Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Human Computer
Interaction
Claude Ghaoui
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Copyright 2006 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI of the trademark or registered trademark.
All work contributed to this encyclopedia set is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this encyclopedia set
are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Editorial Advisory Board
Abduction and Web Interface Design / Lorenzo Magnani and Emanuele Bardone ................................ 1
Adaptable and Adaptive Web-Based Educational Systems / Elena Gaudioso and Miguel Montero ....... 8
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities / Olga Nabuco,
Mauro F. Koyama, Edeneziano D. Pereira, and Khalil Drira .......................................................... 12
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion /
Chaomei Chen and Natasha Lobo ......................................................................................................... 24
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning / Jos Creissac Campos and Michael D. Harrison ...... 45
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis / Huachun Tan and Yujin Zhang .................................................. 60
Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada, A / Rocci J. Luppicini ................. 68
Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience / Simon Polovina and Will Pearson .... 85
Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users / Shari Trewin and Simeon Keates ..................................... 92
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering / Thierry Villemur and Khalil Drira ................... 128
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China / Kerstin Rse ................. 136
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development / Xavier Lacaze,
Philippe Palanque, Eric Barboni, and David Navarre ....................................................................... 154
Development of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Interface, The / Bernard Mark Garrett ............... 160
Development Methodologies and Users / Shawren Singh and Paula Kotz .............................................. 165
Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies, A / Michael Verhaart and Kinshuk ..................... 170
Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web / John F. Clayton ......................................................... 175
Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions, The / Patricia A. Chalmers ............................ 179
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing / Wolfgang Hrst .................................................................. 187
Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI / Jan Noyes ......................................................................... 205
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research / Alex Poole and Linden J. Ball .......................................... 211
From User Inquiries to Specification / Ebba Thra Hvannberg, Sigrn Gunnarsdttir, and
Atladttir Gyda ........................................................................................................................................ 220
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction / Zhe Xu, David John,
and Anthony C. Boucouvalas ................................................................................................................ 227
Hedonic, Emotional, and Experiential Perspectives on Product Quality / Marc Hassenzahl ...................... 266
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques / Chaomei Chen,
Kaushal Toprani, and Natasha Lobo ................................................................................................... 273
Human-Computer Interaction and Security / Kai Richter and Volker Roth ............................................... 287
Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication / Abhishek and Anupam Basu .......................................... 295
Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction, The / Lynne Hall and Sarah Woods ............................ 303
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles / Hassan Qudrat-Ullah ............................. 311
Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design / Simeon Keates, Shari Trewin,
and Jessica Paradise Elliott ................................................................................................................... 317
Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction, The / Zhe Xu, David John,
and Anthony C. Boucouvalas ............................................................................................................... 324
Information Rich Systems and Users Goals and Information Needs / Michael J. Albers ......................... 338
Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System / Leen-Kiat Soh and Hong Jiang .......................... 348
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay / Wolfgang Hrst and
Tobias Lauer ............................................................................................................................................ 355
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool / Javier Andrade, Juan Ares, Rafael Garca,
Santiago Rodrguez, Mara Seoane, and Sonia Surez ...................................................................... 381
Mobile Clinical Learning Tools Using Networked Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) /
Bernard Mark Garrett ............................................................................................................................ 404
Moral Mediators in HCI / Lorenzo Magnani, Emanuele Bardone, and Michele Bocchiola .................. 408
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes /
Xavier Ferre, Natalia Juristo, and Ana M. Moreno ............................................................................ 422
Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications, An / Marie-Luce Bourguet ................ 451
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support / Shirley Ann Becker .................................................................. 457
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction / Khaireel A. Mohamed and Thomas Ottmann ............................. 463
Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace, The / Leah P. Macfadyen ..................................... 471
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery / John Kontos and
Ioanna Malagardi ................................................................................................................................... 479
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning / William A. Janvier and Claude Ghaoui ........... 494
Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool, A / F. J. Garca, A. J. Berlanga, and J. Garca ................. 504
Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines / Zhe Xu, David John, and
Anthony C. Boucouvalas ........................................................................................................................ 523
Software Engineering and HCI / Shawren Singh and Alan Dix ................................................................. 548
Spam / Sara de Freitas and Mark Levene .................................................................................................. 553
Supporting Navigation and Learning in Educational Hypermedia / Patricia M. Boechler ........................... 574
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction / Dan Diaper ................................................ 579
Think Aloud Method and User Interface Design, The / M.W.M. Jaspers ................................................... 597
Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications / Rmi Bastide,
David Navarre, and Philippe Palanque ............................................................................................... 603
Tracking Attention through Browser Mouse Tracking / Robert S. Owen .................................................... 615
Traditional vs. Pull-Down Menus / Mary Henley and Jan Noyes .............................................................. 622
Turning the Usability Fraternity into a Thriving Industry / Pradeep Henry ................................................. 626
Ubiquitous Computing and the Concept of Context / Antti Oulasvirta and Antti Salovaara ..................... 630
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods / Alan Woolrych and Mark Hindmarch ..... 641
Use and Evolution of Affordance in HCI, The / Georgios Christou ........................................................... 668
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention / Robert S. Owen .............................. 673
Various Views on Digital Interactivity / Julie Thomas and Claudia Roda ................................................ 686
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games / Barry Ip and Gabriel Jacobs ............ 692
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work / Anxo Cereijo Roibs .............................................. 699
Wearable and Mobile Devices / Sara de Freitas and Mark Levene .......................................................... 706
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing / Thorsten Blecker and Gnter Graf ........... 722
Preface
OVERVIEW
Human computer interaction (HCI) evolved as a recognized discipline that attracts innovation and creativity.
For the last 25 years, it inspired new solutions, especially for the benefit of the user as a human being, making
the user the focal point that technology should serve rather than the other way around. The advent of the
Internet, combined with the rapidly falling prices and increasing capability of personal computers, among
other things, made the 1990s a period of very rapid change in technology. This has major implications on HCI
research and advances, where peoples demands and expectations as users of technology increased.
There is currently no agreement upon definition of the range of topics which form the area of human-
computer interaction. Based on the definition given by the ACM Special Interest Group on Computer-Human
Interaction Curriculum Development, which is also repeated in most HCI literature, the following is
considered as an acceptable definition:
Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementa-
tion of interactive computing systems for human use in a social context, and with the study of major
phenomena surrounding them.
A significant number of major corporations and academic institutions now study HCI. Many computer
users today would argue that computer makers are still not paying enough attention to making their products
usable. HCI is undoubtedly a multi-disciplinary subject, which draws on disciplines such as psychology,
cognitive science, ergonomics, sociology, engineering, business, graphic design, technical writing, and, most
importantly, computer science and system design/software engineering.
As a discipline, HCI is relatively young. Throughout the history of civilization, technological innovations
were motivated by fundamental human aspirations and by problems arising from human-computer interac-
tions. Design, usability and interaction are recognised as the core issues in HCI.
Today, profound changes are taking place that touch all aspects of our society: changes in work, home,
business, communication, science, technology, and engineering. These changes, as they involve humans,
cannot but influence the future of HCI since they relate to how people interact with technology in an
increasingly dynamic and complex world. This makes it even more essential for HCI to play a vital role in
shaping the future.
Therefore, preparing an encyclopedia of HCI that can contribute to the further development of science
and its applications, requires not only providing basic information on this subject, but also tackling problems
xv
that involve HCI issues in a wider sense, for example, by addressing HCI in and for various applications, that
is, e-learning, health informatics, and many others.
The following are some challenges in the HCI field, which were taken into consideration when compiling this
encyclopedia:
HCI is continually evolving with the fast change in technology and its cost. We, therefore, covered basic
concepts/issues and also new advances in the field.
The need to strike a balance between covering theory, methods/models, applications, experiences, and
research. The balance was sought to provide a rich scientific and technical resource from different
perspectives.
The most important purpose of an encyclopedia in a particular discipline is to be a basic reference work
for readers who need information on subjects in which they are not experts. The implication of basic
is that an encyclopedia, while it should attempt to be comprehensive in breadth of coverage, cannot
be comprehensive in the depth with which it treats most topics. What constitutes breadth of coverage
is always a difficult question, and it is especially so for HCI, a relatively new discipline that has evolved
over the past three decades and is still changing rapidly.
An encyclopedia should, however, direct the reader to information at a deeper level, as this
encyclopedia does through bibliographic references, indexed keywords, and so forth.
This encyclopedia differs from other similar related references in that it covers core HCI topics/issues
(that we see in most standard HCI books) as well as the use of HCI in various applications and recent
advances and research. Thus the choice of specific topics for this encyclopedia has required our
judgment of what is important. While there may be disagreement about the inclusion or exclusion of
certain topics, we hope and believe that this selection is useful to a wide spectrum of readers. There
are numerous articles that integrate the subject matter and put it into perspective. Overall, the
encyclopedia is a general reference to HCI, its applications, and directions.
In order to meet these challenges, we invited professionals and researchers from many relevant fields
and expertise to contribute. The resulting articles that appear in this volume were selected through a double-
blind review process followed by rounds of revision prior to acceptance. Treatment of certain topics is not
exclusive according to a given school or approach, and you will find a number of topics tackled from different
perspectives with differing approaches. A field as dynamic as HCI will benefit from discussions, different
opinions, and, wherever possible, a consensus.
An encyclopedia traditionally presents definitive articles that describe well-established and accepted
concepts or events. While we have avoided the speculative extreme, this volume includes a number of entries
that may be closer to the experimental end of the spectrum than the well-established end. The need to
do so is driven by the dynamics of the discipline and the desire, not only to include the established, but also
to provide a resource for those who are pursuing the experimental. Each author has provided a list of key
terms and definitions deemed essential to the topic of his or her article. Rather than aggregate and filter these
terms to produce a single encyclopedic definition, we have preferred instead to let the authors stand by
their definition and allow each reader to interpret and understand each article according to the specific
terminology used by its author(s).
