HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER A PRACTICAL APPROACH ry Grawy ini “singapore « Boston « Burr Aigo, L+ Dubuque, [A+ Maison, WI + Novi York « San Francisco ‘St, Louis « Bangkok » Kuala Lumpur «Lisbon * London + Maid Mexlco Clty ‘Milan + Montreal + Nevr Delhi « Spout + Sydnay + Tape + Torentovic yay cl HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER: A PRACTICAL APPROACH. ‘Third Faltton ($1 Uns) Poblicstion Year: 2006 Exclusive rights by McGrew-Hill Education (Asia), for manufuture and export. This book ‘annot be re-xported from te county to which itis sold by Mera Published by McGraw-Hill, © business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Ine, 1221 ‘Avvenue ofthe Americas, New Yotk, NY 10020. Copydight © 2007 by The McCraw Hil Companies, Ine. All rights reserved. Previous editions published wnder the tlle of Hest Transfer: A Procical dpproach. Copyright © 2003, 1998 by Tae McGrew Hill Compacie, Jn All sight reserved. No pat of this publication may be reproduced or ditabuted many form or by any means, of stored in database or eel system, without the prior writes ‘consent of The MeGraw-Hill Companies ne, ineluding, but not limited te, ia any network ot ther eletonie sorageor transmission, or broadcast for distance leaming ‘Some ancillaries, chung electronic and print components, nay not bs avaiable to customers outside the United Sates, 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 20 09 08 cir sip When ordering tis ie, use ISBN-13: 978-007-125739-8 or ISBN-10:007-125739-X Printed in SingapoceABOUT THE AUTHOR Yunus A. Gengel is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Nevada, Reno. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from Istanbu] Technical University and his M.S. and Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from North Carolina State University. He conducted research in ‘radiation heat transfer, heat transfer enhancement, renewable energy, desali- ation, exergy analysis, and energy conservation. He served as the director of the Industrial Assessment Center (LAC) at the University of Nevada, Reno, from 1996 to 2000, He has led teams of engineering students to numerous ‘manufacturing facies in Northern Nevada and Califomia to do industria as- sessments, and has prepared energy conservation, waste minimization, and productivity enhancement reports for them. ‘Dr. Gengel is the coauthor of the widely adopted textbooks Thermodynamics: ‘An Engineering Approach, Sth edition (©2006), Fundamentals of Thermal: Fluid Sciences, 2nd edition (©2005), and Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentalsand ‘Applications (©2006), all published by McGraw-Hill. He is the author ofthe textbook Introduction to Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer (©1997), also published by McGrav-Hil, Some of his textbooks have been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Spanish, Portuguese, Turkish, Italian, and Greek, ‘Dr, Cengel is the recipient of several outstanding teacher awards, and he thas received the ASEE Meriar/Wiley Distinguished Author Award in 1992 ‘and again in 2000 for excellence in authorship. Dr. Gengel i a registered pro- fessional engineer in the tate of Nevada, and is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineeré (ASME) and the American Society for Engincering Education (ASEE).CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS. 1 CHAPTER TWO HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 61 HAPTER THREE STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 131 CHAPTER FOUR TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 217 CHAPTER FIVE NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT CONDUCTION 285 CHAPTER SIX FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 355 CHAPTER SEVEN EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 395 CHAPTER EIGHT INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 451 CHAPTER NINE NATURAL CONVECTION 503, CHAPTER TEN BOILING AND CONDENSATION S61 CHAPTER ELEVEN HEAT EXCHANGERS 609 CHAPTER TWELVE FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION 663, CHAPTER THIRTEEN RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 707 CHAPTER FOURTEEN MASS TRANSFER 773 APPENDIX 1 PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS ($1 UNITS) 841CONTENTS Preface CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS 1 1-1 12 13 14 18 16 1, 18 1-8 ‘Theemodyamies and Heat Transfer 2 Aepleston Aas of Heat Transfer 3 Hitorcal fachgound 3 Roginessing Heat Transfer 4 Medesng hn Enginening 5 Heat and Other Forms of Energy 6 Specie Hots of Gases, gud, end Sells 7 Fro Tarsier 8 ‘The First Law of Thermodynamics 1 nergy Bone fo Closed Syst Fd Mass) 12 nog Balen for Steody Flow Systems 12 Suse Ereay Dance 13 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 17 Conduction 17 Tharmal Canavetiiy 197 ‘Tamal bitesty 23 Convection 25 Radiation 27 ‘Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms 30 Problem-Solving Technique 35 EnginnringSefwarePackagss 37 gytomieg Feuation Saver (EES) 38 Het TranaoeTeos (HTT) 39 ‘ARamadkon Sgnitest Digs 39 Topeof Speco intrest: Thal Comfot 40 ‘Summary 48 References and Suggased Reading 47 Problems 47 CHAPTER TWO HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION 61 24 Introduction 62 ‘Stet versus Tansiant Meot Tansler 63 Motiimenstnal Hes Tansfor 64 Hes Generafon 66 2-2 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation 68, Hest Conduction Equation na Lge Pane Wl 68 Hest Gondveton Equatan ina Lorg Cynder &3 Heat Conduction Equsten ina Sphere 71 Corned One Denson Hest Cndveton Equation 72 2-3 General Heat Conduction Equation 74 Reciangular Cotswtes 74 (nates! Coordinates 75 ‘Spec Conrinates 76 2-4 Boundary and Initial Conditions 77 Speci Tomporature Boundary Corton 78 Spocin Hest Flux Beundary Centon 79 Convection Boundary Corton Rediaton Boundary Coneion 82 ‘nteroce Boundary Cantons 2 eneraized foundry Conditions Bt 2-5 Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Problems 86 2-6 Heat Generation in a Solid 97 2-1 Variable Thermal Conductivity, (7) 104 Ingo Spel rest ‘Bie Rei of Uilerental Equations 107 Summary 111 References and Sogested Readings 112 Problems 113CHAPTER THREE STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION 131 341 Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls 132 Thema Resistance Concesk 133, Thermal Ressbnce Network 135 Mitlayr Fine Wals. 137 3-2 Thermal Contact Resistance 142 3-3 Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks 147 8-4 Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres 150 Meitisjeed OMindors and Spares 152 3-5 Critical Radius of Insulation 156 3-6 Heat'Transfer from Finned Surfaces 159 Fn Equation 160 Fin Effcleacy 154 Fn Eletvenese 165 Proper anglhela Fin 169, 3-7 Heat Transfer in Common Configurations 174 Topo Spc rest Het Teansfer twaugh Wats and Roofs 179 Summary 189 Feferances and Suggested Readings 191 Probleme 191 CHAPTER FOUR TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 217 4-1 Lumped System Analysis 218 Cetera to Lupe System Arayis 239 ‘Some Remarks on Hea Tense ip Lupe ‘stems. 221 4-2 Transient Heat Conduction in Large Plane Walls, Long Cylinders, and Spheres with Spatial Effects 224 Noesansionazed One Direnslosl “ransent Conduston Pebion 225, 4-3 Transient Heat Conduction in Semi-lnfinite Solids 240 Contact Two Seiki Sse 245 4-4 ‘Transient Heat Conduction in ‘Multidimensional Systems 248 Topi of Speci nee: Retigraton and Freeing o Feeds. 286 ‘summany 267 References are Suggested Readings 260 Problems 269, CHAPTER FIVE NUMERICAL METHODS IN HEAT CONDUCTION 285 5-1 Why Numerical Methods? 286, 1 Urtaions 287 2 Bate Moding 267 3. Flsbilty 238 4 comelicaions 288, 5 Plaman Nate 288 5-2 Finite Difference Formulation ‘of Ditferential Equations 289 5-3 One-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction 292 uray Conions 234 5-4 Two-Dimensional Steady Heat Conduction 302 Beurdary Noses 02 regula Bounces 307 5-5 Transient Heat Conduction 311 ‘fontlort Het Cnducion na Pana Wa 313 “ino Omansonal Fane Hest Conduction 324 Tole of Socal nterost Contig the umes Eor 320 Summary 333 References ard Suggests Readings 334 Prosens 331 CHAPTER SIX FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVECTION 355 6-1 Physical Mechanism of Convection 356 uso Number 368 6-2 Classification of Fluid Flows 359 Visecus vrs Insc Regions of Few 359) Irerol ora Exeral Flw 388 Compressible vires Incomgreesbe Fl’ 360 Lamia versus Tubulet Flow 350 Natal fr Unfrce) versus Forced Flow 360, ‘Stody versus Unsteady Flow 351 (One, Tuo; and The Dimersonl Fens 961 6-3 Velocity Boundary Layer 362 ‘Suiecs Shear Sass 263, 6-4 Thermal Boundary Layer 364 rand Number 365, 6-5 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 365 Reyrats Number 36666 68 6a 6-40 et cH Heat and Momentum Transfer in ‘Turbulent Flow 367 ‘Derivation of Differential Convection Equations 369 ‘The Coney Equation 369 ‘Te Momentum Equations 370 Ccenseraton of Ereay Eaualon 372 Solutions of Conveetion Fquations for @Flat Plate 376 The Energy Equation 378 Nondimensionalized Convection Equations and Similarity 380 Functional Forms of Coefficients 381 tion and Convection Analogies between Momentum and Heat ‘Transfer 382 Tepe of Sci! rest Miretale West Tneler 385 Summary 388 References anc Supgeated Reeshng 389 Preiens 390 APTER SEVEN EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 395 A 14 Drag and Heat Transfer Extemal Flow 396 Freon an Pressure rag, 306 Heat Tarler” 368 ° Parallel Flow over Flat Plates 399 Fritn Coico 400, Hest enserCosficent 401 Fal Plate wth Unhestea Slartrg Leng 403 Unter Heat x 43 Flow across Cylinders and Spheres 408 ect of Stace Roughness, 410 Heat Tener oeliient 412 Flow across Tube Banks 417 Pressure Lop 420 Tope of Speci! trast, Reducing Heat Warr though Sosaces Theeralreulon 423 suman, 424 Retrerees ané Suggested Reading, 435, Problems 436 CHAPTER EIGHT INTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION 451 841 Invoduction 452 8-2 Average Velocity and Temperature 453 Larinac and Turbulent Flown Toes 454 83 ThoEntrance Region 455 Enty Lear 457 8-4 General Thermal Analysis 458 Constant Sutsce Hest Fix (d= cortan) 428 (Consant Surface Temperature (7, = ears) 60 85 LaminarFlow inTubes 463 Pressxe Drop 466 Temperature Pre an the Nusselt Number 457 erstnt Surface Hest Fox. 46) Constant Surface Temperature 468, laminar Fowin Sonercuur Tubes 463 Dever Leiner lbw in he Eve Reson 470 8-6 Turbulent Flow in Tubes 473 Rough Surfaces 475, Devscping Trblet Flow inthe etonce Regi 476 Turbulent Flew inNonctculr Tubes 476 Flow Drcugh Tbe Annules 477 Heat TonserEnmancemect 477 ogi of Set! nest: Toren Fain Tubes 482 Summary 450 References and Suggested Reading 491 Problems 492 CHAPTER NINE NATURAL CONVECTION 503 941 Physical Mechanism of ‘Natural Convection 504 9-2 Equation of Motion and the Grashof Nurober 507 ‘The Geshot Nombor 509 9-3 Natural Convection over Surfaces 510 eral ates (7, » constant) 912 oral lates (= constant) 612 Verieal Gyinders 812 Ineines Pts 612 Horznel Pates 513, Hotcetl Cjieders ana Sree 512 4 Natural Convection from Finned Surfaces and PCBs 517 Nature Cancion Coli of Fined Surfaces (T,eonsbnd 517Natu Convection Ceoing of Vertical PCBS q.=condart) 518 Noss Flew ato rough the Spaco beeen Pats S19 9-5 Natural Convection Inside Finclosures $21 ecto TheimalConducbty 522 Herontl Rectaehr Encisures £23 Ince Rectangular Encosiees 523 Verba! Relargusr Encosues 524 Coneensc Cinders 528 Coneenbie Spree 525 Combined tats Convection 2nd Raton 525 9-6 Combined Natural and Forced Convection 530, Tople of Special Iterst Hest Tenser trough Windows £33 Summayy 643 References 2 Suagstes Readings S44 Probleme 546 CHAPTER TEN BOILING AND CONDENSATION 561 10-1 Boiling Heat Transfer 562 10-2 Pool Boiling 564 Boling Regimes and he Being Cure $64 Heat Tansle Coens in Peal ling 568 Ennansementf Heat ransfer ny Peal Soling 572 10-3 Flow Boiling 576 10-4 Condensation Heat Transfer 578 10-5 Film Condensation 578 Fou Regimes 580 eat erslerCorltios fr Fim Condensation 581 10-8 Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes 591 10-7 Dropwise Condensation 591 Tope of Specs tees: Het Pipes $92 Sonmsy 897 References and Suggest Reading £99 Protos 599 CHAPTER ELEVEN HEAT EXCHANGERS 609 11-1 types of Heat Bxchangera 610 11-2 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 612 FoulngFoetor 615 11-3 Analysis of Heat Exchangers 620 11-4 The Log Mean Temperature Difference Metliod 622 CcouterFiow Heat xchange: 628 utiaee ana Cros Fo Het Exchangars: Use of (Coecton Fae: 625 11-8 The Effectiveness-NTU Method 631 11-8 Solection of Heat Exchangers 642 Het Taner Rate 542 Cost 2 Pompe Power 63 Sueand Waght 643 Type 688 Mera 6x3 (her Considerations 644 Sommay 3648 Refrences and Sugpested Reading, 646 Pala 47 CHAPTER TWELVE FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL RADIATION 663 12-1 Introduction 964 12-2 ‘Thermal Radiation 665 12-3 Blackbody Radiation 667 12-4 Radiation Intensity 673 Sold Ange 674 Inns of Emtis Rafaton 675 Incident Radnton 676 Raciosty 677 ‘Spoct! Quanties 677 12-5 Radiative Properties 679 Eniccty 680 -Absrpiy React, ard Tonsissily 6B Kreetts low 685 The Greennovse Fleet 687 12-6 Atmospheric and Solar Radiation 688 Iai of Speci inoest: Soar Heat Gein rough Wesdous 692 sumnay 629 Relererces 20d Suggesied Reairgs 701 Problems" 701 CHAPTER THIRTEEN RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER 709 13-1 The View Factor 710 13-2 View actor Relations 7131 The Reelprocty Retaton 714 2 The Summation Role 717 3 Te Superpston Rute. 719 4 The Symmetry Rule 720 ‘ee Fats beben nine Long Surfces “Te Cass. Sings Method 722 79 13-3 Radiation Heat Transfer: Black Surfaces 724 13-4 Radietion Heat Transfer: Diffuse, Gray Surfaces 727 Radisiy 727 Not Racin Hest Tractor oor fama Surtace 727 Net Radiation Heat Tester tetveen ‘ay Too Surfaces 729, chads of Sing RadloienPrdlems 730 Radiation Hest ranslerin Tw Suge Enclsutes 731 Recto Heat Transfer in Ths-Sa ncksues 733 13-5, Radiation Shields and the Radiation Effect Radin fect on Temperate Measurements 741 13-6 Radiation Exchange with Emitting and Absorbing Gases 743 Radiation Properts ofa Peicpaing Medium 744 Esty 2nd Absorpbty of Gases and Gas Maes Tork of Special interes eat Terster am tho Horan Body 752 Summary 787 References ord Sogesied Reading 759 Prose 769 CHAPTER FOURTEEN MASS TRANSFER 773 M4 14-2 Introduction 74 Analogy Between Heat and Mass Transfer Temperate 776 Consucban 775 est Genessb0n 776 Convocton 777 Mass Diffusion 777 1 Mass Bes 778 2 Wote Bars 78 Speci Case teal Gas Matures 779 ek Law o Dison: Sttcrary Medic Consisting of Tan Species 779, ‘Boundary Conditions 783 ‘Steady Mass Diffusion through a Wall 788 ‘Water Vapor Migration in Buildings 792 43 144 145 146 16 ns 147 48 149 “Transient Mass Diffusion 796 Diffusion in a Moving Medium 799 ‘Speci Case: Gas Mists at Constant Pressure and Tenpeatve 605 Din of Vapor through a Stationery Cs SlanFow 501 uit Countersion 605 ‘Mess Convection 810 alg benteen Friton, Heat Tansy, ant Mes arse ‘oeticients 84 Lumitaton en the Heat Mass Canection Analogy 816 Mase ConvectonRalstons #15 14-10 Simultaneous Heat and Mass ‘Transfer 819 Summary 825 References and Supaested Reading 827 Problems 828, APPENDIX I PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS) 841 Table A-1 Molar mass, gas constant, and ideal-gas specific heats of same Table A-2 properties 843 Table A-3_—_ Properties of solid metals 44-846 Table A~4 Properties of solid nonmetals 847 Table A-8 Properties of building materials 848-849 Table A-6 Properties of insulating materials 850 Table A-T Properties of common foods 851-852 Table A-8 Properties of miscellaneous iaterials 853 Table A-9 Properties of saturated water 854 Table A-10 Properties of saturated refrigerant 34a 855 Table A-11 Properties of satarated ammonia 856 Table A-12 Properties of saturated propane 837 Table A-13 Properties of iquids 858 Table A-14 Properties of liquid metals 859Table A-15 Table A-16 Table A-17 Table A-18 Propenties of air at 1 tm pressure 860 Properties of gases at 1 tm pressure 861-862 ‘Propeities ofthe atmosphere at high altiude 863 [Bmissivities of surface 864-865, Table A-19 Figure A-20 INDEX 869 Solar radiative properties of materials 866 ‘The Moody chart forthe frictio factor for fully developed flow in circular pipes 867BACKGROUND physics. The completion of fist courses in thermodynamics, fuid mechanics, land differential equations prior to taking heat transfer is desirable, However, relevant concepts from these topics are introduced and ceviewed as needed, OBJECTIVES ‘This book is intended for undergraduate engineering students in their sopho- rote or junior year, and as 2 reference book by practicing engineers. The ob- Jectives of this text are + To cover the basic principles of heat transfer + Topresent a wealth of real-world engineering examples to give students ‘a fel for how heat transfer is applied in engineering practice + ‘To develop an intuitive understanding of heat transfer by emphasizing the physics and physical arguments. Tis our hope that this book, through its careful explanations of eoncepts and its use of numerous practical examples and figures, helps the students develop the necessary skills to bridge the gap between knowledge and the confidence for proper application ofthat knowledge, ‘nh enginecting practice, an understanding of the mechanisms of heat transfers ‘becoming ineeasingly important since heat wansfer plays a crucial role in the de~ ign of vehicles, power plants, reftigerators, electronic devices, buildings, and bridges, among other things. Even a chef needs to have an intuitive understanding ofthe heat transfer mechanism in order to cook the food “right” by adjusting the rate of heat transfer, We may nat be aware of it, but we already use the principles ‘of heat transfer when seeking thermal comfort. We insulste our bodies by putting ‘om heavy coats in svinter, and wo minimize heat gain by radiation by staying in shady plaés in summer, We speed up the cooting of hot food by blowing. on itand keep warm in cold weather by cuddling up and thus minimizing the exposed sur- face area. Tat is, we already use heat transfer whether we realize itor not GENERAL APPROACH ‘This text is the outcome of an attempt to have a textbook for a practically oriented heat transfer course for engineering students. The text covers the xistandard topics of heat transfer with an emphasis on physies and real-world applications. This approach is more inline with students" intuition, and makes learning the subject matter enjoyable. “The philosophy that contesbuted to the overwhelming popularity ofthe prior editions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition, Namely, our goal has been to offer an engineering textbook + Communicates dvectly tothe minds of tomorrow's engincers in a sim- ple yer precise manner, + Leads students toward a clear understanding and flem grasp ofthe basic principles of heat teansfer, + Encourages