, relative to the graph of f , the axis of symmetry of
the graph of g, and hence also its vertex, have shifted 1 unit to the right.
Thus the axis of symmetry of the graph of g is the line defined by x = 1
and the vertex is the point (1, 0).

In Example 4.1.3 we have h > 0, and the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined
by y = (x h)2 lies to the right of the yaxis and is the line defined by x = h. The
vertex is the point (h, 0). In the next activity we consider the axis of symmetry
when h < 0.
 195 MAT0511/003

4.1.4
(a) On the same system of axes sketch the parabolas defined by
(i) y = f (x) = x2 (ii) y = l(x) = (x + 2)2
by setting up one table of values for both functions, using integer values of
x from 5 to 3.
(b) Give the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex
of the graph of l.
(c) From the graphs in (a) describe the relationship between the graphs of l
and f .

(a)
x 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

x+2 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y = x2 25 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

y = (x + 2)2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 25

y 6

14

12

10 y = f (x) = x2
r r r r
8

r r r4 r
y = l(x) = (x + 2)2
2
r r r
r r - x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.8
 196

(b) The axis of symmetry of the graph of l is the line defined by x = 2 and
the vertex is (2, 0).

(c) The graph of l, i.e. the parabola defined by y = (x + 2)2 , has the same
shape as the graph of f , i.e. the parabola defined by y = x2 , but it is 2 units
further to the left than the graph of f .

In Activity 4.1.4 we may write the equation y = (x + 2)2 as y = (x (2))2 , and

the axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = 2. Thus, when h < 0, the axis
of symmetry of the parabola defined by y = (x h)2 is the line defined by x = h
and it lies to the left of the yaxis. The vertex is the point (h, 0).

PARABOLAS DEFINED We have considered the effect of the sign of h for parabolas defined by
BY y = a(x h)2 , a 6= 1 y = a(x h)2 , where a = 1. Now, in the next activity, we consider the effect of
different values of h, when a 6= 1.

4.1.5

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the graphs of

(i) y = f (x) = 2x2

(ii) y = g(x) = 2(x 2)2
(iii) y = h(x) = 2(x + 1)2

by setting up one table of values for all the functions, using integer values
of x from 3 to 4.

(b) Describe the relationship between the graphs of

(i) g and f
(ii) h and f .
 197 MAT0511/003

(a)
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

(x 2) 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2

(x + 1) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

y = 2x2 18 8 2 0 2 8 18 32

y = 2(x 2)2 50 32 18 8 2 0 2 8

y = 2(x + 1)2 8 2 0 2 8 18 32 50

y 6
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
r r r - x

r r 2 r r r

y = h(x) = 2(x + 1)2

4 y = g(x) = 2(x 2)2

6
r r 8 r r r r

10 y = f (x) = 2x2

12

14

16
r

Figure 4.1.9

(b) (i) The graph of g is obtained by shifting the graph of f 2 units to the
right.
(ii) The graph of h is obtained by shifting the graph of f 1 unit to the left.
 198

In the following table we summarise the effect of h on parabolas defined by

y = a(x h)2 .

THE ROLE OF h WITH RESPECT TO THE PARABOLA

DEFINED BY y = a(x h)2

For a fixed value of a the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 has

the same shape as the parabola defined by y = ax2 . It is obtained
by shifting the parabola defined by y = ax2

I h units to the right if h > 0

Note: h > 0 when h < 0 I h (i.e. the numerical value of h) units to the left if h < 0.

The axis of symmetry of the parabola is the line defined by x = h.

The vertex is the point (h, 0) and it is

I to the right of the yaxis if h > 0

I at the origin if h = 0

I to the left of the yaxis if h < 0.

Table 4.1.3

In the examples and activities that we have considered so far we have looked in
turn at the effects of a, h and k on parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k. We
have the following.

When we speak of the value
of a (or h or k) we mean both
the sign and numerical value
of a (or h or k).
I The value of a determines the shape of the parabola.
I The value of k determines the vertical shift with respect to the parabola
defined by y = ax2 . The value of k is the ycoordinate of the vertex of the
parabola and is the maximum or minimum value of the function.

I The value of h determines the horizontal shift with respect to the parabola
defined by y = ax2 . The equation of the line which is the axis of symmetry
of the parabola is x = h, and h is the xcoordinate of the vertex.

In the next example we use these properties to predict the characteristics of two
specific parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k, where a 6= 0, h 6= 0 and k 6= 0.
In Activity 4.1.6 you can sketch the parabolas using tables of values, and see
whether the predictions are correct.
 199 MAT0511/003

4.1.4

For each of the functions f and g defined by

(a) f (x) = 2(x 1)2 + 3 (b) g(x) = 12 (x + 2)2 1

(i) state whether the graph is concave up or down
(ii) if the graph is concave up state whether it is narrower or wider than
the standard parabola; if it is concave down state if it is narrower or
wider than the parabola defined by y = x2
(iii) give the axis of symmetry of the graph
(iv) give the vertex of the graph
(v) give the maximum or minimum value of the function
(vi) give the domain and range of the function.

SOLUTION
(a) When we compare f (x) = 2(x 1)2 + 3 with y = a(x h)2 + k we see that
a = 2, h = 1 and k = 3.
(i) Since a = 2, i.e. a > 0, it follows that the parabola is concave up.
(ii) The parabola is narrower than the standard parabola since a = 2, i.e.
a > 1.
(iii) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = h, i.e. x = 1.
(iv) The vertex is the point (h, k), i.e. (1, 3).
(v) Since the graph is concave up it has a lowest point. Hence the mini-
mum value of f (x) is k, i.e. 3.
(vi) D f = R and R f = [3, ).
(b) When we compare g(x) = 12 (x + 2)2 1 with y = a(x h)2 + k we have
a = 12 , h = 2 (since (x + 2) = (x (2))) and k = 1.

(i) Since a = 12 , i.e. a < 0, it follows that the parabola is concave down.
(ii) The parabola is wider than the parabola defined by y = x2 since the
magnitude of a is 12 , which is less than 1.
(iii) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = h, i.e. x = 2.
(iv) The vertex is the point (h, k), i.e. (2, 1).
(v) Since the graph is concave down the graph has a highest point. Hence
the maximum value of g(x) is k, i.e. 1.
(vi) Dg = R and Rg = (, 1].
 200

4.1.6

Sketch the parabolas defined by

(a) y = f (x) = 2(x 1)2 + 3 (b) y = g(x) = 12 (x + 2) 1

by setting up tables of values using integer values of x from 2 to 4 for (a); and
from 5 to 1 for (b).

Confirm that the graphs have the properties that have been deduced in Example
4.1.4.

(a)
x 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

(x 1) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = 2(x 1)2 + 3 21 11 5 3 5 11 21

y 6
12
r r
10

8
y = f (x) = 2(x 1)2 + 3
6
r r
4
r
(1, 3)
2

- x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 4.1.10
 201 MAT0511/003

(b)
x 5 4 3 2 1 0 1

(x + 2) 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

y = 12 (x + 2)2 1 11
2 3 32 1 23 3 11
2

6y

- x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
r 1
r r
2

r 3 r
y = g(x) = 21 (x + 2)2 1
4

5
r r

Figure 4.1.11

Figures 4.1.10 and 4.1.11 show us that the parabolas have the properties deduced
in Example 4.1.4.

We now know the effects of a, h and k on the characteristics of parabolas defined

by y = a(x h)2 + k. Thus we can now sketch parabolas using these charac-
teristics, and we no longer need to use tables of values. In addition to these
characteristics, we use the yintercept and xintercept(s) (if any exist) to help us
sketch the graphs.
 202

Study Figure 4.1.4 in Study Unit 4.1B. Each of the parabolas has a yintercept,
but the parabola defined by

I y = h(x) = x2 3 has two xintercepts

I y = f (x) = x2 has only one xintercept

I y = g(x) = x2 + 2 has no xintercepts.

We now consider this in more detail. Remember that the yintercept is obtained
by substituting x = 0 and the xintercept(s) is (are) found by substituting y = 0
into the equation that defines the parabola.

Thus by substituting x = 0 into each of the equations above we see that the
yintercepts of the graphs of h, f and g are 3, 0 and 2, respectively.

For the xintercept(s) we substitute y = 0 into each of the equations.

For h we obtain

0 = x2 3
i.e. we have
x2 = 3
and thus

x = 3.

Hence the xintercepts of the graph of h are 3 and 3.

For f we obtain

x2 = 0
i.e. we have
x = 0.

Thus the graph of f has only one xintercept, namely 0.

For g we get

0 = x2 + 2
i.e. we have
x2 = 2

which has no real solution. Thus the graph of g has no xintercept.

 203 MAT0511/003

We now look at the general case, i.e. the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 + k.

When we substitute x = 0 into the equation we obtain

y = a(h)2 + k
= ah2 + k.

Thus the yintercept is ah2 + k.

When we substitute y = 0 into the equation we obtain 0 = a(x h)2 + k.

Now
0 = a(x h)2 + k

a(x h)2 = k

k
(x h)2 = since a 6= 0
a
r
k k
(x h) = if 0
a a

r
k k
x = h if 0.
a a

Thus we have the following.

I There are two xintercepts if k k

a > 0, i.e. if a < 0.

I There is only one xintercept if k

a = 0, i.e. if k = 0.

I There is no xintercept if k k
a < 0, i.e if a > 0.

In the following table we summarise the characteristics of parabolas defined by

y = a(x h)2 + k.
 204

CHARACTERISTICS OF PARABOLAS DEFINED BY

y = f (x) = a(x h)2 + k

I The domain and range of f are

Df = R

[k, ) if a > 0
Rf =
(, k] if a < 0.

concave up if a > 0
Note: It is very important I The parabola is
concave down if a < 0.
that students know and will
be able to apply these cha- I The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the
racteristics in problems or parabola becomes.
exercises. The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola
becomes.

I The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = h.

I The vertex is (h, k).

I When a > 0, f (x) has a minimum value, namely k.

When a < 0, f (x) has a maximum value, namely k.

I The yintercept is ah2 + k, or substitute x = 0 in

y = a(x h)2 + k.
q q
I The xintercepts (if any) are h k k , or
a and h + a
substitute y = 0 in y = a(x h)2 + k.

Table 4.1.4

Try one more activity before going on to the next section.

4.1.7

Suppose f is the function defined by y = f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 + 8. Determine

(a) D f and R f

(b) the yintercept and xintercept(s) of the graph

(c) the axis of symmetry of the graph

 205 MAT0511/003

(d) the turning point (vertex) of the graph (state whether it is the lowest or the
highest point of the graph).

(a) Since f is defined for all x R we have D f = R. Also

(x + 1)2 0
and hence
2(x + 1)2 0
so that
2(x + 1)2 + 8 8.
Thus R f = (, 8].
(b) When we substitute x = 0 into the equation we obtain
y = 2(1)2 + 8 = 2 + 8 = 6.
Thus the yintercept is 6.
When we substitute y = 0 into the equation we obtain 0 = 2(x + 1)2 + 8.
Now
0 = 2(x + 1)2 + 8

2(x + 1)2 = 8

(x + 1)2 = 4

x+1 = 4

x = 1 2

x = 3 or x = 1.
Thus the xintercepts are 3 and 1.
(c) When we compare y = 2(x + 1)2 + 8 with y = a(x h)2 + k we have
a = 2, h = 1 and k = 8.
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = h, i.e. the line defined by
x = 1.

(d) The turning point (vertex) of the parabola is (h, k), i.e. (1, 8). It is the
highest point of the graph since the parabola is concave down. This follows
from the fact that a = 2, i.e. a < 0.
 206

We have seen that the axis of symmetry of a parabola defined by y = ax2 + k is

the line defined by x = 0. We can also show algebraically that, for example, the
axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y = 3(x 2)2 + 1 is the line defined
by x = 2. We proceed as follows.

We write y = 3(x 2)2 + 1 as y = 3z2 + 1, where z = x 2. The axis of symmetry

of the parabola defined by y = 3z2 + 1 is the line defined by z = 0.

Now z = 0 is the same as x 2 = 0, i.e. x = 2. Hence the axis of symmetry of

the parabola defined by y = 3z2 + 1, i.e. by y = 3(x 2)2 + 1, is the line defined
by x = 2.

4.1

1. Use the method described just after Activity 4.1.7 to show that the equation
of the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 + k is
x = h.
2. State how you would shift the graph of y = 3x2 in order to obtain the graphs
defined by the following equations.
(a) y = 3(x 1)2 2
(b) y = 3(x + 1)2 + 2
(c) y = 3(x 1)2 + 2
(d) y = 3(x + 1)2 2
(e) y = 3(x h)2 + k for h < 0 and k > 0
3. For each of the functions f and g defined by
(a) f (x) = (x + 3)2
(b) g(x) = 3(x 2)2 + 4
determine
(i) the domain and range of the function
(ii) the yintercept and xintercept(s) (if any) of the graph
(iii) the equation of the axis of symmetry of the graph
(iv) the vertex of the graph (state whether it is the lowest or the highest
point of the graph).
 207 MAT0511/003

4.2
SKETCHING PARABOLAS

4.2A
SKETCHING PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y = a(x h)2 + k
In the previous section we noted several properties of parabolas defined by
y = a(xh)2 +k. In this section we use these properties to sketch such parabolas.

4.2.1

Sketch the parabola defined by

y = f (x) = 2(x + 1)2 + 8

without using a table of values.

SOLUTION
In Activity 4.1.7 we found that

I D f = R, R f = (, 8]

I the yintercept is 6

I the xintercepts are 3 and 1

I the parabola is concave down

I the axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = 1

I the vertex is (1, 8), which is the highest point of the graph.

We use this information to sketch the parabola in Figure 4.2.1.

 208

In order to sketch the parabola in Figure 4.2.1 below, we

I mark off the xintercepts

I mark off the yintercept

I draw the axis of symmetry

I plot the vertex

I join the points so that the parabola looks symmetrical with respect to the
axis of symmetry.

y 6
(1, 8) r

Note that the axis of sym-

6
metry lies halfway between
the xintercepts. This is true
y = 2(x + 1)2 + 8
for any parabola which cuts
the xaxis twice, as we will
prove later, just after Table
4.2.2. - x
3 1 1

Figure 4.2.1

Now try the following activity.

 209 MAT0511/003

4.2.1

Without using a table of values sketch the parabola defined by

y = f (x) = 13 (x 3)2 + 1.

Show all the relevant calculations.

Domain and range

f is defined for all x R and hence D f = R .
Since (x 3)2 0 we have 13 (x 3)2 0, i.e. 1
3 (x 3)
2 + 1 1 and hence
f (x) 1. Thus R f = [1, ).

y and xintercepts
Substitution of x = 0 into the equation gives

y = 13 (3)2 + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4.

Hence the yintercept is 4.

If y = 0 then the equation becomes

0 = 13 (x 3)2 + 1
which gives
1 2
3 (x 3) = 1.
We thus have
(x 3)2 = 3

which has no solutions since (x 3)2 0. Thus there are no xintercepts.

Axis of symmetry
Comparing y = 13 (x 3)2 + 1 with y = a(x h)2 + k we have a = 13 , h = 3 and
k = 1. Thus the axis of symmetry is the line with equation x = 3.

Vertex (turning point)

The vertex is (h, k), i.e. (3, 1), and it is the lowest point of the graph since the
parabola is concave up (because a = 13 , i.e. a > 0).

The parabola is sketched in Figure 4.2.2.

 210

6y

4 r (6, 4)

y = 13 (x 3)2 + 1

r
(3, 1)
- x
3 6

Figure 4.2.2

You will notice that in this case we can obtain only two of the points on the
parabola directly from the equation, since there are no xintercepts. In order to
sketch the curve better we use symmetry to obtain another point on the parabola.
We know that (0, 4) is a point on the left arm of the parabola since 4 is the
yintercept. This point lies 3 units to the left of the axis of symmetry. Thus the
point on the right arm of the parabola that corresponds to (0, 4) lies 3 units to the
right of the axis of symmetry and is hence the point (6, 4). We plot this point and
use it when we sketch the parabola.

We now move on to parabolas defined by y = ax2 + bx + c. We sketch them by

applying the techniques we have used so far.
 211 MAT0511/003

4.2B
SKETCHING PARABOLAS DEFINED BY y = ax2 + bx + c
At the beginning of Section 4.1 we defined a quadratic function in x as a function
f that is defined by

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; where a 6= 0.

Quadratic functions are normally expressed in this form. We now consider the
different techniques that we can use to sketch parabolas defined in this way.

4.2.2

We consider the function f defined by

y = f (x) = 3x2 12x + 9. (1)

We can obtain the information we require to sketch the graph of f by

Refer to Study Unit 1.2C of I rewriting the equation as y = a(x h)2 + k by completing the square,
Book 2 if you have forgotten
how to complete the square. I and then proceeding as we did in the previous example and activity.

We do this now.

y = f (x) = 3x2 12x + 9

= 3(x2 4x) + 9
= 3(x2 4x + 22 22 ) + 9
= 3(x 2)2 + 3(4) + 9
= 3(x 2)2 12 + 9
= 3(x 2)2 3 (2)

Domain and range

Df = R
Since (x 2)2 0 we have f (x) = 3(x 2)2 3 3 and hence R f = [3, ).

y and xintercepts
By substituting x = 0 into (2) we obtain

y = 3(2)2 3 = 12 3 = 9.

Thus the yintercept is 9.

 212

By substituting y = 0 into (2) we obtain 0 = 3(x 2)2 3.

Now
0 = 3(x 2)2 3

3(x 2)2 = 3

(x 2)2 = 1

(x 2) = 1

x = 21

x = 1 or x = 3.

Thus the xintercepts are 1 and 3.

f (x) = a(x h)2 + k where The axis of symmetry

a = 3, h = 2 and k = 3. The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = 2.

The vertex
The vertex is (2, 3) and it is the lowest point of the parabola since the graph is
concave up (because a = 3, i.e. a > 0).

The graph is sketched in Figure 4.2.3.

6y

y = 3x2 12x + 9

- x
1 2 3

r
(2, 3)

Figure 4.2.3
 213 MAT0511/003

In Example 4.2.2 we used equation (2) to find the y and xintercepts, the axis
of symmetry, the vertex and R f .

We can also find the y and xintercepts by using equation (1).

By substituting x = 0 into (1) we obtain

y = 3(0)2 12(0) + 9 = 9,

i.e. the yintercept is 9.

By substituting y = 0 into (1) we obtain 0 = 3x2 12x + 9.

Now
0 = 3x2 12x + 9

x2 4x + 3 = 0 Divide by 3.

(x 1)(x 3) = 0

x 1 = 0 or x 3 = 0

x = 1 or x = 3.

Thus the xintercepts are 1 and 3.

Take care not to make the following common mistake.

Do not write, for example,

y = 3x2 12x + 9 (1)

as
y = x2 4x + 3. (2)

Equation (2) has been obtained by dividing only the RHS of (1) by 3. This is not
valid.

Remember that we produce an equivalent equation (i.e. an equation having the

See point 4 of Table 2.1.2, same solution set as the original equation) by dividing both sides of the original
Study Unit 2.1A of Book 2. equation by the same number.
 214

It is clear that (1) and (2) represent different parabolas. The coefficient of x2 in
both equations is positive and thus both parabolas are concave up. However, in
(1) the coefficient of x2 is 3, and in (2) it is 1. The parabola defined by (1) is
thus narrower than the parabola defined by (2). Another point to note is that the
yintercepts of the two parabolas are different. If we substitute x = 0 into (1) and
into (2) then we see that the yintercepts of the parabolas defined by (1) and (2)
are respectively 9 and 3.

However, when we replace y by 0 we can write

3x2 12x + 9 = 0 (3)

as
x2 4x + 3 = 0 (4)

03 = 0 because both sides have been divided by 3. Hence equations (3) and (4) are
equivalent. We can thus obtain the xintercepts of the parabola defined by (1) by
solving either (3) or (4). Similarly we can obtain the xintercepts of the parabola
defined by (2) by solving either (4) or (3). Hence the two parabolas have the
same xintercepts.

Please take note of the difference between

y = 3x2 12x + 9

and
3x2 12x + 9 = 0
and, in general, between
y = ax2 + bx + c
and
ax2 + bx + c = 0.

In the previous example the xintercepts of the graph of y = 3x2 12x + 9 are
1 and 3. We note that

y = 3x2 12x + 9
= 3(x2 4x + 3)
= 3(x 1)(x 3)

and that both x = 1 and x = 3 are the solutions of

0 = 3(x 1)(x 3).


You may need to revise na-
ture of roots just before Ex-
ample 2.3.6 in Study Unit
2.3A of Book 2.
215 MAT0511/003
In general, if
y = f (x) = a(x r1 )(x r2 )
then the xintercepts of the graph of f are r1 and r2 . Conversely, if r1 and r2 are
the xintercepts of the graph of a quadratic function f , then the function f can
be defined by
f (x) = a(x r1 )(x r2 ). (4.2.1)
Equation (4.2.1) is thus a third possible form of the equation which defines a
quadratic function.
We now return to a parabola defined by the general equation
y = ax2 + bx + c (4.2.2)
and consider its y and xintercepts.
If we substitute x = 0 into (4.2.2) we obtain
y = a(0) + b(0) + c = c.
Hence the yintercept is c.
If we substitute y = 0 into (4.2.2) we obtain the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0. (4.2.3)
Do you remember that in Study Unit 2.3A of Book 2 we use the discriminant
to determine whether equation (4.2.3) has two solutions, only one solution or
no solutions? What does this mean in terms of the parabola defined by (4.2.2)?
Well, the solutions of (4.2.3) give us the xintercepts of the parabola and hence
the discriminant tells us whether, and how often, the parabola cuts the xaxis.
The following table summarises the role of the discriminant with respect to the
xintercept(s) of the parabola.
THE ROLE OF = b2 4ac
I If > 0, the parabola cuts the xaxis twice,
i.e. the parabola has two xintercepts.
(Equation (4.2.3) has two different roots.)
I If = 0, the parabola touches the xaxis once,
i.e. the parabola has one xintercept.
(Equation (4.2.3) has only one root.)
I If < 0, the parabola does not cut or touch the axis,
i.e. the parabola has no xintercept.
(Equation (4.2.3) has no real roots.)
Table 4.2.1
 216

Diagrammatically we have the following cases.

I If > 0 then there are two xintercepts, i.e. the parabola cuts the xaxis
twice.

6
y y
6

- x - x
0 0

I If = 0 then there is one xintercept, i.e. the parabola touches the xaxis
once.
y y
6 6

- x 0 - x
0

I If < 0 then there are no xintercepts, i.e. the parabola does not cut or
touch the xaxis.

6y 6y

- x 0 - x
0

Look again at Example 4.1.2 in Study Unit 4.1B. Figure 4.1.4 shows three parabo-
las: one cuts the xaxis twice, one touches the xaxis and one does not cut or
touch the xaxis. In the next example we determine the discriminant for each of
the three functions whose graphs are sketched in Figure 4.1.4.
 217 MAT0511/003

4.2.3

For f (x) = x2 , a = 1, b = 0 and c = 0, and hence

= b2 4ac = 0 4(1)(0) = 0.

For g(x) = x2 + 2, a = 1, b = 0 and c = 2, and hence

= b2 4ac = 0 4(1)(2) = 8 < 0.

For h(x) = x2 3, a = 1, b = 0 and c = 3, and hence

= b2 4ac = 0 4(1)(3) = 12 > 0.

From Figure 4.1.4 we see that

I the graph of f touches the xaxis and we have = 0

I the graph of g does not cut or touch the xaxis and we have < 0

I the graph of h cuts the xaxis twice and we have > 0.

If you have forgotten the If y = ax2 + bx + c, then the quadratic formula

quadratic formula, see the
paragraphs just after Activ- b b2 4ac
ity 2.3.4 in Study Unit 2.3C x=
of Book 2. 2a
gives us the xintercepts.

Consider the general quadratic equation that defines a function f , namely

y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c.

We now use completion of the square to rewrite this equation in the form

y = a(x h)2 + k,

where h and k can be expressed in terms of a, b and c. This will enable us to ob-
tain general formulas for the axis of symmetry and the vertex of the parabola, and
for the minimum or maximum value of f (x). Having formulas to use means that
we do not have to complete the square every time we want to draw a parabola.
However, understanding the method of completing the square means you do not
need to panic if you forget the formulas!
 218

We have

y = ax2 + bx + c

2 b
= a x + x +c
a
2 2 !
b b b
= a x2 + x + +c
a 2a 2a
2 ! 2
2 b b b
= a x + x+ a +c
a 2a 2a

b 2 ab2
= a x+ 2 +c
2a 4a
2
b b2
= a x+ +c
2a 4a
2
b 4ac b2
= a x+ + .
2a 4a

If we write this in the form y = a(x h)2 + k we have

2
b 4ac b2
y = a x +
2a 4a

where h = b and k = 4ac b2 .

2a 4a
From this, if f is defined by

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

then we conclude the following.

b 4ac b2 b b
I (h, k) = , , or = ,f is the vertex of the
2a 4a 2a 2a
parabola.
b
I The equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola is x = .
2a

4ac b2 b
I If a > 0 then the minimum value of f (x) is , or f .
4a 2a

4ac b2 b
I If a < 0 then the maximum value of f (x) is , or f .
4a 2a

We summarise the characteristics of a parabola defined by y = ax2 + bx + c in

the table on the next page.
 219 MAT0511/003

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARABOLA DEFINED BY

y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
2
2
We rewrite y = ax2 + bx + c as y = a x b
2a
+ 4ac b .
4a

Note: (Alternatively) I The domain and range of f are

b

f ; if a > 0 Df = R

2a h


4acb2 , if a > 0
Rf =


Rf = 4a i

, 4acb 2

b if a < 0 4a if a < 0.
; f 2a



concave up if a > 0
I The parabola is
concave down if a < 0.
I The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the
parabola becomes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola
becomes.

I The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = b

2a .


I The vertex is b , 4ac b2 or = b , f b .
2a 4a 2a 2a

b2
I When a > 0, f (x) has a minimum value, namely 4ac4a

b
or f .
2a
b2
When a < 0, f (x) has a maximum value, namely 4ac4a

b
or f .
2a

I The yintercept is c.

I The xintercepts (if any) are

b b2 4ac b + b2 4ac
and .
2a 2a

Table 4.2.2
 220

We mentioned earlier (see the margin note next to Figure 4.2.1) that when a
parabola has two xintercepts, the axis of symmetry lies halfway between these
intercepts. For interest we now show that this is true in general.

If the parabola defined y = ax2 + bx +

by p c cutsthe xaxis
p twice thenit passes
through the points b 2ab 4ac , 0 and b + b2 4ac , 0 .
2
2a

See the midpoint formula, The point which lies halfway between these points is
equation (1.3.3) in Study

Unit 1.3A of Topic 1. b b2 4ac b+ b2 4ac
2a + 2a
, 0 .
2

Note: It is not important If we simplify the expression we have

to remember these simpli-
fied formulas. 2b
,0 ,
4a

i.e. we have
b
,0 .
2a
Now the axis of symmetry is the vertical line which is defined by x = b
2a . It is

thus parallel to the yaxis and passes through the point b
2a , 0 .

We have thus shown that the axis of symmetry lies halfway between the
xintercepts.

Now use the properties given in Table 4.2.2 to do the following activity.

4.2.2

Without using a table of values sketch the graph of g, where g is defined by

y = g(x) = x2 3x + 1.

Show all the appropriate calculations.