Physically, the articles are printed in alphabetical order by their titles. This decision was made based on
the overall requirements of Idea Group References complete series of reference encyclopedias. The
articles are varied, covering the following main themes: 1) Foundation (e.g., human, computer, interaction,
xvi
paradigms); 2) Design Process (e.g., design basics, design rules and guidelines, HCI in software develop-
ment, implementation, evaluation, accessible design, user support); 3) Theories (e.g., cognitive models, social
context and organisation, collaboration and group work, communication); 4) Analysis (e.g., task analysis,
dialogue/interaction specification, modelling); and 5) HCI in various applications (e.g., e-learning, health
informatics, multimedia, Web technology, ubiquitous computing, mobile computing).
This encyclopedia serves to inform practitioners, educators, students, researchers, and all who have an
interest in the HCI field. Also, it is a useful resource for those not directly involved with HCI, but who want
to understand some aspects of HCI in the domain they work in, for the benefit of users. It may be used
as a general reference, research reference, and also to support courses in education (undergraduate or
postgraduate).
CONCLUSION
Human computer interaction will continue to strongly influence technology and its use in our every day life.
In order to help develop more usable technology that is human/user-centred, we need to understand what
HCI can offer on these fronts: theoretical, procedural, social, managerial, and technical.
The process of editing this encyclopedia and the interaction with international scholars have been most
enjoyable. This book is truly an international endeavour. It includes 109 entries and contributions by
internationally-talented authors from around the world, who brought invaluable insights, experiences, and
expertise, with varied and most interesting cultural perspectives in HCI and its related disciplines.
It is my sincere hope that this volume serves not only as a reference to HCI professionals and researchers,
but also as a resource for those working in various fields, where HCI can make significant contributions and
improvements.
Claude Ghaoui
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
xvii
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to the members of the Editorial Advisory Board
of this publication for their guidance and assistance throughout this project. They helped tremendously in the
overwhelming reviewing process of articles received originally and after revised. They provided their expert,
rigorous, blind review and assessment of the manuscripts assigned to them, which helped in identifying and
selecting quality contributions. One hundred other volunteering reviewers have contributed to this process
to whom I am grateful, with special thanks to Dr. Jacek Gwizdka, Toronto, and Dr. Barry Ip at the University
of Wales Swansea. Much appreciation and thanks go to all of the authors for their excellent contributions.
Finally, thanks to Mehdi Khosrow-Pour and his team at Idea Group Inc., who were very helpful and patient
throughout the completion of this publication.
xviii
Claude Ghaoui, PhD, is a senior lecturer in computer systems (since 1995) at the School of Computing and
Mathematical Sciences, Liverpool JMU, UK. Her research interests and expertise are mainly in human
computer interaction, multimedia/Internet technology, and their applications in education. She is a UK
correspondent for EUROMICRO (since 1998) and served on programme committees for several interna-
tional HCI/multimedia conferences. Since 2000, she has been an advisor for eUniservity (UK-based), which
promotes and provides online learning. She is the editor of two books, E-Educational Applications: Human
Factors and Innovative Approaches (2004), published by IRM Press, and Usability Evaluation of Online
Learning Programs (2003), published by Information Science Publishing. She is the editor-in-chief of the
International Journal of Interactive Technology and Smart Education.
1
Emanuele Bardone
University of Pavia, Italy
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
According to Raskin (2000), the way we interact Several researchers (Kirsh, 2004; Hollan et al.,
with a product, what we do, and how it responds are 2000) recently have pointed out that designing inter-
what define an interface. This is a good starting face deals with displaying as many clues as possible
definition in one important respect: an interface is from which the user can infer correctly and quickly
not something given or an entirely predefined prop- what to do next. However, although the inferential
erty, but it is the dynamic interaction that actually nature of such interactions is acknowledged, as yet,
takes place when a product meets the users. More no model has been designed that takes it into ac-
precisely, an interface is that interaction that medi- count. For instance, Shneiderman (2002) has sug-
ates the relation between the user and a tool explain- gested that the value of an interface should be
ing which approach is necessary to exploit its func- measured in terms of its consistency, predictability,
tions. Hence, an interface can be considered a and controllability. To some extent, these are all
mediating structure. epistemological values. In which sense could an
A useful exemplification of a mediating structure interaction be predictable or consistent? How can
is provided by the so-called stigmergy. Looking at understanding the inferential nature of human-com-
the animal-animal interactions, Raskin (2000) noted puter interaction shed light on the activity of design-
that termites were able to put up their collective nest, ing good interfaces? Here, the epistemological task
even if they did not seem to collaborate or commu- required is twofold: first, investigating what kind of
nicate with each other. The explanation provided by inference is involved in such an interaction; and
Grass (Susi et al., 2001) is that termites do interact second, explaining how the analysis of the nature of
with each other, even if their interactions are medi- computer interaction as inferential can provide use-
ated through the environment. According to the ful hints about how to design and evaluate infer-
stigmergy theory, each termite acts upon the work ences.
environment, changing it in a certain way. The Regarding both of these issues, in both cases we
environment physically encodes and stores the shall refer to the concept of abduction as a keystone
change made upon it so that every change becomes of an epistemological model.
a clue that affects a certain reaction from it. Analo-
gously, we might claim that an interface mediates
the relation between the user and a tool affording THE ROLE OF ABDUCTION IN
him or her to use it a certain way1. Understanding the DESIGNING INTERFACES
kind of mediation involved can be fruitfully investi-
gated from an epistemological point of view. More More than one hundred years ago, Charles Sanders
precisely, we claim that the process of mediating can Peirce (1923) pointed out that human performances
be understood better when it is considered to be an are inferential and mediated by signs. Here, signs
inferential one. can be icons or indexes but also conceptions, images,
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Abduction and Web Interface Design
and feelings. Analogously to the case of stigmergy, carrying out reasoning. Sentential abduction mostly
we have signs or clues that can be icons but also refers to a verbal dimension of abductive inference,
symbols and written words from which certain con- where signs and clues are expressed in sentences or
clusions are inferred. in explicit statements. This kind of abduction has
According to Peirce (1972), all those perfor- been applied extensively in logic programming (Flach
mances that involve sign activities are abductions. & Kakas, 2000) and in artificial intelligence, in
More precisely, abduction is that explanatory pro- general (Thagard, 1988).
cess of inferring certain facts and/or hypotheses that In contrast, manipulative abduction occurs when
explain or discover some phenomenon or observa- the process of inferring mostly leans on and is driven
tion (Magnani, 2001). Abductions that solve the by the environment. Here, signs are diagrams, kines-
problem at hand are considered inferences to the thetic schemas, decorated texts, images, spatial
best explanation. Consider, for example, the method representations, and even feelings. In all those ex-
of inquiring employed by detectives (Eco & Sebeok, amples, the environment embodies clues that trigger
1991). In this case, we do not have direct experience an abductive process, helping to unearth information
of what we are taking about. Say, we did not see the that otherwise would have remained invisible. Here,
murderer killing the victim, but we infer that given the exploitation of the environment comes about
certain signs or clues, a given fact must have hap- quickly, because it is performed almost tacitly and
pened. Analogously, we argue that the mediation implicitly. According to that, many cases have dem-
activity brought about by an interface is the same as onstrated that problem-solving activities that use
that employed by detectives. Designers that want to visual and spatial representation, for instance, are
make their interface more comprehensible must quicker and more efficient than sentential ones. We
uncover evidence and clues from which the user is can conclude that, in devising interfaces, designers
prompted to infer correctly the way a detective have to deal mostly with the latter type of abduction.
does; this kind of inference could be called infer- Interfaces that lean on the environment are tacit and
ence to the best interaction. implicit and, for this reason, much quicker than
We can conclude that how good an interface is sentential ones.
depends on how easily we can draw the correct Investigating the activity of designing interfaces
inference. A detective easily can discover the mur- from the abductive epistemological perspective de-
derer, if the murderer has left evidence (clues) from scribed previously helps designers in another impor-
which the detective can infer that that person and tant respect: how to mimic the physical world within
only that person could be guilty. Moreover, that an a digital one to enhance understanding.
inference could be performed easily and success- As we have seen previously, the environment
fully also depends upon how quickly one can do that. enables us to trigger inferential processes. But it can
Sometimes, finding the murderer is very difficult. It do that if and only if it can embody and encode those
may require a great effort. Therefore, we argue that signs from which one can infer what to do next. For
how quick the process is depends on whether it is example, if you are working in your office and would
performed without an excessive amount of process- appreciate a visit from one of your colleagues, you
ing. If clues are clear and well displayed, the infer- can just keep the door open. Otherwise, you can
ence is drawn promptly. As Krug (2000) put it, it keep it closed. In both cases, the environment en-
does not have to make us think. codes the clue (the door kept open or closed), from
In order to clarify this point even more, let us which your colleagues can infer whether you do or
introduce the important distinction between theoreti- dont want to be disturbed. Here are the questions
cal and manipulative abduction (Magnani, 2001). we immediately come up: How can we encode those
The distinction provides an interesting account to signs in a digital world? How can we enrich it so as
explain how inferences that exploit the environment to render it capable of embodying and encoding
visually and spatially, for instance, provide a quicker clues?
and more efficient response. Sentential and manipu- The question of how to enrich the digital world
lative abductions mainly differ regarding whether mainly concerns how to mimic some important fea-
the exploitation of environment is or is not crucial to tures of the physical world in the digital one. Often,
2
Abduction and Web Interface Design
common people refer to an interface as easy-to-use, that enriching the digital world precisely means
because it is more intuitive. Therefore, we dont need scattering clues and signs that in some extent fakes A
to learn how the product actually works. We just spatial, visual, emotional, and other dimensions,
analogically infer the actions we have to perform even if that just happens within a flat environment.
from ordinary ones. More generally, metaphors are We argued that the nature of signs can be verbal
important in interface design, because they relate and symbolic as well as visual, spatial, temporal, and
digital objects to the objects in the physical world, emotional. In correspondence with these last cases,
with which the user is more familiar.2 one can recognize three abductive dimensions: vi-
In the history of computer interface, many at- sual, spatial, and emotional abduction.4 We will
tempts have been made to replace some physical discuss each of them in detail, providing examples
features in the digital one. For instance, replacing taken from Web designs.
command-driven modes with windows was one of
the most important insights in the history of technol- Abductive Inference
ogy and human-computer interaction (Johnson, 1997).