creative thinking and development of a deeper understand: ing and intuitive fee! for beat transfer. + Is read by students with interest and enthusiasm rather than being used as an ad to solve problems, ‘Special effort has been made to appeal to students’ natural curiosity and 10 help them explore the various facets of the exciting subject area of heat trans {es. The enthusiastic response we received from the users of prior editions— {rom small colleges to large universities all over the world—indicates that our objectives have largely been achieved. Itis our philosophy thatthe best way 10 leam is by practice. Therefore, special effort is made throughout the book to reinforce material that was prevented earlier ‘Yesterday's engineer spent a major portion of his o her time substituting val us into the formulas and ebiaining numerical results, However, now Formula ‘manipulations and number crunching are being left mainly to the computers. ‘Tomorrow's engineer will have to have a clear understanding and a firm grasp of the basic principles so that he oc she can understand even the most complex problems, formulato them, and interpret the results. A conscious effort is made to emphasize these basic principles while also providing students with a per- spective at how computational tools are used in engineering practice. NEW IN THIS EDITION All the popular features ofthe previous edition are retained while new ones fare added, With the exception ofthe coverage ofthe theoretical foundations of ‘wansient heat conduction and moving the chapter “Cooling of Hlectronic Equipment” to the Online Learning Center, the main body of the text remains largely unchanged. The most significant changes in this edition are high- lighted below. ANEW TITLE ‘The title of the book is changed to Heat and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach to attract attention 0 the coverage of mass transfer. All tops related to mass transfer, including mass convection ané vapor migration through build ing materials, are introduced in one comprehensive chapter (Chapter 4), EXPANDED COVERAGE OF TRANSIENT CONDUCTION ‘The coverage of Chapter 4, Transient Heat Conduction, is now expanded toin- clude (1) the derivation of the dimensionless Biot and Fourier numbers by ‘nondimensionalizing the heat conduction equation and the boundary and initialconditions, (2) the derivation of the analytical solutions of a one-dimensional ‘uansicnt conduction equation using the method of separation of variables, (3) the derivation of the solution ofa transient conduction equation inthe semi. infinite medium using a similarity variable, and (4) the solutions of transie hheat conduction in semi-infinite mediums for different boundary conditions such as specified heat flux and energy pulse at the surface FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING (FE) EXAM PROBLEMS “To prepare students for the Fundamentals of Engineering Exam (that is bo- coming more important for the outcome-based ABET 2000 criteria) and to fa cilitate multiple choice tests, about 250 multiple-choice problems arc included in the end-of-chapter problem sets, They are placed under the title “Funda- rentals of Engineering (FE) Exam Problems” for easy recognition. These problems are intended to check the understanding of fundamentals and t help readers avoid common pitfalls. MICROSCALE HEAT TRANSFER Recent inventions in micro and nano-scale systoms and the development of ‘micro and nano-scale devices continues to pose new challenges, and the derstanding ofthe fluid Now and heat transfer at such scales is becoming more and more important. In Chapter 6, microscale heat transfer is presented as a ‘Topic of Special Interest ‘THREE ONLINE APPLICATION CHAPTERS ‘The application chapter “Cooling of Electronic Equipment” (Chapter 15) is ‘now moved to the Online Learning Center together with two new chapters “Heating and Cooling of Buildings” (Chapter 16) and “Refrigeration and Freezing of Foods” (Chapter 17). Please visit wwwanhbe,com/eengel. CONTENT CHANGES AND REORGANIZATION With the exception of the changes already mentioned, minor changes are made the main body ofthe tex. Nearly 400 new problems are added, and many of the existing problems are revised,,The noteworthy changes in Various chapters are summarized here for those who are familiar with the previous edition. ‘The title of Chapter 1 is changed to “Introduction and Basic Concepts.” ‘Some artwork is replaced by photos, and several review problems on the first law of thermodynamics are deleted. + Chapter 4 “Transient Heat Conduction” is revised greatly, as explained previously, by including the theoretical background and the mathemati- cal details of the analytical solutions. + Chapter 6 now has the Topic of Special Interest “Microscale Heat Trans- fer" contributed by Dr. Subrata Roy of Kettering University + Chapter 8 now has the Topic of Special Inerest "Transitional Flaw in ‘Tubes" contributed by Dr. Afshin Ghajar of Oklahoma State University + Chapter 13 *Heat Exchangers” is moved up as Chapter 11 to sueceed “Boiling and Condensation” and to precede “Radiation.” + In the appendices, the values of some physical constants are updated, and Appendix 3 “Introduction to EES” is moved to the enclosed CD and the Online Learning CenterSUPPLEMENTS ‘The following supplements are available tothe adopters of the book. ENGINEERING EQUATION SOLVER (EES) CD-ROM (Limited Academic Version packaged free with every new copy of the tex!) Developed by Sanford Klein and William Beckman from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, this software combines equation-solving capability and cenginecting property data, EES can éo optimization, paramettic analysis, and Tinear and nonlinear regression, and provides publication-quality plotting ¢2- pabilities. Thermodynamic and transport properties for air, water, and many ther fluids are builtin, and BES allows the user to enter property data or func~ tional relationships. Some probiems are solved using EES, and complete solutions together with parametric studies are included on the enclosed CD-ROM. To obtain the full version of EES, contact your MeGraw-Hill representative o visit www-mlhe.comlees. INSTRUCTOR'S RESOURCE CD-ROM (Available to instructors only) ‘This CD, available to instructors only, includes the solutions manual by chapter, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS would like to acknowledge with appreciation the numerous and valuable comments, suggestions, constructive criticisms, and praise from the following evaluators and reviewers Suresh Advani, Rada Daneseu, Unversity of Delaware ‘North Dakota State Unversity Mark Barker, Prashanta Dutta, Levitan Teh University ‘Washington State University John R, Biddle, Richard A. Gardner, California State Ptecie Unversng vWoshagon Universi Sanjeev Chanda, Afshin J. Ghajar, Universi of Toronto ‘Otahoma Soe Univer Shaochen Chen, S.M. Ghiaasiaan, Univers of Teas, Austin Gorgiainaiat of Technology Fan-Bill Cheung, Alnin Kassab, Penneyvona State University ‘Univer of Cental Florida Vie A. Cundy, Roy W. Knight, Montona State University Audra UniversityMillvoje Kostic, Abhijit Mukhesie, Mer tt Cres okey Wayne Krause, Your Petes, Se Dao co eran ee Payee Feng C. Lai “ers tn erie thoma aes. Lee, Paul Riskos, Unserayof Worth Caofina, Carlote New Mexico State University ‘Subrsta Roy, Alistair Macpherson, “ Keaering Untversiy Lehigh Unbersiy ‘Saeed Manafvaden, Brian Sangeorzan, Univers of Minos atin Unters AK. Mehrotra, Michael Thompson, Unive of Calgary Medlaster Univers ‘Their suggestions have greatly helped to improve the quality of this text Special thanks are due to Afshin J. Ghajar of Oklahoma State University ‘and Subrata Roy of Kettering University for contributing new sections and ‘problems, and to the following for contributing problems for this edition: Edward Anderson, Texas Tech University ‘Radu Daneseu, General Electric (GE) Energy brahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada Mehmet Kanoghu, University of Gaziantep, Turkey Wayne Krause, South Dakota School of Mines Anil Mehrotra, University of Calgary, Canada also would like to thank my students and instructors from all over the globe, ‘wha provided plenty of feedback from students’ and users’ perspectives. Fi- nally, would like to express my appreciation to my wife and children for their continued patience, understanding, and support throughout the preparation of this text. Yunus A. GongelTOOLS TO ENHANCE LEARNING A GUIDED TOUR— "Tho iperaave of to ai adjacent w the egg i abe] and thus its dons is lower, since at constant presi the density ofa gas is inversely proportional tots temperate, “Thus, We have a situation In which some low-density of “light gs is sucrounded bya high-density or heavy" ws ad the natal favs dictate tha the ight gc riz. Ts is 0 diferent than the oi ina vinegar-andol salad dressing ing tothe top (ence ay < ona) This phenomenon i characterized incorectiy by the pres “hea ite” which is understood to mess heated air rze, The spice vacated bythe warmer ai ia the viizty ofthe egg is replaced by the cooler sir nearby, an the presence of cooler ai inte einity ofthe egg speeds up the cooling process, The rs of warmer ar andthe flow of cote air ino is place con tines unt the epg is coated 0 the temperature ofthe sar rounding ait EFFECTIVE USE OF BOMPLES- Boiling Eggs ASSOCIATION ‘an oriaryean con be appointed asa Ser atest 4-21). Thos ‘An observant mind should have no difficulty | isin sta