 221 MAT0511/003

Note: (Alternatively)


Rg = ; f
b When we compare y = x2 3x + 1 with y = ax2 + bx + c we have a = 1,
2a b = 3 and c = 1.
But
Domain and range
b 3
= . Dg = R
2a 2

4ac b2
Rg = ,
Hence, 4a

b 4 9
f = ,
2a 4

3 2 = (, 3 14 ]
=
2

3
= 3 +1 y and xintercepts
2
9 9 The yintercept is 1.
= + +1
4 2 To find the xintercept we substitute y = 0 into the equation. We obtain
9 + 18 + 4
= x2 3x + 1 = 0
4
13 1
= =3 . which we cannot factorise. Thus we need to use the quadratic formula. We have
4 4

b b2 4ac
Hence, Rg = , 3 14 . x =
2a
3 9+4
=
2

3 13
= .
2

3 13 3 + 13
Thus the xintercepts are and .
2 2
Axis of symmetry
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by
b (3) 3
y= = = .
2a 2 2

Vertex
The vertex is

b 4ac b2 3 4(1)(1) (3)2
, = ,
2a 4a 2 4(1)

3 4 9
= ,
2 4

3 1
= ,3 .
2 4
 222

Note: (Alternative) Do not try to learn the formula for the ycoordinate of the vertex. You can
Vertex is
b b find it by substituting x = b
2a into the equation that defines the function. If we
2a ; f 2a do this we have
2
3 3
y = 3 +1
2 2
9 9
= + +1
4 2
13
=
4
1
= 3 .
4
The vertex is the highest point since the parabola is concave down (because
a = 1, i.e. a < 0).

The graph is sketched in Figure 4.2.4.

6y

( 32 , 3 41 )
r

1
3 13 3+ 13
2 2 - x
32

y = x2 3x + 1

Figure 4.2.4

Note that the xintercepts are irrational numbers. However, we can find their
approximate values and thus know roughly where to plot them.

Using a calculator we find 13 3, 61. We thus have
3 3, 61
x
2
so that
6, 61 0, 61
x or x
2 2
 223 MAT0511/003

i.e.
x 3, 31 or x 0, 31.

It is not always necessary to use all the information given in Table 4.2.2.
For example, if ax2 + bx + c factorises, we use the factorised form instead of the
quadratic formula to solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 and find the xintercepts.

Now practise sketching a few parabolas by doing some questions from Exercise
4.2.

4.2

1. On separate systems of axes, without using tables of values, sketch the

parabolas defined by

(a) y = 4(x + 1)2 + 1

(b) y = 4(x + 1)2
(c) y = 4(x + 1)2 1
(d) y = 12 x2 + x + 12
(e) y = 3x2 5x 2.

2. Use the discriminant to determine whether the parabola with equation

y = 2x2 3x + 2 cuts the xaxis.

3. Consider the graph of f , where

y = f (x) = 6 + 5x x2

and complete the following statements (select the appropriate word where
applicable).

(a) The graph of f is concave up/down.

(b) The axis of symmetry is the line defined by .................. .
1
(c) The maximum/minimum value of y is 4 .
(d) The graph of f cuts the xaxis in ............ place(s).
(e) The graph of y = p + 5x x2 touches the xaxis at only one point if
p = ......... .
 224

4.3
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
So far in this topic we have considered characteristics of parabolas, and the way
in which these characteristics enable us to sketch the parabolas. In this section
we now find the equations of parabolas, given sufficient information about them.

4.3A
THREE FORMS OF THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
We have considered three different forms of quadratic equations that define parabo-
las. They are

I y = ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c R and a 6= 0 (4.3.1)

(general form)

I y = a(x h)2 + k; a, h, k R and a 6= 0 (4.3.2)

((h, k) is the vertex of the parabola)

If the graph touches the I y = a(x r1 )(x r2 ); a, r1 , r2 R and a 6= 0 (4.3.3)

xaxis at only one point, (r1 and r2 are the xintercepts of the parabola).
then r1 = r2 .
If we want to find the equation that defines a particular parabola, the information
we have determines which equation is more convenient to use.

We may use

I equation (4.3.1) if we are given 3 unrelated points that lie on the parabola

I equation (4.3.2) if we know the vertex and one other point on the parabola

I equation (4.3.3) if we are given the xintercept(s) and another point on the
parabola.

The information may be specified or supplied on a graph. Study the following

example.

4.3.1

(a) A parabola passes through the points (1, 2), (1, 4) and (3, 8). Find the
equation of the parabola.
 225 MAT0511/003

(b) Consider the parabola in the sketch below. Determine its equation.

y 6
6
5
y = f (x) 4
3
2
1
- x
1 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3 r
(2, 3)

Figure 4.3.1

(c) Consider the parabola in the sketch below. What is its equation?

y 6
8
7
6
y = f (x)
5
4
3
2
1
- x
1 0 1 2 3

Figure 4.3.2
 226

SOLUTION

(a) We are given three points on the parabola but we are not given any
special information about them. Thus we make use of equation (4.3.1),
namely
y = ax2 + bx + c.
We know that the points lie on the parabola and hence the coordinates of
the points must satisfy the parabolas equation. When we substitute the
coordinates of the different points into the equation we obtain

2 = a+b+c (1)
4 = ab+c (2)
8 = 9a + 3b + c. (3)

We subtract (2) from (1) and obtain

2 = 2b
i.e. we have
b = 1. (4)

When we substitute b = 1 into (1) we obtain

2 = a1+c
and hence
c = 3 a. (5)

We substitute (4) and (5) into (3) and obtain

8 = 9a 3 + 3 a
i.e. we have
8 = 8a
and thus
a = 1.
It follows that
c = 3 1 = 2.

Thus the equation for the parabola is

y = x2 x + 2.

(b) We are given the vertex and one other point on the parabola (since the
yintercept is 1 we know that (0, 1) lies on the graph) and thus we use
equation (4.3.2), namely

y = a (x - h)2 + k.

We have
y = a(x 2)2 3.
 227 MAT0511/003

The coordinates of the point (0, 1) satisfy the equation of the parabola and
we thus have
1 = a(2)2 3.
Now
1 = a(2)2 3

1 = 4a 3

4a = 4

a = 1.
The parabola thus has the equation
y = (x 2)2 3
which can be rewritten as
y = x2 4x + 1.

(c) When we look at the parabola we can identify3 points on the parabola. We
may use equation (4.3.1). However, notice that we have been given the
two xintercepts and thus we can also use equation (4.3.3), namely
y = a(x r1 )(x r2 ).
The xintercepts are 1 and 3 and thus the equation becomes
y = a(x (1))(x 3)
i.e. we have
y = a(x + 1)(x 3).
We substitute the coordinates (0, 6) into the last equation and obtain
6 = a(1)(3)
i.e. we have
6 = 3a
and thus
a = 2.
Thus the parabola has the equation
y = 2(x + 1)(x 3)
which can be rewritten as
y = 2x2 + 4x + 6.
 228

In the following activity you need to find the equations of two parabolas which
have been sketched on the same system of axes.

4.3.1

Write down the equations of the functions f and g whose graphs are the parabolas
sketched in Figure 4.3.3.

y 6
(1, 5)
5 r

4
3
y = g(x)
2
1
- x
1 0 1 2 3
1
2
y = f (x)
3

Figure 4.3.3

The sketch shows that the vertex of the graph of f is (1, 5). Knowing the vertex
suggests that we should use the form

y = a(x h)2 + k

to find the equation for f .

We therefore have
y = a(x 1)2 + 5.
Now the graph of f cuts the yaxis at 3, so the point (0, 3) lies on the graph of f ,
and hence the coordinates (0, 3) satisfy the equation that defines the graph.
 229 MAT0511/003

Hence

3 = a(1)2 + 5
i.e. we have
a = 2.

The equation that defines f is thus

y = 2(x 1)2 + 5
= 2(x2 2x + 1) + 5
= 2x2 + 4x 2 + 5
= 2x2 + 4x + 3.

At first glance it would appear that all we know about the graph of g is that it
cuts the yaxis at 2, and that the value of a should be positive. However, we
notice that the graph of g cuts the xaxis at the same points as the graph of f ,
whose equation we now know. If we find these xintercepts then we can use

y = a(x r1 )(x r2 )

to find the equation for g.

To find the xintercepts of the graph of f we substitute y = 0 into the equation

y = 2x2 + 4x + 3. We obtain

2x2 + 4x + 3 = 0.

You can also make use of the Since this does not factorise we substitute y = 0 into y = 2(x 1)2 + 5 instead.
quadratic formula.
We have

2(x 1)2 + 5 = 0.
Now
2(x 1)2 + 5 = 0

2(x 1)2 = 5

5
(x 1)2 =
2
q
x 1 = 52

q
5
x = 1 2.
 230

q q
5
Thus the xintercepts of the graph of g are 1 + and 1 52 and hence the
2
equation that defines g is
q q
5
y = a x 1+ 2 x 1 52
q q q q
2 5 5 5
= a x 1+ 2 x 1 2 x+ 1+ 2 1 52

2 5
= a x 2x + 1
2

3
= a x2 2x .
2

The yintercept is 2 and hence (0, 2) lies on the graph. When we substitute
x = 0 and y = 2 into the previous equation we obtain
3
2 = a
2
i.e. we have
4
a= .
3
Thus the equation that defines g is

4 2 3
y= x 2x
3 2
which we rewrite as
4 2 8
y= x x2 .
3 3

If a parabola touches the xaxis at only one point then it does not matter whether
we use equation (4.3.3) or (4.3.2).

Suppose a parabola touches the xaxis at (p, 0). If we substitute r1 = p and

r2 = p into equation (4.3.3) we obtain

y = a(x p)(x p)

and thus
y = a(x p)2 .
This equation is now in the form of (4.3.2).
 231 MAT0511/003

Since the parabola touches the xaxis at p, i.e. at the point (p, 0), this point must
be the vertex of the parabola. If we substitute h = p and k = 0 into equation
(4.3.2) we get
y = a(x p)2
which can be rewritten as

y = a(x p)(x p).

This equation is now in the form of (4.3.3).

Hence we have shown that if a parabola touches the xaxis in only one point then
equation (4.3.3) reduces to equation (4.3.2) and vice versa.

Now try some of the questions from the next exercise.

4.3

1. In each of the following cases, find the equation of the parabola which has
the given properties.

(a) The vertex is (2, 6) and the parabola passes through (1, 3).
(b) The xintercepts are 2 and 5 and the yintercept is 5.
(c) It passes through the points (0, 0), (1, 2) and (2, 22).
(d) The xintercepts are 4 and 2 and the maximum yvalue is 6. (Hint:
the axis of symmetry lies halfway between the two xintercepts.)
(e) The xintercepts are 0 and 4 and the graph passes through (1, 1).

2. Each of the following figures shows a parabola. Find the equation of each
parabola.
(a) (b)
y6 y
(1,r 4)6

3
-x

- x (3, 4) r
2
 232

(c) (d)
y6 y6
- x
1
4
r (1, 5 )
2

-x
1 5

(e)
y6

9 r

r (6, 3)
r
(3, 1 12 ) -x
 233 MAT0511/003

4.4
USING PARABOLAS AND QUADRATIC
FUNCTIONS

4.4A
SOLVING QUADRATIC AND SIMPLE RATIONAL
INEQUALITIES
In Study Unit 2.3C of Book 2 we solve quadratic inequalities by using the fol-
lowing inequality properties, namely

Remember that A and B rep- if AB > 0 then A > 0 and B > 0 or A < 0 and B < 0
resent algebraic expressions. or
if AB < 0 then A > 0 and B < 0 or A < 0 and B > 0;

or by using the splitpoint method. We can also use parabolas to solve such
inequalities.

Quadratic inequalities
4.4.1

Note: Solve the inequality

The three alternative 2x2 5x 3 > 0,
methods to solve quadratic
using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y = 2x2 5x 3.
inequalities are by using:

I. Inequality properties SOLUTION

II. Split-point method
III. Rough sketch of
We consider the parabola defined by
parabola
y = 2x2 5x 3.

We obtain the xintercepts of the parabola by solving 2x2 5x 3 = 0.

We have

(2x + 1)(x 3) = 0
and thus
2x + 1 = 0 or x 3 = 0.
Therefore
1
x= or x = 3.
2
 234

Thus the parabola cuts the xaxis at 12 and 3, and it is concave up since
a = 2, i.e. a > 0.

A rough sketch of the parabola is shown in Figure 4.4.1. Note that we need not
find the yintercept or vertex as these are not relevant to the problem.

Note: y 6
y = 2x2 5x 3
The three alternative
methods to solve quadratic
inequalities are by using - x
12 0 3

I. Inequality properties

II. Split-point method

III. Rough sketch of

parabola

Figure 4.4.1

Now we want to find values of x such that

2x2 5x 3 > 0

i.e. such that the graph of y = 2x2 5x 3 lies above the xaxis.

From the sketch we see that the parabola lies above the xaxis when x < 12 or
x > 3. Thus the solution of 2x2 5x 3 > 0 is x < 12 or x > 3. You can check
this answer by using any of the methods mentioned at the beginning of the study
unit.

You can practise the technique used in Example 4.4.1 in the next activity.

4.4.1

Solve the inequality

2 + x x2 0
by using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y = 2 + x x2 .
 235 MAT0511/003

We rewrite the equation of the parabola as

y = x2 + x + 2.

We solve x2 + x + 2 = 0 to find the xintercepts.

Now

x2 + x + 2 = 0

x2 x 2 = 0

(x 2)(x + 1) = 0

x = 1 or x = 2.

Thus the xintercepts are 1 and 2 and the parabola is concave down since
a = 1, i.e. a < 0.

We sketch the parabola defined by y = x2 + x + 2 in Figure 4.4.2.

y 6

- x
1 0 2

y = x2 + x + 2

Figure 4.4.2

The values of x for which

2 + x x2 0
are the values of x for which the graph of y = x2 + x + 2 lies above or on the
xaxis, i.e. values of x such that

1 x 2.

Thus the solution of 2 + x x2 0 is 1 x 2.


Remember the inequality
sign reverses direction when
we multiply both sides by a
negative number.
Rational inequalities
236
In Activity 4.4.1 we can also reason as follows.
The solution of the inequality
2 + x x2 0
is the same as that of
2 x + x2 0.
We now consider the parabola defined by y = x2 x 2. It also has xintercepts
of 1 and 2 but it is concave up since in this case a = 1, i.e. a > 0. Figure 4.4.3
shows a rough sketch of the parabola defined by y = x2 x 2.
y 6
y = x2 x 2
- x
1 0 2
Figure 4.4.3
Now the values of x that satisfy
2 x + x2 0
are the values of x for which the parabola in Figure 4.4.3 lies below or on the
xaxis, i.e. 1 x 2.
Thus the solution of 2 x + x2 0, i.e. of 2 + x x2 0, is 1 x 2 which
is the same as the solution we obtained in Activity 4.4.1.
Can we use a parabola to solve a simple rational inequality of the form
px + q
< 0; p, q, r, s R and p 6= 0, r 6= 0
rx + s
where < can be replaced by , > or ? STOP and THINK for a while and then
look at the following example.

Do you remember why
2x + 1 6= 0?
Multiplying both sides of
an inequality by a positive
number does not change the
direction of the inequality
sign.
237 MAT0511/003
4.4.2
Solve the inequality
x3
0 (1)
2x + 1
by using a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola.
SOLUTION
x 3 is undefined if 2x + 1 = 0, i.e. if x = 1 and hence
We first notice that 2x +1 2
x = 12 cannot form part of the answer.
Secondly we note that for x 6= 12 , 2x + 1 can be either positive or negative,
depending on the values of x, but that (2x + 1)2 is always positive. (Can you
explain why?) Thus, for x 6= 12 we can multiply both sides of (1) by (2x + 1)2
and obtain
(2x + 1)2 (x 3)
0.
2x + 1
After cancelling we obtain
(2x + 1)(x 3) 0.
x 3 0 we solve (2x + 1)(x 3) 0 for x 6= 1 .
Thus instead of solving 2x +1 2
Consider the parabola defined by y = (2x + 1)(x 3), i.e. by y = 2x2 5x 3.
The xintercepts are 12 and 3 and the parabola is concave up. Figure 4.4.4
shows a rough sketch of this parabola.
y6
-x
12 0 3
y = (2x + 1)(x 3)
Figure 4.4.4
 238

From Figure 4.4.4 we see that the parabola lies below or on the xaxis if
12 x 3. Thus the solution of (2x + 1)(x 3) 0 is 21 x 3, but the
x 3 0 is 1 < x 3 since we must exclude x = 1 .
solution of 2x +1 2 2

We can use a technique similar to the one illustrated in Example 4.4.2 to solve
some other more complicated rational inequalities, but this involves drawing
graphs of polynomials of degree 3 or more. These graphs are beyond the scope
of this module.

4.4B
FINDING MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
In certain applied problems we need to find the maximum or minimum value of a
quadratic function, and the value of the function variable at which the maximum
or minimum occurs. We remind you that if a quadratic function f is written in
the form
y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
then the vertex of the corresponding
parabola
is

b , 4ac b2 or b , f b and thus
2a 4a 2a 2a

I the minimum function value (when a > 0)

or
I the maximum function value (when a < 0)

b 2
occurs when x = , and y = 4ac b b
2a 4a , or y = f 2a .

If a quadratic function is written in the form

y = f (x) = a(x h)2 + k
then the vertex of the corresponding parabola is (h, k) and thus

I the minimum function value (when a > 0)

or
I the maximum function value (when a < 0)

occurs when x = h, and this value is y = k.

 239 MAT0511/003

We apply these comments in the next few problems.

4.4.3

Have a look again at Activity 2.3.7 in Study Unit 2.3B of Book 2. Here we are
given

When Simon kicks a rugby ball into the air the height h (in metres) above the
ground after t seconds is given by

h = 15t 5t 2 .

Since we now know how to find the maximum value of a quadratic function
and the value of the function variable at which the maximum occurs we can
determine algebraically the maximum height that the ball reaches and the time it
If you continue to study takes to reach this height. We have
mathematics you will learn
a quicker method to solve h = 15t 5t 2
problems such as these.
= 5(t 2 3t)
2 2 !
2 3 3
= 5 t 3t +
2 2
2
3 9
= 5 t 5
2 4
2
3 1
= 5 t + 11 .
2 4

Thus the ball reaches its maximum height, i.e. 11 14 metres, after 1 21 seconds.

In Activity 2.3.7 of Book 2 we were given the height of 11 14 metres, and found
that the ball reached this height after 32 seconds. Since we found no other time at
which the ball reached this height we deduced that this was the maximum height
that the ball reached. We have now shown this to be the case. Look again at
Figure 2.3.1 in Study Unit 2.3B of Book 2, which shows the path of the ball.

4.4.4

A farmer wants to enclose a rectangular section of land bordered by a river, to

prevent cattle getting into his maize fields. He has 4 000 m of fencing. If he does
not fence the land along the river, what is the biggest area of land that he can
enclose?
 240

SOLUTION
We first represent the problem by means of a diagram.

River

xm xm

(4 000 2 x ) m

Figure 4.4.5

We let the length of fencing on the two equal sides be x m. Since there is a length
of 4 000 m available, the third side will be (4 000 2x) m long.

We know that in a rectangle,

See Book 4 for area. area = length breadth
and hence we let
A = x(4 000 2x)
= 4 000x 2x2
where A represents area in square metres.

This equation for the area represents a function whose graph is a parabola. We
sketch this in Figure 4.4.6.

Area 6A
of
land
(m2 )
A = 4 000x 2x2

- x
0 1 000 2 000
Length of side (m)

Figure 4.4.6
 241 MAT0511/003

The function has a maxi- The maximum value of A is given by

mum value since a < 0, and
the value is given by the sec- 4ac b2
ond coordinate of the vertex. A=
4a
where a = 2, b = 4 000 and c = 0.

Thus
Note that the axis of symme-
try is defined by x = 1 000; if
16 000 000
A =
we substitute x = 1 000 into 8
A = 4 000x 2x2 we will
= 2 000 000.
also find the maximum value
of A.
The maximum area that can be enclosed is thus 2 000 000 m2 .

Try the following activity, which involves a minimum value.

4.4.2

Suppose the difference between two integers is 20. Find these two integers so
that their product is as small as possible.

Let the smaller number be x. Then the larger number is x + 20. Their product P
is given by
Note that we can also de-
P = x(x + 20)
note the two numbers by a,
= x2 + 20x
a 20; or by b 10, b + 10,
etc. We will always find the = x2 + 20x + (10)2 (10)2
same answer. = (x + 10)2 100

which is of the form P = a(x h)2 + k where a = 1, h = 10 and k = 100.

Since a > 0 the function P has a minimum value. Thus the minimum product
is 100 and this occurs when x = 10. The one number is 10 and hence the
other number is x + 20, i.e. 10 + 20, i.e. 10. Thus the two numbers are 10 and
10.
 242

4.4

1. Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve each of the follow-

ing inequalities.

(a) x2 + 5x + 6 0
(b) 3 + x 2x2 > 0
(c) xx 3
+2 0
(c) 3x +1
1x 0
2. The sum of two integers is 20. Find these two integers such that their
product is a maximum. What is their product?

3. A house owner has 44 m of fencing, and wants to enclose a rectangular

vegetable garden so that one side is formed by a neighbours fence. What
is the largest area he can enclose with the length of fencing available?

4. A ball is thrown into the air and its height h (in metres) above the ground
after t seconds is given by

h = 20t 5t 2 .

What is the maximum height reached by the ball and how long does it take
to reach this height?

5. It is estimated that 20 000 people will attend a soccer match when the
tickets cost R20 each. It is predicted that for each R1 increase in the price
of a ticket the attendance will drop by 500 people.

(a) What should the tickets cost for the organisers to make the most
money?
(b) How many people should attend for the organisers to make the most
money and how much will they make?

(Hint: If the ticket price increases by x rands, then the attendance will be
20 000 500x.)
 243 MAT0511/003

A function f defined by

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c R and a 6= 0

is called a quadratic function in x.

The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

The equation y = ax2 +bx+c can be rewritten in the form y = a(xh)2 +k

by completing the square.

The parabola defined by y = x2 is called the standard parabola.

Characteristics of parabolas defined by y = f (x) = a(x h)2 + k

Domain and range

Df = R

[k, ) if a > 0
Rf =
(, k] if a < 0

concave up if a > 0
The parabola is
concave down if a < 0.
The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola be-
comes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola be-
comes.
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = h.
The vertex is (h, k).
The yintercept is ah2 + k.
q q
The xintercepts are h k k .
a and h + a
When a > 0 the function f has a minimum value; the minimum
value of f (x) is k.
When a < 0 the function f has a maximum value; the maximum
value of f (x) is k.

Number of times a parabola defined by y = ax2 + bx + c cuts the xaxis

If > 0, the parabola cuts the xaxis twice.

If = 0, the parabola touches the xaxis once.
If < 0, the parabola does not cut or touch the xaxis.
 244

Note: (Alternatively) Characteristics of a parabola defined by y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

y = ax2 + bx + c

2 2

b b b 4ac b2

= a x
2a
+f
2a
y = ax2 + bx + c = a x +
2a 4a

Domain and range

b

f ; if a > 0

2a

Df = R
Rf =
( 2



b [ 4acb
4a , ) if a > 0



; f if a < 0 Rf = 4acb2
2a (, 4a ] if a < 0

concave up if a > 0
The parabola is
concave down if a < 0.
The bigger the numerical value of a, the narrower the parabola be-
comes.
The smaller the numerical value of a, the wider the parabola be-
comes.
The axis of symmetry is the line defined by x = b
2a .


The vertex is b , 4ac b2 , or b , f b .
2a 4a 2a 2a

The yintercept is c.
p p
b b 2 4ac b + b2 4ac .
The xintercepts are 2a and 2a
When a > 0 the function f has a minimum value; the minimum
2
value of f (x) is 4ac4a
b or f b
2a
When a < 0 the function f has a maximum
value; the maximum
2
value of f (x) is 4ac4a
b or f b .
2a

Three ways of finding the equation of a parabola

Given three unrelated points on a parabola: use the equation

y = ax2 + bx + c.

Given the turning point (h, k) and another point on the parabola:
use the equation
y = a(x h)2 + k.
Given the xintercepts r1 and r2 and another point on the parabola:
use the equation
y = a(x r1 )(x r2 ).
 245 MAT0511/003

Quadratic inequalities can be solved by using sketches of parabolas.

px + q
Rational inequalities of the form rx + s > 0, p 6= 0, r 6= 0 (where > can
be replaced by <, or ) can be solved by sketching the parabola defined
by y = (px + q)(rx + s).
 246

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 4.1

1. Recognise the role of a with respect to the parabola defined by y = ax2 .

Table 4.1.1

2. Recognise the role of k with respect to the parabola defined by y = ax2 + k.

Table 4.1.2

3. Recognise the role of h with respect to the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 .
Table 4.1.3

4. Determine various characteristics of a parabola defined by

y = a(x h)2 + k.
Example 4.1.4; Activity 4.1.7

5. Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y = f (x) = a(x h)2 + k.

Table 4.1.4

SECTION 4.2

1. Sketch parabolas defined by y = a(x h)2 + k.

Example 4.2.1; Activity 4.2.1

2. Sketch parabolas defined by y = ax2 + bx + c.

Example 4.2.2; Activity 4.2.2

3. Use the discriminant to determine the number of times a parabola cuts the
xaxis.
Example 4.2.3

4. Know the characteristics of parabolas defined by y = ax2 + bx + c.

Table 4.2.2

SECTION 4.3

1. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given three unrelated points on
the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(a)

2. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the vertex and another
point on the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(b); Activity 4.3.1
 247 MAT0511/003

3. Find the equation of a parabola if you are given the xintercepts and one
other point on the parabola.
Example 4.3.1(c); Activity 4.3.1

SECTION 4.4

1. Use a rough sketch of an appropriate parabola to solve a quadratic inequal-

ity.
Example 4.4.1; Activity 4.4.1
px + q
2. Solve a rational inequality of the form rx + s > 0 (where > can be re-
placed by <, or ) by using a rough sketch of the parabola defined by
y = (px + q)(rx + s).
Example 4.4.2

3. Find maximum and minimum values of quadratic functions in certain ap-

plied problems.
Examples 4.4.3, 4.4.4; Activity 4.4.2
 248

HYPERBOLAS

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 5.1: Characteristics of Hyperbolas

k
I Sketch hyperbolas defined by y = x using a table of values.

I Know the properties of hyperbolas defined by y = kx for k > 0 and k < 0.

This includes being able to find the coordinates of the two points on the
hyperbola closest to the origin and the distance of these points from the
origin.

I Sketch hyperbolas without using a table of values.

I Find the equation of a hyperbola given one point on the hyperbola.

I Find the equation of a hyperbola given the distance from the origin to either
of the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin, and some fact that
will determine the sign of k in the equation y = kx .

SECTION 5.2: Inverse Proportion

I Know and apply the definitions of inverse proportion, direct and inverse
proportion, and joint and inverse proportion.
 249 MAT0511/003

5.1
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPERBOLAS

5.1A
k
HYPERBOLAS DEFINED BY y= , k>0
x
In Example 1.1.2 of Study Unit 1.1A we represented graphically the time it
would take Moses and a varying number of his friends to fold notices and seal
them in envelopes. We assumed that Moses and each of his friends worked at the
same rate and that he could complete the task in 8 hours if he worked alone. In
tabular form we had the following information.

Number of people Time taken in hours

(n) (t)
1 8
2 4
3 2 23
4 2

Table 5.1.1

Do you know why t = 8n de-
fines a function? If not, re-
vise functions in Topic 2.
The time taken was found by dividing 8 hours by the number of people carrying
out the task, i.e.
8
t = , where n N and 1 n 4.
n
The graph defined by this equation is given in Figure 5.1.1 on the next page. This
graph represents a function in n.

t 6
10

8 r

4 r
r
2 r

- n
1 2 3 4

Figure 5.1.1
 250

The graph in Figure 5.1.1 consists of points which we cannot join as it makes no
sense to have, for example, 3 13 people.