It enabled users to think spatially, say, in terms of Visual dimension is certainly one of the most ubiq-
where is what I am looking for? and not in terms of uitous features in Web interaction. Users mainly
Wat sequence of letters do I type to call up this interact with Web pages visually (Kirsh, 2004;
document? Shaik et al., 2004). Here, signs and clues are colors,
Enriching the digital world deals to some extent text size, dotted lines, text format (e.g., bold, under-
with faking, transforming those features embedded line, italics); they convey visual representations and
in the physical world into illusions. For example, can assign weight and importance to some specific
consider the rule of projection first invented by part. Consider, for example, the navigation menu in
Filippo Brunelleschi and then developed by such Figure 1.
painters as Leon Battista Alberti and Leonardo da Here, colors, capital letters, and text size provide
Vinci. In Peircean terms, what these great painters visual clues capable of enhancing the processing of
did was to scatter those signs to create the illusion of information. The attention immediately is drawn to
three-dimensional representations. It was a trick that the menu header that represents its content (con-
exploited the inferential nature of visual construction ference and research); capital letters and colors
(Hoffman, 1998). 3 serve this function.
Now, the question is, how could we exploit infer- Then, the dotted list of the same color of the
ential visual dimensions to enhance the interaction in menu header informs the user about the number of
the digital world? In the window metaphor, we do not the items. Hence, the fact that items are not marked
have rooms, edges, or folders, such as in the physical visibly as menu headers gives a useful overview
world. They are illusions, and they are all produced (Figure 2). Once the user has chosen what to see
by an inferential (abductive) activity of human per- (conference or research), he or she can proceed to
ception analogously to what happens in smashing check each item according to his or her preference
three to two dimensions. Here, we aim at showing (Figure 3).
how visual as well as spatial, temporal, and even In this example, the user is guided to draw the
emotional abductive dimensions can be implemented correct inference; it enables the user to understand
fruitfully in an interface. Roughly speaking, we argue what he or she could consult.
Figure 1.
CONFERENCES: RESEARCH
MBR98 Logic
MBR01 Philosophy of Science
MBR04 Epistemology and Foundations of Mathematics
E-CAP2004_ITALY Visual and spatial reasoning
3
Abduction and Web Interface Design
Figure 2. Figure 3.
CONFERENCES: RESEARCH
MBR98
MBR01
MBR04
E-CAP2004_ITALY
Figure 4. Figure 5.
4
Abduction and Web Interface Design
Figure 8. Figure 9.
5
Abduction and Web Interface Design
aspects can be addressed. For instance, it would be Hoffman, D. D. (1998). Visual intelligence. New
useful to investigate the temporal dimension. How is York: W. W. Norton.
it possible to keep good track of the history of a
Hollan, J., Hutchins, E., & Kirsh, D. (2000). Distrib-
users actions?
uted cognition: Toward a new foundation for
Another question is related to the role of meta-
human-computer interaction research. Retrieved
phors and analogies in designing interfaces. We
from http://hci.ucsd.edu/lab/publications.htm
have pointed out that metaphors are important in
interface design, because they relate the digital Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cam-
objects to the objects in the physical world. How- bridge, MA: MIT Press.
ever, the physical objects that we may find in the real
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Krug, S. (2000). Dont make me think. New York:
New Riders Publishing.
CONCLUSION Lavie, T., & Tractinsky, N. (2004). Assessing di-
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In this article, we have claimed that interfaces play sites. International Journal Human-Computer
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interaction. Referring to it as a mediating structure,
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Philosophical essays. New York: Harcourt.
Peirce, C. S. (1972). Charles S. Peirce: The essen-
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Thagard, P., & Shelley, C.P. (1997). Abductive Interface: The way a user interacts with a
reasoning: Logic, visual thinking, and coherence. In product, what he or she does, and how it responds. A
M. L. Dalla et al. (Eds.), Logic and scientific
Mediating Structure: What coordinates the
method (pp. 413-427). Dordrecht: Kluwer Aca-
interaction between a user and a tool providing
demic Publishers.
additional computational resources that simplify the
van Schaik, P., & Ling, J. (2004). The effects of task.
screen ratio on information retrieval in Web pages.
Stigmergy: The process that mediates the inter-
Computers in Human Behavior. Display, 24, 187-
action between animals and animals through the
195.
environment and provides those clues from which
any agent is able to infer what to do next.
KEY TERMS
7
8
Miguel Montero
Centro de Profesores y Recursos de Albacete, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Adaptable and Adaptive Web-Based Educational Systems
less, certain attributes can neither be directly ob- As mentioned earlier, in the educational domain,
tained from the user nor from the data logged, and it is necessary to let teachers control the personal- A
they must be automatically inferred by the system. ization process. Thus it seems necessary to combine
Various methods can be used to infer these at- capabilities of both adaptive and adaptable systems.
tributes (Kobsa, 2004). These methods include simple
rules that predict users characteristics or assign
users to predetermined user groups with known char- A HYBRID APPROACH TO WEB-
acteristics when certain user actions are being ob- BASED EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS
served (the so-called profiles or stereotypes).
The main disadvantage of the rule-based ap- In this section, we present PDINAMET, a system
proach is that the rules (and the profiles) have to be that provides both types of personalization.
pre-defined, and so all the process is very static. To PDINAMET is a Web-based adaptive and adapt-
make the process more dynamic, there exist other able educational system directed to the teaching of
methods to obtain the value of those attributes dynamics within the area of the physics. In
(Kobsa, 2004). Probabilistic reasoning methods take PDINAMET, we maintain three types of models:
uncertainty and evidences from users characteris- student model, domain model, and pedagogical model.
tics and interaction data into account (Gertner, Conati, Besides personal data, the student model con-
& VanLehn, 1998). Plan recognition methods aim at tains information about the students understanding
linking individual actions of users to presumable of the domain. The domain model includes informa-
underlying plans and goals (Daro, Mndez, Jimnez, tion about the contents that should be taught. Finally,
& Guzmn, 2004). Machine learning methods try to pedagogical model includes information about in-
detect regularities in users actions (and to use the structional strategies.
learned patterns as a basis for predicting future In PDINAMET, we consider an adaptation
actions) (Soller & Lesgold, 2003). task as any support provided by the system to
These systems can be considered adaptive since learners and teachers taking into account learners
the adaptation is dynamic and it is not controlled by personal characteristics and knowledge level. In
users. For example, once a rule is defined, it usually PDINAMET, two types of adaptation tasks are
cannot be modified. Another review (Brusilovsky & considered: static (that makes PDINAMET adapt-
Peylo, 2003) differentiates between adaptive and able) and dynamic (that makes PDINAMET adap-
intelligent WES; authors consider adaptive systems tive). Static adaptation tasks are those based on pre-
as those that attempt to be different for different defined rules. These include assigning students to
students and groups of students by taking into ac- pre-defined profiles (that can be modified by teach-
count information accumulated in the individuals or ers) in which PDINAMET based certain recom-
groups student models. On the other hand, they mendations (e.g., recommend a suitable exercise).
consider intelligent systems as those that apply To come up from the lack of coverage of pre-defined
techniques from the field of artificial intelligence to rules for every situation that could arise during the
provide broader and better support for the users of course, some dynamic tasks are performed in
WES. In many cases, Web-based adaptive educa- PDINAMET. These tasks include: diagnosis of stu-
tional systems fall into the two categories. Accord- dent models, intelligent analysis of students interac-
ing to our classification, both adaptive and intelligent tions, and recommend instructional strategies
systems can be considered as adaptive. We think (Montero & Gaudioso, 2005).
that our classification is more appropriate from a
users point of view. A user does not usually first
care about how the adaptation is being done but if FUTURE TRENDS
she or he can modify this adaptation. A complete
description of the personalization process (distin- We have seen that teachers should have access to
guishing between adaptive and adaptable systems) the models in order to inspect or modify them. From
can be found at Kobsa, Koenemann, and Pohl (2001) this point of view, an open question is how and when
and Oppermann, Rashev, and Kinshuk (1997). we should present the models to a teacher in a
9
Adaptable and Adaptive Web-Based Educational Systems
friendly and comprehensible manner and how we can for automatic generation of customized virtual
allow interactive refinement to enrich these models. courses. In the Proceedings of the ECAI04 Work-
From the point of view of technology, educational shop on Planning and Scheduling: Bridging
domain poses some challenges in the development of Theory to Practice, Valencia, Spain (pp. 52-62).
adaptive systems. In educational domain, there exists
Gaudioso, E., & Boticario, J.G. (2002). User data
a great amount of prior knowledge provided by
management and usage model acquisition in an
teachers, which must be incorporated in the adapta-
adaptive educational collaborative environment. In
tion mechanisms. As an example, when using ma-
the Proceedings of the International Confer-
chine learning, it is necessary to efficiently combine
ence on Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive
knowledge and data. A long-standing fundamental
Web-based Systems, Lecture Notes in Computer
problem with machine learning algorithms is that they
Science (LNCS), Mlaga, Spain (pp. 143-152).
do not provide easy ways of incorporating prior
knowledge to guide and constrain learning. Gertner, A. S., Conati, C., & VanLehn, K. (1998).