nor temperature aod is creppd ito ang water at 93, nderstanding engineering sciences, Afier ali, | Trg th conection at ane cosfisiet tobe h= 1200 Wet, detrae Sou gel br ceo gnc 0 the principles of engineering sciences are based 8 ‘on our everyday experiences and experimental | SOLUTION Angered itl wer he ig ine te ee be ‘observations. The process of cooking, for ex- | sxe Sole seresasancrccnvcsclew demon. | Afi hee pac dae wih t= 28cm 2 ercten ne cosa esa ceo ural ey ae sete the base principles of eat wanser. | etwas eet a fe eae et cote Clr 4 he Fut nna be 02st nee pete se Sura spe EMPHASIS ON PHYSICS ‘The author belicves that the emphasis jn undergraduate education should remain on developing a sense of anderiying physical mechanisms and 41 mastery of solving practical prob- Jems that an enginees is Likely to face inthe real worl. é in Effect SELF-INSTRUCTING 4 Fin Effectiveness ‘he mater ints tenis noe at a ) sar medio ever etre andtioaseof| [eel that an average sedent can TllOw fins on a surface cannot be recommended unless the ‘echancerent in heat transfer justifies the added cost, comfortably. It speaks fo students, not over students In fact, tis selfinstructve, The or- te como ssc the te In fy @ On thore te no nsserance thet ang fins en a surface | 428 OF coverage is from simple to general ae wil enone hea arse The pronsace ofthe d in edged on the ts ofthe etunene tea tnser tele othe neato pir ca ance of fins exprsied In trms ofthe i eee encase” tvenesr 2, €efined a Fig. 3-4, witune 4-4 Asal oppertltcan be modeled Stamped set, bares tect ean. LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND SUMMARIES snort ne acme | ‘vance of the material, ARTWORK book in this category. INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS ysl undergoes oes rn ov elie sat sot ek tle een oh org tbe pes wl as Bat egies Inge en itera he at of et eae Bich steep of essence of ranger ‘West th pte ih veo the inde coe cf hee “yzanice dt for the fnew er heat wane Me ft present elton of het hear fg sn reves tne, We (hen pent te thes asian str he ena on, coat, and easiness them cansciry. Comicon seater of ety fom heme ene pancho cna he sujet secret nea ae nractons eee he pais CComecon se ote of heat wane neces red be cea glo us that ie eo, a8 ees We combed e's of ont ai ld oan. Ruts oe ie nate Farm empire (or pn) rl of changes te len cenigotins of i ams or oll. We coe ths caper vita acs of ile he se, [ao tthe noun Sar as cnxernes her i sug chp sb tsb or boned ak ai eho, Disa nate fom bot eno ee ‘emote, Prom gel ene sea tceeey aces, utd io tins tha ane whch eatin cin, in Fare hota Reet ail Sia its aon asa be mc a ee stein, Bewley Sch asl bate canted, EXTENSIVE USE OF Artis an important learning tool that helps sta dents “get the picture.” The tied edition of Heat ‘and Mass Transfer: A Practical Approach con- ins more figures ang ilfstrations than any other CaitCIRO TIL | EXAnPLE 1-9 wasation et on Thermal NUMEROUS Fen cntye wee WORKED-OUT “irs cues oer wen te amt EXAMPLES WITH Misc” verling kom clon Neat cones be A SYSTEMATIC ‘twee eur bodies and the sureunding surfaces ofthe walls, SOLUTIONS Car 2 pion sand a 2 oan manasa ot PROCEDURE 200 Hl ew Tee Stes fl Teo mat | Bach chapter contains several maeceingeretons necoenegtone nner TET? | yorked-out examples that laity the Detein th ot of aiation eat nae eee is material and illustrate the use of the esr ad sures eps sas basi principles. An intlve and Schone nou cut utes enue! bebe femate approach ted inthe sol So aedeand 20 pce Pa 10. : OE OA Ee SOLUTION The telnet abn niaiiining an informal converse panon adh sedges pied pi tional syle. The problem is est Caer tote armed eo nt ined, as the objectives tse iden Aspnes pert ods et 2a Tee core oe “pec tana tnd ope wih nc see ‘Cheareuraeg sate sens ompene tons: The properties needed to solve Iegieheotaniytspane 98 the problem ae listed separately, if Aaayie The net aes of tain est Wonse fom the dy tothe sureueing wall, celieg, anda in winter appropriate. This approach is also used consistently in the solutions sa summer oe presented in the instructor's solu Bou nc 278 Then) tions manual A WEALTH OF REAL-WORLD END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS ‘The end-of-chapter problems are grouped under specific topics to make. problem selection easier for both instructors and students. Within each group of problems are: + Concept Questions, indicated by °C," to check the students" level of [5i¢ wean amen nissmmeiobop understanding of basie concepts. (cei es ete ce ie Soininengeesoeaamue oes quite review of matesial learned in previous chapters. + Design and Essay are intended to encourage students to make en neering judgments, to conduct independent exploration of topics of interest, and to communicate thei findings ina professional manter. Te Aiicaiay tread ci eas] + Revfew Problems are more comprehensive in nature and are not cl ar ee co rectly tied to any specific section of a chapler—in some eases they re+ Fundamentals of Engineering Exam problems ae clearly marked snd intended to check the understanding of fundamentals, to help stu dents avoid common pitfalls, and to prepare students for the FE Bxam that is becoming more important for the outcome based ABET 2000 criteria, (Q& These problems are solved wsing EES, end complete soluions together with parametric studies are included on the enclosed cD-ROM, Bes problems are comprehensive innate andar intended tobe solved with a computer, preferably using the EBS software thst ac~ ‘companies this text Several economics- and safety-related problems are incorporated throughout tocenhance cost and safety awareness among engineering students, Answers (© selected problems are listed immediately following the problem for conve- rience to students.ieee Heat Transfer through Windows ‘Windows are glazed apertures in the building envelope that typically con- sist of single or multiple glazing (glass or plastic), framing, and shading. In building envelope, windows offer the least resistance to heat transfer. Ina typical house, about one-third ofthe total heat loss in winter occurs through the windows, Also, most air infiltration occurs atthe edges of the windows. ‘The solar heat gain through the windows is responsible for much of the cooling load in surmmer. The net effect of a window on the heat balance of ‘a building depends on the characteristics and orientation of the window as, ‘welt as the solar and weather data. Workmanship is very important in the consiruction and installation of windows to provide effective sealing around the edges while allowing them to be opened and closed easily Despite being so undesirable from an energy conservation point of view, ‘windows are an essential part of any building envelope since they enhance. the appearance of the building, allow daylight and solar heat to come in, and allow people to view and observe outside without leaving their home. For low-rise buildings, windows also provide easy exit areas during emer- gencies such as fie. Important considerations in the selection of windows, are thermal comfort and energy conservation. window should have a good light transmittance while providing effective resistance (o heat trans- fer, The lighting requirements ofa building can be minimized by maximiz~ ing the use of natural daylight. Heat loss in winter through the windows can 'be minimized by using airtight double- or tiple-pane windows with spec tually selective films or coatings, and letting in as much solar radiation as possible. Hest gain and thus cooling load in summer can be minimized by sing effective internal or extemal shading on the windows, ‘Conversion Factors CONVERSION FACTORS Frequently used conversion factors andl physical constants [ies at = ota ae listed on the inner cover = 10a DIMENSION | METRIC ciation Ta Oden 0 nt pages of the text for easy |S” ae = 1 = 1000? reference. ve, nt nor | 2K) = Y0g0 = 1000 in = ners esoay” | 1 lag 1000 tit vont) Heim 280010 Tara atend TOPICS OF SPECIAL INTEREST Most chapters contain a real world application, end-of-chapter optional section called “Topic of Special Interest” where interesting applica- tions of heat transfer are discussed such a$ Thermal Comfort in Chap- ter 1, A Brief Review of Differential Equations in Chapter 2, Heat Trans- {fer through the Walls and Roofs in ‘Chapter 3, and Heat Transfer through Windows in Chapter 9. METRICrENGLISH Tr = 2800 te fie = ate" mt nf = 1950 = 10.769 08 ERP da = 9.89000 wt 1 gor = 62.428 toe = 0098127 be 1 ings 78 ou agin acoA ate 1 = 094762 Be Tew aseossa Te.hoass pia = 779,169 bt mnin = 23057 = 2906" lng {bum = 108 at 2.055 10>INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS ‘a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and ‘makes no reference to how long the process will take. But in enginees- ing, we are often interested in the rate of heat transfes, which is the topic of the sclence of heat ransfer. ‘We stat this chapter with a review of the fundamental concepts of thermo- dynamics that form the framework for heat transfer. We first present the relation of heat to other forms of energy and review the energy balance. We then present the three basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduc tion, convection, and radiation, and discuss thermal conductivity. Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent, less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the patticles. Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adja cent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion, Radiation isthe energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. We close this chapter with a discussion of simulkancous heat transfer. T: science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer as ‘OBJECTIVES . hen you fish studing this hap, you shoud beable 1 "Undergand ho thamodyranies end hat ransfer re rlated to ach athe, 1s Distinguish thermal enc rom oer forms of ney, and hea transfor rom cher os of neg trans, err general era lances swell as surace energy tlarces, derstand the Sais necanisns heat ante, wc re candctn, cameo, and raciation, and Fourie’ la of heat conduction, Newton's aw of cooing, andthe Sfan-Eoltzmana law of eiaton, ‘2 entity the mechanisms of heat ransfr tht occur simultaneously in practice, ‘= Develop an awarenass ofthe ons associated with eat asses, and ‘5 Solve various teat transter problems encountered in practice ONTENTS. ea aan Trini eco iee et Co uanlie Coie Coit te Cea! (nie): Ret iat (eines COs tee CIDA) DI ac rue ere ie UU Pe Course Cieines eo FIGURE 1-1 We are normally interested in how tong takes for the hot coffee in a thermos bose to cool tow certain temperature, ‘hich earn be determined foun 8 thermodynamic analysis alone kd ff WAT cnt FIGURE 1-2 Heat flows inthe direction of decreasing temperature. 1-1 = THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER ‘We all know from experience that a colé canned drink left a room warms up and ‘a werm canned drink left in a refrigerator cools down. This is accomplished by the transfer of energy from the wart medium tothe cold one. The energy transfer is always from the higher temperature medium tothe lower temperature one, and the ‘energy transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature. ‘You will recall from thermodynamics that energy exists in various forms. In this text we are primarily interested in heat, which is the form of energy that ‘can be transferred fiom one system to another asa result of temperature dif- [Jorence, The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such en= ‘ergy transfers is heat transfer. "You may be wondering why we need to undertake a detailed study on heat transfer. Afterall, we can determine the amount of heat transfer for any sys~ tem undergoing any process using a thermodynamic analysis alone, The rea- son is that thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives 1o indication about how long the process will take. A thermodynamic analy sis simply tells us how much heat must be transferred to realize a specified ‘change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principe. Tn practice we are more concemed about the rate of heat transfer (heat rans- fer per unit time) than we are withthe amount of it. For example, we can de. temaine the amount of heat transferced from a thermos bottle 2s the hot coffee inside cools from 90°C to 80°C by a thermodynamic analysis alone. Buta typ- fecal user or designer of a thermos botle is primarily interested in how long it will be before the hot coffee inside cools to 80°C, and a thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this question, Determining the rates of heat transfer to for from a system and thus the imes of heating or cooling, as well as the vari ation of the temporature, isthe subject of heat transfer (Fig. 1-1). “Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equi- librium state to another, Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with systems that Jack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is « nonequilérium phenomenon. There: fore, the stody of heat transfer cannot be based on the principles of thermo- dynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the framework for 1 science af heat transfer. The first aw requires thatthe rate of enesgy transfer into a system be equal tothe rate of increase ofthe energy of that system. The second law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing tem: perature (Fig. 1-2), This is lke a car parked on an inclined road must go down- Till in the diection of decreasing elevation when its brakes are released. It is also analogous to the electic curent flowing in he direction of decreasing volt- ‘age or the fluid flowing in the direction of decreasing total pressure. ‘The basic roquirement for heat transfer isthe presence of a temperature dif- {ference.’Tvere can be no net heat transfer between two bodies that are atthe ‘same temperature, The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current flow and pressure difference isthe driving force for fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature _gradient (the temperature difference per unit length or the rate of change of temperature) in that direction. The lager the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.Application Areas of Heat Transfer “Heat transfer is commonly encountored in engineering systems and other as- pects of life, and one does not need to go very Tar to see some application areas of heat transfer. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The human boxy is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings, and human comfort is closely tied tothe rate of tis heat rejection, We try to control this eat tans fer rate by adjusting our clothing tothe environmental conditions Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole oF in par, by using the principles of heat transfer. Some examples ilude the electric or gas range. the heating and air-conditioning system, the refrigerator and freezer, the ‘water heater, the iron, and even the computer, the T, and the DVD player. Of course, enesgy-efficient homes are designed on the basis of minimizing heat foss in winter and heat gain in summer. Heat transfer plays a major role inthe design of many other devices, such as car radiators, solar collectors, various components of power plants, and even spaceeraft (Hig, 1-3). The optimal i sulation thickness inthe walls and roofs ofthe houses, on hot water of stant pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the bass of a heat transfer analysis with economic consideration Historical Background Heat has always been perceived to be somothing that produces in us a sonsa- tion of warmth, and one would think thatthe nature of hea is one ofthe frst Carradiatos| Refrigeration systems FIGURE 1-3 Sone application areas of hea transfer. NCunt dg, ratinor: ©The MeCraw Hil Comprises rater pt aphr Plane © ob. Pate; Hunan: Ook Talitha: Pome plow Carseat FeeRee AC onset forsee FIGURE 1-4 Ta the ealy nineteenth century, heat was thought tobe an invisible ld called dhe ‘calorie hat flowed from warmer bodies tothe cooler ones things understood by mankind, Buti was ony in the mide ofthe nineteenth century that we hada tre physical understanding ofthe natre of heat, thanks tothe development at that time ofthe kinetic theory whch treats molecules 4 tiny balls tha are in motion and thus possess kinetic energy. Heat is then defined as the energy associated wit the random motion of atoms and'mole~ tales, Although it was suggested inthe eighteenth and crly nineteenth cen tries that heat isthe manifestation of motion atthe molecular level alled the Five force), the prevailing view of heat until the mile of the nineteenth cen tury vas based on the ealore theory proposed by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) in 1789, The calorie theory asserts that heat sa hide substance called the calorie that isa massless, colorless odrless, and tasteless substance that can be poured from one body into another (Fig. 1-4). When Caloric was added to a body, its temperature increased and wien caloric was removed from a body, its teraperature decreased. When a body could not con- tain aay more calorie, much the same way as when a glass of water could not dissolve any more salto supa, the body wa said tobe saturated with caloric. “This interpretation gave rset the tems samrated liquid and saturated vapor that are sil in use today. “The caloric theory came under attack soon after its introduction, It main- tained thet heats a substanes that could not be created or destroyed. Yet it was ‘nowa that heat ean be generated indefinitely by rubbing one’s hands together or rubbing two pieces of wood together. In 1798, the American Benjamin “Thompson (Count Rumford) (1753-1814) showed in his papers thet heat can be generated continuously through fiction. The validity ofthe ealoric theory ‘vas also challenged by several others. But it was the careful experiments of the Englishman James P, Joule (1818-1889) published in 1843 that finally convinced the skeptics that heat was nota substance after all, and thus pat the Calorie theory to rest, Although the calorie theory was totally abandoned in the imide ofthe nineteenth century it contibued greatly tothe development of thermexdynamies and heat transfer. 