We now look at graphs similar to the one in Figure 5.1.1, in which we can join
the dots. We consider functions defined by

y = kx can also be written k

y=
as xy = k. x
where k is a nonzero constant and x is any nonzero real number. A function of
Rational expressions are this form is called a rational function since kx is a rational expression. Since x
dealt with in Topic 1 of can be any nonzero real number we can obtain the graph of such a function by
Book 2. plotting a few points and joining them by means of a smooth curve that follows
the pattern formed by the dots. The graph of the function y = kx is called a
rectangular hyperbola, but we shall just refer to it as a hyperbola.

k
Since k 6= 0 we may have k > 0 or k < 0. We first draw the graph of y = x for
k > 0, and investigate characteristics of this hyperbola.

THE HYPERBOLA
DEFINED BY 5.1.1
8
y=
x
We draw the graph of the function f , defined by
8
y = f (x) = .
x
We set up the following table of values.

x 16 8 4 2 1 12 14 0 1
4
1
2 1 2 4 8 16

y 12 1 2 4 8 16 32 unde- 32 16 8 4 2 1 1
2
fined

Table 5.1.2

Note that when x = 0, y is undefined since we cannot divide by zero. Once we

have drawn the graph we shall investigate what happens to y as x approaches 0.
 251 MAT0511/003

We plot the points and join them as shown in Figure 5.1.2.

y6
20
16 r y = 8x
12

8 r
4 r
20 16 12 8 4 r
r r
r - x
r
r 4 8 12 16 20
r 4
r 8

12

y = 8x r 16

20

Figure 5.1.2

Note the following characteristics of the graph of y = 8x .

I The graph consists of two separate parts, called branches, one in the first
quadrant and the other in the third quadrant.

R {0} = {x R : x 6= 0}
I D f and R f consist of all real numbers except 0, i.e. D f = R f = R {0}.
8
I There is no xintercept since x = 0 has no solution.
8
I There is no yintercept since x is undefined for x = 0.
I From the branch in the first quadrant we see that as x approaches zero
from the right (i.e. x gets closer and closer to zero but remains bigger than
zero) the values of y, which are all positive, become larger and larger, i.e.
y increases without bound. We say that
y approaches infinity as x approaches 0 from the right
or
y tends to infinity as x tends to zero from the right.
 252

Mathematically we write this phrase as

y as x 0+ .

As x assumes larger and larger positive values, we see that the values of y
get closer and closer to zero but remain positive. We can write this mathe-
matically as
y 0+ as x .

I From the branch in the third quadrant we see that as x approaches zero
from the left, the values of y, which are all negative, remain negative but
become numerically bigger and bigger. We say that y decreases without
bound and we write
y as x 0 .

When x is negative and decreases without bound, i.e. when the numerical
values of x become larger and larger, we see that y again gets closer and
closer to zero, but remains negative. We write

y 0 as x .

Note
The + or associated with the zero indicates the direction from which
we approach zero. The + indicates that we are approaching zero from the
positive side of the horizontal (in the case of x) or vertical (in the case of
y) axes. Similarly, the indicates that we are approaching zero from the
negative side of the horizontal or vertical axes. See Figure 5.1.3.

y 0+

x +
0

0
x 0

y 0

Figure 5.1.3
 253 MAT0511/003

8
I Consider Figure 5.1.4 which shows the hyperbola defined by y = x to-
gether with the lines defined by y = x and y = x.

y 6
y = x y=x

Pr
y = 8x
O -x

y = 8x r
Q

Figure 5.1.4

I Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x, i.e.
We leave it as an exercise
to show algebraically that if
(a, b) lies on a hyperbola
then (b, a) also lies on the
hyperbola.
I The points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin O are P
The branches of the hyperbola are symmetric with respect to the line
defined by y = x, i.e. if we fold Figure 5.1.4 along the line defined by
y = x we find that the branch in the third quadrant lies directly on top of
the branch in the first quadrant.
if we fold Figure 5.1.4 along this line we see that half of each branch lies
directly on top of the other half. We also see from Figure 5.1.4 that if the
point (a, b) lies on the hyperbola, then so does the point (b, a). This is true
for all graphs that are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. For example
we see from Table 5.1.2 thatboth (1,
1
8)
1
and (8, 1) lie on the branch in the
first quadrant, and 16, 2 and 2 , 16 lie on the branch in the third
quadrant.
and Q, which are the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the line
defined by y = x (see Figure 5.1.4). We find the coordinates of these points
by solving simultaneously the equations
y=x (1)
and
8
y= . (2)
x
When we substitute (1) into (2) we obtain
8
x= .
x
 254

Thus
x2 = 8
and hence

x = 8.

If x = 8 then y = 8 and if x = 8 then y = 8.

Since P is in the first quadrant we have P = 8, 8 , and since Q is in

the third quadrant we have Q = 8, 8 .
See equation (1.3.2) in I From the distance formula we find that the distance d(O, P), from P to
Study Unit 1.3A of Topic 1. the origin O is
r
2 2
d(O, P) = 80 + 80 units

= 8 + 8 units

= 4 units.

Similarly, d(O, Q) = 4 units. It is also obvious from the symmetry of the

graph that P and Q are the same distance from O.

HYPERBOLAS Hyperbolas defined by y = kx for k > 0 all have the same characteristics as the
DEFINED BY hyperbola defined by y = 8x . Consider Figure 5.1.5 which shows a hyperbola
k
y= , k>0 defined by y = kx for some k > 0 together with the line defined by y = x.
x

y 6
y=x

Pr
y = kx
-x
O
y = kx r
Q

Figure 5.1.5
 255 MAT0511/003

To find the coordinates of P and Q, when we do not have a specific value of k,

we solve simultaneously

y=x (3)
and
k
y= . (4)
x
We substitute (3) into (4) and obtain
k
x=
x
i.e. we have
x2 = k
and hence

x = k.
k is a real number since

k > 0. By definition k > 0.
If x = k then y = k, and if x = k then y = k.

Since P is in the first quadrant we must have x > 0 and y > 0. Thus P = k, k .
SinceQ is in the third quadrant we must have x < 0 and y < 0 and consequently

Q = k, k . The distance from P to the origin O is
r
2 2
When k = 8 we found that
d(O, P) = k0 + k0 units
the distance was 4 units.
Note that


4 = 16 = 2 8, = k + k units
i.e. we have the distance in

terms of the formula = 2k units

d(O, P) = d(O, Q) = 2k
where k = 8. which is also the distance from Q to the origin. Remember that P and Q are the
points on the hyperbola that are closest
to the origin. Since the distance of P
and Q from the origin is given by 2k units it follows that as k increases so the
points on the hyperbola that are closest to the origin move farther away from the
origin.

5.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes give a rough sketch of the hyperbolas defined
by y = 1x and y = 2x . Also include the line defined by y = x. Let R denote
the point of intersection of the hyperbola defined by y = 1x and the line
defined by y = x in the first quadrant. Let S denote the point of intersection
of the hyperbola defined by y = 2x and the line defined by y = x in the third
quadrant.

(b) Determine the coordinates of R and the distance from R to the origin.
 256

(c) Determine the coordinates of S and the distance from S to the origin.

(d) Suppose T (x, 13 ) lies on the hyperbola defined by y = 2x . Determine the

xcoordinate of T .

(a)
y 6
y = 1x y=x

R r y = 2x

- x
O

y = 1x S r

y = 2x

Figure 5.1.6

1
(b) We substitute y = x into y = x and obtain

1
x=
x
i.e. we have
x2 = 1
and thus
x = 1.

Since R is in the first quadrant we have x = 1 and hence y = 1. Thus

R = (1, 1) .

The distance from R to the origin is 12 + 12 units, i.e. 2 units.
 257 MAT0511/003

2
(c) We substitute y = x into y = x and obtain

2
x=
x
i.e. we have
x2 = 2
and thus

x = 2.

Since S isin the third quadrant we have x = 2 and hence y = 2.

Thus S = 2, 2 .
r
2 2
The distance from S to the origin is 2 + 2 units,

i.e. 4 units, i.e. 2 units.

(d) In order to find the xcoordinate of T we substitute y = 31 into the equa-

tion y = 2x . We obtain

1 2
=
3 x
i.e. we have
2
x=
13
and hence
x = 2 3
= 6.

Thus T = 6, 13 .
 258

5.1B
k
HYPERBOLAS DEFINED BY y = , k > 0
x
In this study unit we investigate characteristics of hyperbolas defined by y = kx
where k < 0.

5.1.2

THE HYPERBOLA Consider the function f defined by

DEFINED BY
4 4
y=
x y = f (x) = .
x

Note that 4x = 4x , so that

(a) Complete the following table of values.
k = 4, i.e. k < 0.

x 8 4 2 1 12 0 1
2 1 2 4 8

(b) Plot the points obtained from the table in (a) and join them in a suitable
way to obtain the graph of f .

(a)

x 8 4 2 1 12 0 1
2 1 2 4 8

1
y 2 1 2 4 8 unde- 8 4 2 1 21
fined
 259 MAT0511/003

(b)

6y

y = 4x r 8

r 4

r 2
r 2 4 6 8
r
- x
r
8 6 4 2 r
2 r

4 r

6 y = 4x

8 r

Figure 5.1.7

Study Figure 5.1.7 carefully and then try the following activity.

5.1.3

Copy Figure 5.1.7 without the dots shown on the branches of the hyperbola.
Draw the lines defined by y = x and y = x. Let P denote the point in the second
quadrant where the line defined by y = x cuts the hyperbola; let Q denote the
corresponding point in the fourth quadrant.

For the hyperbola defined by y = f (x) = 4x write down characteristics similar

to those given for the hyperbola defined by y = 8x .
 260

6
y
y = 4x
y=x

rP

O -x

r y = 4x
Q

y = x

Figure 5.1.8

I The hyperbola has two branches, one in the second quadrant and the
other in the fourth quadrant.

I D f = R f = R {0}.

I There is no xintercept since 4x = 0 has no solution.

I There is no yintercept since 4x is undefined for x = 0.

I In the second quadrant

y as x 0 ,

i.e. y tends to infinity as x tends to zero from the left; and

y 0+ as x ,

i.e. y tends to zero but remains positive, as x tends to .

I In the fourth quadrant

y as x 0+ ,

i.e. y tends to as x approaches zero from the right; and

y 0 as x ,

i.e. y tends to zero but remains negative, as x tends to .

 261 MAT0511/003

I The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x .

I Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x.

I The points on the hyperbola closest to the origin are P and Q (see Figure
5.1.8), which are the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the line
defined by y = x. We find the coordinates of these points by solving
simultaneously the equations

y = x
and
4
y= .
x
If we substitute y = x into y = 4x we obtain

4
x =
x
i.e. we obtain
x2 = 4
and hence
x = 2.

If x = 2 then y = 2, and if x = 2 then y = 2.

Thus P = (2, 2) (P is in the second quadrant) and Q = (2, 2) (Q is in
the fourth quadrant).

I The distance from P to the origin O is

q
d(O, P) = (2)2 + (2)2 units

= 8 units

= 2 2 units.

Similarly, either by symmetry

or by the distance formula, the distance of
Q from the origin is 2 2 units.
 262

HYPERBOLAS Hyperbolas defined by y = kx for any k < 0 have the same characteristics as the
DEFINED BY hyperbola defined by y = 4x .
k
y= , k<0
x
Consider Figure 5.1.9 which shows the hyperbola defined by y = kx , for some
k < 0, and the line defined by y = x.

6
y
y = kx

k<0

rP

O -x

r y = kx
Q

y = x

Figure 5.1.9

We find the coordinates of P and Q for any negative k R by solving simultane-

ously the equations

y = x
and
k
y= .
x

k
When we substitute y = x into y = x we obtain

k
x =
x
i.e. we obtain
x2 = k
Remember that k < 0, hence

and hence
k > 0 and k is defined.
x = k.
By definition k > 0 for
all k < 0. Note that

k 6= k. If x = k then y = k and if x = k then y = k.
 263 MAT0511/003

Since P is in the sec- Hence P = k, k and Q = k, k .
ond quadrant we must have
x < 0 and y > 0. Since Q The distance from P (and from Q) to the origin O is
is in the fourth quadrant we
have x > 0 and y < 0. r
2 2
d(O, P) = k + k units

p
= (k) + (k) units

= 2k units.

Hence it follows that as the magnitude of k increases, so the two points on the
hyperbola that are closest to the origin move farther away from the origin.

5.1.4

Suppose V and W are points in the second quadrant. V is the point closest to
the origin on the hyperbola defined by y = 1x ; W is the corresponding point on
the hyperbola defined by y = 2x . Calculate the distances from V and W to the
origin.

The distance from the origin to either

of the two closest points on the hyperbola
k
defined by y = x , where k < 0, is 2k units.

Thus p
the distance from V to the origin is p(2) (1) units, i.e. 2 units;
the distance from W to the origin is (2) (2) units, i.e. 4 units,
i.e. 2 units.

In Activity 5.1.4 we found that

d(O,W ) = 2 units > 2 units = d(O,V )

and hence W lies farther away from the origin than V . We expect this since the
magnitude of 2 (i.e. 2) is greater than the magnitude of 1 (i.e. 1).
 264

5.1C
FINDING EQUATIONS OF HYPERBOLAS
We can find the equation of a hyperbola if we know

I one point that lies on the hyperbola

or
I the distance OP, where O is the origin and P is one of the points on the
hyperbola closest to O
and
some other fact from which we can deduce whether the constant k in the
equation y = kx is positive or negative.

5.1.2
(a) Suppose (2, 3) lies on a hyperbola. Find the equation of the hyperbola.
(b) Suppose a hyperbola is defined by 2xy p = 0 where p < 0. If the shortest
distance from the origin to a point on the hyperbola is 3 units, find the
value of p and write the equation that defines the hyperbola in the form
y = kx .

SOLUTION
(a) Suppose the equation of the hyperbola is y = kx . Since (2, 3) lies on
the hyperbola, x = 2 and y = 3 must satisfy the equation y = kx . After
substitution we obtain
k
3 =
2
and thus
k = 6.
Hence the equation of the hyperbola is y = 6x .

(b) We rewrite the equation in the form y = kx . Since

2xy p = 0
we have
2xy = p
i.e. we have
p
y= .
2x
 265 MAT0511/003

This equation is in the form

k p
y = , where k = .
x 2
Since p < 0, it follows that k < 0. When k < 0, we know that the shortest
distance from the origin to a point on the hyperbola defined by y = kx is

2k units. This distance is 3 units.

Now

2k = 3

r
p
2 =3
2

p = 3

p = 9

p = 9.

29 9
Note that x is the same as Thus p = 9 and the equation of the hyperbola is y = 2x .
9
2x .

Now try the following activity.

5.1.5

2
Suppose the shortest distance from the origin to a point on a hyperbola is 3 unit.

If the branches of the hyperbola lie in the first and third quadrants, find the equa-
tion of the hyperbola.
 266

The equation of the hyperbola is y = kx . Since the branches lie in the first and
third quadrants, we have
k > 0. Thus the shortest distance from the origin to a
point on the hyperbola is 2k units.

Thus
2
2k =
3
i.e. we have
4
2k =
9
and hence
2
k= .
9

2
2
Note that 9
x is the same as Thus the equation is y = 9x (or 9y = 2x ).
2
9x .

5.1

1. Write each of the following equations in the form y = kx .

(a) xy = 3
(b) 4xy = 7
(c) xy + 1 = 0
(d) 5xy + 3 = 0
(e) mxy + n = 0, m 6= 0, n 6= 0

2. Show algebraically that if the point (a, b) lies on the hyperbola defined by
y = kx then the point (b, a) also lies on the hyperbola.

3. On separate systems of axes give rough sketches of the hyperbolas defined

by
(a) xy = 10 (b) 4xy + 9 = 0.
In each case indicate one of the points on the hyperbola closest to the
origin and give the distance from this point to the origin.

4. On the same system of axes give rough sketches of the hyperbolas defined
by
3 10
y = and y = .
x x
 267 MAT0511/003

5. The point (a, b) lies on a hyperbola. Find the equation of the hyperbola in
terms of a and b.

6. The shortest distance from the origin to a point on a hyperbola is 43 units.

If the two branches of the hyperbola lie in the second and fourth quadrants
find the equation of the hyperbola.

7. Suppose a hyperbola is defined by mxy + 2 = 0, m 6= 0, and the shortest

distance from the origin to a point on the hyperbola is 12 unit. If the two
branches of the hyperbola lie in the first and third quadrants, find the value
of m.
 268

5.2
INVERSE PROPORTION

5.2A
INVERSE PROPORTION
Just as direct proportion occurs frequently in the natural sciences, so does in-
verse proportion. We first mentioned inverse proportion in Study Unit 3.2A of
Book 1, and we remind you of its definition.

Definition 5.2.1
If the variables x and y are related by an equation

c
y = , where c R and c 6= 0, (5.2.1)
x

then y is inversely proportional to x. The constant c is called the

constant of proportionality.

Note

I Equation (5.2.1) is the same as

xy = c. (5.2.2)

I Some authors use the phrase y varies inversely as x instead of y is in-

versely proportional to x. The constant c may also be referred to as the
constant of variation.

I We know that y = xc defines a function and that the graph of this function
is a hyperbola. In a reallife situation c and x are usually both positive and
in such a case the graph then consists only of the branch of the hyperbola
that lies in the first quadrant.
 269 MAT0511/003

5.2.1
Suppose z is inversely proportional to t, and that z = 7 when t = 4.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality and write down the equation that de-
scribes this relationship.

(b) Find z if t = 10.

SOLUTION

(a) Since z is inversely proportional to t we have

c
z= . (1)
t

When we substitute t = 4 and z = 7 into (1) we obtain

c
7=
4
and hence
c = 28.

28
Thus the constant of proportionality is 28 and the equation is z = t .
28
(b) When t = 10 we have z = 10 = 2, 8.

Now try the following activity in which we consider the relationship between the
pressure and the volume of a gas.

5.2.1

You are not expected to be Boyles Law states that the pressure P exerted by a gas at constant temperature
familiar with such laws. We is inversely proportional to the volume V in which it is enclosed.
use them as examples.

(a) Write Boyles Law as an equation, where c is the constant of proportion-

Pressure is measured in Pas-
cals, which is abbreviated by
Pa, and 1 Pa =1 N.m2 , i.e.
1 Pascal is 1 Newton per
square metre.
ality.
(b) Suppose a sample of air occupies 0, 08 m3 and its pressure is 1, 01105 Pa.
What will the pressure be if this sample is compressed to 0, 048 m3 and the
temperature remains constant?
 270

c
(a) P = or PV = c.
V
(b) Suppose the new pressure is x Pa.

Then

5
1, 01 10 0, 08 = c
and
x 0, 048 = c.
Hence

x 0, 048 = 1, 01 105 0, 08
i.e. we have

1, 01 105 0, 08
x=
0, 048

1, 68 105 .

Thus the new pressure is approximately 1, 68 105 Pa.

We mentioned in Study Unit 3.3C that one variable need not just depend on one
other variable. For example, if the variables x, y and z are related by the equation
c
z= ; c R and c 6= 0
xy
then we say that z is inversely proportional to x and y.

If
cy
z= ; c R and c 6= 0
x
then we say that z is directly proportional to y and inversely proportional to
x. Sometimes the word directly is omitted.

5.2.2
Write down the equation that expresses the following statements. Use c as the
constant of proportionality.

(a) p is inversely proportional to the square root of s.

Look at Study Unit 3.3C (b) z is jointly proportional to x and the cube of y, and inversely proportional
if you have forgotton what to t.
jointly proportional means.
 271 MAT0511/003

(c) The resistance R of a wire is directly proportional to its length l and in-
versely proportional to the square of its diameter d.

SOLUTION
c cxy3 cl
(a) p = (b) z= (c) R=
s t d2

Now see whether you have understood this example by trying to do the following
activity.
 272

5.2.2

(a) Write down the equation that expresses the fact that the pressure P of a
sample of gas is directly proportional to the temperature T and inversely
proportional to the volume V .

(b) Suppose
m1 m2
F =G ,
r2
where G is the constant of proportionality. Write down, in words, the
relationship which is expressed by this equation.

cT
(a) P =
V
(b) F is jointly proportional to m1 and m2 and inversely proportional to the
square of r.

5.2

1. Suppose r is inversely proportional to t, and that r = 11 when t = 2.

(a) Find the constant of proportionality c and write down the equation
that describes this relationship.
(b) Find t when r = 2.

2. Write an equation for each of the following statements, using k as the

constant of proportionality.

(a) p is inversely proportional to q and r.

(b) z is directly proportional to the square of x and inversely proportional
to the cube of y.
(c) l is jointly proportional to m and the square root of n, and inversely
proportional to p and q.

3. If p is jointly proportional to q and r, state the relationship between q and

the other two variables.
 273 MAT0511/003

4. Write down the relationship expressed by the following equations, where

k is the constant of proportionality.

kx2
(a) z =
y
kR
(b) Q =
ST
kxz2
(c) y =
r
5. This question is adapted from Stewart, Redlin and Watson (see the Refer-
ences).
The resistance R of a wire varies directly as its length l and inversely as
the square of its diameter d.

(a) A wire 1, 2 m long and 0,005 m in diameter has a resistance of 140

(ohms). Write an equation for this relationship and find the constant
of proportionality.
(b) Find the resistance of a wire made of the same material that is 2, 8 m
long and has a diameter of 0, 007 m.

The graph of the function f defined by

k
y = f (x) =
x
where k is a nonzero constant and x is a nonzero real number is called a
rectangular hyperbola or a hyperbola for short.
 274

Hyperbolas defined by y = kx have two branches, in either the first and third
quadrants, or in the second and fourth quadrants, depending on whether
k > 0 or k < 0.

y6 k>0 k<0
6y

y = kx y = kx
- x - x

For k > 0:

The branches lie in the first and third quadrants.

The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x.
Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x.
The two points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin are the
points of intersection of the hyperbolaand the line defined
by y= x.

The coordinates of these points are k, k and k, k .

The distance from either of these points to the origin is 2k units.
As k increases so the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin
move farther away from the origin.

For k < 0:

The branches lie in the second and fourth quadrants.

The branches are symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x.
Each branch is symmetric with respect to the line defined by y = x.
The two points on the hyperbola which lie closest to the origin are
the points of intersection of the hyperbola and theline
defined
by
y = x. The coordinates of these points are k, k and

k, k . The distance from either of these points to the origin

is 2k units.
As the magnitude of k increases so the two points on the hyperbola
closest to the origin move farther away from the origin.

The equation of a hyperbola can be found if we know

one point on the hyperbola

the distance from the origin to either of the two points closest to the
By sign of k we mean origin, and some fact which will determine the sign of k in the equa-
whether k is positive or neg- tion y = kx .
ative.
 275 MAT0511/003

Inverse Proportion
Term Examples

c
inversely proportional y=
x
y is inversely proportional to x
c is the constant of proportionality

c
z=
xy
z is inversely proportional to x and y
c is the constant of proportionality

cx
directly and inversely z=
y
proportional
z is directly proportional to x and in-
versely proportional to y
c is the constant of proportionality

cxy
jointly and inversely z=
t
proportional
z is jointly proportional to x and y
and inversely proportional to t
c is the constant of proportionality

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 5.1

k
1. Sketch hyperbolas defined by y = x using a table of values.
Example 5.1.1, Activity 5.1.2

2. Know the properties of hyperbolas defined by y = kx for k > 0 and k < 0.

This includes being able to find the coordinates of the two points on the
hyperbola closest to the origin and the distance of these points from the
origin.
Discussion after Example 5.1.1; Activity 5.1.3 and discussion after Activ-
ity 5.1.3
 276

3. Sketch hyperbolas without using a table of values.

Activity 5.1.1; Exercise 5.1(3 and 4)

4. Find the equation of a hyperbola given one point on the hyperbola.

Example 5.1.2(a)

5. Find the equation of a hyperbola given the distance from the origin to either
of the two points on the hyperbola closest to the origin, and some fact that
will determine the sign of k in the equation y = kx .
Example 5.1.2(b); Activity 5.1.5

SECTION 5.2

1. Know and apply the definitions of inverse proportion, direct and inverse
proportion, and joint and inverse proportion.
Examples 5.2.1, 5.2.2; Activities 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3
 277 MAT0511/003

COMBINATIONS OF GRAPHS

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

I Interpret various combinations of graphs, including lines, parabolas,

circles and hyperbolas.

6.1
GRAPHS, GRAPHS AND MORE GRAPHS

6.1A
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SYSTEMS OF
LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
In Study Unit 3.3A we looked at the graphical representation of a system of two
linear equations in two unknowns. From these graphs we were able to see why
such systems can have

I only one solution

I no solution, or

I infinitely many solutions.

We now look at the graphical representation of a system consisting of a linear

and a quadratic equation. We first remind you that a quadratic equation in two
See Study Unit 2.5B in unknowns is an equation of the form
Book 2.
 278

ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey + f = 0 (6.1.1)

where a, b, c, d, e, f R and where the constants a, b and c are not simultane-

ously zero. In this study unit we consider quadratic equations of the form

All these equations can be I y = ax2 + bx + c, the graph of which is a parabola

rearranged so that the equa-
I (x h)2 + (y k)2 = r2 , the graph of which is a circle
tions have the same form as
equation (6.1.1). I xy = k, the graph of which is a hyperbola.

In Study Unit 2.5B of Book 2 we solved algebraically systems consisting of one

linear and one quadratic equation. We also stated that such systems usually have
two solutions. Graphically we shall now see that these systems can have

I two solutions

I only one solution, or

I no solution.

6.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes, sketch the graph of the quadratic function f
defined by
y = f (x) = x2 4x + 3
as well as the lines

l1 : y = x 1
l2 : y = x 3 41
l3 : y = x 5.

(b) What can you deduce from (a) about the number of solutions of each of
the following systems of equations?

y = x1
(i)
y = x2 4x + 3

y = x 3 14
(ii)
y = x2 4x + 3

y = x5
(iii)
y = x2 4x + 3
 279 MAT0511/003

SOLUTION

(a) For the graph of f we have

the xintercepts are 1 and 3
the yintercept is 3
the vertex is (2, 1)
the graph is concave up.
For l1 , the x and yintercepts are respectively 1 and 1.
For l2 , the x and yintercepts are respectively 3 14 and 3 41 .
For l3 , the x and yintercepts are respectively 5 and 5.

We sketch the graphs below.

6y
l1
f

3 l2

l3

2 3
- x
1 3 14 5
1

3 14

Figure 6.1.1

(b) From Figure 6.1.1 we see the following.

(i) The line l1 cuts the graph of f twice, i.e. the system

y = x1
y = x2 4x + 3

has two solutions.

 280

(ii) The line l2 touches the graph of f at one point, i.e. the system

y = x 3 41
y = x2 4x + 3

has only one solution.

(iii) The line l3 does not cut the graph of f at all, i.e. the system

y = x5
y = x2 4x + 3

has no solution.

We do not usually solve systems of linear equations graphically; neither do we

usually solve systems consisting of one linear and one quadratic equation graphi-
See Exercise 6.1. cally. We leave it as an exercise for you to solve algebraically each of the systems
given in Example 6.1.1(b) in order to confirm the visual representation.

Now try the following activity which involves circles and straight lines.

6.1.1

(a) On the same system of axes sketch the circle defined by

x2 2x + y2 3 = 0

as well as the lines

l1 : y = x
l2 : y = x 3
l3 : y = 2.

(b) What can you deduce from (a) about the number of solutions of each of
the following systems of equations?

y = x
(i) 2
x 2x + y2 3 = 0

y = x 3
(ii) 2
x 2x + y2 3 = 0

y=2
(iii) 2
x 2x + y2 3 = 0
 281 MAT0511/003

(a) By completing the square we can rewrite the equation of the circle as
(x 1)2 + y2 = 4.
Thus the circle has centre (1, 0) and radius 2.
For the line l1 , the x and yintercepts are 0, i.e. the line passes through
the origin. The line has slope 1.
For the line l2 , the x and yintercepts are both 3.
The line l3 is parallel to the xaxis and its yintercept is 2.