Procedural help in Andes: Generating hints using a
Bayesian network student model. In the Proceed-
CONCLUSION ings of the 15th National Conference on Artificial
Intelligence, Madison, Wisconsin (pp. 106-111).
In this article, we have described the differences
Hong, H., Kinshuk, He, X., Patel, A., & Jesshope,
between adaptable and adaptive systems. Adaptable
C. (2001, May 1-5). Adaptivity in Web-based edu-
systems allow the users to modify the personalization
cational system. In the Poster Proceedings of the
mechanism of the system. For example, Web portals
Tenth International World Wide Web Confer-
permit users to specify the information they want to
ence, Hong Kong, China (pp. 100-101).
see and the form in which it should be displayed by
their Web browsers. Nevertheless, this process is Kobsa, A. (2004). Adaptive interfaces.
very static. On the other hand, adaptive systems Encyclopaedia of Human-Computer Interaction
automatically change the response given to the users (pp. 9-16). Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Pub-
taking into account users characteristics, prefer- lishing.
ences and behavior. In WES, there is a necessity of
combining both capabilities to let teachers control the Kobsa, A., Koenemann, J., & Pohl, W. (2001).
guidance given to the students and to help them in the Personalized hypermedia presentation techniques
assessment of the students actions. Nevertheless, for improving online customer relationships. The
there exist some open issues mainly regarding the Knowledge Engineering Review, 16(2), 111-155.
way in which we can present the teachers with this Montero, M., & Gaudioso, E. (2005). P-Dinamet: A
functionality and how we can dynamically introduce Web-based adaptive learning system to assist learn-
the feedback from the teachers in the models for ers and teachers. To appear in L. Jain & C. Ghaoui
adaptation. Probably, if we make progress in this (Eds.), Innovations in knowledge-based virtual
direction, we will be able to provide teachers with education. Germany: Springer Verlag.
more useful Web-based adaptive systems.
Oppermann, R., Rashev, R., & Kinshuk (1997).
Adaptability and adaptivity in learning systems. In
REFERENCES A. Behrook (Ed.), Knowledge transfer (vol. 2, pp.
173-179). Pace, London.
Brusilovsky, P., & Peylo, C. (2003). Adaptive and Soller, A., & Lesgold, A. (2003, July). A computa-
intelligent Web-based educational systems. Interna- tional approach to analysing online knowledge shar-
tional Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Educa- ing interaction. In the Proceedings of the 11 th
tion, 13, 156-169. International Conference on Artificial Intelli-
Daro, N., Mndez, D., Jimnez, C., & Guzmn, J. A. gence in Education, Sydney, Australia (pp. 253-
(2004, August 22-23). Artificial intelligence planning 260). Amsterdam: IOS Press.
10
Adaptable and Adaptive Web-Based Educational Systems
Wenger, E. (1987). Artificial intelligence and Pedagogical Model: A model that contains
tutoring systems. Los Altos, CA: Morgan Kaufmann information about the pedagogical strategies which A
Publishers. will be followed when making recommendations.
Personalization: Ability of systems to adapt
KEY TERMS and provide different responses to different users,
based on knowledge about the users.
Adaptable Systems: Systems, which offer per-
Student Model: A user model in educational
sonalization that is pre-defined before the execution
systems that also includes information about the
of the system and that may be modified by users.
student, for example, the students level of knowl-
Adaptive Systems: Systems, which offer per- edge.
sonalization that is dynamically built and automati-
User Model: A model that contains information
cally performed based on what these systems learn
about users characteristics and preferences.
about the users.
Web-Based Educational System: An educa-
Domain Model: A model that contains informa-
tional system that supports teaching through the
tion about the course taught in a WES. A usual
Web.
representation is a concept network specifying con-
cepts and their relationships.
11
12
Mauro F. Koyama
Centro de Pesquisas Renato ArcherCenPRA, Brazil
Edeneziano D. Pereira
Centro de Pesquisas Renato ArcherCenPRA, Brazil
Khalil Drira
Laboratoire dAnalyse et dArchitecture des Systmes du CNRS (LAAS-CNRS), France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities
many similar products it already has designed, what the same or similar, recommender systems aid indi-
are the products parts that could be assembled on a viduals to form collaborative communities. A
partnership schema, and so on. Such opinions strongly Usually, this kind of system is based on artificial
support the decision making process related to the intelligence technologies such as machine learning
new product feasibility. algorithms, ontologies, and multi-agent systems. Such
Every community can develop both individual technologies can be used separately or combined in
and collective competence by creating, expanding, different ways to find and deliver information to the
and exchanging knowledge. Mutual collaboration people who require it. Ontologies are well-suited for
among members of a community, as well as with knowledge sharing as they offer a formal base for
other groups, pre-supposes the ability to exchange describing terminology in a knowledge domain
information and to make the knowledge available to (Gruber, 1995; McGuinness, 2001).
others. Therefore, collaborative communities should Recommender systems can be classified as col-
be pervasive, integrated, and supported by the enter- laborative filtering with and without content analysis
prise rules that limit and/or direct peoples actions in and knowledge sharing. Collaborative filtering with
organizations. content analysis is based on information from trusted
Recommender systems (Table 1) search and people, which the system recognizes and also rec-
retrieve information according to users needs; they ommends. Examples of this kind of system are:
can be specialized on users profiles or on the users GroupLens (Konstan et al., 1997), ReferralWeb
instantaneous interests (e.g., when users browse the (Kautz et al., 1997) and Yenta (Foner, 1999). Col-
Web). Recommender systems use the opinions of laborative filtering without content analysis exam-
members of a community to help individuals in that ines the meta-information and classifies it according
community identify the information or products most to the users current context. It can recommend
likely to be interesting to them or relevant to their multimedia information that otherwise could be too
needs (Konstan, 2004, p. 1). By discovering peoples complex to be analyzed. PHOAKS (Terveen et al.,
interests and comparing whether such interests are 1997) is an example of a system that associates
13
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities
scientific profiles by chaining bibliographic refer- One important remark on this process of com-
ences with no comprehension of the articles con- munity building is that candidates are not forced to
tents. participate in the process, and, if they want to, the
sole requirement is to share their profile with other
candidates. Privacy is a very important issue on the
BUILDING COLLABORATIVE process of collaboration. Candidates are assured
COMMUNITIES that their location information will be forwarded
only to the future potential communities, and that
This work focuses on the building (or establishment) their complete profile will not be publicly available.
phase of a collaborative community. It is supposed An experimental recommender system, named
that the initial set of candidates to participate in such SHEIK (Sharing Engineering Information and
a community are already motivated to that purpose; Knowledge), was designed to act as a community-
sociological or psychological elements involved in building system. SHEIK is based on agents and
their decision are not in the scope of this work. ontologies technologies and implemented using
The question faced is: How to fulfill a demand for Java language. It advises candidates on the poten-
dealing with a particular event that arises and drives tial collaborative community they could belong to.
the candidates to search for partners or peers? One Ontologies are used to relate knowledge domains
potential collaborative community could emerge, trig- and a candidates profile while agents capture each
gered by that event and being composed of a subset candidates interests and provide him/her with use-
derived from the initial set of candidates. Inside such ful information.
subset, the candidates must recognize themselves as
peers, as persons sharing particular interests that
characterize the community. SHEIK ARCHITECTURE
The selected approach was to develop a
recommender system that can compare candidates SHEIK was designed in two layers: an interface
profiles and recommend those candidates that share layer responsible for gathering candidates profiles
similar interests as being potential members of a and a processing layer that consolidates the data
community. From each candidate, the system must upon each candidate and enables the process of
gather its profile, characterized as a combination of peer finding.
static information on location (Name, Project, Orga- The interface layer is composed of a set of
nization, Address) and dynamic information on skills, agents, one for each candidate, each agent residing
described as a set of keywords. These profiles are in the associated candidates computer. The agents
then processed, aiming at two objectives: to allow the use knowledge acquisition techniques to search the
automatic organization of the informal vocabulary candidates workspace (in a way, configured by the
used by the candidates into formal knowledge domain candidate) and communicate results to the process-
categories and to establish a correlation between ing layer in a timely basis (usually daily). So the
candidates by selecting those with overlapping areas interface agent automatically updates candidates
of interest (formal knowledge domains) enabling the general information to the system, unburdening the
recommending process. candidate from repetitive tasks he/she is unfamiliar
If a subset of candidates exists, that one shares to. Also, as there is one interface agent for each
one or more knowledge domains. Such a subset is a candidate, all of the interface agents operate au-
potential community, and those candidates are in- tonomously and in parallel increasing system power.
formed of the existence of such a community, receiv- The processing layer is composed of agents,
ing information on others candidates locations and named Erudite agents, forming a federation. Each
on the overlapping knowledge domains. Now candi- Erudite agent is associated to a particular knowl-
dates can proceed in contacting their potential edge domain and has the ability to process
peers at will, using their own criteria of personal candidates profiles, using a knowledge base, con-
networking. structed over a model that associates one ontology
14
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities
(related to its knowledge domain) and a data model Frank, Gutwin, & Nevill-Manning, 1999) from
for the candidates profiles. Waikato University, New Zealand, was selected. A
There is one interface agent for each candidate;
they work automatically and asynchronously gather-
SHEIK BEHAVIOR ing information on their candidates and pushing it to
the Erudite agent.