1-2 + ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER ‘eat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condense, radia tors, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed pri- macily on the basis of heat transfer analysis. ‘The heat transfer problems ‘encountered in practice can be considered in two groups: (1) rating and (Q) sizing problems. The rating problems deal with the determination of the hheat transfer rate for an existing system at a specified temperature difference. ‘The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to transfer heat ata specified rate fora specified temperature difference. ‘An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (lest- ing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations). ‘The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, ‘within the limits of experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often impractical. Besides, the system we are analyzit ‘may aot even exist. For example, the entire heating and plumbing systems of a building must usually be sized Before the building is actually built on the basis of the specifications given. The analytical approsch (including thenumerical approach) has the advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approxima- tions, and idealizstions made in the analysis. In engineering studies, often a ‘g00d compromise is reached by reducing the choices to just a few by analysis, ‘and then verifying the findings experimentally. Modeling in Engineering ‘The descipsons of not scientific problems involve equations tht eat the changes in some key vaabeso cach her, Usually the smaller the increment hose inthe changing varbles, the more general and accurate te eseip tan In the lining case of infinitesimal or eifferental changes in variables, ste obtain differential equations thal provide presi mathematical formula: tons forte pysieal principles and favs by epreseting the rates of cage ts derivatives, Therefore, differential equations ae used fo investigate a ide taviety of problems in scences and engineering (Fig. -5). However, many problems encountered in pacce canbe solved walout reson oar Fal equation andthe complication essoeited wih hem “te stay of posta! plenomer involves vo important ep. Inthe Hirst stp. all the arable ht affect he phenomena are gente, reasonable a Samprions and approximations ate made, and the intesdependence of these variables is stodied. The elevant piel laws and pinepes are invoked, and Theproblem is formulate mathematically The equation Hef svery str fea itshows the degre of cependence of some waiahle on aera the restive inprtnce of vacous terms In the scend step th problem sled Using sn appropiate apronch, andthe resus ar interpreted Many processes tha sem fo occr in nature randomly and without any cdr arn fac, being governed by some visible or not-so-visible pisicl Inws Whether we notes them or no, these la are there, governing consis ten and riety what seem to be osinary events. Most ofthese laws ae Well defined and wll understood by scientists. ‘This makes i possible to pe Git he course ofan event before acl cca oro stay various apects ofan event mathematically thot ase rong expensive and meen Saming experiments This is whey the power of analyses, Very accra Tesls to meaningful practical problems canbe obtained ‘ifort by using suitable and elise mathematical model, The preparation fof such model requires an adequate knowledge ofthe natural phenomena involved ahd the relevant ns, es wel asa sound judgment. An utvealistc node wll obviously give inaccurate and thas unccepabe sults ‘an analyse Working. on an engineering peobiem often finds himself or herself ina positon fo make a choice between avery ascarat bt complex Inode, and a simple but not so-acourate mode. The gt choice depends on Thesiaton at hand The it choice is mall the simplest model hat ysl adequate results For example the process oftaling potatoes or roasting & round chon of beet in an ote can be tied analyte ina simple way by tmtsting the potato or he estas aspera sol tll hat has the properties Uf water Fig. 16) the model is quite spe, but te rests cbaied ae su cel aceurte for most practical parposes-As another example, when We Enalj2s the heat losses from a building in ode o sec the ight sire for 8 Teste, we determin the eat losses under eniipated worst conditions and Select furnace thet wil provide suit energy tomake op for those ese Physical poem entity Igoe wanes Make resonable stoops sod ee pees pala is ‘alee union ‘apy synleale ‘site| ‘Aly unity etae ‘lala ‘ions Selon of he pb FIGURE 1-5, Mathematical modeling of physical problems Weer ted FIQURE 1-8 ‘Modeling is a powerful eiginecting ‘oo that provides great nsfht and simplicity at he expense of— Often we tend to choose a larger furnace in anticipation of some future ex- pansion, or just to provide a factor of safety. A very simple analysis is ade: ‘quate in this case, ‘When selecting heat taansfer equipment, it is important to consider the ac- ‘ual operating conditions. For example, when purchasing a heat exchanger that will handle hard water, we rust consider that some calcium deposits will form on the heat tansfer sucfaces over time, causing fouling and thus a grad- tual dectine in performance. The heat exchanger must be selected on the basis (of operation under these adverse conditions instead of under new conditions. Preparing very accurate but complex models is usually not so difficult, Butsuch models are not much use to an analyst if they ae very dificlt and time. consuming to solve, At the minimum, the model should reflect the essential features of the physical problem it represents. There are many significant real- world problems that can be analyzed with a simple model. But it should always be kept in mind thatthe results obtained from an analysis are 2s accu- rate as the assumptions made in simplifying the problem. Therefore, the solu- tion obtained should not be applied to situations for which the original assumptions do not hold ‘A solution that is not quite consistent withthe observed nature ofthe prob: lem indicates thatthe mathematical model used is too crude. In thst case, a ‘more realistic model should be prepared by eliminating one or more of the ‘questionable assumptions, This will result in a more complex problem that, of ‘course, is mote difficult to solve. Thus any solution to a problem should be interpreted within the context of its formulation. 1-3 + HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, po tential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the (otal energy £ (or ¢ on a unit mass bass) of a system. The forms of energy related to the molecolar structure of 2 system and the degree of the molecular activity are seferred to as the microscopic energy. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system, and is denoted by Y (or won a unit mass basis). ‘The international unt of energy is joule (J) or kilojoute (1 kI = 1000 3). In the English system, the unit of energy is the British thermal unit (Btw), which is defined as the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 Ibm of water at 60°F by 1°R, The magnitudes of kI and Btu are almost identical (1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ). Another well-known unit of energy is the calorie (cal = 4.1868 J), which is defined as the energy needed to raise the temper- ature of I gram of water at 14.5°C by 1°C. Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential ener: gies of the molecules. The portion of the internal energy of a systein 2sso- ciated with the kinetic energy of the molecules is called sensible energy or sensible heat, The average velocity and the degree of activity of the molecules are proportional to the temaperature, Thus, at higher temperatures the mole- ‘cules possess higher kinetic energy, and as a result, the system has a higher internal energy. ‘The intemal energy is also associated with the intermolecular forces be- tween the molecules of a system, These are the forces that bind the moleculesto.ach other, and, as one would expect, they are strongest in solids and weak- cst in gases. If sufficient energy is added to the molecules ofa solid or liquid, they will evercome these molecular forces and simply break away, turing the system to a gas. Ths is a phase change process and hecause ofthis added en- cigy, a system in the gas phase is ata higher internal energy level than itis in the Solid or the liquid phase. The intemal energy associated withthe phase of ‘a system i called latent energy or latent heat. “The changes mentioned above can occur without a change in the chemical sss ‘composition of a system. Most heat transfer problems fall into this category, land one does not need te pay any attention to the forces binding the atoms in ‘a molecule together. The internal energy associated withthe atomic bonds in ‘a molecule is called chemical (or bond) energy, whereas the intemal energy associated with the bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is called nuclear energy. The chemical and nuclear energies are absorbed or released ‘during chemical or nuclear reactions, respectively. In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we frequently encounter the combination of properties w and Pv. For the sake of simplicity and conve. = rience, this combination is defined as enthalpy h. That, t= w+ Pu where FOURE 1-7 the tenn PU represents the flow eneray of the fluid (also called the flow work), The iaernal energy a repeseats the mi which isthe energy needed to push a fluid and to maintain flow. Inthe energy croscopic energy of x nonowing fu, analysis of flowing fluids, itis convenient ro treat the flow energy as part of whereas ensalpy represents te micro- the energy of the fluid and to represent the microscopic energy of a Muid scopic eneigy of flowing Hud stream by enthalpy h (Fig, 1-7). a. nen = Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids ‘You may recall that an Ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys the relation Pu=RT oe P= pRT on ‘where P is the absolute pressure, Vis the specific volume, Tis the thermody- namic (or absolute) temperature, p is the density, and R isthe gas constant It hhas been experimentally observed that the ideal gas relation given above closely approximates the P-V-T behavior of real gases at low densities. At low pressnres and high temperatures the density ofa gas decreases and the gas be- hhaves like an ideal gas Inthe range of practical interest, many familias gases such as ait, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, and krypton and ‘even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error (often less than one percent). Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants and refrigerant vapor in refrigerators, however, should not always be Ueated as ideal gases since they usually exist ata state near saturation ‘You may also recall that specific heat is defined as she energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree (Fig. 1-8). In gencral, this energy depends on how the process is exccuted. We are usually Interested in two kinds of specific heats: specific heat at constant volume cy and specific heat at constant pressure cy The speifc heat at constant Poure 1-8 olunte canbe views asthe energy rouied tras the temperate Speci heats th ener eqhie o ‘nit aes ofa substance by one degree asthe volume i held constant. The "ie he temperature ofa uit ase tery required to do the sie a the pressure is held consant isthe specifier esabnc by one degresina heat at constant pressure c,. The specific heat at consiant pressure ¢, specified way,EPS aE ona oa FIGURE 1-8 “The specific het of a substance changes with temperate, FIGURE 1-10 The ey and g, values of incompeessible substances are identical and ate denoted by c ‘eater than c, because at constant pressuse the system is allowed to expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system, For ideal gases, these (wo specific heats are related to each other by ¢ = otk. ‘A common unit for specific heats is ki/kg- °C or klikg » K. Notice that these ‘vo units are identical since AT(°C) = AT(K), and 1°C change in temperature is equivalent to a change of 1 K. Also, TRIp °C 1/g-9C = LIK K= Lig K ‘The specific heats of a substance, in general, depend on two independent properties such as temperature and pressure. For an ideal gaz, however, they depend on temperature only (Fig. 1-9). At low pressures all real gases ap- ‘proach ideal gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats depend on tem- perature only. “The differential changes in the intemal enesgy « and enthalpy fof an ideal 28s can be expressed in terms of the specific heats as due cdP and dh ey wa “The finite changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas during a process can be expressed approximately by using specific heat values at the average temperature a Buea AP and Mean OB) os au nega? and MHS peg OD a whore mis the mass ofthe system. 'A substance whose specific valome (or density) does not change with tem- perature or pressuce is called an incompressible substance. The specific vol~ lumes of solids and liquids essentially remain constant during a process, and thus they can be approximated as incompressible substances without sacrifie- ing rauch in accuracy, “The constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats are identical for incompressible substances (Fig. 1-10). Therefore, for solids and liquids the subscripts on c, and ¢, can be dropped and both specific heats can be rep- resented by a single symbol, ¢. That is, c, ac, = c. This result could also be deduced from the physical defiritioas of constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats, Specific heats of several common gases, liquids, and solids are given in the Appendix, "The specific heats of incompressible substances depend on temperature only. Therefore, the change in the intemal energy of solids and liquids can be expressed as AU = meqAT 8)where Cag isthe average specific heat evaluated at the average temperature [Note that the internal energy change of the systems that remain in a single phase (iquid, solid, or gas) during the process ean be determined very easily sasing average specific heats. Energy Transfer nergy cn be tranfeted to or from a given mass by two mechanism: heat ‘ranger Q and work. An energy ineraction is heat Uansfer i is diving fore is temperature dffeence. Othervise itis work. sing piston, a10- tating sha, and an electical wire crossing the sytem boundaries areal a- sociated with work interactions, Work done per af ine scaled power, and Is denoted by W. The unt of power W or hp (1 hp ~ 746 W). Car engines tod hydraulic, team, and gos trbines produce work compressors, Ls, tnd mixes consume work. Notice a the energy of a syst decreases as dvs work, and inreases as works done on ‘dil life, we frequnily refer tothe sensible and latent forms of intemal enegy a8 hea nd we tlk about the heat content of bodies (Fig. I-11). In thennodynanics, however, those forms of energy are waully referred f0 a8 thermal energy to prevent any confusion with heat anf. ‘The term heat and the associated phrases such as heat flow, heat addition, heat ejection, hea absorption, heat gon, heat os, hea sorage heat gee? tion electrical heating latent hoot body heal, and hea source sein eon tion use today, and the attempt to replace hea! in these phrases by thermal nergy had only limited success. These phrases are deeply rooted in out vo- Cabulary ad they ae used by both te ordinary people and seats witout causing any misunderstanding. For example, the phrase body heat i under. Stood To mean the thermal energy content of a body. Likewise, heat low is understood to mean the nanser ef thermal energy, notte ow of lI substance called ea, although the ater inconet interpretation based on the Calor theory, isthe origin ofthis prae, Aso the afer of eat ino ays tems froquecdly tefered to as hea addon athe transfer of heat ott of & system as ea rejection. Keepingin tine ih caren pric, we will refer tothe hema ney as hea andthe transfer of thermal energy a et tanger, The amount of heat transfered uring the process is denoted by Q. ‘The amount of heat transferred per tnt tintc is called heat transfer rate, and is denoted by ©. The overdot Stands forthe time derivative, “per unt tine The heat tansfer ate Q has the ont fs, which is equivalent to W. ‘When the rate of heat transfer @ is available, then the total amount of heat transfer Q during ine interval ean be determined fom [fer © os provided that the variation of @ with time is known, For the special case of = constant, the equation above reduces to o-d4 en FIGURE 1-11 “The sensible and Intent forms of internal ‘energy can be tansferted asa result of temperature difference, and they are refesred to a8 heat or thermal enerey.ie ‘{- 2m 4 i aE FIGURE 1-12 Feat fu is eat anf per wit time an per anne, an is etal C/A when is wniform over thearead, FIGURE 1-13 Schematic for Example “The rate of heat transfer per unit afea normal tothe direction of heat transfer iscalled heal flux, and the average heat fax is expressed as Pig I-12}, a-£ om “9 where A isthe heat transfer area. The unit of heat flux in English units is ‘Buf £8. Note that heat flux may vary with time as well as position on a surace EXAMPLE 1-1 Heating of a Copper Ball A 10-crm-dlameter copper ball isto be heated from 100°C to an average tem- perature of 150°C in 30 minutes (Fig. 1-13). Ting the average density and ‘pectic heat of eopper in this temperature range to be p ~ 8950 kalm? and Gp = 0.395 Kile + °C, respectively, determine (a) the total amount of heat ‘transfer tothe copper bal, () the average rate of heat transfer to the ball, and (the average heat tux. SOLUTION The cooper ball i tobe heated from 100° to 150°, The total heat transfer, the average rate of heat transfer, and the average heat flux are to be determined, Assumptions Constant properties ean be used for copper at the average temperature. Properties The average density and specific heat of copper are given to be 1p = 8950 kgimn® and cy = 0.395 kilkg °C. ‘Analysis (2) The amount of heat transferred tothe copper ball i simply the change in its internal energy, and Is determined from oorgy transfer othe system = nergy increase ofthe system AU = meg Tz) where m= pV= Epp = © (6950 kgin'X04 mi? Substituting 0 = (4.686 kgy0.395 kifkg -°CX(150 — 100)°C “Thorefre, 92.6 kd of heat needs tobe transferred tothe copper ball to heat i from 100°C to 150°. (0) Te rte of heat transfer normally changes during a process with time, How- lever, wo can determine the average rate of heat transter by dividing the total ammount of heat transfer by the time inten. Therefore, 2 2615 0 = GRP - oostsiats= saw(6) Heat fluc fs defined as te heat transfer er unit time per unit area, o the fale of heat transfer por unit area, Therefere, the average heat flux in this Or, Oou fag Set = Sos Discussion Note that heat flux may vary with location ona surface, The value calculated above fs the average heat fx aver the entie surace ofthe ball 1-4 « THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ‘The first aw of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of energy ciple, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms, Therefore, every bit of energy must be accounted for during a process. The conservation of energy principle (or the energy balance) for any system undergoing any process may be expressed as follovs: The net change (increase or decrease) inthe tora energy of the sys- tem during a process is equal tothe difference between the