The graphs are sketched below.

y6

2 l3

(x 1)2 + y2 = 4
(1, 0) - x
3 1 3

l1
3

l2

Figure 6.1.2

(b) From Figure 6.1.2 we see the following.

(i) Line l1 intersects the circle twice, i.e. the system

y = x
x2 2x + y2 3 = 0
has two solutions.
(ii) Line l2 does not cut the circle, i.e. the system

y = x 3
x2 2x + y2 3 = 0
has no solution.
 282

(iii) Line l3 touches the circle once, i.e. the system

y=2
x2 2x + y2 3 = 0
has only one solution.

Again we leave it as an exercise for you to solve each of the systems of equations
See Exercise 6.1. given in Activity 6.1.1 algebraically. We also leave it as an exercise for you to
show graphically that a system of the form

y = mx + c
xy = k
can have no solution, only one solution or two solutions.

6.1B
INTERPRETING COMBINATIONS OF GRAPHS
This study unit contains a number of examples and activities in which we deduce
various facts from different combinations of graphs.

6.1.2
In the sketch on the next page, the circle (with centre the origin) and the parabola
cut each other at points A and B, and B is the vertex of the parabola. The line
joining P (a point on the upper semicircle) and Q (a point on the parabola) is
parallel to the yaxis.

(a) Write down

(i) the coordinates of B

(ii) the equation of the circle
(iii) the equation of the upper semicircle, i.e. the semicircle that lies on
or above the xaxis.

(b) Determine the equation of the parabola.

(c) Determine the length of PQ if the xcoordinate of P and Q is 1 21 .
 283 MAT0511/003

y6

(0, 3) r A
P
r

r
Q r - x
B

Figure 6.1.3

SOLUTION
(a) (i) Since (0, 3) lies on the circle, the radius of the circle is 3. Hence B is
the point (3, 0) .
(ii) The equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 = (3)2
i.e.
x2 + y2 = 9.
(iii) If
x2 + y2 = 9
then
p
y = 9 x2 .
For the upper semicircle we have y 0 and thus the equation of this
semicircle is p
y = 9 x2 .
(b) The parabola has (3, 0) as its vertex. If we write the equation of the
parabola in the form
y = a (x h)2 + k,
then we have
y = a (x 3)2 + 0.
 284

The point (0, 3) also lies on the parabola, and thus

3 = a (0 3)2
i.e. we obtain
3 = 9a
and hence
1
a= .
3
Hence the equation of the parabola is
1
y = (x 3)2
3
i.e. we have
1
y = x2 2x + 3.
3
(c) For 0 x 3 the upper semicircle lies on or above the parabola and
the vertical distance d (x) between any two corresponding points on these
See Vertical Distance be- graphs is given by
tween Corresponding Points p
on Two Lines in Study Unit 1 2
d (x) = 9 x2 x 2x + 3
3.3A. 3
p 1
= 9 x2 x2 + 2x 3.
3
Now the length of PQ is the distance between P and Q when x = 1 12 , i.e.

d 1 12 , and
s
2
1 3 1 3 2 3
d 1 = 9 +2 3
2 2 3 2 2
r
9 3
= 9 +33
4 4
r
36 9 3
=
r 4 4
27 3
=
4 4

3 3 3
=
2 4
6 33
=
4
3 2 31
= .
4

3 2 31
Thus the length of PQ is units.
4
 285 MAT0511/003

6.1.3

Figure 6.1.4 shows the graphs of f and g. The graph of f is the parabola which
cuts the xaxis at 1 and 3, and the yaxis at 6. The graph of g is a line which
passes through (0, 2) and (3, 0). The graphs of f and g intersect at (3, 0) and at
(p, q). M and N are points that lie on the parabola and line respectively, and the
line joining them is parallel to the yaxis.

y 6
8

6 rM

4
y = f (x)
2

- x
2 1 1 2r 3 4 5
N
2
r
y = g(x) (p, q)

Figure 6.1.4

(a) Find the equation that defines f .

(b) Find the equation that defines g.
(c) Find p and q.
(d) Calculate the length of MN if MN passes through (2, 0).
(e) If p < x < 3 determine the maximum length of MN and the value of x at
which this occurs.
(f) Find the values of x for which

(i) f (x) < g (x)

(ii) f (x) g (x) 0.
 286

SOLUTION

(a) Since the graph of f cuts the xaxis at x = 1 and x = 3 the equation of f
has the form
y = a (x + 1) (x 3) .
If we substitute x = 0 and y = 6 into the equation we obtain

6 = a (0 + 1) (0 3)
i.e. we obtain
6 = 3a
and hence
a = 2.

Thus the equation that defines f is

y = 2 (x + 1) (x 3)
which can be rewritten as
y = 2x2 + 4x + 6.

(b) The graph of g passes through the points (3, 0) and (0, 2). Hence the
slope of the line is 0(2) 2
30 , i.e. 3 .
Since the yintercept is 2, the equation that defines g is
2
y = x 2.
3

(c) (p, q) is one of the points of intersection of the graphs of f and g and hence
the coordinates p and q must satisfy the system
2 )
y = x2
3 .
y = 2x2 + 4x + 6

We now solve this system. By substituting the first equation into the sec-
ond equation we obtain 23 x 2 = 2x2 + 4x + 6.

Now
2
x 2 = 2x2 + 4x + 6
3

2x 6 = 6x2 + 12x + 18

6x2 10x 24 = 0
 287 MAT0511/003

3x2 5x 12 = 0

(3x + 4) (x 3) = 0

4
x= or x = 3.
3
Since p < 0 we have p = 43 . We find q by substituting x = 43 into

y = 23 x 2. Thus q = 23 43 2 = 89 2 = 2 89 .

(d) For 43 < x < 3 the graph of f lies above the graph of g. Thus the vertical
distance between corresponding points on these graphs is given by

d (x) = f (x) g (x)

2 2
= 2x + 4x + 6 x2
3
2
= 2x2 + 4x + 6 x + 2
3
2 10
= 2x + x + 8.
3

Since MN passes through (2, 0) the length of MN is given by d (2). Now

10
d (2) = 2 (2)2 + (2) + 8
3
20
= 8 + +8
3
20
=
3
2
= 6 .
3

Thus the length of MN is 6 23 units.

(e) From (d) we see that for 34 < x < 3 the length of MN is given by the
function d, where
10
d (x) = 2x2 + x + 8.
3
Thus we see that the length of MN is given by a quadratic function in x.
(Do not confuse the quadratic function d with the quadratic function f .)
As x varies from 43 to 3 so the length of MN changes from very short
to longer. At some stage it becomes shorter again. Thus the length varies
and at some point it will be a maximum. We know that the maximum (or
minimum) value of any quadratic function is the ycoordinate of the vertex
of its graph. Thus we determine the vertex of the graph of d. We have
 288

10
d (x) = 2x2 + x + 8
3
5
= 2 x2 x + 8
3
2 2 !
5 5 5
= 2 x2 x + +8
3 6 6

5 2 25
= 2 x +2 +8
6 36

5 2 7
= 2 x +1 +8
6 18
2
5 7
= 2 x +9 .
6 18

Hence the vertex of the graph of d is 65 , 9 18
7
. Thus the maximum length
7 5
of MN is 9 18 units and this occurs when x = 6 .
(f) (i) f (x) < g (x) when the graph of f lies below the graph of g, i.e. when
the parabola lies below the straight line.
Thus f (x) < g (x) for x < 43 or x > 3.
(ii)
f (x) g (x) 0
when
f (x) g (x) < 0 or f (x) g (x) = 0
i.e. when

( f (x) < 0 and g (x) > 0) or ( f (x) > 0 and g (x) < 0)
or when
f (x) = 0 or g (x) = 0
Thus f (x)g(x) 0 when
I the graph of f lies below and the graph of g lies above the xaxis,
or
I the graph of f lies above and the graph of g lies below the xaxis,
or
I the graph of f cuts the xaxis, or
I the graph of g cuts the xaxis.
Hence f (x) g (x) 0 when x > 3 or 1 < x < 3 or x = 1 or x = 3,
i.e. when x 1.

Now see whether you can do the following activity.

 289 MAT0511/003

6.1.2
Figure 6.1.5 shows a circle (centred at the origin O), a line (the graph of the
function f ) and a parabola (the graph of the function g).
y6

rD

Ar

Pr
E r r r rB -x
C R O 5
f

r
Q

Figure 6.1.5

The line and circle intersect at A and B. The parabola and circle intersect at D
and E, and C is the turning point of the parabola. The line PQ which joins the
point P on the parabola and the point Q on the lower semicircle is parallel to
the yaxis and lies to the left of the yaxis. AC is also parallel to the yaxis.

(a) Find the equation of the circle.

(b) If A = (v, 3) find the value of v.
(c) Find the equation that defines f .
(d) Find the equation that defines g.
(e) Determine the length of PQ if the length of OR is 2 units.
k
(f) If a hyperbola defined by y = passes through A find the value of k.
x

(g) Use the graphs to find the values of x for which 25 x2 + 13 x 53 > 0.
 290

(a) The circle has centre at the origin and radius 5 units (the distance from B
to O is 5 units). Thus the equation is
x 2 + y2 = 52
i.e.
x2 + y2 = 25.

(b) A is a point on the circle and thus the coordinates of A must satisfy the
equation of the circle. We substitute x = v and y = 3 into the equation of
the circle.
v2 + 32 = 25

v2 = 16

v = 4.
Now since A lies in the second quadrant it follows that v < 0 and hence
v = 4.
See Study Unit 3.2A. (c) The line passes through A (4, 3) and B (5, 0) and thus by the twopoint
formula the equation that defines f is
(0 3)
(y 3) = (x (4)) .
(5 (4))
Now
(0 3)
(y 3) = (x (4))
(5 (4))

3
y 3 = (x + 4)
9

x 4
y3 =
3 3

x 5
y= + .
3 3
Thus f is defined by y = 13 x + 53 .
(d) Since the line AC is parallel to the yaxis the points A and C have the same
xcoordinate, namely 4. C lies on the xaxis, hence the ycoordinate of
C is 0. The vertex of the parabola is thus C (4, 0), and the equation that
defines g has the form
y = a (x (4))2 + 0
which simplifies to
y = a (x + 4)2 .
 291 MAT0511/003

Since the parabola passes through D (0, 5) we substitute x = 0 and y = 5

into y = a(x + 4)2 . We obtain

5 = a (4)2
i.e. we obtain
5 = 16a
and hence
5
a= .
16
Thus the equation that defines g is
5
y= (x + 4)2
16
which can be written as
5 2 5
y= x + x + 5.
16 2
(e) The equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 = 25.
which we can write as p
y = 25 x2 .
Thus the equation of the lower semicircle, i.e. the semicircle that lies
below or on the xaxis, is
p
y = 25 x2 .

Now, for 5 x 0 the graph of g lies above the lower semicircle and
thus the vertical distance between corresponding points on these graphs is
given by
5 5 p
d (x) = x2 + x + 5 25 x2
16 2
i.e. we have
5 5 p
d (x) = x2 + x + 5 + 25 x2 .
16 2
Since the distance from R to O is 2 units, and R lies on the negative xaxis,
the xcoordinate of R is 2. Thus the length of PQ is d (2). Now
q
5 5
d (2) = (2)2 + (2) + 5 + 25 (2)2
16 2
5
= 5 + 5 + 21
4
5
= + 21.
4

5
Thus the length of PQ is + 21 units.
4
 292

(f) The equation of a hyperbola is

k
y= .
x
Since A is a point on the hyperbola, the coordinates of A must satisfy the
equation. If we substitute x = 4 and y = 3 into the equation we obtain
k
3= .
4
Thus
k = 12.

(g) We rewrite
p x 5
25 x2 + > 0
3 3
We manipulate the given in- as p
equality so that it shows x 5
25 x2 > + .
more clearly a relationship 3 3
between the
graphs. Note
that y = 25 x2 is the Thus we must determine the values of x for which the upper semicircle
equation of the upper semi lies above the line defined by y = 31 x + 53 . From Figure 6.1.5 we see that
circle. this is so for 4 < x < 5. Thus the inequality holds for

4 < x < 5.

6.1

1. Determine algebraically the solutions (if they exist) of each of the systems
of equations given in Example 6.1.1(b).

2. Determine algebraically the solutions (if they exist) of each of the systems
of equations given in Activity 6.1.1(b).

3. (a) On the same system of axes sketch the hyperbola defined by

xy = 4

and the lines

l1 : y = x
l2 : y = x
l3 : y = x + 4.
 293 MAT0511/003

(b) Use the graphs in (a) to state the number of solutions that each of the
following systems of equations has.

y=x
(i)
xy = 4

y = x
(ii)
xy = 4

y = x + 4
(iii)
xy = 4
(c) Solve algebraically each of the systems given in (b).

4. Figure 6.1.6 shows one branch of a hyperbola defined by y = kx , and a

straight line. The hyperbola and line intersect at the points M and L.

y6

r Nr Rr 9 -x
O r
r
L
Q

r
P

r
M
9

Figure 6.1.6

The point (2, 4) lies on the hyperbola. R is a point on the xaxis and
P is a point on the line so that RP is parallel to the yaxis and cuts the
hyperbola at Q.

(a) Find the equation of the straight line through M and L.

(b) Find the equation of the hyperbola.
(c) Calculate the length of NM if N is a point on the xaxis and NM is
parallel to the yaxis.
(d) Calculate the length of QP if the length of OR is 3 units.
(e) Calculate the length of RQ if the length of RP is 4 units.
 294

5. Figure 6.1.7 shows the graphs of the functions f and g, both parabolas.
P and Q are the points of intersection of the two parabolas. M is a point
on the graph of f and N is a point on the graph of g such that MN is
perpendicular to the xaxis and lies between P and Q.

y 6

6 M
r

Pr f g

rQ - x
2 1 3

3
r
N

Figure 6.1.7

(a) Find the equations that define f and g.

(b) Find the coordinates of P.
(c) If the length of MN is 4 units find the xcoordinate of M and N.
(d) The length of MN will change as x takes on different values. Cal-
culate the maximum length that MN can have and the value of x at
which this occurs.
(e) Find the values of x for which
(i) f (x) g (x) > 0
(ii) 2x2 3x 9 < 0.
 295 MAT0511/003

6. Figure 6.1.8 shows the graphs of the relation h, which is a circle, with
centre at the origin; the function f , which is a parabola; and the function
g, which is a straight line. The parabola and line intersect at P and Q. M
is a point on the line and N is a point on the lower semicircle such that
MN is parallel to the yaxis. MN cuts the upper semicircle at S and the
parabola at T when 2 < x < 0.

y6
r
P

M
r f

r h
S

r rQ - x
2 R 2

rT
r
N g

Figure 6.1.8

(a) Find the equations that define h, f and g.

(b) Find the coordinates of P.
(c) Calculate the length of SN when R = (1, 0).
(d) Calculate the maximum length of MT as x varies between 4 and 2
and the value of x at which this occurs.
(e) Give the values of x for which
p
4 x2 + x 2.
 296

Graphically a system consisting of one linear and one quadratic equation

in two unknowns has

two solutions
one solution, or
no solutions.

Graphical solution of certain inequalities

How to interpret the table below:
For example, the first row tells us that the solution of the inequality
f (x) > g (x) is the set of all values of x for which the graph of f lies above
the graph of g.

Inequality Solution
Values of x for which

f (x) > g (x) the graph of f lies above the graph of g

f (x) g (x) the graph of f lies on or above the graph of g

f (x) < g (x) the graph of f lies below the graph of g

f (x) g (x) the graph of f lies on or below the graph of g

f (x) g (x) > 0 both graphs lie above or both graphs lie below the
the xaxis

f (x) g (x) 0 both graphs lie above or both graphs lie below the
xaxis or at least one of the graphs cuts the xaxis

f (x) g (x) < 0 one graph lies above the xaxis and the other lies
below the xaxis

f (x) g (x) 0 one graph lies above the xaxis and the other lies
below the xaxis, or at least one of the graphs cuts
the xaxis.
 297 MAT0511/003

Vertical distance d (x) between corresponding points on the graphs of

the functions f and g

d (x) = f (x) g (x) when f (x) g (x).

d (x) = g (x) f (x) when g (x) f (x).
If the function d is a quadratic function then the maximum vertical
distance between corresponding points on the two graphs is given by
the ycoordinate of the vertex of the graph of d.

Vertical distance d (x) between corresponding points on the graph of

f and the xaxis

d (x) = f (x) when f (x) 0.

d (x) = f (x) when f (x) 0.

CHECKLIST
Check that you can do the following.

1. Interpret various combinations of graphs, including lines, parabolas, cir-

cles and hyperbolas.
Examples 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3; Activities 6.1.1, 6.1.2, Exercise 6.1
 298

STATISTICS

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.

SECTION 7.1: Data Collection and Organisation

I Use the terminology of statistics:

data (discrete and continuous), population, sample, tally, class, class limit,
class width, class boundary, class midpoint, frequency, frequency distribu-
tion, grouped frequency distribution.
I Organise data in tables in a meaningful way.

SECTION 7.2: Using Graphs to Represent Data

I Use pie graphs to represent data.

I Use histograms and frequency polygons to represent data (this includes
application of the terminology class midpoint and class boundary).
I Use stemandleaf plots to represent data.
I Use line graphs to represent data.

SECTION 7.3: Some Statistical Measurements

I Determine the arithmetic mean of a set of data (grouped or raw, with or

without a calculator).
I Determine the median, the mode(s) (if any) and the mean deviation of a
set of data.

SECTION 7.4: Probability

I Apply the terminology of probability: outcome, sample space, event.

I Calculate the empirical probability of a given event.

Data is a word we use to de-
scribe information that can
be quantified in some way.
Note that the word data is
plural; we thus say the data
are ... and not the data is
....
299 MAT0511/003
7.1
DATA COLLECTION AND ORGANISATION
7.1A
COLLECTING DATA
In our society today we depend a great deal on the answers we get from the
collection and analysis of data. These activities form part of the subject we
call statistics. Apart from collecting and analysing data, we also have various
possible graphical representations of the data. Statistical graphs are not the
same as the graphs you have dealt with so far, which represent ordered pairs
in the Cartesian plane. When we use the word graph in this topic, we mean a
visualisation of given information.
Think of the example given at the beginning of this book, in which we looked
at a batsmans shots, and considered a frequency table and graph relating to a
specific cricket match. When the captain of the opposing team decides where to
place fielders on the field, he takes into account the likelihood of the batsman
batting in a particular direction. During a whole seasons cricket matches people
are able to record information such as that shown in Table 1.1.1 or Figure 1.1.3
of Study Unit 1.1A. A captain, with experience, will know how to make use of
this information.
In more complicated situations, such as the analysis of population trends, highly
qualified people, called statisticians, obtain and analyse huge amounts of data,
using a variety of statistical tools in order to interpret their findings and make
decisions for the future. Statistics can then be considered as a way of using past
knowledge to make future plans. It is thus extremely useful because it provides
us with a guide as to what is happening in our society. For example, in the
Application of Topic 4, Book 2, we looked at a table showing the numbers of
HIVpositive mothers in different years. Many other items of information also
need to be obtained and analysed so that possible consequences can be predicted
and strategies planned to deal with the expected consequences.
In todays information age it is essential that we learn how to collect, organise
and analyse data. The idea that this would become reality was already evident
many years ago, when H.G. Wells (1866 1946) said Statistical thinking will
one day be as necessary for efficient citizenship as the ability to read and write.
The word statistics is derived from stateistics, i.e. data collected by states to
find out information such as how many farms there were from which taxes could
be collected, or how many young men there were who could be drafted into an
army. Now statistical data is common in our everyday lives, as we can see from
the article below, taken from the 28 November 1998 issue of the Pretoria News.
 300

World population now: 6 billion. In 2050: 910 billion

Babies born each second: 5
Nations unable to feed their people: 82
World population growth: 98% in poorest countries
By 2020, food production increase needed: 70% (800 million tons of grain)
Forests destroyed each year: 16 million hectares
People going to bed hungry each night: 800 million
People earning less than $1 a day: 1,3 billion
Children dying from malnutrition: 400 every 15 minutes like a jumbo jet
crashing every quarter of an hour
Refugees in 1970: 3 million; 1998: 28 million
Women make up 60% of the worlds farmers

Table 7.1.1

Statistical data are sometimes easy to control, but this is not always the case. Sup-
pose you were to set up a physics experiment in a laboratory, to test the effect of
heat on different types of metal wire. You can easily control the datacollection
process for this experiment, since the temperatures applied to the different types
of wires, and the lengths of the wires, can be measured at any given time. Once
you have decided on the variables being measured, you can make certain that
other variables are excluded. In this way accurate results can be obtained and
conclusions can be reached with some certainty.

However, in many statistical problems it is extremely difficult to control the data.

If we want to find out how successful an advertising campaign has been, such as
a campaign to persuade people to use washing powder Clean, it is difficult to
control and analyse the data accurately. For example, we cannot find out exactly

how many people use washing powder and thus may have bought Clean
(i.e. the target market)

how many people actually bought Clean

how many people bought Clean directly as a result of the advertising

campaign.

Each of these items can be affected by other factors in ways we cannot measure
exactly, and it is thus difficult to obtain measurements so precise that we can be
completely certain what they mean. Statistics gives us the tools we need to be
reasonably sure that our conclusions are correct, so that we can make the best
decisions in any given situation.

At this stage we will not define what we mean by being reasonably sure. In
statistics we use a measure called the level of confidence as a measure of being
sure. We will not discuss this further, since this topic is an introduction to
statistics and not an indepth study of particular statistical concepts.
 301 MAT0511/003

While statistics provides useful information, we also need to be aware that statis-
tical data can be misinterpreted, and can mislead people who do not understand
datacollection procedures, simple data analysis, or the graphical interpretation
of information. Consider Example 7.1.1.

7.1.1

Suppose that a report states that in region X, in 1998, the unemployment rate
was 6,1% for females and 14,5% for males. A newspaper reports this as follows.

During 1998, the ratio of male to female unemployed rose further to approxi-
mately 2,4. What do you think is wrong with the newspaper report?

SOLUTION

14, 5
2, 4
6, 1
However, 14,5 and 6,1 represent percentages, and not actual numbers. Sup-
pose there are 2 500 employable males and 4 000 employable females in region
X. Then 14, 5% 2 500 363 and 6, 1% 4 000 = 244. Thus the ratio of un-
employed males to females is in fact approximately 363244 , i.e. approximately 1,5,
which is significantly different from the stated figure, which is 2,4. This is an-
other good reason to have understood ratios and percentages when you studied
them in Book 1!

Consider now the second item of information in Table 7.1.1.

Babies born each second : 5
It is unlikely that researchers obtained data from all possible hospitals, clinics,
maternity homes, etc., throughout the world. Instead of investigating every pos-
sible case, smaller groups can be investigated. These groups provide valuable
information, provided they are representative of the whole population. We use
the word population to mean all possible members of a particular group. In this
case, the population consists of all newborn babies. This is an example of a very
large, but finite, population.

The technique of creating smaller, manageable, representative groups from which

we can obtain meaningful information is called sampling. There are many meth-
ods used to determine appropriate samples of suitable size; once again these are
beyond the scope of this module.

When we make conclusions about a population as a whole on the basis of a

certain sample, we say that the conclusions are inferred from the analysis of

Tally is a word we use We write
for keep a score, or keep
count.
Each time we have a col-
lection of 5 items, we draw
a line through the group of
4 tally marks. In this way
we count each crossed out
group as 5.
Raw data
Class
Class frequency
Frequency distribution
302
the sample. The part of statistics dealing with the conditions under which such
inferences are valid is called inductive statistics or statistical inference. When
we only describe and analyse a certain group without making any inferences
about a larger group, we are dealing with deductive or descriptive statistics.
7.1B
ORGANISING DATA
In order to analyse the information obtained from the sample, we first need to
record the information. A useful recordkeeping technique is to keep a tally.
| the first time we obtain a particular response
|| when we have two such responses
||| when we have three such responses
|||| when we have four such responses
|||| when we have five such responses.
We continue this process, and in the end we have something like this:
|||| |||| |||| ||.
This represents 17: three lots of five, and two more.
Data are numbers. For the time being we consider only integers. Before we
organise the collected data in any way, we refer to the data as raw data. We can
arrange the raw data in a variety of ways, for example in ascending or descending
order. It is often useful to arrange the data into categories, which we call classes,
and determine how many items there are in each category or class. The number
of items in a class is called the class frequency. When we arrange the data
in a table showing the classes with their corresponding frequencies, we have a
frequency table, which we also call a frequency distribution. We illustrate the
meaning of these words in an example.
7.1.2
Suppose a government wants to find out more about education. They are inter-
ested to find out
how many families in a given community have children of primary school
age (i.e. 6 years old to 13 years old)
what the monthly income of each family is
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how many children of primary school age there are in each family

how many children of primary school age in each family attend school.

Please note that these are ar- Suppose 124 families in a particular community were chosen, and asked to com-
bitrary numbers, chosen for plete a questionnaire. The sample size in this case is thus 124, and the statisti-
the purpose of this example. cians would need to decide whether meaningful decisions about the community
as a whole could be made on the basis of this sample.

If a variable can theoreti-
cally assume any real value
between two given values,
we say it is a continu-
ous variable; otherwise it is
called a discrete variable.
Data which can be repre-
sented by discrete or contin-
uous variables are referred
to as discrete or continuous
data, respectively.
The information can then be arranged into a table. Look at the first column in
Table 7.1.2. In this column
I represents income per family, per month, in rands
Nf represents number of families in each income group
Np represents number of primary school age children
N p+ represents number of primary school age children attending school
N p represents number of primary school age children not attending school.
In this example we assume that the ages of the children were their ages in years
at the time of the survey, so that, for example, two children whose ages were 7
years and 3 months, and 7 years and 10 months, respectively, would both have
been classified as 7 years old. This classification provides discrete data.

I < 501 1 001 1 501 2 001 2 501 3 001 3 501

500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500 3 000 3 500 4 000
Total
Nf 12 27 26 28 14 13 3 1 124
Np 72 135 130 140 56 42 11 3 589
N p+ 37 121 107 128 46 36 11 3 489
N p 35 14 23 12 10 6 0 0 100

Table 7.1.2

From the table we see that in all columns (except the columns representing the
families earning R3 001 or more per month) there is a difference between the
number of children who could be attending school (N p ), and the number actually
attending school (N p+ ). Of the 124 families selected for the survey,

there are 589 children of primary school age

489 of the primary school age children go to school
100 of the primary school age children do not go to school.

Suppose we now want to analyse this group further, and find out the ages of
the children not attending school. There is now only one item of information
we want to record: the ages of the children not attending school. We cannot
obtain this information from Table 7.1.2, and we thus need to carry out further
 304

investigations to obtain this information. We need to find out how many children
in each age category are not attending school, i.e. how many 6year olds, how
many 7year olds, etc., up to the 13year olds, do not go to school.

Suppose we let x represent the ages of the children, and n the number of children
in each age group who do not go to school. Every x value thus represents a class
and the number n the class frequency. Table 7.1.3 shows the distribution of the
different frequencies, i.e. the number of children in each age group who do not
attend school.

x 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
n 15 8 6 4 7 17 19 24

Table 7.1.3

Since the total of the N p row in Table 7.1.2 is 100, the total of the numbers in
the n row in Table 7.1.3 must also be 100.

When we record information such as this, we have no difficulty in assigning

exact values to the variables x and n, since both sets of data are given as discrete
data.

However, suppose we wanted to record the heights of a group of children. If

we find a height of 131,2 cm, and another height of 131,3 cm, it is theoreti-
cally possible to find several more measurements between the two. Depending
on the accuracy of our measuring equipment, we could have, for example, chil-
dren whose heights are 131,23 cm and 131,24 cm. Measurements such as these
represent continuous data.