For the sake of clarity, let us consider an example of The Erudite agent, upon receiving the informa-
forming an engineering team to develop a new tion from a particular interface agent, processes that
product in a consortium of enterprises. This situation information and classifies the candidate (associated
is becoming frequent and permitting to illustrate to the agent) into one or more areas from its main
some interesting issues. First of all, the candidates to knowledge domain. As already mentioned, many
compose the collaborative community probably do interface agents are flowing information in parallel
not recognize their potential peers. Even if they to the Erudite agent, that is continuously updating its
could have an initial idea of the candidates set, based knowledge base. After classifying the candidate, the
on their social interaction inside their own enterprise, Erudite agent is able to perform searches in its
they normally could not have the same feeling out- knowledge base and discover for each candidate
side it, as they could not know in advance other who the other candidates are that have related
external engineering teams. interests. The result of such a search is a potential
Secondly, the use of existing filtering systems, collaborative community in the retrieved sub area,
based on Internet technologies, is usually not enough organized as a list of candidates and their compatible
to find candidates for partnership as, because of knowledge sub domains. The candidates pertaining
privacy, enterprises protect their data about both to that potential community (list) are informed of
engineering processes and personnel qualifications. their potential peers via an e-mail message. Candi-
Using trial and error procedures for searching the dates could analyze the message and decide if they
Web is difficult because the available information is want to contact the recommended candidates, and,
unstructured and comes in huge quantities. after some interaction, they could decide to formal-
From a candidates perspective, the functioning ize the new community. The Erudite agent uses the
of SHEIK can be described as follows: Protg system (Gennari et al., 2003), developed at
After the necessity of creating a new engineer- the Stanford Medical Informatics (SMI), Stanford
ing team for developing a product arises, managers University, USA. Protg is an ontology editor and a
start a SHEIK system, activating a Erudite agent knowledge-base editor capable of answering queries.
containing knowledge in the main area required to An experiment demonstrated the potential of
the development process. Each candidate, inside SHEIK as a tool in a scientific environment. It is
each enterprise, is informed of SHEIKs existence envisaged to broaden its use and application in other
and advised to register into the system. Candidates domains. SHEIK is being experimented to support
do their registration; during this brief process, they collaboration among scientific researchers, in the
agree to have an interface agent residing in their field of manufacturing, involving academic institu-
machines, to provide location data, and also to tions from Brazil (Nabuco et al., 2004).
determinate where the agent is allowed to search for
information (usually their computers workspace).
The interface agent is started and automatically FUTURE TRENDS
analyzes the candidates workspace, extracting a
series of keywords that can approximately describe Since the advent of Internet browsers, the amount of
the candidates interests. The agent repeats this electronic information available has been growing in
operation periodically (for instance daily), so it can an astonishing fashion, but such information some-
capture changes in the candidates interests, and times cannot be brought to use in its bare form
forwards the information to the Erudite agent. Many because of its lack of structure. Basically searching
knowledge acquisition techniques can be used; for engines use syntactic rules to obtain their results;
the first prototype, the KEA tool (Witten, Paynter, they do not consider the information within its con-
15
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities
text. Efforts are in course to enhance the informa- community) in the process of finding peers to fulfill
tion through some sort of pre-classification inside their purposes of collaboration. As a natural out-
knowledge domains, done via clues hidden in the come of this requisite, the prototype system was
Internet pages codes. One problem that arises is designed as being a multi-agent system, being scal-
that there are too many knowledge domains and inter- able and capable of autonomous operation.
national standardized knowledge classifications are A prototype system was constructed, using pre-
almost inexistent. This is a challenge too big to be existing knowledge system and knowledge acquisi-
solved for only one standardization organism. It must be tion tool, compatible with de-facto standards. In
treated by a diversity of organizations bringing to light operation, the system is capable of dynamically
another problem: how to describe knowledge in a way following users interests as they change with time,
that permits us to interchange and complement its so it can also aid the self-emergence of new commu-
meaning among such diversity. Research has been nities regardless of managers requests.
done in this area but to date no standard for knowledge Initial results were encouraging, and a greater
representation has found widespread acceptance. experiment is of course in the manufacturing knowl-
The problem dealt with in this work is building a edge domain.
collaborative communitysuch a community being
characterized by having interests pertaining to cer-
tain knowledge domains. The problem of formally REFERENCES
characterizing knowledge domains, aiming to ease
the interaction and interoperation between knowl- Alani, H., OHara, K., & Shadbolt, N. (2002, August
edge systems, is an open issue, and such a problem 25-30). ONTOCOPI: Methods and tools for identi-
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the use of best practices and de-facto standards as IFIP 17 th World Computer CongressTC12
guidelines. Stream on Intelligent Information Processing,
In particular as the Erudite agents are organized as IIP-2002, Montreal, Canada (pp. 225-236). Deventer,
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The interface agents were designed to accept the Semantic Web, WWW2002, Hawaii. Sun SITE
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those techniques could increase SHEIKs capacity. personal privacy: The Yenta multi-agent distrib-
uted matchmaking system. Boston: Media Arts and
Sciences. PhD Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of
CONCLUSION Technology, Cambridge (p. 129).
An approach for aiding the establishment of a col- Gennari, J. H., Musen, M. A., Fergerson, R. W.,
laborative community was proposed, based on the Grosso, W. E., Crubzy, M., Eriksson, H., Noy, N.
automatic determination of a candidates profile that F., & Tu, S. W. (2003). The evolution of Protg: An
can be resolved to knowledge domains (and sub environment for knowledge-based systems develop-
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aiding the users (candidates to belong to a new
16
Agent-Based System for Discovering and Building Collaborative Communities
Kautz, H., Selman, B., & Shah, M. (1997, Summer). KEY TERMS
The hidden Web. The AI Magazine, 18(2), 27-36. A
Agent: A software agent is a programmable
Konstan, J. A. (2004). Introduction to recommender
artifact capable of intelligent autonomous action
systems: Algorithms and evaluation. ACM Transac-
toward an objective.
tions on Information Systems, 22(1), 1-4.
Collaborative Community: A group of people
Konstan, J. A., Miller, B. N., Hellocker, J. L.,
sharing common interests and acting together to-
Gordon, L. P., & Riedl, J. (1997). Applying collabo-
ward common goals.
rative filtering to Usenet News. Communications
of ACM, 40(3), 77-87. Erudite Agent: Acts as a broker locating com-
patible candidates according to specific similarities
McGuinness, D. L. (2001). Ontologies and online
found in their profiles. Erudite has two roles: one is
commerce. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 16(1), 8-14.
upon the requesting of interface agents, it queries its
McLure, M., & Faraj, S. W. (2000). It is what one knowledge base searching for other candidates that
does: Why people participate and help others in seem to have the same interests; the other, is to keep
electronic communities of practice. Journal of Stra- its knowledge base updated with the candidates
tegic Information Systems, 9, 155-173. specific information provided by the resident inter-
face agents. In doing so, it implements the process-
Middleton, S., De Roure, D., & Shadbolt, N. (2001,
ing part of SHEIK systems architecture.
October 22-23). Capturing knowledge of user pref-
erences: Ontologies in recommender systems. Pro- Filtering: A technique that selects specific things
ceeding of the 1st International Conference on according to criteria of similarity with particular
Knowledge Capture, KCAP2001, Victoria, British patterns.
Columbia, Canada (pp. 100-107). New York: ACM
Knowledge Base: A knowledge repository,
Press.
organized according to formal descriptive rules,
Nabuco, O., Rosrio, J. M., Silva, J. R., & Drira, K. permitting to perform operations over the repre-
(2004, April 5-7). Scientific collaboration and knowl- sented knowledge.
edge sharing in the virtual manufacturing network.
Machine Learning: A computer embedded
11 th IFAC Symposium on Information Control
capability of data analysis with the purpose of ac-
Problem in Manufacturing, INCOM 2004, Salva-
quiring selected characteristics (attributes, patterns,
dor, Bahia, Brazil (pp. 254-255). New York: ACM
behavior) of an object or system.
Press.
Multi-Agent System: A set of software agents
Polanyi, M. (1966). The tacit dimension. Garden
that interact with each other. Inside this system,
City, NY: Doubleday & Co. Reprinted Peter Smith,
each agent can act individually in cooperative or
Gloucester, Massachusetts.
competitive forms.
Terveen, L., Hill, W., Amento, B., McDonald, D., &
Ontology: In the computer science community,
Creter, J. (1997). J. PHOAKS: A system for sharing
this term is employed in the sense of making explicit
recommendations. Communications of the ACM,
the concepts pertaining to a knowledge domain.
3(40), 59-62.
Recommender System: A computer program
Witten, I. H., Paynter, G. W., Frank, E., Gutwin, C.,
that aids people to find information by giving recom-
& Nevill-Manning, C. G. (1999, August 11-14).
mendations on the searched subject. It is up to the user
KEA: Practical automatic keyphrase extraction. Pro-
to select useful data among the recommended ones.
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Libraries, DL99, Berkeley, CA (pp. 254-265). New Tacit Knowledge: Means the knowledge that is
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difficult to be transmitted in words by skilled people.
The concept was brought to the light by Polanyi (1966).
17
18
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring
gent tutoring systems (ITSs) are clearly one of the design has a modular design of the course content
successful enterprises in artificial intelligence (AI). and delivery mechanism, utilizes true agent intelli- A
There is a long list of ITSs that have been tested on gence where an agent is able to learn how to deliver
humans and have proven to facilitate learning. These its learning material better, and self-evaluates its
ITSs use a variety of computational modules that are own learning material.
familiar to those of us in AI: production systems, The underlying assumptions behind the design of
Bayesian networks, schema templates, theorem prov- our agent are the following. First, a students
ing, and explanatory reasoning. Graesser et al. (2001) behaviour in viewing an online tutorial, and how he or
also pointed out the weaknesses of the current state she interacts with the tutorial, the examples, and the
of tutoring systems: First, it is possible for students exercises, is a good indicator of how well the student
to guess and find an answer and such shallow understands the topic in question, and this behaviour
learning will not be detected by the system. Second, is observable and quantifiable. Second, different
ITSs do not involve students in conversations so students exhibit different behaviours for different
students might not learn the domains language. topics such that it is possible to show a students
Third, to understand the students thinking, the GUI understanding of a topic, say, T1, with an example
of the ITSs tends to encourage students to focus on E1, and at the same time, to show the same students
the details instead of the overall picture of a solution. lack of understanding of the same topic T1 with
There have been successful ITSs such as PACT another E2, and this differentiation is known and can
(Koedinger, Anderson, Hadley, & Mark, 1997), be implemented. These two assumptions require our
ANDES (Gertner & VanLehn, 2000), AutoTutor agent to have an active interfacean interface
(Graesser et al., 2001), and SAM (Cassell et al., that monitors and tracks its interaction with the user.