foal energy enter ing and the total energy leaving the system during that process. Taat is, ‘Total energy) (Torateverey'\ {Change inthe entering the |—| leaving the | ~ | total energy of “ system system the system "Noting that energy can be transferred to or from a system by heat, work, and ‘mass flow, and thatthe total energy of a simple compressible system consists of internal, kinctc, and potential energies, the energy balance for any system ‘undergoing any process can be expressed as Fa Em = aby o 10) on in the rate form, as . - ™ oan Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change unless the state ofthe system changes. Therefore, the energy change ofa system is zero (AL aim 0) if the state of the system does not ehange during the pracess, that Js, the process is steady. The energy balance in this case reduces 10 Fig. 114) ‘Steady, rate form: Ey = Boa (1-12) In the absence of significant electric, magnetic, motion, gravity, and surface tension effects (i, for stationary simple compressible systems), the change Hea te Wore Sy Ie waa Mass —— es FIGURE 1-14 Insteady operation, the rate of energy transfer toa system Is equa othe rate ‘of energy transfer from the system.FIGURE 1-15 Ia the absence of any work interactions, the change inthe eneray content of @ closed system is equa othe net, heat eansfer. in he total energy of @ system during a process is simply the change in its f- ternal energy. That is, AE seq = MU yan Tn heat transfer analysis, we are usually intezested only in the forms of en cexay that can be transferred as a result of a temperature difference, that is, heat fr thermal energy. In such cases it is convenient to write a heat balance and totreat the conversion of nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical energies into thecmal energy #s heat generation. The energy balance in that case ean be expressed as Qn ~ Qos, + Eye, = MBtomaseen a9) Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass) {A closed system consists of a fixed mass. The total energy B for most systems ‘cncountered in practice consist of the internal energy U. This especialy the tase for stationary systems since they don't involve any changes in their ve~ locity or elevation daring a process, The energy balance relation in that case reduces to Stationary closed system: Eig ~Eqy = AU = me AT MA where we expressed the internal energy change in terms of mass m, the spe- fic heat at constant volume c,, and the temperature change AT of the system. ‘When the system involves heat transfer only and no work interactions across its boundary, the energy balance relation further reduces to (Fig. 1-15) Stationary closed system. no work: Qamear 18) where @ is the net amount of heat transfer to or from the system. This is the form of the energy balance relation we will use most often when dealing with 2 fixed mass Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems ‘A large number of engineering devices such as water heaters and car radiators Jnvolve mass flow in and out of asystem, and are modeled as contol volumes. ‘Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions. The term steady means no change with me at a specified location. The opposite of steady is unsteady of transient. Also, the ter uniform implies no change with postion throughout a surface or region ata specified time. These mean- ings are consistent with their everyday usage (steady girlfriend, uniform distribution, ei). The total energy content of @ control volume dus Steady flow process remains coastant (Fey = constant). That i, dhe change inthe total energy of the control volume during such a process is 2240 {(AEqy — 0)-Thus the amount of energy entering a control volume in al forms {heal work, mass tansfer) Fora steady-flow process must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it "The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a flow device per unit ime is celled the mass flow rate, and is denoted by 1A fluid may flow in and out ofa contol volume trough pipes or ducts. The mass flow rate of a fluid flowing ina pipe or duct is proportional tothe cross-sectional area A, ofthe pipe or duct, the density p, and the velocity V ofthe fluid. The mass flow rate through a differential area dA, can be expressed as drt = pV/,dA, whese Ys the velocity component normal to d,. The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area is obtained by integration over A. ‘The flow of « fluid through a pipe or duct can often be approximated to be ‘one-dimensional. That is, the properties can be assumed to vary in one direc: tion only (the direction of flow), As a result, all properties are assumed to be uniform at aay cxoss section normal tothe flow direction, andthe properties fre assumed to have bulk average values over the entire cross section, Under the one-dimensional flow approximation, the mass flow rate ofa fluid flowing in pipe or duct can be expressed as (Fig. 1-16) m= pVA, Chel) 18) svhere p is the fluid density, Vis the average fluid velocity in the flow diree~ tion, and Ais the eross-sectiona area of the pipe or duet. The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct per unit time i called the volume flow rate U, and is expressed as ava (wh 1 Ua va= Bch) oan [Note thatthe mass flow rate of a fluid through a pipe or duct remains constant during steady flow. This is not the case for the volume flow rate, however, un- less the density of the fluid remains constant. For a steady-flow system with one inlet and one ext, the rate of mass flow into the control volume must be equal to the rate of mass flow out of it. That is, ny = thea = mi, When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible, which is usually the case, and there is no work interaction, the en- ergy balance for such a steady-flow system reduces to (Fig. 1-17) O=mak— mgt aK (i) where Q is the rate of net eat transfer into or out ofthe control volume. This is the form of the energy balance relation that we will use most often for stendy-flow systems. Surface Energy Balance ‘As mentioned inthe chapter opener, het is transfered by the mechanisms of conduction, convection, and radiation, and heat often changes vehicles as itis \tansferred from one medium to another. For example, the heat conducted to the outer surface of the wall of @ house in winter is convected away by the cold ‘outdoor ai while being radiated to te cold surroundings. In such cases, it nay be negessary to keep tack ofthe energy interactions atthe surface, and this is done by applying the conservation of energy principle tothe surface. A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy. Thereore, a sur face can be viewed as a fiettios system whose energy content remains con- stant during a process (just like a steady-state or steady-flow system), Then the energy balance fora surface can be expressed as, Surface energy balance: te Aros LY, eet enor FIGURE 1-16 ‘The mass flow rate of lui al across ‘section is qual to the product ofthe ‘uid densiy, average id velocity, ‘and the erots-secionsl area, Fate =A —T) FIGURE 1-17 Under steady conditions the net rate of enorgy tanser ta fluid na control ‘volume is equa tothe rae oierease in the energy ofthe Midstream flowing through the contol volumea FIGURE 1-18 nergy interactions atthe outer wall surface of a house, FIGURE 1-19 ‘Schematic for Bxample 1-2. ‘This relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions, and the surface cencrgy balance does not involve heat generation since a surface does not have ‘2 volume. Ths energy balance for the outer surface of the wall in Fig. 1-18, for example, can be expressed as 0,-0.4 05 20) where Q, is conduction through the wall to the surface, , is convection from the surface to the cutdloor sir, and Q is net radiation from the surface to the surroundings. ‘When the directions of interactions are not known, all energy interactions ‘can be assumed to be towards the surface, and the surface energy balance ean ‘be expressed a5 E Eq = 0, Note that the interactions in opposite direction will end up having negative valoes, and balance this equation, EXAMPLE 1-2 Heating of Water in an Electric Teapot 1.2 hg of liquid water initially at 15°C Is to be heated to 95°C in a teapot equipped with @ 1200W electric heating element inside (Fig. 1-19). The feapot is 0.5 ke and has an average spocitic feat of 0.7 Kalkg» K. Taking the Specific heat of water tobe 4.18 kif» K and dlaregarcing any heat loss from the teapot, determine how long it will ake forthe water to be heated. SOLUTION Liquid water Isto be heated in en electric teapot. The hating time is to be determined ‘Assunptions 1 Heat lose fom the teapot is negligible. 2.Constant properties ‘can be used for both the teapot and the veer. Propertios The average spectic heats are given to be 0.7 Kuk - K for the ‘teapot and 4.18 kifag- K for water. ‘analysts We take the teapot and the water In it a6 the system, which is 2 closed system (Fixed, mass). The energy balance in this case can ba.ex- prossed a5, Fp Bay = AB yom Ea AU yet AU yon + Unt “Then the amount of energy needed to rise the temperature af water and the teapot from 15°C to 95°C Is Fig (me AT oa * (me STs = (2 keKAAB EIR -"CKOS — 15)°C + OS kghO.7 kg °C) 5 = 157°C 429.310 The 1200-W electric heating unit will supply energy at a rate of 1.2 KW oF 1.2 ki per second, Therefore, the time needed for this heater to supply {429.3 kl of heat is determined from ‘Total energy tansfored Ey 42931 “Rate of energy wamsfer ~ Zeus 12S $85 = 60 min