When we have potentially continuous measurements it becomes more difficult to

set out the information in a frequency table such as Table 7.1.3. Also, there are
often too many measurements for it to be practical to list each item separately.
We then need to arrange the data a little differently, and we use a grouped fre-
quency distribution, in which we consider classes with specific class widths
and class limits. Later on, when we draw histograms, we need to introduce the
See Section 7.2, Example concept of class boundaries as well.
7.2.3.
Look at the next two examples.
 305 MAT0511/003

7.1.3

Consider the measurement of the midday temperature in Johannesburg each day

during February of 1998. Temperature is also a continuous variable (the number
of decimal places we use to express the measurements will depend on the accu-
racy and sophistication of the measuring equipment we use). Suppose we obtain
the following measurements, correct to one decimal place.

Day Temperature (in C, Day Temperature (in C,

to one decimal place) to one decimal place)
1 25,4 15 26,4
2 26,3 16 24,5
3 24,9 17 27,2
4 28,2 18 28,4
5 30,9 19 28,3
6 30,8 20 28,5
7 31,3 21 29,4
8 30,2 22 30,2
9 29,7 23 31,4
10 28,6 24 33,2
11 27,0 25 33,4
12 25,9 26 33,5
13 25,8 27 33,6
14 26,1 28 32,1

Table 7.1.4

There are too many different values in this table for it to make sense for us to list
each specific temperature in a class of its own. We organise the data as follows.

I Look for the lowest and highest measurements (in this case the lowest is
24, 5 C and the highest is 33, 6 C).

I Choose class limits and determine the classes. Suppose we choose to

group the data into classes so that each class has a class width of 1 C (i.e.
each successive class represents a change in temperature of one degree
Celsius). Thus, if the first class begins at 24, 5 C (the lowest temperature),
it ends at 25, 4 C, and hence it makes sense to choose the last class with
limits of 33, 5 C and 34, 4 C because the highest temperature falls into this
class. There are thus ten classes.

I Count the total number of times a temperature occurs in each class. These
totals are the class frequencies. We denote the frequency by n.

I Set up a frequency table which summarises the above information.

 306

I Check: As you would expect, the total of all the numbers in the n row is
28, since there were 28 temperatures recorded in February, 1998.

Classes 24,5 25,5 26,5 27,5 28,5 29,5 30,5 31,5 32,5 33,5
( C) 25,4 26,4 27,4 28,4 29,4 30,4 31,4 32,4 33,4 34,4
n 3 5 2 3 3 3 4 1 2 2

Table 7.1.5

7.1.4

Suppose we have the following measurements (rounded to the nearest centime-

tre) of the heights of 100 students.

152 156 161 162 163 161 165 161 160 166
165 163 165 163 164 164 158 161 154 168
162 163 169 164 153 166 166 161 159 162
169 167 164 157 172 158 161 167 169 166
161 159 166 168 165 170 153 169 164 162
172 162 166 162 157 165 167 167 158 152
161 166 175 162 156 170 170 163 162 172
167 165 165 170 172 162 163 158 158 161
157 168 161 158 161 168 159 162 163 168
174 163 162 173 170 159 158 168 174 159

Table 7.1.6

I The shortest students height is 152 cm; the height of the tallest student is
175 cm.

I We choose to group the measurements into classes whose widths are all
5 cm, where the first class begins at 151 cm; the last class will then end at
175 cm.

I We count the number of times each measurement occurs in each class. We

record these frequencies in Table 7.1.7.

I We check that the total of the class frequencies is 100.

 307 MAT0511/003

Classes (in cm) Class frequencies

151 155 5
156 160 18
161 165 42
166 170 27
171 175 8

Table 7.1.7

Note

Since the width of each class is 5 cm, there are five classes.

There are many other ways in which we can organise these measurements
into a frequency distribution. For example, we can choose the lowest class
limit to be 152 cm, and class widths of 6 cm. We then have the following
table.

Classes (in cm) Class frequencies

152 157 10
158 163 43
164 169 34
170 175 13

Table 7.1.8

Because the classes are wider, there are now only four classes.

You have been learning many concepts that are possibly new to you. Have you
understood them? To check, try to do Activity 7.1.1.

7.1.1

A group of MAT011K students obtained the percentages shown in the table for
their first assignment.
 308

Name Mark (%) Name Mark (%)

Silas 34 Francina 57
Marian 38 Francois 85
Gill 45 Sean 63
Zita 68 Shamus 47
Sumaya 33 Frank 42
Dimitri 74 Dhaya 77
Amos 54 Eddie 23
James 35 Isaac 58
Jan 66 Abram 61
Celeste 53 Petrus 35

(a) Find the lowest mark, and the highest mark.

(b) Suppose you represent the data by means of a grouped frequency distribu-
tion, with classes of width 10%, so that 20% is the the lower limit of the
first class and the highest mark is in the last class. How many classes of
marks will there be?
(c) Use the information obtained in (a) and (b) to set up a grouped frequency
distribution for the marks obtained by these students.

(a) The lowest mark is 23%; the highest mark is 85%.

(b) We start at 20%. We want classes of width 10%. If we start at 20%, the
class limits of the first class will be 20% 29%, the second class will have
Note that in practice the low-
limits 30% 39%, etc. The last class will have limits 80% 89% and thus
est class limit can be any
there will be 7 classes.
percentage that is less than
or equal to 23%. Sup- (c) We count the marks in each class.
pose we keep the class width
Marks from 20% to 29%: Tally: | Frequency: 1
10%. We can choose to
Marks from 30% to 39%: Tally: |||| Frequency: 5
start at 0%; the first class
Marks from 40% to 49%: Tally: ||| Frequency: 3
will then have limits of 0%
Marks from 50% to 59%: Tally: |||| Frequency: 4
9% and a frequency of zero,
Marks from 60% to 69%: Tally: |||| Frequency: 4
since no students obtained
Marks from 70% to 79%: Tally: || Frequency: 2
marks in this category. In
Marks from 80% to 89%: Tally: | Frequency: 1
this case there will be nine
Total: 20
classes. We can also choose
to start at 22%; the first class
We check to make sure that the total in the number column is the same as
will then have limits of 22%
the total number of students we are considering. We now have the follow-
31%, and a frequency of
ing frequency table.
1. There will again be 7
classes. Classes (%) 2029 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089
n 1 5 3 4 4 2 1

Table 7.1.9
 309 MAT0511/003

We have included, for interest only, an article on smoking from the South
African Medical Journal that relies heavily on statistical sampling and various
other statistical techniques. The article appears at the end of this topic. An
amusing quote, attributed to Fletcher Knebel, and given in the book Agnesi to
Zeno, by Sanderson Smith, is It has now been proved beyond a shadow of a
doubt that smoking causes statistics. Certainly smoking (or not) is a topical is-
sue, and you may find the article interesting. Note that the purpose of the survey
was to determine the extent to which people smoked, and the extent to which
they were aware of the harmful effects of cigarette smoking. This article is thus
an example of descriptive statistics, and not inferential statistics. 1

Section 7.1 presents an extremely simplified view of obtaining and organising

data. On the first page of the article on smoking, in the section with the heading
Sampling we have pointed out (by using italics in the quoted section below)
some of the specialised statistical procedures used to ensure that the sample is
representative (in terms of age, gender, race and so on) of the population as a
whole.

A sample of lung cancer sufferers was selected, in the following

way:
A multistage cluster sampling method was used to select 2 238
households. A randomly selected adult from each household was
interviewed in a standardised manner by trained interviewers in the
preferred language of the respondent. ... The reliability of the in-
terviewers survey techniques was ensured by repeating 10% of the
interviews either telephonically or in person. The sociodemographic
characteristics of the sample were compared with the 1992 census
data and weighted accordingly.

It is clear that there is much more to sampling than we can discuss in this module.
You may find it interesting to study a course in basic statistics at a later stage.

1 The article appears in Volume 86, No. 11, November 1996, pp. 13891393.
 310

7.1

1. State briefly what the following terms mean.

tally, class, frequency, frequency distribution

2. An efficiency expert takes a sample of 100 breakdown times (in minutes)

of the machines in a factory. (Breakdown time is the length of time during
which a machine is out of action either awaiting repair or being repaired
or replaced.) The times are given below. Represent this data by means
of a grouped frequency distribution. Choose 5 minutes as the lower limit
of the first class; choose class width 5 minutes, and include the longest
breakdown time in the last class. 2

21 23 19 27 43 24 20 45 33 22
21 38 36 49 23 20 18 22 17 35
38 24 11 22 45 21 9 29 21 41
59 27 12 23 27 10 7 34 22 33
36 32 24 44 16 13 27 23 33 27
22 42 19 47 29 31 10 48 15 21
40 13 24 25 22 23 19 20 34 39
25 37 16 52 17 28 24 18 23 53
35 20 31 28 25 44 30 32 29 30
27 28 21 23 12 17 24 40 14 15

2 This example is taken from Page, Berry and Hampson: Mathematics, a second start.
 311 MAT0511/003

7.2
USING GRAPHS TO REPRESENT DATA

Do you remember why the
circle does not represent a
function?
Pictographs
7.2A
PIE GRAPHS, HISTOGRAMS AND FREQUENCY
POLYGONS
We have already looked at a variety of different graphs, particularly in Topics 3,
4, 5 and 6 of this book. What these graphs have in common is that they each
represent a particular equation, and, apart from circles, they are all graphs of
functions.
Statistical data are also often represented visually. One of the simplest types of
visualisations we have is a pictogram, sometimes also called a pictograph. The
name is easy to understand when we see that such graphs make use of pictures
to represent information. If we want to use a pictogram to show the progress in
the planting of indigenous trees, we could have the following example.

7.2.1

Study the pictograph below, in which one represents 1 000 trees.

Region Tally

Gauteng |||| |

Mpumalanga ||||

Limpopo |||| |

Free State |||

Northern Cape ||||

Western Cape |||| ||||

Table 7.2.1

From the pictograph we see that 6 000 trees were planted in Limpopo, and 5 000
in Mpumalanga.
 312

One of the limitations of pictographs is that it is usually difficult to represent

parts of the whole. For example, if 5 300 trees are planted in a certain region,
how can we represent 300 trees using the given symbol for 1 000 trees? However,
pictographs are useful for the representation of simple information, relatively
free from language and numbers, and thus easy to understand.

Although pictographs are useful, they are easy to misinterpret. Suppose a dough-
nut company uses the symbol of one doughnut to represent profits in rands, where
every one centimetre of the thickness of the doughnut (i.e. the radius of the outer
ring minus the radius of the inner ring) represents R100 000,00 profit. If you
are given the following pictogram, in which year would you say profits were
highest?

1996 1997 1998

Figure 7.2.1

In 1996, the doughnuts thickness is 0,6 cm, i.e. the profit is R60 000,00.
In 1997, the doughnuts thickness is 1,3 cm, i.e. the profit is R130 000,00.
In 1998, the doughnuts thickness is 1,2 cm, i.e. the profit is R120 000,00.

If we do not carefully read the details such as the scale used to draw the graph,
we may look at the picture and assume that the biggest profit was earned in 1998,
since the biggest doughnut is used to represent the profit in that year.

Pie graphs Another type of statistical graph is called a pie graph, for the simple reason that
it looks like a pie. Figure 7.2.2 shows a pie graph, where the slices, or wedges, of
the pie represent different percentages. The intention is that, for example, half the
pie represents 50%, and hence smaller slices represent smaller percentages. If we
want to draw accurate pie graphs, we need to work out, as precisely as possible,
the size of the wedges. The pie may be drawn to look like a three-dimensional
pie, cut into various wedges. It may also be drawn in two dimensions, as a circle.
We then refer to the slices of the pie as sectors.
 313 MAT0511/003

We commented earlier that Definition 7.2.1

the word proportion is A pie graph shows percentages by means of areas of
sometimes used when di- sectors of a circle, where the areas are proportional to
rect proportion is meant. the percentages that must be represented.

For practical purposes it is not usually necessary that the wedges are drawn to
scale. The information in Figure 7.2.2 appears in the 1996/97 South African
Survey, published by the South African Institute of Race Relations.

Education levels of people over the age of 20:1995

Degrees 3%
No education 13% Diplomas 7%

Matric 19%

Gr 1 Std 5 24%

This graph is drawn in three

dimensions. It was adapted
and drawn in two dimen-
sions in Topic 1 (Figure
Std 6 Std 9 34%
1.1.1(b)).

Figure 7.2.2

Note

I The graph has a label, or heading, to indicate what it represents.

I In order to draw the graph, the relevant data is obtained from the population
as a whole, or from a suitable sample and then manipulated in some way
to reflect the whole population.
I Each frequency is converted to a percentage, since pie graphs only show
percentages, and not exact numbers or classes of numbers
I If this is an accurate graph then the central angle of each sector is propor-
tional to the percentage that the sector represents.

Figure 7.2.3 illustrates what we mean by central angle.


If we take the radius OA, and
rotate it one complete circle,
in an anticlockwise direc-
tion, we travel through 360
degrees (we abbreviate this
as 360 ).
These questions relate to
proportion, which is dis-
cussed in Topic 3 of Book
1. If you understood the
concepts at that stage you
should have no difficulty
with the application to an-
gles here.
314
The central angle is the name we give to the angle at the centre of the circle.
B
A
O
The central angle AOB
Figure 7.2.3
Since one complete revolution measures 360 degrees, the central angle for each
slice of the pie will be some fraction of 360 degrees. Since 360 degrees repre-
sents 100%, what is the measurement of the central angle for a slice that repre-
sents 1%? What angular measurement will represent 25%? If the central angle
of a sector in a pie graph measures 10 degrees, what percentage does the sector
represent? (In case you tried to find the answers: 1% can be represented by a
sector with a central angle of 3, 6 ; 25% can be represented by a sector with a
central angle of 90 ; a sector with the central angle of 10 represents 25
9 %, i.e.
approximately 2,78%.)
A graph such as the one in Figure 7.2.2 is useful for making comparisons. We can
see at a glance that the biggest slice of the pie represents people who have passed
standards 6 to 9 (now called grades 8 to 11), and the smallest slice represents
those with degrees.
7.2.2
Let us consider a group of 650 MAT011K students. Suppose we have the infor-
mation given in Table 7.2.2 and we want to represent it by means of an accurate
pie graph.
Number of assignments submitted Number of students
1 35
2 140
3 258
4 153
5 64
Table 7.2.2
 315 MAT0511/003

SOLUTION
We

I first convert the numbers of students to percentages

I calculate the central angle of each sector

I then use these angle measurements to sketch the sectors of the circle.

If we round the percentages to the first decimal place, we have

35
5, 4%
650
140
21, 5%
650
258
39, 7%
650
153
23, 5%
650
64
9, 9%.
650
Since one complete revolution measures 360 degrees, we have
35
360 19, 4
650
140
360 77, 5
650
258
360 142, 9
650
153
360 84, 7
650
64
360 35, 5 .
650
We now draw any circle. Draw a radius. At the centre, from this radius, measure
It will be difficult to measure an angle of 19, 4 (using a protractor), and draw another radius. This sector
0,4, i.e. 25 , of a degree, with thus represents 5,4% of the students. We continue in the same way so that, for
a normal protractor, so it is
example, we measure a central angle of 77, 5 immediately next to the 19, 4
unlikely that graphs such as
these are accurate. angle, and draw another radius, so that we have a sector representing 21,5%
of the students. Measure the remaining angles (clearly it will not be necessary
to measure the last angle), complete the sectors so that each one represents the
required percentage, and write the percentages on each sector. Note that we need
not have started with the 19, 4 angle. We can start with any angle, and proceed
in any direction around the centre. The completed pie graph is given in Figure
7.2.4, on the next page.
 316

5,4%
9,9%
1
5 2
23,5%
21,5%
4

3
39,7%

Number of different assignments submitted by MAT011K students

Figure 7.2.4

Try to apply the technique used in Example 7.2.2 in the next activity.

7.2.1
Consider the same group of students as in Example 7.2.2. Suppose we also have
the following information.

Academic performance Number of students

(Total = 650)
Cancelled the module before writing the 38
exam
Passed with distinction 3
(75% or more)
Passed the exam but without distinction 438
(obtained 50% or more, but less than 75%)
Failed the exam but qualified for a supple- 123
mentary exam
(obtained between 30% and 49%)
Failed the exam, and did not qualify for a 48
supplementary exam
(obtained less than 30%)

Table 7.2.3

Draw a pie graph to show this information. Calculate the angles as though you
were planning to draw an accurate graph, but your sketch need not be accurate.
 317 MAT0511/003

We convert the numbers to percentages, and round each percentage to the first
decimal place.
38
5, 8%
650
3
0, 5%
650
438
67, 4%
650
123
18, 9%
650
48
7, 4%
650
We then calculate the required central angles correct to the first decimal place.
38
360 21, 0
650
3
360 1, 7
650
438
360 242, 6
650
123
360 68, 1
650
48
360 26, 6
650

We now draw a circle, and represent these percentages as sectors of the circle, as
far as possible estimating the size of each sector according to the central angles
calculated above.

Failed Cancelled before writing

Passed with distinction
Failed
(qualified for 5,8%
7,4% 0,5%
supplementary)
18,9%
Passed
67,4%

Academic performance of MAT011K students

Figure 7.2.5
 318

Scatter graphs Another way of representing data is by means of a scatter diagram or scatter
graph or scatter plot. This kind of graph is used when we want to look at
the data and form an idea of what kind of equation may best fit the data. The
techniques for finding a suitable equation are beyond the scope of this module,
and we thus only show an example of a scatter graph (in Figure 7.2.6), but we do
not discuss such graphs further.

10

Number 8
of
students 6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Marks obtained by students in an exam

(percentages rounded to the nearest ten percent)

Figure 7.2.6

Histograms Another useful method of graphical representation of data is the histogram.

Definition 7.2.2
A histogram represents each class of information by
means of a rectangle whose width represents the class
width and whose area is proportional to the frequency.

We do not necessarily use
the same scale for the class
width and the frequency.
Note that area is proportional to length and breadth, since area = length
breadth. Since we use the same class width for each class, and a scale for class
width as well as for frequency, we may also state the definition as follows.
A histogram represents each class of information by means of a rectangle whose
width represents the class width and whose height is proportional to the fre-
quency.

We look at an example to understand what this definition means.

 319 MAT0511/003

7.2.3

Consider the data presented in Table 7.1.7 (table included here for convenience).

Classes (in cm) Class frequencies

151 155 5
156 160 18
161 165 42
166 170 27
171 175 8

Measurements of heights The class width in this case is 5 cm. Heights are recorded to the nearest centime-
are examples of continuous tre, i.e. we have the classes 151 cm 155 cm, 156 cm 160 cm, etc. However,
data. if we want to draw a histogram to represent this data, the rectangles representing
different classes would have gaps between them, for example a gap between the
end of one class, say 160 cm, and the beginning of the next, 161 cm. We over-
come this problem by extending class limits by one more decimal place. We call
these the class boundaries. Extending the class limits in this way implies that
we make the lower class limit, for example 151 cm, smaller, and the upper class
limit, for example 155 cm, bigger. The class boundary of a class lies halfway
between its lower class limit and the upper class limit of the previous class.

In this example the class boundaries are 150,5 cm, 155,5 cm, etc., and it is easy
to draw a histogram when we know what boundaries are appropriate. The upper
boundary value of one class is the lower boundary of the next class and hence
the rectangles will not overlap.

We repeat Table 7.1.7 again, including a column giving the class boundaries, i.e.
150,5 cm, 155,5 cm, etc.

Classes (in cm) Class boundaries (in cm) Frequencies

151 155 150,5 155,5 5
156 160 155,5 160,5 18
161 165 160,5 165,5 42
166 170 165,5 170,5 27
171 175 170,5 175,5 8

Note that measurements of heights are given to the nearest centimetre. There
will thus be no recorded measurements such as 165,5 cm or 170,5 cm, so there
will be no confusion about the interval in which a measurement lies.
 320

Histogram

42
40
Number
of 30 27
students
20 18

10 8
5
We sometimes use a jagged
line to show that the hori- 150,5 155,5 160,5 165,5 170,5 175,5
zontal (or vertical) axis has
been shortened so that num- Heights of students
bers from the origin up to (in centimetres)
the point where the mea-
Figure 7.2.7
surements begin, have been
omitted.
Sometimes the actual frequency is written on the top of each rectangle , as shown
in Figure 7.2.7. Unless we do this, in a sketch such as this we have no way of
being quite certain of the number of students whose heights are, for example,
We can give an even more
between 170,5 cm and 175,5 cm. Does the last rectangle correspond to 8 stu-
accurate graph if we use
dents, or 9? We can overcome this problem to some extent if we use a grid.
graph paper.
Figure 7.2.7 is repeated below, on a grid (see Figure 7.2.8), and the number of
students in each class is a little easier to find. The last rectangles height seems
to correspond to the number 8, i.e. there appear to be 8 students whose heights
are between 170,5 cm and 175,5 cm.

50

Number 40
of
students 30

20

10

150,5 155,5 160,5 165,5 170,5 175,5

Heights of students
(in centimetres)

Figure 7.2.8
 321 MAT0511/003

Note

I In Figures 7.2.7 and 7.2.8 it is necessary to choose an appropriate scale for

both axes. We use two different scales. We use
Horizontal axis: 1,5 cm represents a change in height of 5 cm
Vertical axis: 1 cm represents 10 students.
I The class width is 5 cm, represented by 1,5 cm.
I The area of each rectangle (and hence its height) is proportional to the
frequency.
I The class boundary values are given to one decimal place more than the
class limits.

In a histogram the classes do not always have to be represented on the horizontal

axis. It is also acceptable to represent them on the vertical axis, as we see in the
next example.

7.2.4
30 pupils in a class work on a project. Table 7.2.4 shows the distribution of the
marks over the pupils in the class. In the table the marks have been divided into
classes with class width of 10%. Since no one had a mark of less than 40% it is
acceptable to begin with a class that has the limits 40% and 49%.

Represent this information by means of a histogram.

Classes Frequencies
(Total = 30)
90% 99% 1
80% 89% 3
70% 79% 5
60% 69% 10
50% 59% 7
40% 49% 4

Table 7.2.4
SOLUTION
In order to draw a histogram we need the class boundaries. Since the class
limits are given to the nearest unit we find the class boundaries by extending the
limits by one decimal place, i.e. to tenths. We thus have the following table.
 322

Class boundaries Frequencies

(Total = 30)
89,5% 99,5% 1
79,5% 89,5% 3
69,5% 79,5% 5
59,5% 69,5% 10
49,5% 59,5% 7
39,5% 49,5% 4

Table 7.2.5

We choose an appropriate scale. We have

horizontal axis: 0,5 cm represents 1 pupil
vertical axis: 1 cm represents 10%.

Using this scale we thus draw rectangles with length 2 cm, 3,5 cm, 5 cm, 2,5 cm,
1,5 cm and 0,5 cm, respectively. Figure 7.2.9 shows how horizontally arranged
rectangles represent this information. The area (and hence the length) of each
rectangle is proportional to the class frequency.

Histogram 99,5

89,5
Marks
obtained 79,5
(percentages)
69,5

59,5

49,5

39,5

5 10
Number of pupils Figure 7.2.9
Note

I We see again that without using graph paper, or writing the actual numbers
next to each rectangle, it is difficult to be precisely sure how many pupils
fall into each class.
 323 MAT0511/003

Frequency polygon Yet another important statistical graph is the frequency polygon. In order to
draw frequency polygons we need to know the midpoint of each class.

Class midpoint
We will also use the value
of the class midpoint for cal-
culations of specific statisti-
cal measurements. We study
these in the next section.
Either class limits or class boundaries are used to give us the class midpoint. We
can obtain each class midpoint by adding the two class limits (or class bound-
aries) and dividing by two. In Example 7.2.3, the first class has the limits 151 cm
and 155 cm and the boundaries 150,5 cm and 155,5 cm. If we add the two class
limits (or the class boundaries) and divide the total by two, we obtain 153 cm,
which lies in the middle of the class denoted by 151 cm 155 cm. In this way we
obtain (for Figure 7.2.7) the class midpoints 153 cm, 158 cm, 163 cm, 168 cm
and 173 cm.

Class boundaries are useful Figure 7.2.10 shows the relationship between the class limits, the class bound-
as we are able to obtain the aries and the class midpoint.
class width by subtracting
the smaller class boundary
from the larger one.
150,5 155,5

151 153 155 Figure 7.2.10

If we plot points corresponding to each class midpoint and class frequency, and
join these points, we obtain a frequency polygon. Figure 7.2.11 shows the fre-
quency polygon obtained from the data used to draw the histogram in Figure
7.2.7. In Figure 7.2.11 we show the class midpoints on the horizontal axis, in-
Note that the frequency stead of the class boundaries.
polygon consists of the
line segments joining the
dots that correspond to the
midpoints of the classes; the 42
histogram is shown here as 40
well for comparison, but it
Number
is not part of the frequency 30 27
polygon. of
students 18
20

10 8
5

153 158 163 168 173

Heights of students
(in centimetres)
Figure 7.2.11

How do we interpret frequency polygons? We draw Figure 7.2.11 again, this

time without the histogram.
 324

Frequency Polygon 40
Number
of 30
students
20

10

153 158 163 168 173

Heights of students
(in centimetres)
From the above figure we can deduce the following information.
I There are 23 students whose heights are less than 160,5 cm.
I There are 35 students whose heights are at least 165,5 cm.
I More students are in the class with class boundaries 160,5 cm and 165,5 cm
than in any other class.

Try to consolidate your understanding of histograms and frequency polygons by

doing the next activity.

7.2.2

Remember that we think of In a sample of 50 rugby players, the following masses (in kilograms) were
mass as weight, although recorded.
when you study physics you
will see that there is a differ-
ence. 72 86 79 86 96
93 101 86 96 98
105 104 88 89 89
92 79 107 104 87
97 92 82 91 96
85 111 79 82 84
94 87 101 90 88
96 93 79 90 95
83 108 92 86 77
78 97 81 89 93

Set up a frequency table with class widths of 10 kg. Choose classes so that the
lower limit of the first class is 65 kg. On the same system of axes draw a his-
togram and frequency polygon to represent the information.
 325 MAT0511/003

The classes must each have a width of 10 kg. We are told to choose 65 kg as
the lower limit of the first class, and the classes thus have the limits shown in the
table below. (Note that we do not necessarily have to choose these classes. If we
want to keep the class width 10 kg, we can also choose, for example, the limits
71 kg and 80 kg; 81 kg and 90 kg, and so on. We must ensure that we choose
class limits so that no measurements are excluded. If the class limits change,
then obviously the class boundaries and midpoints will change as well.)

Classes Class boundaries Class midpoints Frequency

(kg) (kg) (kg) (Total = 50)
65 74 64,5 74,5 69,5 1
75 84 74,5 84,5 79,5 11
85 94 84,5 94,5 89,5 22
95 104 94,5 104,5 99,5 12
105 114 104,5 114,5 109,5 4

We draw the required histogram and frequency polygon in Figure 7.2.12.

25

Number 20
of
players 15

10

64,5 74,5 84,5 94,5 104,4 114,5

Mass in kilograms

Figure 7.2.12

7.2.3

Consider a group of 30 Grade 3 children. They did two spelling tests, one at
the beginning of term, and one at the end. Their marks (percentages) on the two
tests were grouped into classes with class width of 15%. The graphs are shown
in Figure 7.2.13 on the next page. The solid line represents the first test and the
dashed line represents the second test.
 326

10
Frequency Polygons 9
Number
8
of
7
children
6
5
4
3
2
Although the class limits are
1
not indicated on the graph, it
should be clear that we have 7 22 37 52 67 82 97
14,5 29,5 44,5 59,5 74,5 89,5 104,5
the following class limits:
0 14 Percentages
15 29
30 44 Figure 7.2.13
45 59
60 74
75 89 (a) What type of graphs are shown in Figure 7.2.13?
90 104.
(b) If 60% is a pass mark, how many children passed the first test? How many
passed the second?