2000), but without machine learning capabilities. Further, we want to develop an integrated, flex-
These systems do not generally adapt to new cir- ible, easy-to-use database of courseware and
cumstances, do not self-evaluate and self-configure ILMDA system, including operational items such as
their own strategies, and do not monitor the usage student profiles, ILMDA success rates, and so forth,
history of the learning material being delivered or and educational items such as learner model, domain
presented to the students. In our research, we aim to expertise, and course content. This will allow teach-
build intelligent tutoring agents that are able to learn ers and educators to monitor and track student
how to deliver appropriate different learning mate- progress, the quality of the learning material, and the
rial to different types of students and to monitor and appropriateness of the material for different student
evaluate how the learning material are received by groups. With the ability to self-monitor and evaluate,
the students. To model students, our agent has to our agent can identify how best to deliver a topic to
monitor and track student activity through its inter- a particular student type with distinctive behaviours.
face. We see this as valuable knowledge to instructional
designers and educational researchers as ILMDA
not only is a testbed for testing hypotheses, but it is
APPLICATION FRAMEWORK also an active decision maker that can expose knowl-
edge or patterns that are previously unknown to
In the ILMDA project, we aim to design an agent- researchers.
supported interface for online tutoring. Each topic to
be delivered to the students consists of three compo-
nents: (1) a tutorial, (2) a set of related examples, and MODEL
(3) a set of exercise problems to assess the students
understanding of the topic. Based on how a student Our ILMDA system is based on a three-tier model,
progresses through the topic and based on his or her as shown in Figure 1. It consists of a graphical user
background profile, our agent chooses the appropri- interface (GUI) front-end application, a database
ate examples and exercise problems for the student. backend, and the ILMDA reasoning in between. A
In this manner, our agent customizes the specific student user accesses the learning material through
learning material to be provided to the student. Our the GUI. The agent captures the students interac-
19
Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring
tions with the GUI and provides the ILMDA reason- background profile. After the students complete an
ing module with a parametric profile of the student example or a problem, they may elect to be given
and environment. The ILMDA reasoning module another. If they do so, the agent notes that the last
performs case-based reasoning to obtain a search example or problem it gave the student was not a
query (a set of search keys) to retrieve and adapt the good choice for that student, and tries a different
most appropriate example or problem from the data- solution. Figure 2 shows the interaction steps be-
base. The agent then delivers the example or problem tween our ILMDA agent and a student.
in real-time back to the user through the interface.
20
Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring
21
Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring
or she is a new student, then a new profile is created. We have also built a comprehensive simulator for
The student then selects a topic to study. The agent our experiments. Preliminary experiments demon-
administers the tutorial associated with the topic to strate the correctness of the end-to-end behaviour
the student accordingly. The student studies the of the ILMDA agent, and show the feasibility of
tutorial, occasionally clicking and scrolling, and ILMDA and its learning capability. Ongoing and
browsing the embedded hyperlinks. Then when the future work includes incorporating complex learner
student is ready to view an example, he or she clicks and instructional models into the agent and conduct-
to proceed. Sensing this click, the agent immediately ing further experiments on each learning mecha-
captures all the mouse activity and time spent in the nism, and investigating how ILMDA adapts to a
tutorial and updates the students activity profile. students behaviour, and how ILMDA adapts to
The student goes through a similar process and may different types of learning material.
choose to quit the system, indicating a failure of our
example, or going back to the tutorial page for
further clarification. If the student decides that he or REFERENCES
she is ready for the problem, the agent will retrieve
the most appropriate one based on the students Cassell, J., Annany, M., Basur, N., Bickmore, T.,
updated dynamic profile. Chong, P., Mellis, D., Ryokai, K., Smith, J.,
Vilhjlmsson, H., & Yan, H. (2000, April 1-6).
Shared reality: Physical collaboration with a virtual
FUTURE TRENDS peer. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Confer-
ence on Human Factors in Computer Systems,
We expect the field of intelligent tutoring systems to The Hague, The Netherlands (pp. 259-260).
make great contribution in the near future as the
Gertner, A. S., & VanLehn, K. (2000, June 19-23).
intelligent agent technologies are incorporated to
ANDES: A coached problem-solving environment
customize learning material for different students,
for physics. Proceedings of the Fifth Interna-
re-configure their own reasoning process, and evalu-
tional Conference on Intelligent Tutoring System
ate the quality of the learning material that they
(ITS2000), Montreal, Canada (pp. 131-142).
deliver to the students. Interfaces that are more
flexible in visualizing and presenting learning mate- Graesser, A. C., VanLehn, K., Ros, C. P., Jordan,
rial will also be available. For example, a tutorial P. W., & Harter, D. (2001). Intelligent tutoring
would be presented in multiple ways to suit different systems with conversational dialogue. AI Maga-
students (based on students background and the zine, 22(4), 39-51.
topic of the tutorial). Therefore, an agent-supported
interface that is capable of learning would maximize Kadiyala, M., & Crynes, B. L. (1998, November 4-
the impact of such tutorials on the targeted students 7). Wheres the proof? A review of literature on
groups. Interfaces, with intelligent agents, will be effectiveness of information technology in educa-
able to adapt to students timely and pro-actively, tion. Proceedings of the 1998 Frontiers in Edu-
which makes this type of online tutoring highly cation Conference, Tempe, Arizona (pp. 33-37).
personable. Koedinger, K. R., Anderson, J. R., Hadley, W. H.,
& Mark, M. A. (1997). Intelligent tutoring goes to
school in the big city. Journal of Artificial Intelli-
CONCLUSION gence in Education, 8(1), 30-43.
We have described an intelligent agent that delivers Kolodner, J. (1993). Case-based reasoning. San
learning material adaptively to different students. Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
We have built the ILMDA infrastructure, with a Sivin-Kachala, J., & Bialo, E. (1998). Report on the
GUI front-end, an agent powered by case-based effectiveness of technology in schools, 1990-
reasoning (CBR), and a multi-database backend. 1997. Software Publishers Association.
22
Agent-Supported Interface for Online Tutoring
Stone, P. (2000). Layered learning in multiagent Case-Based Learning (CBL): Stemming from
systems. MIT Press. case-based reasoning, the process of determining A
and storing cases of new problem-solution scenarios
Wooldridge, M., & Jennings, N. R. (1995). Intelli-
in a casebase.
gent agents: Theory and practice. The Knowledge
Engineering Review, 10(2), 115-152. Case-Based Reasoning (CBR): A reasoning
process that derives a solution to the current problem
based on adapting a known solution to a previously
KEY TERMS encountered, similar problem to the current one.
Active Interface: An interface that monitors Intelligent Agent: An agent that is capable of
and tracks its interaction with the user. flexible behaviour: responding to events timely, ex-
hibiting goal-directed behaviour and social behaviour,
Agent: A module that is able to sense its envi- and conducting machine learning to improve its own
ronment, receive stimuli from the environment, make performance over time.
autonomous decisions, and actuate the decisions,
which in turn change the environment. Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS): A soft-
ware system that is capable of interacting with a
Casebase: A collection of cases with each case student, providing guidance in the students learning
containing a problem description and its correspond- of a subject matter.
ing solution approach.
23
24
Natasha Lobo
Drexel University, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion
become the major driving forces behind the move- directional, a b. A co-citation is a higher-order
ment. Commonly used sources of input of such instance involving three articles, a, bi, and bj if we A
studies include a wide variety of scientific publica- found both a bi and a bj. Articles bi and bj are
tions in books, periodicals, and conference proceed- co-cited. A citation network is a directed graph,
ings. Subject-specific repositories include the ACM whereas a co-citation network is an undirected
Digital Library for computer science, PubMed Cen- graph.
tral for life sciences, the increasing number of open- Researchers have utilized co-citation relation-
access preprint archives such as www.arxiv.org, ships as a clustering mechanism. As a result, a
and the World Wide Web. cluster of articles grouped together by their co-
citation connections can be used to represent more
evasive phenomena such as specialties, research
THE DYNAMICS OF themes, and research fronts. Much of todays re-
RESEARCH FRONTS search in co-citation analysis is inspired by Small and
Griffiths (1974) work in the 1970s, in which they
Derek Price (1965) found that the more recent identified specialties based on co-citation networks.
papers tend to be cited about six times more often A detailed description of the subject can be found in
than earlier papers. He suggested that scientific Chen (2003). A noteworthy service is the ISI Essen-
literature contains two distinct parts: a classic part tial Science Indicators (ESI) Special Topics, launched
and a transient part, and that the two parts have in 2001. It provides citation analyses and commen-
different citation half-lives. Citation half-lives mimic taries of selected scientific areas that have experi-
the concept of half-life of atoms, which is the amount enced recent advances or are of special current
of time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to interest. A new topic is added monthly. Other impor-
decay. Simply speaking, classic papers tend to be tant methods include co-word analysis (Callon,
longer lasting than transient ones in terms of how Law, & Rip, 1986). A fine example of combining co-
long their values hold. The extent to which a field is citation and co-word analysis is given by Braam,
largely classic or largely transient varies widely Moed, and van Raan (1991).