(c) Did the childrens marks improve in the second test? How can you deduce
your answer from the graphs?

(d) No one could obtain more than 100% in the test. Why is it necessary to
have 104,5% as the last class boundary?

(a) Figure 7.2.13 shows two frequency polygons.

(b) In the first test, 8 children passed. We determine this from the graph. The
solid line shows that

6 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 67%

2 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 82%
0 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 97%.

In the second test, 23 children passed. The dashed line shows that

10 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 67%

7 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 82%
6 children obtained marks in the class with midpoint 97%.
 327 MAT0511/003

(c) From (b) it is clear that more children passed the second test. However,
even without counting up the numbers of children who passed the two
tests, we can see that the distribution of the marks is different for the two
tests. The graph for the second test has a peak further to the right (i.e.
closer to 100% and further from 0%), and more marks on the right side of
60%, than the graph for the first test.
(d) Although no one can obtain more than 100%, it is possible that a child
could have obtained exactly 100%, so the last class must make provision
for a mark of 100%.

Bar graphs In many graphs, information is often presented in columns, in which the area
of each column is not proportional to the frequency represented by the column,
and thus the scale used for the width of each column is not important. In these
graphs, only the height of each column represents the frequency. When we draw
such columns, the widths of all the columns are the same, and the columns do not
overlap. There are gaps, usually the same width, between the columns. Graphs
such as these are called bar graphs or bar charts.

Definition 7.2.3
A bar graph consists of vertical (or horizontal)
columns of equal width. The height (or length)
of each column is proportional to the frequency
of the data represented by that column.

The article appears at the The graphs in Figures 1 and 2 of the South African Medical Journal article are
end of this topic. examples of such graphs.

Stemandleaf plot The final type of visual representation we look at in this study unit is the stem
andleaf plot. An example will illustrate the name, and why we use this method.

7.2.5

Suppose we have the following masses (measured in kilograms) of the bags of

potatoes harvested by 52 schoolboy volunteers one weekend.

27 35 42 35 36 51 43 30 51 37
36 48 41 38 40 46 37 46 42 38
42 42 46 41 26 42 34 38 39 36
31 35 37 43 33 39 33 54 40 31
36 31 29 37 37 45 46 44 31 46
36 40
 328

We want to represent this data by means of a stemandleaf plot.

SOLUTION
We proceed as follows.

I Consider separately the units digit and the tens digit in each of the given
numbers. For example, the number 36 has 3 tens and 6 units.

I Draw a vertical line and down the left side of the line write all the tens
digits that occur in the numbers in the table, from smallest to biggest. Thus
we have:

2
3
4
5

I Every time each tens digit occurs in the data, write down, on the right side
of the vertical line, the corresponding units digit. These digits are written
down in the order in which they occur, without any rearrangement. We
begin at the top left corner of the table, and read across the rows. For
example, we have the numbers 42 and 43 in the first row of the table, and
hence next to the number 4 we first write 2, then 3, and so on. We have
the following completed diagram. Note that since there are 52 data items,
there must be 52 digits on the right side of the vertical line.

Stemandleaf plots 2 7 6 9
3 5 5 6 0 7 6 8 7 8 4 8 9 6 1 5 7 3 9 3 1 6 1 7 7 1 6
4 2 3 8 1 0 6 6 2 2 2 6 1 2 3 0 5 6 4 6 0
5 1 1 4

Figure 7.2.14

Now you can see why it is called a stemandleaf plot: the arrangement looks a
little like a leaf. One advantage of this arrangement of data is that it is easy to see
straight away, without first grouping the data, that the majority of boys harvested
between 30 and 39 kilograms of potatoes. If we count the numbers in the row
on the right side of the line where 3 appears, we see that 26 boys harvested bags
of potatoes weighing between 30 and 39 kilograms. Only 3 boys harvested 50
kilograms or more.
 329 MAT0511/003

It is sometimes useful, for comparison purposes, to draw backtoback stem

andleaf plots. We can do this in a classroom situation, if we want to compare
the marks of girls and boys in a class test. In such a case we put the tens digits in
a column in the middle, and write down the units digits for the girls on one side
of the column, and for the boys on the other side of the column. Figure 7.2.15
is an example of this. (Note that we give only the final plot, and not all the data
used to create it.) One difficulty in this display is that we read the numbers on
the left side of the middle column back to front. For example, in the first row,
the first entry on the left represents 17%, and not 71%.

7 1 2 7
3 3 7 2 6 3 5 2 1
9 1 3 5 2 6 8 3 2
4 5 1 8 3 5 0 4 8 0 9 2 7 1 6 5 6 1 3
3 0 4 5 3 3 0 1 7 7 9 5 1 6 7 7 9 2 2 0 1
2 2 5 2 7 8 1 1 0 8 1 0 6 2 6 0 3 2 7
3 1 3 7 5 2 0 1
0 4 8 4 4 7
2 9 3 4

Girls marks Boys marks

Percentages obtained in a class test

Figure 7.2.15

7.2B
LINE GRAPHS
Line graphs At the beginning of this book we discussed situations in which it makes sense
to join dots in the Cartesian plane that represent data items. In the case of his-
tograms, although we make use of a horizontal and a vertical axis, we have not
been working in the Cartesian plane. In the case of frequency polygons, although
the points that are joined represent points in the Cartesian plane, the other points
on the lines are not relevant to the graph and do not represent specific points in
the plane. We now consider another representation, called a line graph where
we represent data by means of points in the Cartesian plane.
 330

Definition 7.2.4
A line graph connects points in the plane by means
of line segments. Each point corresponds to an item
on the horizontal axis and on the vertical axis. Items
along both axes are evenly spaced, according to an
appropriate scale. The vertical height of each point is
proportional to the quantity being represented.

Each specific point is represented by an ordered pair of real numbers. The point
represents specific data, but the other points on the lines joining these specific
points again have no meaning in terms of the graph. Consider the following
example.

7.2.6

You will study the meaning
of averages in the next sec-
tion.
Consider the gold price over an eight week period at the beginning of 1998.
(Note that internationally the gold price is quoted on a daily basis, and will be
given in dollars and cents. For the purpose of this example we are looking at the
average price over a week, rounded to the nearest dollar.) We have the following
table.

Note that the price of gold is Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

always quoted in US dollars Price per
($), and it is always given ounce 274 279 276 281 285 283 281 270
as dollars per ounce, even in (in dollars)
countries which use the met-
ric system of measurement. Table 7.2.5

Do not confuse a line graph

Time (in weeks) is a discrete variable; however, the price in dollars is theoret-
with a frequency polygon.
ically a continuous variable. We show the change in the price by means of a
series of line segments. A line such as this shows the trend in the gold price
quite clearly, i.e. it shows whether the price is increasing or decreasing.

Figure 7.2.16 on the next page is the graphical representation of the information
in Table 7.2.5.
 331 MAT0511/003

Line graph 290

Price
285
in
dollars
280

275

270

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weeks

Figure 7.2.16

Note

In line graphs

I it is necessary to choose an appropriate scale for both axes

I we join the dots to highlight the trend in the variable we are measuring

I there are two variables, but neither is dependent on the other

I items along the horizontal axis are often successive periods of time.

7.2.4
The table below gives Susans temperature (measured in degrees Celsius), taken
every four hours, while she spent two days in hospital.

Time 12:00 16:00 20:00 0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00

Temperature ( C) 39,7 38,5 38,0 38,0 37,4 37,4 37,5 37,5

(a) Draw a horizontal axis for time, using a suitable scale.

(b) Draw a vertical axis for temperature, using a scale that will allow you
to show clearly the difference between temperatures such as 37,4 C and
37,5 C.

(c) Label the axes.

 332

(d) Plot the data against the axes.

(e) Join the dots.

(f) At what time was Susans temperature the highest?

(g) What was the trend of the temperature over the period that the temperature
was recorded?

The graph below answers questions (a) to (e).

39,8

39,6

39,4

Temperature 39,2
(in degrees
Celsius) 39,0

38,8

38,6

38,4

38,2

38,0

37,8

37,6

37,4

12:00 16:00 20:00 0:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00

Time (in hours)

Figure 7.2.17
 333 MAT0511/003

(f) The temperature was highest at 12:00 on the first day.

(g) The temperature dropped quickly to 38 C within the first 8 hours, then
stabilised at that level for the next four hours. It dropped further over the
next fourhour period to 37, 4 C, remained at that level for four hours, and
moved up to 37, 5 C for the next 8 hours.
Interpreting a graph such as this is more meaningful if we know that nor-
mal body temperature is 37, 5 C. Medical staff treating Susan would know
whether the temperature changes were due to medication; they would
know what the expected trend in the temperature should be, and they would
be able to react accordingly.

7.2

1. Draw a histogram to represent the information in Example 7.1.3 (Table

7.1.4). Use a class width of 2 C.

2. We have the following information about Sports Valley Secondary School.

There are 750 children at Sport Valley Secondary School. There are 420
girls. The boys play basketball, cricket and soccer. The girls play bas-
ketball and netball. There are 30 girls and 10 boys who do not play any
sport. Of those who do play sport, a third of the girls play netball and the
rest play basketball. There are 500 basketball players in the school. All
the boys who play sport play soccer in the winter, and either basketball or
cricket in the summer.
Draw a pie graph to represent this situation. (Your graph should look ac-
curate, but you need not measure the angles. Round calculations to the
nearest integer.)

3. Look at the bar graph on the next page. It represents the approximate areas,
in millions of square kilometres, of some wellknown land masses. Use
the graph to answer the following questions.

(a) (i) What is the size of Africa in square kilometres?

(ii) How much bigger is Africa than Asia?
(iii) Which is the smallest land mass represented by this bar chart?
(iv) Which two continents are together just bigger than Asia?
(b) Draw a pie graph to represent the same information. (Your graph
should look accurate, but you need not measure the angles. Round
calculations to the nearest integer.)
 334

Africa

Asia

Europe

North America

South America

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Area (in millions of square kilometres)

4. Look at Table 7.1.9.

(a) Write down the table again, including appropriate class boundaries.
(b) Draw a histogram to represent the information.

5. Look at Figure 7.2.15.

(a) How many pupils wrote the test?

(b) How many girls scored 50% or more?
(c) How many boys scored between 45% and 50%, including these
marks?
(d) How many times did any pupil score 57%?
 335 MAT0511/003

7.3
SOME STATISTICAL MEASUREMENTS

7.3A
WHAT IS AVERAGE?
What do you understand by the word average? Before reading on, ask a few
different people what they understand by this term. You may find that it is a
muchabused word.

One source of confusion is that we use the word average to mean different things.
We speak of someone being an average cricket player, and someone whose
marks are average, implying mediocrity rather than any specific measurement.

Can you think of an example where almost everybody is above average? Can
you think of a measure according to which everybody is exactly average? 3

Most people have ten fingers. Hence we assume that 10 is the average number of
fingers people have. A few people have lost fingers or been born with less than
ten. Very few people have been born with more than ten fingers. The number of
people with more or less than ten fingers is small, but will still make it impossible
to state that everyone has ten fingers. Thus the average number of fingers must
be a little less than ten. Hence most people have an aboveaverage number of
fingers.

Every living person has exactly one head. In this respect we are all exactly
average.

Mathematically, an average is a value which represents the data in some way.

For example, suppose 11 people are asked to choose any single digit number,
and they choose the following numbers:

5, 3, 3, 4, 8, 6, 2, 3, 1, 5, 4.

The number chosen most often is the number 3. It appears to be the most
popular number, and in one sense we could regard it as an average.

If we arrange these numbers from smallest to biggest, we have

1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 8.
3 See One Equals Zero and Other Mathematical Surprises.
 336

The number in the middle is the number 4, and it also gives us an idea of some
kind of average. We also obtain 4 if we arrange the numbers in the reverse order,
i.e. from biggest to smallest.

If we add up all the numbers and divide by 11, we obtain

44
= 4.
11

The last case is the kind of average most of us first think about, but it can be
misleading, as the next example shows.

7.3.1

An advertisement for a job in a small business tells you that the average salary
is R84 000 per year. Does this lead you to believe that you would earn approx-
imately that amount if you worked there?

SOLUTION
Suppose the business has 10 employees. Respectively they earn approximately

R12 000, R12 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R70 000,
R200 000 and R250 000.

Although the average (obtained by adding all the amounts and dividing the total
by 10) is approximately R84 000, no one actually earns that amount; only one
person earns an amount of R70 000, the closest figure to R84 000. A better
average for this data is R60 000, since this is the amount earned by the majority
of employees.

Because the word average can be misleading, we prefer to be more specific.

All three examples we have considered (i.e. most popular number, number in
the middle and sum of numbers divided by how many numbers there are)
are important statistical measurements. They have special names so that we can
avoid ambiguity. These values that describe the characteristics of data often lie
centrally within the data, and they are hence called measures of central ten-
dency.
 337 MAT0511/003

7.3B
ARITHMETIC MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE
Arithmetic mean We first define the arithmetic mean.

We use the word arith- Definition 7.3.1

metic to distinguish this The arithmetic mean (or average) of a set of
mean from others, such as data is the sum of all the numbers divided by
the geometric mean and har- the number of numbers.
monic mean, which we do
not consider in this module.
We have a useful way of expressing the sum of all the numbers. We write
n
is the Greek capital letter xi; iZ
S, and we call it sigma. i=1

to denote the sum of all the numbers, represented by xi , from the first number
Remember that the dots in-
(i.e. where i = 1) to the last number (i.e. if there are 10 numbers, then we have
dicate that we include, but
n = 10, and 10i=1 xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + . . . + x10 .)
do not necessarily write out,
all the relevant numbers.
We use the symbol x to denote the arithmetic mean. We read it as x bar.

Definition 7.3.1 means the following.

Arithmetic mean of un- 1 n

grouped data x =
n xi ; i Z. (7.3.1)
i=1

For example, if x1 = 2, x2 = 5, x3 = 1, x4 = 3 and x5 = 1 then

We say this as: x bar is equal 1 5
to 1 over n times sigma xi x = xi; i Z
5 i=1
where i is an integer from 1
to n.
1
= (x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 )
5
1
= (2 + 5 1 + 3 + 1)
5
1
= (10)
5

= 2.

If the mean is a decimal, we can decide (if we are not told) how many decimal
places we will use in the answer. Usually we will use one decimal place more
than the number of decimal places in which the data are expressed.
 338

7.3.2

Consider the information given in Table 7.1.4. The arithmetic mean of the mid-
day temperatures in Gauteng in February, 1998, is
28
1
x=
28 xi; i Z.
i=1
Thus using (7.3.1) we find that the mean temperature is
1
x = (25, 4 + 26, 3 + . . . + 33, 6 + 32, 1)
28
1
= (811, 2)
28
28, 97
29.
The mean temperature is thus approximately 29 C.

When data are presented in a frequency distribution we no longer know what the
numbers were before they were grouped into intervals. We then take the class
midpoint as the representative of the class, so that if there are, for example, 4
items in a class with midpoint 16, we add 4 16 to the terms from which x is
calculated. We thus have
n
Arithmetic mean of un- mi f i
i=1
grouped data x= n ; iZ (7.3.2)
fi
i=1

where mi represents the midpoint of the ith class, and fi represents the frequency
of the ith class. Study the following example.

7.3.3
Look again at the data given in Example 7.2.3. In the table below we have
included an additional column, containing the class midpoints. Suppose we want
to calculate the arithmetic mean for this set of data.

Class Class boundaries Class midpoints Frequencies

(cm) (cm) (mi ) (cm) ( fi )
151 155 150,5 155,5 153 5
156 160 155,5 160,5 158 18
161 165 160,5 165,5 163 42
166 170 165,5 170,5 168 27
171 175 170,5 175,5 173 8
 339 MAT0511/003

SOLUTION
Using (7.3.2) we have

ni=1 mi fi
x =
ni=1 fi
5i=1 mi fi
=
5i=1 fi
m1 f 1 + m2 f 2 + m3 f 3 + m4 f 4 + m5 f 5
=
f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 + f5
(5 153) + (18 158) + (42 163) + (27 168) + (8 173)
=
5 + 18 + 42 + 27 + 8
= 163, 75 cm

and hence the approximate mean height of the children is 163,8 cm.

For interest, the next activity is given as a further illustration of the way the
concept of average can be misused. We include it here, since you now have an
idea of what is meant by the arithmetic mean.

7.3.1

Suppose a motorist travels from Cape Town to Johannesburg at an average speed

of 120 km/h. He returns at an average speed of 130 km/h. What is his average
speed for the round trip, i.e. for the whole journey from Cape Town and back
again?

Did you obtain 125 km/h for your answer, by finding the arithmetic mean of
120 km/h and 130 km/h? You may be surprised to find that this is wrong.

Remember that
d = s t.
From this equation we have
d
s = .
t

Now speed is calculated by taking into account two different variables, namely
distance and time. We thus have to calculate the average speed for the round trip
 340

by means of the equation

total distance
average speed for the round trip = .
total time
This means that the average speed for the round trip is not the same as the arith-
metic mean of the speeds for the two stages of the trip. Since we do not know
the actual distance, let the distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg be x km.
Thus the total distance is 2x km.

From the equation

d
t =
s
we have
x
t (Cape Town to Johannesburg) = hours
120
and
x
t (Johannesburg to Cape Town) = hours.
130
Now
total distance
average speed for the round trip =
total time
and thus we have
2x
average speed for the round trip = x x km/h
120 + 130

i.e. we have
2x
average speed = 130x+120x
120130
15 600
= 2x
250x

= 124, 8 km/h

i.e. the average speed is 124,8 km/h and not 125 km/h, as you may have expected.

Median The second measure of central tendency we consider is the median. (The first
was the arithmetic mean)

Definition 7.3.2
The median of a set of data is the number that
occurs in the middle, once we have arranged the
data in ascending (or descending) order.

The median thus divides the
data so that there are exactly
the same number of items to
the left of and to the right of
the median.
Mode
341 MAT0511/003
It is easy to select the median if we have an odd number of measurements. If we
have an even number of measurements, then there is no middle score, and we
find the median by calculating the arithmetic mean of the two middle measure-
ments.
For example, the median of the numbers
1, 3, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9
is 5 (there are three numbers to the left of 5, and three numbers to the right of 5).
The median of
1, 3, 3, 5, 7, 8
is
3+5
= 4.
2
When we have data such as we had in Example 7.3.1, we see that the median is
a better measure of central tendency than the arithmetic mean. When we arrange
the numbers in order, we have
R12 000, R12 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R60 000, R70 000,
R200 000, R250 000.
The median is thus
R60 000 + R60 000
= R60 000
2
which is a better indication of what a potential employee might earn than the
arithmetic mean.
The median is less affected by extremes in the data than the arithmetic mean, i.e.
in the calculation of the median the figures R12 000, R200 000 and R250 000
play a smaller role than they do in the calculation of the mean.
It is also possible to calculate the median for grouped data. The formula for
this is beyond the scope of this module.
The final measure of central tendency we consider is the mode.
Definition 7.3.3
The mode of a set of numbers is the number that
occurs with the greatest frequency, i.e. it is the
most common value.
 342

For example, the mode of the numbers

1, 3, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9

is 3 (3 occurs twice, whereas the other numbers all occur once).

Note

I The mode does not always exist (for example when there are no values
repeated more than once).

I The mode need not be unique (for example when several values occur the
same number of times).

There are times when the mode is a more appropriate measure of central tendency
than the arithmetic mean or the median.

Have a look at the next example.

7.3.4

Suppose you are considering joining a gym class consisting of 40 people. If you
are 25 years old, would you join a class where the modal age is close to 25 years,
or would you join a class where the arithmetic mean of the ages is close to 25
years?

SOLUTION
As we showed earlier (in Example 7.3.1) it is quite possible that the arithmetic
mean does not represent the majority. In that example, the deviation of most
of the annual incomes from the mean is large, which shows that the mean is
not a reliable measure of what you can expect to earn. In the same way, it is
possible to have a group of 40 people in which most of the ages are much older
or much younger than 25 years, even though the arithmetic mean of the ages is
25 years. In this case you would probably prefer to join a class in which the ages
of most of the members are close to 25 years, i.e. a class in which the modal age
is approximately 25 years, regardless of what the mean age is.

Now try the following activity.


Mean deviation
(Measure of spread)
We may end up with an inac-
curate result if we round the
mean to this extent, but us-
ing 90,7 will make the cal-
culations more complicated
than necessary for the pur-
pose of explaining the con-
cept of mean deviation.
343 MAT0511/003
7.3.2
The following masses (in kilograms) of babies were recorded at a clinic.
5,6; 6,3; 5,9; 5,6; 5,2; 7,4; 7,6; 5,6; 8,7; 4,9; 6,5; 6,7; 6,9; 5,9; 5,2; 7,0; 6,8; 5,6;
6,3; 5,6; 4,4; 4,9
(a) Calculate the median of the babies masses.
(b) Calculate the mode of the babies masses.
(a) We arrange the masses in numerical order, from smallest to biggest.
4,4; 4,9; 4,9; 5,2; 5,2; 5,6; 5,6; 5,6; 5,6; 5,6; 5,9; 5,9; 6,3; 6,3; 6,5; 6,7;
6,8; 6,9; 7,0; 7,4; 7,6; 8,7.
There are 22 measurements; we find the two masses in the middle and
calculate their arithmetic mean:
5, 9 + 5, 9
= 5, 9.
2
Hence the median is 5,9 kg.
(b) From the data we see that the mass 5,6 kg occurs most often; hence the
mode is 5,6 kg.
Apart from measures of central tendency, we also have measures of spread. One
of these is the range of a set of data, and we have not discussed this concept. We
now consider another important measure of spread, the mean deviation. Let us
look again at the raw data given in Activity 7.2.2. We have the masses of 50
rugby players. If we calculate the arithmetic mean of these masses, we find that
it is approximately 90,7 kg. (Do this yourself to check that you have understood
how to calculate the arithmetic mean.) Suppose we round this to the nearest
whole number, and take the mean as approximately 91 kg. If we want to know
how much an individual rugby players mass differs from the arithmetic mean,
we calculate the difference between his mass and the arithmetic mean. We call
this the deviation of his mass from the mean, and we denote it by means of
xi x; i Z.
Thus, if we consider, for example, a player whose mass is 72 kg, the deviation is
72 kg 91 kg = 19 kg.
 344

However, if we consider another player whose mass is 108 kg, then the deviation
is
108 kg 91 kg = 17 kg.
Since some of the answers we get will be positive and others negative, you should
see that the sum of all the deviations will be zero, i.e.
n
(xi x) = 0.
i=1

The deviation is a measure of how close to, or how far from, the arithmetic mean
an individual score is.

The mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of all the individual deviations, cal-
culated using only the numerical values of the deviations (i.e. ignoring the neg-
ative signs). Mathematically we ignore the minus signs by using a concept
called absolute value, which we will not discuss further in this module. We write

1 n
Mean deviation Mean deviation = | xi x |
n i=1

where we interpret | xi x | to be the numerical value of xi x. For example, if

xi x = 3, then | xi x |= 3; if xi x = 5, then | xi x |= 5.

The mean deviation gives us an idea of how the data are spread about the mean.
The smaller the mean deviation, the closer the data are dispersed about the mean;
a large mean deviation tells us that many data items are far from the mean.

7.3.3

Calculate the mean deviation for the data given in Activity 7.2.2, using x = 91 kg.
 345 MAT0511/003

Mass (kg) Deviation (kg) Mass (kg) Deviation (kg)

72 19 85 6
86 5 111 20
79 12 79 12
86 5 82 9
96 5 84 7
93 2 94 3
101 10 87 4
86 5 101 10
96 5 90 1
98 7 88 3
105 14 96 5
104 13 93 2
88 3 79 12
89 2 90 1
89 2 95 4
92 1 83 8
79 12 108 17
107 16 92 1
104 13 86 5
87 4 77 14
97 6 78 13
92 1 97 6
82 9 81 10
91 0 89 2
96 5 93 2

sum of all deviations (ignoring the minus signs)

Mean deviation =
number of players
353
= kg
50

= 7, 06 kg

We consider 7,06 kg small Since the mean deviation is small, we may conclude that the data is spread fairly
in relation to the masses of close to the arithmetic mean.
the players.
 346

7.3

1. Refer to Activity 7.2.2.

(a) Determine the median.

(b) Find the mode.

2. Refer to Figure 7.2.15.

(a) Calculate the arithmetic mean of the boys marks and of the girls
marks (to the nearest integer).
(b) What is the median of the girls marks?
(c) What is the mode of the girls marks?
(d) Calculate the mean deviation of both sets of marks (i.e. the girls
marks and the boys marks). (Give your answer to the nearest inte-
ger.)

3. Refer to Activity 7.2.4.

(a) Calculate the arithmetic mean of Susans temperatures measured

while she was in hospital.
(b) What is the median for this data?

4. The monthly salaries earned by eleven employees of Company SQS are

approximately (in rands):
5 100, 5 500, 5 900, 6 200, 6 500, 8 300, 8 400, 7 200, 6 800, 12 000 and
20 000.

(a) Would the arithmetic mean, the median or the mode give you the
best idea of what salary you could expect if you were an employee of
SQS?
(b) Calculate the arithmetic mean (correct to the nearest ten).
(c) What is the mode?
(d) What is the median?
 347 MAT0511/003

7.4
PROBABILITY

7.4A
A QUICK LOOK AT ELEMENTARY PROBABILITY
THEORY
You may know the meaning of these words: random, probable, possible, and
chance. If you are not quite sure, look them up in a dictionary, then consider the
discussion that follows.

According to one dictionary, we have:

chance the way things happen through no known cause

luck
a possibility, or likelihood
risk

possible capable of existing, or of happening, or of being done

probable likely to exist, or to happen, or to be done

random happening, existing, or being done, in no particular order

You can see that these words are quite similar in meaning, and we use them often,
without necessarily really being sure what we mean. In our everyday language
there are also other words and phrases which are ambiguous. Suppose several
people were asked to assess how probable certain events were, on a scale of 1 to
10 (where 1 means almost no chance and 10 means almost certain), if the events
were described by the following words or phrases:

doubtful perhaps it could be nearly certain

small chance high chance one can expect unlikely
chances are not great most likely likely reasonable chance

We would find that there would be a great variation in their interpretations. 4

It is useful to consider briefly the difference between unusual events, i.e. events
that are outside our field of experience, and unlikely events, i.e. events with a low
4 See Smith: Agnesi to Zeno.

In this example the event
we are looking at is achiev-
ing one particular result,
namely obtaining a 3 when
we throw the die.
348
probability. We are influenced by the media to imagine that conspicuous or mem-
orable events occur often, and are thus more probable than others which occur
more frequently but are less newsworthy. We also need to distinguish between
possibility and probability. It is possible that all students studying MAT011K
will obtain 100% in their exams, but it is not probable that this will happen!
We use the word event to describe the particular result we are interested in,
during an experiment or activity in which a variety of results, called outcomes,
are possible.
Probability theory deals with events that happen randomly, or by chance. Have
you ever played a game involving the throwing of dice? (Incidentally, we speak
about one die, and several dice.) In a game you may want to obtain a particular
number, such as 3, when you throw a die. What is the likelihood that you will
obtain a 3? Usually a die is in the shape of a cube, with 6 sides or faces. Each
face has a different number of dots which represent the integers from 1 to 6. If
we throw a die, there should be an equal chance, i.e. one chance out of six, for
any one of these faces to finish uppermost. Since we have a one in six chance
of obtaining a 3 when we throw the die, we have a five in six chance of not
obtaining a 3.
Pascal was a French mathematician, who lived at about the same time as Descartes.
During 1654 Pascal and another mathematician, Pierre Fermat, worked together
on problems dealing with possible events and probability theory was born.
Intuitively we recognise that if we throw a die exactly six times, we may not
obtain the number we want, but if we throw the die enough times we expect that
one out of every six throws should be the number we want. But what do we mean
by enough times? If you have a die, try the following activity.
7.4.1
Throw a die 24 times, and record the numbers you obtain. How many times did
you obtain 4? Calculate the fraction you get when you divide the number of
times you obtained 4 by the total number of throws, i.e. 24.
YOUR ANSWER
(Obviously each persons answer will be different.) Fill in the blank spaces in Ta-
ble 7.4.1 and in the statements that follow, according to the answers you obtain.
 349 MAT0511/003

We use the word score to

mean the result we obtain. Throw Score Throw Score
1 2
3 4
5 6
7 8
9 10
11 12
13 14
15 16
17 18
19 20
21 22
23 24

Table 7.4.1

Number of times you score the number 4 = ....... .