from field to field; mathematics, for example, is
strongly predominated by the classic part, whereas
life sciences tend to be highly transient. KNOWLEDGE DIFFUSION
The notion of research fronts is also introduced
by Price as the collection of highly-cited papers that Knowledge diffusion is the adaptation of knowl-
represent the frontiers of science at a particular edge in a broad range of scientific and engineering
point of time. He examined citation patterns of research and development. Tracing knowledge dif-
scientific papers and identified the significance of fusion between science and technology is a chal-
the role of a quantitative method for delineating the lenging issue due to the complexity of identifying
topography of current scientific literature in under- emerging patterns in a diverse range of possible
standing the nature of such moving frontiers. processes (Chen & Hicks, 2004; Oppenheimer,
It was Eugene Garfield, the founder of the Insti- 2000).
tute for Scientific Information (ISI) and the father of Just as citation indexing to modeling and visual-
Science Citation Index (SCI), who introduced the izing scientific frontiers, understanding patent cita-
idea of using cited references as an indexing mecha- tions is important to the study of knowledge diffusion
nism to improve the understanding of scientific (Jaffe & Trajtenberg, 2002). There are a number of
literature. Citation index has provided researchers extensively studied knowledge diffusion, or knowl-
new ways to grasp the development of science and edge spillover, cases, namely liquid crystal display
to cast a glimpse of the big picture of science. A (LCD), and nanotechnology. Knowledge diffusion
citation is an instance of a published article a made between basic research and technological innova-
a reference to a published item b in the literature, be tion is also intrinsically related to the scientific
a journal paper, a conference paper, a book, a revolution. Carpenter, Cooper, and Narin (1980)
technical report, or a dissertation. A citation is found that nearly 90% of journal references made by
25
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion
patent applicants and examiners refer to basic or or a minimum spread is desired in a social network
applied scientific journals, as opposed to engineering (Borgatti & Everett, 1992). If we want to spread, or
and technological literature. Research in universities, diffuse, something as quickly or thoroughly as pos-
government laboratories, and various non-profit re- sible through a network, where do we begin? In
search institutions has been playing a pivot role in contrast, if the goal is to minimize the spread, which
technological inventions and innovations (Narin, nodes in the network should we isolate? Borgatti
Hamilton, & Olivastro, 1997). On the other hand, found that because off-the-shelf centrality mea-
Meyer (2001) studied patent-to-paper citations be- sures make assumptions about the way things flow
tween nano-science and nanotechnology and con- in a network, when they are applied to the wrong
cluded that they are as different as two different flows, they get the wrong answers. Furthermore,
disciplines. few existing measures are appropriate for the most
Earlier research highlighted a tendency of geo- interested types of network flows, such as the flows
graphical localization in knowledge spillovers, for of gossip, information, and infections. From the
example, knowledge diffusion (Jaffe & Trajtenberg, modelling perspective, an interaction between flow
2002). Agrawal, Cockburn, and McHale (2003) found and centrality can identify who gets things early and
that the influence of social ties between collaborative who gets a lot of traffic (between-ness). The ex-
inventors may be even stronger when it comes to ample explained later in this article utilizes the
account for knowledge diffusion: Inventors patents between-ness centrality metric to identify pivotal
are continuously cited by their colleagues in their points between thematic clusters.
former institutions.
Analysis Using Network Visualization
The Role of Social Network Analysis in
Knowledge Diffusion Freeman (2000) identifies the fundamental role of
network visualization in helping researchers to un-
Social network analysis is playing an increasingly derstand various properties of a social network and
important role in understanding knowledge diffusion to communicate such insights to others. He pointed
pathways. Classic social network studies such as the to interesting trends such as increasingly higher-
work of Granovetter (1973) on weak ties and struc- dimensional visualizations, changing from factor
tural holes (Burt, 1992) provide the initial inspira- analysis to scaling techniques such as principle
tions. Singh (2004) studied the role of social ties one component analysis and correspondence analysis,
step further by taking into account not only direct more widely used layout algorithms such as spring
social ties but also indirect ones in social networks of embedder, more and more interactive images with
inventors teams based on data extracted from U.S. color and animation. He envisaged that the greatest
Patent Office patents. Two teams with a common need for further social network analysis is integra-
inventor are connected in the social network. Knowl- tive tools that enable us to access network datasets,
edge flows between teams are analyzed in terms of compute, and visualize their structural properties
patent citations. Socially proximate teams have a quickly and easilyall within a single program! An
better chance to see knowledge flows between them. increasing number of social network analysis soft-
The chance shrinks as social distance increases. ware becomes available, including Pajek, InFlow,
More importantly, the study reveals that social links and many others.
offer a good explanation why knowledge spillovers The information visualization community has
appear to be geographically localized. It is the social also produced a stream of computer systems that
link that really matters; geographic proximity hap- could be potentially applicable to track knowledge
pens to foster social links. diffusion. Examples of visualizing evolving infor-
mation structure include disk trees and time tubes
The Key Player Problem (Chi, Pitkow, Mackinlay, Pirolli, Gossweiler, &
Card, 1998), which display the changes of a Web
The key player problem in social network analysis site over time. Chen and Carr (1999) visualized the
is also relevant. The problem is whether a maximum evolution of the field of hypertext using author co-
26
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion
citation networks over a period of nine years. Ani- Ni provides the vehicle for subsequent analysis and
mated visualization techniques have been used to visualization. Network analysis techniques such as A
track competing paradigms in scientific disciplines network scaling can be applied to the time series.
over a period of 64 years (Chen, Cribbin, Macredie, CiteSpace helps the user to focus on pivotal points
& Morar, 2002). and critical pathways as the underlying phenomenon
goes through profound changes. CiteSpace is still
evolving as it embraces richer collections of data
APPLICATIONS types and supports a wider range of data analysis,
knowledge discovery, and decision support tasks.
The CiteSpace application is discussed here.
CiteSpace is an integrated environment designed An Example of Trend Analysis in
to facilitate the modeling and visualization of struc- CiteSpace
tural and temporal patterns in scientific literature
(Chen, 2004b). CiteSpace supports an increasing The example is motivated by the question: What are
number of input data types, including bibliographic the leading research topics in the scientific literature
data extracted from the scientific literature, grant of terrorism research? In this case, we expect
awards data, digital libraries, and real-time data CiteSpace will reveal themes related to the after-
streaming on the Web. The conceptual model of math of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001,
Citespace is the panoramic expansion of a series of and some of the earlier ones.
snapshots over time. The goal of CiteSpace is to The initial dataset was drawn from the Web of
represent the most salient structural and temporal Science using the query terrorism. The dataset
properties of a subject domain across a user-speci- was processed by CiteSpace. Figure 1 is a screenshot
fied time interval T. CiteSpace allows the user to of a resultant visualization, which is a chain of sub-
slice the time interval T into a number of consecutive networks merged across individual time slices. The
sub-intervals Ti, called time slices. A hybrid network merged network consists of two types of nodes: new
Ni is derived in each Ti. The time series of networks terms found in citing articles (labeled in red) and
Figure 1. Emerging trends and clusters in the terrorism research literature (Source: Chen, 2004a)
27
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion
articles being cited in the dataset (labeled in blue). The red rectangle in Figure 2 marks an area
The network also contains three types of links: term- selected by the user. The operation is called mar-
term occurrence, article-article co-citation, and term- quee selection. Each node falls into the area is
to-article citation. The color of a link corresponds to selected. In this case, CiteSpace launches instant
the year in which the first instance was found. There search in PubMed, the largest medical literature
are three predominating clusters in Figure 1, labeled resource on the Web. If there is a match, the MeSH
as follows: (A) post-September 11th, (B) pre-Sept terms assigned by human indexers to the matched
11, and (C) Oklahoma bombing. Automatically ex- article will be retrieved. Such terms serve as gold
tracted high-fly terms identified the emerging trends standard for identifying the topic of the article.
associated with each cluster. Cluster A is associated Frequently used terms across all articles in the
with post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD); Clus- marquee selection are ranked and listed in the tables
ter B is associated with heath care and bioterrorism; located in the lower right area in the screen display.
and Cluster C is associated with terrorist bombings For example, the most frequently used MeSH term
and body injuries. for this cluster is biological warfare, which was
In Figure 2, the merged network shown in assigned to 13 articles in the cluster.
CiteSpace. Purple-circled nodes are high in be-
tween-ness centrality. The red rectangle indicates
the current marquee selection area. Articles in the FUTURE TRENDS AND
selected group are displayed in the tables along with CONCLUSION
matching medical subject heading (MeSH) indexing
terms retrieved from PubMed. The nature of the Major challenges include the need to detect emer-
selected group is characterized by the top-ranked gent trends and abrupt changes in complex and
MeSH major termsbiological warfare (assigned transient systems accurately and efficiently, and the
to 13 articles in the group). The most frequently cited need to represent such changes and patterns effec-
article in this group is in the top row of the table by tively so that one can understand intuitively the
Franz et al. (2001). Its centrality measure of 0.21 is underlying dynamics of scientific frontiers and the
shown in the second column. movement of research fronts. Detecting trends and
28
Analyzing and Visualizing the Dynamics of Scientific Frontiers and Knowledge Diffusion
abrupt changes computationally poses a challenge, and word analysis, I: Structural aspects and II:
especially at macroscopic levels if the subject is a Dynamical aspects. Journal of the American Soci- A
discipline, a profession, or a field of study as a whole. ety for Information Science, 42, 233-266.