(We call this the frequency with which the number 4 was obtained.)

Number of 40 s
= ...... .
24
(We call this the relative frequency of scoring 4, i.e. the number of times 4 was
scored, divided by the total number of throws (24).)
 350

Note that when we calculate

Relative frequency
frequency of a particular event
total number of events

we always obtain a fraction between 0 and 1 (including 0 and 1), such as 16 . The
more certain a given event is, the closer the fraction approximates 1. When an
event is impossible we recognise intuitively that we can expect the fraction to be
0.

7.4.2

If we can assign probability values between 0 and 1 (including 0 and 1) to

various events, what value would you give to each of the following?

(a) The sun will set in the west tomorrow.

(b) A coin will land heads up when it is spun.

(c) If I put my hand into a packet containing equal numbers of red and green
sweets, I will take out a red sweet.

(d) An apple falling out of an apple tree will stop in midair without anyone
or anything touching it.

(e) I will score 3 on any throw of a normal die.

1
(a) 1 (b) 2 (See the discussion below.)
1
(c) 2 (d) 0
1
(e) 6

Before you began Activity 7.4.1 you may have expected to obtain the number
four, four times. Because the chance of obtaining a four is 61 , if you throw the die
twenty four times, you might expect to obtain a four 16 24 times, i.e. four times.
Some of you may have obtained this result. However, when we carry out the
experiment we see that we may obtain the number four more (or perhaps less)
times than we expected. We see that the one in six chance will only become
 351 MAT0511/003

evident after a large number of throws. The more we throw the die, the closer
we get to scoring a four on one sixth of the throws.

Spinning a coin We will have the same experience when we spin a coin. In this case there are
only two outcomes: we call these heads or tails. We thus have a one in
two chance, or a fiftyfifty chance of obtaining either heads or tails when we
spin a coin. We realise that it is possible to spin the coin six times, and obtain
heads five times, and tails only once, but in the long run we should have an equal
chance of obtaining either heads or tails. The fact that we can only determine the
probability of an event after a significantly large number of trials highlights two
points.

I We should never have undue confidence in small samples.

I If conclusions about a population as a whole are to be made on the basis

of an experiment involving a small sample, it is essential that the sample
is representative of the population and that correct statistical techniques
are used in generalising the results obtained.

7.4.1

Suppose we throw two dice and add the two numbers that we obtain. For
convenience we refer to the two different dice as a red die and a green die. The
following table gives us all the possible totals we can obtain, and how these totals
can be achieved. 5

Green die
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Red 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
die 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Table 7.4.2

We find the possible totals from the table. For example, if we throw a 3 with the
red die, and a 4 with the green die, then we have a total of seven. In the table we
find this number by finding the place where the 3 row and the 4 column cross
each other. The table shows that if you throw the two dice, there is for example
only one way of obtaining a total of two, although there are, for example, three
ways of obtaining a total of four. (We can only obtain two by throwing 1 twice;
5 See Smith: Agnesi to Zeno.
 352

we can obtain four by throwing 1 and 3, or 2 and 2, or 3 and 1.) Note that the
events do not all occur in the same number of ways: the event obtaining a total
of two can only occur in one way; the event obtaining a total of four can occur
in three different ways.

From the table, determine which event is more likely: obtaining a total of seven
or a total of eight?

SOLUTION
There are six ways of obtaining a total of even, but only five ways of obtaining a
total of eight, so it is more likely that we will obtain a total of seven.

Outcomes, sample spaces We have seen that there are six possible outcomes when we throw a die: we can
and events only score 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. In any statistical experiment, an outcome is one of
several possible results. The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of
the experiment. Thus in this case, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. If we
are particularly interested in obtaining a 4, we call obtaining a 4 an event. If
we denote a sample space by S, and an event by E, then the number of outcomes
in the sample space S is denoted by n(S), and the number of outcomes in the
event E is denoted by n(E). We use this notation in the next example.

7.4.2

Drawing a coloured ball I have a box containing 3 red balls, 4 blue balls and 6 green balls. There are thus
13 balls altogether. Suppose I want to determine the chance of taking out a green
ball when I take out a ball without looking inside the box.

SOLUTION
The sample space can be represented by the set

S = {r1 , r2 , r3 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 , g5 , g6 }

where r1 represents the first red ball, g3 represents the third green ball, and so
on. There are thus 13 possible outcomes, and the sample space consists of 13
elements. Thus n(S) = 13.

If I am particularly interested in the event E which I describe as taking out a red

ball, then the set
E = {r1 , r2 , r3 }
Revise the meaning of in consists of the three elements in the sample space that make up the event in this
Topic 1 of Book 1. particular experiment. We have n(E) = 3. Note that E S.

Remember that there are 13
hearts, 13 spades, 13 clubs
and 13 diamonds in a pack
of cards; we exclude the jok-
ers in this case.
Remember that a Venn
diagram involves drawing
shapes to represent the sets
you are considering. See
Topic 1 of Book 1.
Disjoint sets have no ele-
ments in common.
353 MAT0511/003
7.4.3
You have a pack of 52 cards. Consider the following two events: obtaining
hearts, or obtaining a diamond picture card, each time you draw a card from
the pack.
(a) What is the sample space S for this experiment? Write down n(S).
(b) Assume an event H is described as drawing a card that is a heart. How
many elements are there in H?
(c) Assume that the event E is described as drawing a diamond picture card.
(A picture card is any one of ace, king, queen or jack.) Write down the set
E. How many elements are there in E?
(d) Draw a Venn diagram to represent S, H and E.
(a) S = {H1 , ..., H13 , D1 , ..., D13 , S1 , ..., S13 , C1 , ...,C13 } where Di represents
a diamond; Hi represents a heart; Si represents a spade and Ci represents a
club; and i is any integer from 1 to 13. We have n(S) = 52.
(b) Since H = {H1 , ... H13 } there are 13 elements in H, i.e. n(H) = 13.
(c) E = {a, k, q, j} (We have used a to denote an ace, k to denote a king, q to
denote a queen and j to denote a jack (of diamonds).) There are 4 elements
in E, i.e. n(E) = 4.
(d)
H
S
We see that E and H are disjoint sets.
 354

We explain relative fre- Up to now we have considered the relative frequency of specific events that are
quency in the answer to Ac- measurable a large number of times (even if we do not actually measure them
tivity 7.4.1. that many times).

Figure 7.4.3 shows that initially the relative frequency of the occurrence of an
event E may vary considerably from the probable longterm result, but over
We denote the frequency of time the relative frequency tends towards a particular number, which we denote
the event E by F(E); the rel- by P(E).
ative frequency after n trials
is thus F(E)
n .

Relative
frequency
of E
y = P(E)
F(E)
____
n

10 100 1 000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000

Number of trials (n)

Figure 7.4.3

In Figure 7.4.3 we note the following.

I The number of attempts or trials indicated on the horizontal axis is not

drawn to scale.

I Each dot represents the relative frequency of obtaining the event E in a

F(E)
particular number of trials (or attempts), n, i.e. each dot represents .
n
F(E)
I As n becomes larger, so the number gets closer to a particular num-
n
ber P(E) and 0 P(E) 1.

I The horizontal line is defined by y = P(E).

 355 MAT0511/003

Definition 7.4.1
Suppose we have an experiment in which there is a set S of equally
likely possible outcomes and we are interested in the occurrence
of an event E which is made up of specific outcomes. The pro-
bability of the event E is given by the formula

n (E)
P (E) = , (7.4.1)
n (S)

where n(E) denotes the number of outcomes in the event E, and

n(S) denotes the total number of possible outcomes.

In terms of this definition, we note that in Figure 7.4.3, as n becomes larger,

F(E) n(E)
gets closer to . This definition of the probability P(E) of an event E,
n n(S)
n(E)
using over a large number of trials, is called the empirical probability (also
n(S)
the experimental probability) of the event E. A more accurate formula for prob-
ability allows the number of trials to tend to infinity, which is a mathematical
way of expressing that the number of trials is theoretically allowed to become
indefinitely large. Calculations of P(E) then involve the concept of limits, which
we do not study in this module. When we incorporate the concept of limit we
obtain a better definition of the probability P(E). At this stage, we approximate
P(E) by means of the formula (7.4.1).

We can put this another way. Suppose an event E can happen in n(E) different
ways, and that n(S) equally likely outcomes are possible. Then the probability
n(E)
of the occurrence of E (i.e. the chance of success) is found by calculating .
n(S)

There are various Probability Laws that follow from the definition of proba-
bility. We state them here without proof, since you are not required to prove
them.

Law 1 If the probability of an event E occurring is P(E), then the

probability of E not occurring is 1 P(E).
Law 2 If A and B are two events that cannot occur at the same time,
then the probability of either A or B occurring is P(A) + P(B).
Law 3 If A and B are two independent events (i.e. the events do not affect
each other in any way) then the probability that both A and B occur
is given by P(A) P(B).

Although we do not prove these laws it is a good idea that you verify for yourself
that they are valid. Try to do this in the next activity.
 356

7.4.4

A pack of cards (a) Take a pack of cards (without any jokers). What is the probability of not
getting a spade?

(b) What is the probability of getting either a heart or a diamond?

A picture card is any ace, (c) What is the probability of getting a red picture card, i.e. what is the proba-
king, queen or jack. bility of obtaining a card that is both red and a picture card?

(a) There are 52 cards in the pack. If we do not want to get a spade, we need
to get either a heart, diamond or club. There are 13 of each type of cards,
hence there are 39 cards that are not spades. Hence
39 3
P (not a spade) = = .
52 4
Now
13 3
1 P (spade) = 1 = .
52 4
Hence
P (not spade) = 1 P (spade).
This illustrates Law 1.

(b) There are 13 hearts and 13 diamonds in the pack, and hence a total of 26
red cards. Thus
26 1
P (heart or diamond) = = .
52 2
We also have
13 13 1 1 1
P(heart) + P(diamond) = + = + = .
52 52 4 4 2
Thus
P(heart or diamond) = P(heart) + P(diamond).
This illustrates Law 2.

The different types of cards (c) There are 16 picture cards in the pack (i.e. 4 in each suite). Half the picture
(i.e. hearts, diamonds, cards are red, and the other half are black. There are thus 8 red picture
spades and clubs) are called
cards in the pack. Hence
suites.
8 2
P(red picture card) = = .
52 13
 357 MAT0511/003

Also
26 16 1 4 2
P(red card) P(picture card) = = = .
52 52 2 13 13
Thus
P(red card and picture card) = P(red card) P(picture card).
This illustrates Law 3.

7.4.5

If you throw a die, calculate the following.

(a) The probability of scoring a 5.

(b) The probability of obtaining an even number.
(c) The probability that you will not score a 4.

(a) Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Thus n(S) = 6, i.e. there are 6
elements in S, since there are 6 possible outcomes when a die is thrown.
We are considering the event throwing a 5. We have
E = {5}, and n(E) = 1 (since there is only 1 element in E).
number of ways of obtaining 5 n(E) 1
Thus P(E) = = = .
number of possible outcomes n(S) 6
(b) Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Thus n(S) = 6.
The event getting an even number can be denoted by E = {2, 4, 6},
and hence n(E) = 3.
Thus
number of ways of obtaining an even number
P(E) =
number of possible outcomes
n(E)
=
n(S)
3
=
6
1
= .
2
 358

(c) Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Thus n(S) = 6.
In order not to score 4, you need to score 1, 2, 3, 5 or 6.
Thus the event not scoring 4 can be denoted by E = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6};
hence n(E) = 5.
n(E) 5
Thus P(E) = = .
n(S) 6

Consolidate your understanding of probability by considering the next example.

7.4.3

Spinning a coin (a) Spin a coin 10 times and record the number of heads (H), and the number
of tails (T), you obtain.
What is the relative frequency of the event coin lands heads uppermost?
What is the probability of this event?

(b) What is the probability of obtaining at least two heads if you spin a coin
three times.

SOLUTION

(a) Each person will obtain a different answer for the first part of this question.
Suppose one answer is the following.

Throw 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Result H H H T T H T T T T

4
The relative frequency of obtaining heads in this case is 10 .
However, the sample space for this event is S = {H, T}, and n(S) = 2.
The event is E = {H}, and hence n(E) = 1. Thus

n(E) 1
P(E) = = .
n(S) 2

This will be true regardless of the answer you obtained for the first part of
this question.
 359 MAT0511/003

(b) When you spin a coin three times there are several possible outcomes. In
cases like these it is helpful to draw a tree diagram like that in the margin.
H
We see that
H
T S = {(H,H,H), (H,H,T), (H,T,H), (H,T,T), (T,H,H), (T,H,T), (T,T,H), (T,T,T)}
H H
T and hence n(S) = 8.
T
The event obtain at least two heads means obtain two heads or three
H heads. Thus
H
T E = {(H,H,H), (H,H,T), (H,T,H), (T,H,H)} and thus n(E) = 4.
T
H
T We thus have
T
n(E) 4 1
st nd rd P(at least two heads ) = = = .
Spin: 1 2 3 n(S) 8 2

Today probability theory is the foundation on which much of statistics is based.

It plays an important role in many fields, for example medicine, genetics, and in
determining the premiums that must be paid on insurance policies.

7.4

1. There are 5 blue pens, 3 red pens and 4 green pens in a closed box. Suppose
you want to work out the probability (according to Definition 7.4.1) of
taking out a red pen without first looking at the pens.

(a) What is the sample space S in this case? Give your answer as a set,
and write down n(S), the number of outcomes in S.
(b) Write down the event E taking out a red pen, in terms of a set.
Write down n(E), the number of elements in E.
n(E)
(c) Calculate .
n(S)
(d) What does the answer in (c) represent?

2. Spin a coin 50 times.

(a) Each time you spin the coin, record whether it lands with heads up-
permost (H) or tails uppermost (T).
 360

(b) Calculate the relative frequency of

I heads (i.e. count the number of times you obtained H and write
number of heads
down )
50
I tails ( i.e. count the number of times you obtained T and write
number of tails
down ).
50
(c) Draw a graph plotting

number of heads
number of spins
against 5 spins, 10 spins, 15 spins and so on (at intervals of 5 spins,
up to 50 spins). This means, for example, that the first point on your
graph will represent the fraction

number of heads obtained after 5 spins

.
5
(d) What is the difference between the first answer in (b) (i.e. the relative
frequency of achieving heads) and the answer you would expect to
get?

3. In a card game a player draws five red cards in a row from a pack of well
shuffled cards from which the jokers have been removed. Will the next
card more likely be black, or more likely be red?

4. Suppose you are playing a card game in which all 52 cards (not the jokers)
in the pack are dealt out. Calculate the probability

(a) of being dealt any ace

(b) of being dealt the ace of diamonds.

5. (a) What is the probability of obtaining at least one head, if you spin a
coin twice?
(b) What is the probability of obtaining at most two tails, if you spin a
coin three times?

6. A ball is taken at random (i.e. without looking into the box) out of a box
containing 6 yellow balls, 4 white balls and 5 blue balls. What is the
probability that

(a) the ball will be yellow

(b) the ball will not be white?

7. Refer to Example 7.4.1. Use one of the probability laws to determine

(a) the probability of throwing 7 twice

(b) the probability of throwing 8 and then 6.
 361 MAT0511/003

We use examples to illustrate the relevant terminology.

Raw data: represent either a sample or a total population. The following

table gives discrete data.

24 28 21 20 26 29 25
18 21 24 27 26 28 27
22 26 25 21 21 21 24

We use tally marks to determine the frequency (the number of times a

particular number occurs) of each score.

Score Tally Frequency

18 | 1
19 0
20 | 1
21 |||| 5
22 | 1
23 0
24 ||| 3
25 || 2
26 ||| 3
27 || 2
28 || 2
29 | 1

Classes
We can group the data into four classes, each with class width 3. Note
that this is an arbitrary arrangement; we can just as easily group the data
into six classes, with class width 2.

Class boundaries and class midpoints

Class boundaries are necessary when we draw histograms, and class mid-
points are used to draw frequency polygons, and in various statistical cal-
culations. We find the boundaries by extending the class limits by one
decimal place so that the upper boundary of one class is the lower bound-
ary of the next class. When the class midpoint is not obvious, it is calcu-
lated by adding the lower and upper class boundaries (or class limits), and
dividing the answer by 2. We thus have the following table.
 362

Classes Class limits Class widths Class boundaries Class midpoints

lower upper lower upper
18, 19, 20 18 20 3 17, 5 20,5 19
21, 22, 23 21 23 3 20, 5 23,5 22
24, 25, 26 24 26 3 23, 5 26,5 25
27, 28, 29 27 29 3 26, 5 29,5 28
Frequency table or frequency distribution
From the raw data we have the following frequency distribution.

x 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
n 1 0 1 5 1 0 3 2 3 2 2 1

Grouped frequency distribution

Class Frequency
18 20 2
21 23 6
24 26 8
27 29 5

Pictographs
The following pictograph illustrates the number of soccer players and the
number of cricket players at four schools, where

represents 50 soccer players, and represents 50 cricket players.

School A

School B

School C

School D

Pie graphs
100 consumers make the following purchases:
50 people buy tea, 40 people buy coffee, 10 people buy cooldrink.
We use the concept of central angle to detemine the sizes of the sectors of
the circle:
 363 MAT0511/003

Since one revolution measures 360 , each item is represented by a sector

of a circle in which the central angle is proportional to the percentage
represented by the sector.

Product Number Fraction Percentage Central angle

50 50
Tea 50 50% 360 = 180
100 100
40 40
Coffee 40 40% 360 = 144

100 100
10 10
Cooldrink 10 10% 360 = 36

100 100

This information gives us the following pie graph.

Tea

50%

10%
Cooldrink 40%
Coffee

Histogram and Frequency Polygon

We use the concept of class boundary.
If we use the data given for the example at the beginning of this summary,
we have the following histogram and frequency polygon.

10
8
8
Frequency 6
6
5
4
2
2

19 22 25 28
17,5 20,5 23,5 26,5 29,5
Class
 364

In the histogram the area of each rectangle is proportional to the fre-

quency it represents.
In the frequency polygon, the height of each point corresponding to
the class midpoint is proportional to the class frequency it represents.

Stemandleaf plots
Consider the raw data given in the following table.

26 28 34 33 39 31 22 41
18 21 27 35 16 43 45 49
36 37 30 19 18 40 41 45

We have the following plot.

1 8 6 9 8
2 6 8 2 1 7
3 4 3 9 1 5 6 7 0
4 1 3 5 9 0 1 5

Line graphs
Often used to show trends with respect to change over time.

Production 4
costs
(in millions 3
of Rands)
2

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Year

Measures of central tendency

Arithmetic mean of raw data (calculated with or without a calcula-

tor)
1 n
x = xi; i Z
n i=1
where n is the number of items.
Refer to the raw data given at the beginning of this summary. For this
data we have x = 24.
 365 MAT0511/003

Arithmetic mean of grouped data (calculated with or without a cal-

culator)
n mi fi
x = i=1n ; iZ
i=1 fi
where
mi is the midpoint of the ith class
fi is the frequency of the ith class
n is the number of classes
The median of a set of numbers (arranged in ascending or descend-
ing order) is the number that
occurs in the middle (if we have an odd number of numbers)
For example:
1, 3, 8, 8, 9, 9, 11: median = 8

is obtained by finding the arithmetic mean of the two middle
numbers (if we have an even number of numbers)
For example:

1, 3, 8, 8, 9 , 9, 11, 13
|{z}
8+9
median = = 8, 5
2

The mode of a set of numbers (if it exists) is the number that occurs
most often.
For example:

1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 9 , 11, 13
|{z}
The number 9 occurs twice: there is one mode, 9.

1, 3, 8, 8 , 9, 9 , 11, 13
|{z} |{z}

The numbers 8 and 9 occur twice: there are two modes, 8 and 9.

1, 3, 7, 8, 9 10, 11, 12

No number occurs more than any other: there is no mode.

Measures of spread

Mean deviation
We calculate the arithmetic mean of the positive difference between
the individual scores (xi ) and the arithmetic mean (x) of all the scores.
 366

Outcomes, sample spaces and events

Consider a square piece of cardboard divided into four triangles, numbered
1, 2, 3 and 4. Assume a pointed stick (e.g. a pencil) passes through the
centre of the square.

When the pencil is placed on its point and spun, the carboard turns round
several times, before coming to rest on one of the triangles.

Suppose we carry out an experiment to find out how many times the square
lands on a particular number.
The sample space S is the set of all possible outcomes of the experiment.
The square can land on the numbers 1, 2, 3 or 4, hence S = {1, 2, 3, 4},
and n(S) = 4.
An event E is a particular result. If we are interested in the number of
times the square lands on 2, then E = {2} and n(E) = 1 .
Suppose we conduct an experiment to find out how many times the square
lands on a particular type of number, for example an odd number. The
event is now E = {1, 3}, and n(E) = 2.
Outcomes and events do not all occur in the same number of ways. Sup-
pose we consider two consecutive spins, and the event obtain a total of 5
on two consecutive spins.
 367 MAT0511/003

First spin
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
Second 2 3 4 5 6
spin 3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8

There are 16 possible outcomes (totals of the two scores) and 4 possible
ways of achieving the event obtain a total of 5.
Thus
S = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2),
(3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
i.e.
n(S) = 16
and
E = {(1, 4), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4, 1)}
i.e.
n(E) = 4.

Empirical probability

The probability of an event E occurring in an experiment in which

there is a set S of equally likely outcomes, is given by the formula

n(E)
P(E) = .
n(S)

Probability Laws

If P(E) represents the probability of event E, then the probability of

not E is 1 P(E).
If A and B are two events that cannot occur at the same time, then the
probability of obtaining either A or B is P(A) + P(B).
If A and B are two independent events, then the probability of obtain-
ing both A and B is P(A) P(B).
 368

CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.

SECTION 7.1

1. Use the terminology of statistics:

data (discrete and continuous), population, sample, tally, class, class limit,
class width, class boundary, frequency, frequency distribution, grouped
frequency distribution.
Examples 7.1.2, 7.1.3, 7.1.4, 7.1.5; Activity 7.1.1

2. Organise data in tables in a meaningful way.

Examples 7.1.2, 7.1.3, 7.1.4, 7.1.5; Activity 7.1.1

SECTION 7.2

1. Use pie graphs to represent data.

Definition 7.2.1; Example 7.2.2; Activity 7.2.1

2. Use histograms and frequency polygons to represent data (this includes

application of the terminology class midpoint and class boundary).
Definition 7.2.2; Example 7.2.3, 7.2.4; Activities 7.2.2, 7.2.3

3. Use stemandleaf plots to represent data.

Example 7.2.5

4. Use line graphs to represent data.

Definition 7.2.4; Example 7.2.6; Activity 7.2.4

SECTION 7.3

1. Determine the arithmetic mean of a set of data (grouped or raw, with or

without a calculator).
Definition 7.3.1; Examples 7.3.2, 7.3.3; Activities 7.3.1, 7.3.2

2. Determine the median of a set of data.

Definition 7.3.2; Example 7.3.4; Activity 7.3.3

3. Determine the mode(s) (if any) of a set of data.

Definition 7.3.3; Example 7.3.4; Activity 7.3.3

4. Determine the mean deviation for a set of data.

Activity 7.3.4
 369 MAT0511/003

SECTION 7.4

1. Apply the terminology of probability: outcome, sample space, event.

Examples 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3; Activity 7.4.3

2. Calculate the empirical probability of a given event.

Definition 7.4.1; Probability Laws 1, 2 and 3; Example 7.4.3; Activities
7.4.2, 7.4.4, 7.4.5
 370

ANSWERS
TOPIC 1
Exercise 1.1

1. (a)

24
22
20
Temperature
(in o C) 18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Month

(b) This reflects a place that has its lowest average daily temperatures be-
tween April and September, which are winter months in the southern
hemisphere. We can conclude that this place is thus in the southern
hemisphere.

2. (a) The time between 10:00 and 9:00 is one hour. In the first hour they
travelled 100 km.
(b) They made no progress between 10:30 and 11:00 (the graph shows
that they were stationary after they had travelled for 1 21 hours, and
they only began travelling again 2 hours after their departure). Thus
they spent 12 an hour changing the tyre.
(c) 300 km (since the journey begins at 0 km and ends at 300 km).
(d) They reached the 150 km stage 1 21 hours after leaving Polokwane,
i.e. at 10:30.
(e) The second stage during which they made no progress was from 3
hours after departure to 3 34 hours after departure. They spent 34 of an
hour filling up with petrol and having something to drink.
(f) They reached Pretoria 4 hours after leaving Polokwane, i.e. at 13:00.
 371 MAT0511/003

3. (a) The dot at 0 represents the information that at the beginning (i.e.
before the car begins to move) it has not travelled any distance.
(b) 15 km
(c) 35 km
(d) faster
(e) after 4 seconds the graph begins to look like a straight line; i.e. we
can assume that speed is constant from this stage

Exercise 1.2

1. (a) b
(b) (0, a)
(c) x b
(d) 0 < x < b
k
(e) If P = (p, q) satisfies the equation y = x+m + l, then it lies on the
graph; i.e. if we substitute x = p into the right hand side of
k
y = x+m + l and obtain q as the answer, then (p, q) lies on the graph.
k
(f) We need to solve x+m + l > 0.
k
We know y > 0 when x < b, thus x+m + l > 0 for all x such that x < b.

2. (a) Yes. The equation is defined for all x 1. The xcoordinate is

3 and we have 3 > 1. Also, (3, 7) satisfies the equation, since we
obtain y = 7 when we substitute x = 3 into the equation.
(b) No, since the equation is only defined for x 1, and 2 < 1.
(c) 1 < x 0
(d) 1

3. (a) (i) D (ii) E (iii) A

(iv) B (v) C
(b) 52 + 02 = 25 6= 16. Since the coordinates (5, 0) do not satisfy the
equation of the circle, the point does not lie on the circle.
(c) If the coordinates of B are (a, b) and if a2 + b2 = 16, then B lies on
the circle.
(d) 4 units (the radius)
(e) 8 units
the diameter of the circle
(f) 4 units
the radius of the circle
 372

Exercise 1.3

1. Let the length of the side be x units. 2 2 2 2

Then x + 4 = 10 , i.e. x =84.
Thus the length of the third side is 84 units. (We may write this as 2 21
units).

2. (a) A sketch shows that 4 ABC is a right triangle, with right angle at C.
(b) Using the distance formula we find
that b = AC = 3 units,
a = BC = 2 units and c = AB = 13 units.
If
a2 = b2 + c2
or
b2 = a2 + c2
or
c2 = a2 + b2
then 4 ABC is a right triangle.
If 4 ABC is a right triangle we expect that the longest side (in this
case AB, i.e. c) will be the hypotenuse. We thus need to find out
whether
c2 = a2 + b2 .
Now
2
LHS = 13 = 13.
RHS = 2 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13.
2

Hence LHS = RHS and thus 4 ABC is a right triangle.

3. If we sketch 4 ABC we find that the longest side is AB. We thus need to
determine whether
AB2 = AC2 + BC2 .

By the distance formula we have AB = 20, AC = 10 and BC = 2. If
we substitute into the above equation we have

LHS = AB2 = 20
RHS = AC2 + BC2 = 10 + 2 = 12 6= 20.

Since LHS 6= RHS it follows that 4 ABC is not a right triangle.

 373 MAT0511/003

4. (a) d(P, Q) = 13, M(x, y) = (2, 11
2)

(b) d(P, Q) = 5, M(x, y) = ( 32 , 2)

(c) d(P, Q) = 2 13, M(x, y) = (1, 1)

5. (a) x2 + y2 = 2
(b) (x 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 9
(c) (x + 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 12
(d) x2 + (y 1)2 = 1

6. (a) C = (0, 0); r= 3
(b) C = (1, 2); r=6

7. (a) C = (2, 3)

(b) d(C, A) = 10
(c) (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 10

8. d(A, B) = 13 q
1
13
Hence radius = 2 13 = 4 .
M(x, y) = ( 12 , 2) is the centre of the circle. Thus the equation of the circle
is
1 13
(x )2 + (y + 2)2 =
2 4
which we may write as
1
4(x )2 + 4(y + 2)2 = 13.
2

TOPIC 2
Exercise 2.1

1. y = h(x) = 3x, x N

2. (a) Each value of x is associated with a unique value of y.

y = f (x) = 31 (2x + 2)
(b) Each value of y is associated with a unique value of x.
x = f (y) = 12 (3y + 2)

3. (a) D f = N0
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
(b)
y 3 4 7 12 19 28
(c) The dots representing (0, 3), (1, 4), (2, 7), (3, 12), (4, 19), (5, 28) can-
not be joined, since D f 6= R.

4. (a) R
 374

(b) R {1}
(c) {x R : x 0}
(d) R
(e) {x R : x 12 }
(f) {x R : x > 12 }
(g) R

(h) {x R : x 3 or x 3}
(i) R

5. (a) 4
(b) 1
(c) 3x2 + 1
(d) 3x + 1
1
6. (a) 3
5
(b) 3

x2 2x 2
(c)
x

x3
(d)
x+1
1a
(e)
1+a

7. (a) (i) 2 1, 41
(ii) 13
(b) {x R : x > 12 }

8. (a) f = g, since f (x) = g(x) = x2 1, and D f = Dg = R.

(b) f 6= g. We have f (x) = g(x) = x 1, but D f = R {1} 6= Dg = R.

Exercise 2.2

1. (a) 3
(b) 7

(c) 15 2
35
(d) 2

2. (a) 5
(b) 7 32
7
(c) 2
 375 MAT0511/003

1
(d) 44

3. (a) x2 + 4x 5
(b) x2 + 2x 15
(c) (x + 5)2 (x 2)
(d) x 2
(e) x4 + 6x3 12x2 70x + 75
(f) x4 + 6x3 10x2 50x + 125
(g) R
(h) R {5}

4. (a) x + 3x 2

(b) x 3x + 2

(c) x(3x 2)

x
(d)
3x 2
(e) 9x2 + 13x 4
(f) 9x2 11x + 4
(g) {x R : x 0}
(h) {x R : x 0} { 23 }

5. (a) x + 3x 2

(b) x 3x 2

(c) x 3x 2
x
(d)
3x 2
(e) x2 3x + 2
(f) x2 + 3x 2
(g) {x R : x 23 }
(h) {x R : x > 23 }

x4 2x2 + 2
6. (a)
x2 1
x2 (x2 2)
(b)
x2 1
(c) 1
(d) (x2 1)2
(x2 1)4 1
(e) Simplifying this does not really produce a
(x2 1)2
simpler expression.
(x2 1)4 + 1
(f) Once again we do not try to simplify this further.
(x2 1)2
 376

(g) R {1, 1}
(h) R {1, 1}

TOPIC 3
Exercise 3.1

1.
y

_1
x
0 3
1

2.
y

x
0 1

3.
y

x
0 4
 377 MAT0511/003

4.
y

x
0 3

_32

3
5. 2

6. No slope

7. 2

8. 0

9.
y

x
1
1

10.
y

(2,3)

x
0
 378

11.
y

1 x
7 0

2 ( 1 , 2)

12.
y

x
0 (2,0) 5

13.
y

1 y = f ( x) = 1

x
0

y = i ( x) = x

(1,1)
x
0
 379 MAT0511/003

14.
y
l2 l1 l5 l4

l3
1
x
1

Slope of l3 is zero.

15. (a) The slope of l2 , i.e. 52 , is the same as that of l1 .

(b) The slope of l3 , i.e. 25 , is the negative reciprocal of 52 which is the
slope of l2 .

16. p = 4

17. q = 0

18.
y

l3

(1,2)
l2
x
1 _12
( 1 , 2 )
l1

19. l2 : 2y + 4x + 1 = 0 l2 : y = 2x 12
l2 is obtained by shifting l1 downwards by 3 21 units.

20. The line l1 represents a function since each value of x is associated with
only one value of y. The line l2 does not represent a function since more
than one yvalue is associated with the xvalue of 2. In fact every value of
y is associated with the xvalue of 2.
 380

21.
y

x
2 1 1 2 3
2

22.
y

x
2 1 1 2 3
2

23.
y

x
2 1 1 2 3
2

6
 381 MAT0511/003

24.
y

x
2 1 1 2 3
2

Exercise 3.2

1. 16x 4y 1 = 0

2. 4x + 14y 21 = 0

3. 2x + 3y + 11 = 0

4. 7x y + 10 = 0

5. x + y 3 = 0

6. 10x + 9y + 13 = 0

7. y + 3 = 0

8. x 2 = 0

9. x 7 = 0

10. y + 10 = 0

11. y = 0

12. x = 0

13. 3x y + 1 = 0

14. 2x + 3y 1 = 0

15. x + 1 = 0

16. y = 0

17. x + 3y 3 = 0

18. 3x 2y + 5 = 0
 382

19. y 3 = 0

20. x 2 = 0

21. x + 8y 1 = 0

22. 8x y 11 = 0

23. y = 23 x + 43 ; slope is 23 ; yintercept is 4

3

24. y = 25 x + 25 ; slope is 25 ; yintercept is 2

5

25. y = 3x 13; slope is 3; yintercept is 13

26. y = 2x + 1; slope is 2; yintercept is 1

27. (a) m2 = 43 (b) y = 15

4 (c) x = 5
4

28. y = f (x) = x + 1; D f = R; R f = R

29. y = f (x) = 43 x + 2; D f = {x R : x 3}; R f = {y R : y 2}

30. y = f (x) = 2; D f = {x R : 3 < x 8}; R f = {2}

31. y = f (x) = x; D f = {x R : 1 x < 2}; R f = {y R : 2 < y 1}

32. Suppose l cuts the xaxis at a and the yaxis at b and a 6= 0 and b 6= 0.
We then have the two points P(a, 0) and Q(0, b) on the line. Using the
twopoint form (3.2.3) we obtain
b0
y0 = (x a)
0a
i.e. we have
b
y= (x a)
a
which we may rewrite as
b
y = (a x)
a
which becomes
ay + bx = ab.
If we divide both sides by ab (ab 6= 0 since a 6= 0 and b 6= 0) we have
x y
+ = 1.
a b
 383 MAT0511/003

Exercise 3.3

1. (2, 5)
12
2. ( 11 , 13
11 )

3. ( 19 2
9 , 9)

4. (1, 32 )

5. y = 2x 3

6. y = 3x + 3

7. y = 1

8.
y

l3 2
Q
1 P

x
1 2 3
l2
l1

(a) P = ( 43 , 34 ); Q = ( 43 , 54 )
(b) l1 and l2 are parallel ( i.e. have the same slope) and are not coincident
( i.e. do not lie on top of each other).
(c) 2
11
(d) 3
9
(e) x = 4

9. (a) f (x) = 31 x + 1 g(x) = x 1

(b) P = ( 23 , 12 )
14
(c) 3
(d) x = 3 or x = 6
3
(e) (i) x 3 (ii) x < 1 (iii) x 2

10. (a) h(x) = 2x 2 k(x) = 2

(b) y = 2
(c) 6
 384

(d) x = 3
(e) (i) x > 1 (ii) x 2

11. (a) f (x) = 6x + 24

(b) g(x) = 12x
(c)
y

72

Cost 48
in
rands f
24 g

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of cakes

(d) 4
(e) 9

12. (a)
y

4 000
income function:
Cost 3 000 y = f ( x ) = 18x
in
rands cost function:
2 000
y = g( x ) = 800 + 10x
1 000

x
50 100 150 200 250
Number of T-shirts
Breakeven point = (100, 1 800)
(b) Loss, R160
(c) 250

13. (a) y < x

(b) 2x y 2 (or y 2x + 2)
(c) x < 1
(d) y 2
 385 MAT0511/003

14. (a) (b)

y y
x= 2
y = 2x

x x
2 0 0

(c) (d)
y y

x x
0
x + 2y = 3
x 2y = 3

15.
y

y=4

y = x _23

x
0

y = x 1

2x = 3

16. (a) directly proportional; x3 ; 1

3
(b) directly proportional; x2 ; 4
(c) jointly proportional; h and x2 ; 1

17. (a) p = kq

(b) r = k s
(c) p = kq3 r2
3
(d) p2 = ks r

18. (a) z = 5x
(b) z = 55
 386

19. p = 3qr2

20. Let c be the cost in rands of printing n copies of a magazine that has p
pages. Then c = knp, where k is the constant of proportionality.

(a) c = 240 000 where n = 4 000 and p = 120. Hence k = 12 and we have
c = 21 np.
(b) The cost will be R230 000.

TOPIC 4
Exercise 4.1

1. Write y = a(x h)2 + k as y = az2 + k, where z = x h. Then the axis

of symmetry of the parabola defined by y = az2 + k is the line defined by
z = 0. Now z = 0 is the same as x h = 0, i.e. x = h. Thus the equation
of the axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by y = a(x h)2 + k is the
line defined by x = h.

2. (a) 1 unit to the right and 2 units downwards.

(b) 1 unit to the left and 2 units upwards.
(c) 1 unit to the right and 2 units upwards.
(d) 1 unit to the left and 2 units downwards.
(e) h units to the left and k units upwards.

3. (a) (i) D f = R; R f = [0, )

(ii) yintercept = 9; xintercept = 3
(iii) x = 3
(iv) (3, 0), the lowest point
(b) (i) Dg = R; Rg = (, 4]

(ii) yintercept = 8; xintercepts are 2 2 3 3 and 2 + 2 3 3
(iii) x = 2
(iv) (2, 4), the highest point
 387 MAT0511/003

Exercise 4.2

1. (a) (b)
y 6 y 6

(2, 5) r 5 (2, 4) r 4

r
(1, 1) - x - x
1 1

(c) (d)
y 6 y (1, 12 1 )
6r 2
12

1 - x
1 12 r 12
(1, 1) -x
4 1 6

(e)
y
6

13 5
6 2 - x

2
r 5 1
( 6 , 4 12 )

2. It does not cut the xaxis since = 7 < 0.

3. (a) down
(b) x = 2 12
(c) maximum
(d) two
(e) p = 6 14 ( Hint: = b2 4ac = 52 + 4p. Now find p such that
= 0.)
 388

Exercise 4.3

1. (a) y = (x + 2)2 + 6 = x2 4x + 2
(b) y = 12 (x + 2)(x 5) = 12 x2 32 x 5
(c) y = 3x2 + 5x
(d) y = 23 (x + 1)2 + 6 = 23 (x + 4)(x 2) = 23 x2 43 x + 5 13
(e) y = 15 x(x 4) = 15 x2 + 45 x

2. (a) y = 34 (x 2)2 = 34 x2 3x + 3
(b) y = 2(x + 1)2 + 4 = 2x2 4x + 2
(c) y = 32 x2 1
(d) y = 45 (x 1)(x 5) = 45 x2 24
5 x+4
(e) y = 12 x2 4x + 9

Exercise 4.4

1. (a) x 3 or x 2
3
(b) 1 < x < 2
(c) x 3 or x < 2
(d) x 13 or x > 1

2. The numbers are 10 and 10 and their product is 100.

3. 242 m2

4. 20 m; 2 seconds

5. Suppose the price of a ticket increases by x rands.

Then the price of a ticket is (20 + x) rands.
The estimated number of tickets sold will be (20 000 500x).
The organisers will receive (20 + x)(20 000 500x) rands.
Now

y = (20 + x)(20 000 500x)

= 400 000 + 10 000x 500x2 .

(a) In order for the organisers to make the maximum amount of money
b 10 000
x= = = 10.
2a 1 000
Thus a ticket must cost R(20 + 10), i.e. R30.
(b) The number of spectators should be (20 000 500 10), i.e. 15 000.
The amount of money that the organisers will make is
R(15 000 30), i.e. R450 000.
 389 MAT0511/003

TOPIC 5
Exercise 5.1
1. (a) y = 3x (b) y = 7
4x (c) y = 1x

3 n
(d) y= 5x (e) y = mx

2. Suppose f (x) = y = kx .
The point (a, b) lies on the graph of f .
Hence b = ak , i.e. ab = k.
Since ab = k, it follows that a = bk . In this form a is the yvalue and b is
the xvalue, and hence (b, a) lies on the graph of f .

3. (a) (b)
y y
6 xy = 10
4xy + 9 = 0 6

rP Pr
d d
-x -x
q 0
9
d = 20 d= 2
xy = 10
4xy + 9 = 0

4.
y
y = 10
x
6
y = 3x

-x

y = 3x
y = 10
x

ab
5. xy = ab (or y = x )
8
6. y = 9x (or 9xy = 8)
2 k 2
7. We rewrite mxy + 2 = 0 as y =mx , i.e. y = x where k = m . Since k > 0
q
(why?) we have m2 > 0. Thus 2 m2 = 12 , i.e. m4 = 14 , i.e. m = 16.
 390

Exercise 5.2
22
1. (a) c = 22, r = t (b) t = 11

k kx2 km n
2. (a) p = (b) z = 3 (c) l =
qr y pq
3. q is directly proportional to p and inversely proportional to r.

4. (a) z is directly proportional to the square of x and inversely proportional

to y.
(b) Q is directly proportional R and inversely proportional to S and T .
(c) y is jointly proportional to x and the square of z and inversely propor-
tional to r.
kl 7
5. (a) R = , k= 2 400
d2
(b) 166 23

TOPIC 6
Exercise 6.1

1. (i) (1, 0) ; (4, 3) (two solutions)

(ii) 52 , 34 (one solution)
(iii) no solution (remember to use the discriminant)

2. (i) 1+2 7 , 12 7 ; 12 7 , 1+2 7 (two solutions)
(ii) no solution (use the discriminant)
(iii) (1, 2) (one solution)

3. (a)
y6
y = 4x
l1
4

-x
4
l3

y = 4x l2
 391 MAT0511/003

(b) (i) 2 solutions (ii) no solution (iii) one solution

(c) (i) (2, 2) ; (2, 2)
(ii) no solution
(iii) (2, 2)

4. (a) y = x 9
(b) y = 8x
(c) M = (1, 8) (Solve y = x 9 and y = 8x simultaneously.)
Thus the length of NM is 8 units.
(d)

Length of QP = length of RP length of RQ

= 6 83 units
= 3 13 units

8
(e) Length of OR = 5 units. Thus the length of RQ is 5 units.

5. (a) f (x) = x2 + x + 6
g (x) = x2 2x 3

(b) P = 32 , 94
(c) The length of MN is given by f (x) g (x), i.e. by 2x2 + 3x + 9.
Thus we solve 2x2 + 3x + 9 = 4. The xcoordinate of M and N is
1 or 52 .
(d)

Length of MN = 2x2 + 3x + 9
2
= 2 x 34 + 10 18 .

Thus the maximum length of MN is 10 81 units and this occurs when

x = 34 .
(e) (i) 2 < x < 1
(ii)

2x2 3x 9 < 0

x2 2x 3 x2 + x + 6 < 0
x2 2x 3 < x2 + x + 6
g (x) < f (x)
3
< x <3
2

6. (a) h : x2 + y2 = 4
f : y = 12 x2 2
g : y = x + 2
 392

(b) P = (4, 6)

(c) Length of SN = 2 3 units.
(d) The length of MT is given by g (x) f (x), i.e. by 12 x2 x + 4, i.e.
by 12 (x + 1)2 + 4 12 .
Thus the maximum length of MT is 4 21 units and this occurs when
x = 1.
(e) The values of x for which
p
4 x2 + x 2
are the values of x for which
p
4 x2 x + 2
i.e. for which the upper semicircle lies above or on the line. Hence
0 x 2.

TOPIC 7
Exercise 7.1

1. Tally: the word we use for counting items of data. For each item we draw
a vertical line: |. Every time we have a collection of 5 items we draw a
horizontal line through 4 vertical lines: | | | | .
Classes: Categories into which data are grouped.
Frequency: the total number of data items in any given group or class.
Frequency distribution: A table in which data are grouped into specific
classes, showing the frequency of items in each class.
2.
Class limits Tally marks Frequency
59 | | 2
1014 | | | | | | | 8
1519 | | | | | | | | | | 12
2024 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 29
2529 | | | | | | | | | | | | 15
3034 | | | | | | | | | 11
3539 | | | | | | | 8
4044 | | | | | | 7
4549 | | | | 5
5054 | | 2
5559 | 1

This gives us the following frequency distribution.

Classes 59 1014 1519 2024 25 29 3034 3539 4044 4549 5054 5559
Frequency 2 8 12 29 15 11 8 7 5 2 1
 393 MAT0511/003

Exercise 7.2

1. We use a class width of 2 C.

Lowest temperature: 24, 5 C; highest temperature : 33, 6 C.
Thus
lowest class limit = 24, 5 C
lowest class boundary = 24, 45 C
number of classes = 5.
Class limits ( C) Class boundaries ( C) Frequency
24,5 26,4 24,45 26,45 8
26,5 28,4 26,45 28,45 5
28,5 30,4 28,45 30,45 6
30,5 32,4 30,45 32,45 5
32,5 34,4 32,45 34,45 4

This gives us the following histogram.

10
9
8
7
Frequency
6
5
4
3
2
1

24,45 26,45 28,45 30,45 32,45 34,45

Temperature

2. Children who play no sport: 30 girls, 10 boys, i.e. 40 children.

Netball: 13 390, i.e. 130 girls (there are 420 30 girls, i.e. 390 girls, who
play sport).
Soccer: 750 (420 + 10), i.e. 320 boys.
Basketball: 500 children.
2
3 of the girls who play sport play basketball, i.e. 260 girls play basketball.
Thus 500 260, i.e. 240, boys play basketball.
Cricket: There are 750 420 = 330 boys in the school.
Thus there are 330 (240 + 10) cricket players, i.e. 80 cricket players.
We do not set up the pie chart based on the number of children in the
school, but on the total number of participants in all the sports that are
played. Thus several children are counted more than once, for example, a
child who plays both basketball and soccer is counted in both categories.
The sports and numbers of players represented are thus
 394

No sport 40
Cricket 80
Netball 130
Soccer 320
Basketball 500
Total 1 070

Sport played Fraction Percentage Degrees (central angle)

(to nearest integer) (to nearest integer)
40
None 1 070 4% 13

80
Cricket 1 070 7% 27

130
Netball 1 070 12% 44

320
Soccer 1 070 30% 108

500
Basketball 1 070 47% 168

We now have the following pie graph.

No
sport
4% Cricket
Basketball
7%
47%
Netball
12%
30%

Soccer

Sports played at Sport Valley Secondary School

3. (a) (i) Approximately 30 million square kilometres.

(ii) Africa is approximately 2,5 million square kilometres bigger
than Asia.
(iii) The smallest land mass is Europe.
(iv) Europe and North America are together just bigger than Asia.
 395 MAT0511/003

(b)
Land mass Approximate size Percentage of Degrees
(in millions of total mass (to the
square kilometres) (to the nearest nearest
integer) integer)

Africa 30 29 104
Asia 27,5 26 94
Europe 5,5 5 18
North America 24 23 83
South America 18 17 61
Total 105

We now have the following pie graph.

South
America
Africa
17%
29%
North 23%
America
26%
5% Asia
Europe

Approximate land masses of Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America

4.
Class limits (%) Class boundaries (%) Frequency
20 29 19,5 29,5 1
30 39 29,5 39,5 5
40 49 39,5 49,5 3
50 59 49,5 59,5 4
60 69 59,5 69,5 4
70 79 69,5 79,5 2
80 89 79,5 89,5 1
 396

Number 4
of
students 3

19,5 29,5 39,5 49,5 59,5 69,5 79,5 89,5

Percentages obtained in first assignment

5. (a) 90 pupils wrote the test.

(b) 29 girls scored 50% or more.
(c) 7 boys scored between 45% and 50% (including these marks).
(d) 57% was scored 4 times.

Exercise 7.3

1. We arrange the data (mass in kg) in numerical order from smallest to

biggest.
72, 77, 78, 79, 79, 79, 79, 81, 82, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 86, 86, 86, 87, 87, 88,
88, 89, 89, 89, 90, 90, 91, 92, 92, 92, 93, 93, 93, 94, 95, 96, 96, 96, 96, 97,
97, 98, 101, 101, 104, 104, 105, 107, 108, 111

90 + 90
(a) Median = kg = 90 kg
2
(b) Mode: There are 3 modes: 79 kg, 86 kg, 96 kg

2. (a) Boys marks: x 51% (we have rounded 50,73% to 51%)

Girls marks: x 54% (we have rounded 54,47% to 54%)
(b) Girls marks (percentages) in numerical order (42 marks):
17, 23, 23, 27, 31, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 45, 48, 50, 50, 51, 53, 53,
53, 54, 55, 57, 57, 59, 60, 60, 61, 61, 61, 62, 62, 62, 65, 67, 68, 68,
71, 73, 73, 80, 84, 92
Median:
55 + 57 112
= = 56
2 2
Hence the median is 56%
(c) In the rows representing the girls marks (percentages), the number 3
appears 3 times in the 5 row; the number 1 appears 3 times in the 6
 397 MAT0511/003

row; the number 2 also appears 3 times in the 6 row. Thus the marks
occurring most frequently are 53%, 61% and 62%; hence there are
three modes, namely 53%, 61% and 62%.
(d) The arithmetic mean is approximately 52,47. For the purpose of this
calculation we round the mean to x = 52%.
Mark (%) Deviation
12 12 52 = 40
17 17 52 = 35
17 17 52 = 35
21 21 52 = 31
22 22 52 = 30
23 23 52 = 29
23 23 52 = 29
25 25 52 = 27
26 26 52 = 26
27 27 52 = 25
.. ..
. .
94 94 52 = 42
Total (ignoring ) 961
961
Mean deviation = 10, 7 11
90
1
3. (a) x = 8 (304, 0) = 38, 0 C
(b)
38, 0 C + 37, 4 C
Median = = 37, 7 C
2
4. (a) Your most likely salary would be the mode, if there is one.
(b)
91 900
x= = 8 354, 545454 ...
11
Hence x R8 350.
(c) In this case there is no mode, since no number occurs more frequently
than any other.
(d) We arrange the data in numerical order, from smallest to biggest.
We have R5 100, R5 500, R5 900, R6 200, R6 500, R6 800, R7 200,
R8 300, R8 400, R12 000, R20 000.
The median is thus R6 800.
Note that there are two data items that differ markedly from the rest,
i.e. R12 000 and R20 000. These items influence the arithmetic mean,
and hence in this case the median (R6 800) is a more likely salary
than the mean (R8 350).
 398

Exercise 7.4

1. (a)
S = {b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , b5 , r1 , r2 , r3 , g1 , g2 , g3 , g4 }
where bi represents the ith blue pen, ri the ith red pen and gi the ith
green pen (i N). Thus n(S) = 12.
(b)
E = {r1 , r2 , r3 }
n(E) = 3
(c)
n(E) 3 1
= =
n(S) 12 4
(d) The probability of choosing a red pen is 14 .

2. Note: the answers obtained by each student will differ. Read through our
solution, and try to determine whether or not your answers make sense.
Our answer:

(a) H: 30 times
T: 20 times
(b) Relative frequency of obtaining heads:
30 3
50 = 5 = 0, 6

Relative frequency of obtaining tails:

20 2
50 = 5 = 0, 4

(c)

1
0,9
Relative 0,8
frequency: 0,7
No of heads 0,6
No of spins 0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1

After 10 After 20 After 30 After 40 After 50

5 spins 15 spins 25 spins 35 spins 45 spins
Number of spins
 399 MAT0511/003

(d) Answer obtained: 53

Expected answer: 12
Since S = { H, T }, we have n(S) = 2; E = { H}, hence n(E) = 1,
and thus P(E) = 21 .

3. Number of cards in the pack: 52

Number of red cards in the pack: 26
Number of black cards in the pack: 26
After 5 red cards have been drawn there are 47 cards in the pack, of which
21 are red, 26 are black.
Then it follows that
21
probability of drawing a red card = 47
probability of drawing a black card = 2647 .
26 21
Since 47 > 47 there is a greater chance that the next card will be black
than that it will be red.
4. (a) 52 cards in the pack, hence n(S) = 52.
4 aces in the pack, hence n(E) = 4.
n(E) 4 1
P(ace) = = =
n(S) 52 13
1
(b) If E = { ace of diamonds } then n(E) = 1 and hence P(E) = 52 .

5. (a) Consider the situation when the coin is spun twice.

From the tree diagram given in the margin on p. 368 it follows that
the sample space is S = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,H), (T,T)}, i.e. we have
n(S) = 4.
If the event E consists of obtaining heads at least once, i.e. obtaining
heads once or twice, then
E = {(H,H), (H,T), (T,H)}, and hence n(E) = 3.
n(E) 3
Thus: Probability of obtaining at least one head = P(E) = = .
n(S) 4
(b) Consider the situation when the coin is spun three times. From the
tree diagram given in the margin on p. 368 it follows that the sample
space is
S = {(H,H,H), (H,H,T), (H,T,H), (H,T,T), (T,H,H), (T,H,T), (T,T,H), (T,T,T)},
i.e. we have n(S) = 8.
If the event E consists of obtaining at most two tails, i.e. of not ob-
taining tails or obtaining tails once or twice, then
E = {(H,H,H), (H,H,T), (H,T,H), (H,T,T), (T,H,H), (T,H,T), (T,T,H)},
and hence n(E) = 7.
n(E) 7
Thus: Probability of obtaining at most two tails = P(E) = = .
n(S) 8
6. Let yellow balls be denoted by y1 , etc., white balls by w1 , etc., and blue
balls by b1 , etc.
Then S = {y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 , y6 , w1 , w2 , w3 , w4 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , b5 }
and n(S) = 15.
 400

(a) E = {y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , y5 , y6 } and thus n(E) = 6.

n(E) 6 2
P(yellow ball) = = =
n(S) 15 5

(b) P (not white) = 1 P (white) (See Law 1.)

Now
4
P(white) = 15
hence
4 11
P(not white) = 1 15 = 15 .

7. (a) There are 6 possible ways of scoring 7, out of 36 possible totals when
two dice are thrown. Let P(7) denote probability of scoring 7 once.
6
Now P(7) = 36 . Thus

Probability of scoring 7 twice = P(7) P(7)

6 6
= 36 36
1
= 36 0, 03.

(b) There are 5 ways of scoring 8.

5
Thus probability of scoring 8 (denoted by P(8)) = 36 .
There are 5 ways of scoring 6.
5
Thus probability of scoring 6 (denoted by P(6)) = 36 .
Thus probability of scoring 8 and then 6 is
5 5 25
P(8) P(6) = 36 36 = 1 296 0, 02.
 401 MAT0511/003

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