Although many algorithms and systems have been
Burt, R. S. (1992). Structural holes: The social
developed to address phenomena at smaller scales,
structure of competition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
efforts aiming at macroscopic trends and profound
University Press.
changes have been rare. The emerging knowledge
domain visualization (KDviz) studies the evolution of Callon, M., Law, J., & Rip, A. (Eds.). (1986).
a scientific knowledge domain (Chen, 2003). The Mapping the dynamics of science and technol-
need to assemble data from a diverse range of ogy: Sociology of science in the real world.
sources also poses a challenge. IBMs London: Macmillan Press.
DiscoveryLink is a promising example of a middle-
ware approach to address this challenge in the Carpenter, M. P., Cooper, M., & Narin, F. (1980).
context of life sciences. Linkage between basic research literature and pat-
Effective means of visually representing the struc- ents. Research Management, 23(2), 30-35.
tural and dynamical properties of complex and tran- Chen, C. (2003). Mapping scientific frontiers:
sient systems are increasingly attracting research- The quest for knowledge visualization. London:
ers attention, but it is still in an early stage. Scalability, Springer.
visual metaphor, interactivity, perceptual and cogni-
tive task decomposition, interpretability, and how to Chen, C. (2004a). Information visualization: Be-
represent critical changes over time are among the yond the horizon (2nd ed.). Springer.
most pressing issues to be addressed. Chen, C. (2004b). Searching for intellectual turning
There is a wide-spread need for tools that can points: Progressive knowledge domain visualization.
help a broad range of users, including scientists, In the Proceedings of the National Academy of
science policy decision makers, sociologists, and Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS),
philosophers, to discover new insights from the 101(Suppl. 1) (pp. 5303-5310).
increasingly complex information. As advocated in
Norman (1998), designing task-centered and hu- Chen, C., & Carr, L. (1999, October 24-29). Visu-
man-centered tools is a vital step to lead us to a new alizing the evolution of a subject domain: A case
paradigm of interacting with complex, time-variant study. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the
information environments. Human-computer inter- IEEE Visualization 99 Conference, San Fran-
action holds the key to some of the most critical cisco (pp. 449-452). Los Alamos, CA: IEEE Com-
paths towards integrating the new ways of analysis, puter Society.
discovery, and decision-making. Chen, C., Cribbin, T., Macredie, R., & Morar, S.
(2002). Visualizing and tracking the growth of com-
peting paradigms: Two case studies. Journal of the
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W., Cieslak, T. J., Friedlander, A. M., & Eitzen, E. Singh, J. (2004, January 9). Social networks as
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KEY TERMS
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Narin, F., Hamilton, K. S., & Olivastro, D. (1997).
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puter is so complex, and information appliances sis, modeling, and visualization techniques to facili-
are the solution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. tate the study of a knowledge domain, which in-
cludes research fronts, intellectual basis, and other
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30
31
Art as Methodology A
Sarah Kettley
Napier University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Art as Methodology
redraw, make and remake, engaging directly with within communities, an exploration already in
sources of visual and sensory research and with progress prior to any design situation (Coyne, 1995,
materials, immanently defining their own affective p.11), design lacks the aboutness of art, which is why
responses, and through a body of work present their the position for HCI as laid out here is critical as
world for open reading (Eco, 1989; Eldridge, 2003; opposed to pragmatic.
Greenhalgh, 2002). Artists of all kinds commonly
keep notebooks or sketchbooks of ideas for develop- What is Read?
ment along with explorations for possible expression
of those ideas. They habitually collect and analyze Meaning making is an agentive process not only for
source material and work through strands of thought the artist but also for the audience; a viewer in
using sketches and models, simultaneously defining passive reception of spectacle does not build mean-
the aspect of experience they are interested in ing or understanding in relation to his or her own
representing and finding ways of manifesting that lifeworld; the viewer is merely entertained. The
representation. created artwork is experienced in the first instance
as a gestalt; in a successful work, cognitive trains of
What is Represented? thought are triggered, opening up authentic routes
of feeling in the viewer (Eldridge, 2003, p.71). The
Debate about what is represented in art tends to difficulties in talking about art have been explicated
highlight issues surrounding Cartesian duality. Com- by Susanne Langer as hinging on its concurrent
monly, processes of depiction and description might status as expression for its maker and as impression
seem, through their use of semiotic systems, to be for its audience (Langer, 1953). However, this is the
centered around the object out there; the desktop nature of any language, which is manipulated not just
metaphor in HCI is a good example. This apparent to communicate explicit information but as a social
combination of objectivity with the manifold subjec- activity geared toward consensual understanding
tivity involved in reading art poses philosophical (Winograd & Flores, 1986). The working through
problems, not least of which is the nature of that undertaken by the artist is subsequently followed
which is represented in the work. and recapitulated by the audience (Eldridge, 2003,
Merleau-Ponty defines the phenomenological p.70). Just as phenomenology sees language as a
world as not the bringing to explicit expression of a socially grounded activity (e.g., in the speech acts
pre-existing being, but the laying down of being, and theory) (Winograd & Flores, 1986), so art as a
that art is not the reflection of a pre-existing truth language is also primarily a process of activity
but rather the act of bringing truth into being among people. The artwork is a locus for discourse,
(Merleau-Ponty, 2002, pp. xxii-xxiii). Thus, when engaged with ordinary life and, indeed, truth (Farrell
we talk about a representation, it should be clear that Krell, 1977; Hilton, 2003; Ziarek, 2002), as is phe-
it is not symbolic only of an existing real phenom- nomenology, expressing and inviting participation in
enon, whether object or emotion, but exists instead the social activity of meaning making (Eldridge,
as a new gestalt in its own right. 2003; Greenhalgh, 2002; McCarthy & Wright, 2003).
Bearing this in mind, we may yet say that the The temptation to see artists disengagement from
artist simultaneously expresses an emotion and makes society as irrelevant to more user-centered prac-
comment upon it through the means of the material- tices is, therefore, misconceived. Empowerment of
ity of the work. Both these elements are necessary the user or audience occurs within both processes,
for art to existindeed, the very word indicates a only at different points, and with ramifications for
manipulation. Without either the emotional source the nature of the resulting artifacts. It is argued here
(i.e., the artists reaction to the subject matter) or the that involving the user directly in the design process
attendant comment (i.e., the nature of its material- correspondingly lessens the need for the user to
ity), there would appear to be no art, only empty actively engage with the final artifact and, con-
decorativeness (Eldridge, 2003, pp. 25-26). This is versely, that removing the user from the process in
where design can be differentiated as pragmatic in turn demands the users full emotional and cognitive
relation to art: although it may be a practice situated apprehension in interaction with the product. The
32
Art as Methodology
user/audience thus is invited into discourse with the of acting, echoing contemporary theories of con-
artist and other viewers rather than with themselves, sciousness: A
as the work provides a new ground or environment
for social being. The rationalisation of emotion does not take
place solely after the emotion has disappeared,
Simultaneity: How Things Are Read it is immanent in the emotion, it also takes place
in the course of an emotion. There is a
The way in which artists, their audiences, and users simultaneity of feeling and thinking. (Boal, 1992,
apprehend artifacts is of central importance to the p. 47)
way in which HCI may attempt to understand inter-
action. This section briefly introduces a new direc- This finds corroboration in Dennetts theory of
tion in phenomenologically informed methodologies consciousness, which likens the brain to a massive
as a promising way forward. parallel processor from which narrative streams
Phenomenology says we cannot step outside the and sequences emerge, subjected to continual edit-
world, yet this is supposedly what artists do as a ing (Dennett, 1991). In light of this, we also might
matter of course. People cannot remove themselves describe the artist not so much as distanced from his
from the worlds they find themselves in, because or her observed world but as practiced at probing
those worlds and individuals create each other simul- his or her own changing consciousness of phenom-
taneously through action (Merleau-Ponty, 2002). But ena and reflecting on the value of the resulting
this occurs at a macro level within which, of course, narratives.
humans continue to engage in cognitive processes. We have seen, then, that art is a process not only
The artist indeed does attempt to examine his or her of representation but also of philosophical question-
own sensual and emotional reactions to phenomena ing and narrative, and that as a provider of grounds
in the world through agentive attention to them and for discourse and meaning making, it plays a crucial
uses intellectual means to produce sensual work. In role in the healthy progression of society. The
this respect, the artist popularly might be said to stand question, of course, is how this might be of practical
back from his or her own immediate reactions, but the use to HCI.
artist does not and cannot be said to step outside of
his or her world as a phenomenological unity (Winograd
& Flores, 1986), in which case, the artist more FUTURE TRENDS
precisely could be said to be particularly adept at
disengagement within his or her world and practiced It goes without saying that we are not all profes-
at shifting his or her domain of concern within an sional artists, and that of those who are, not all are
experience: able to create successful works like those we have
just attempted to describe. If the description of the
The emotion is, as Wordsworth puts it, recollected art process and its products is a struggle, putting the
in tranquillity. There is a sense of working theory into action can only be more so. As it already
through the subject matter and how it is does in the domain of tools, HCI, nevertheless,
appropriate to feel about it Feeling here is should seek to do two things: to understand the
mediated by thought and by artistic activity. The creation process of this type of computational arti-
poet must, Wordsworth observes, think long and fact and to understand the perceptions of the people
deeply about the subject, for our continued who interact with them. As a basis of any method-
influxes of feeling are modified and directed by ology in understanding the arts, Susanne Langer
our thoughts. (Eldridge, 2003, p.70) (1953) pointed to the qualitative and even phenom-
enological, emphasizing the need for us to know
This process has come to be understood as one of the arts, so to speak, from the inside it is in fact
deeper engagement within the feeling process, within impossible to talk about art without adapting to
the forming of consciousness itself. Here is Augusto the language of the artist (p. ix). The trend for
Boal, Brazilian theater director, on the technicalities phenomenologically informed methodologies in HCI
33
Art as Methodology
is also growing. Recent developments, especially in them within their own lives and to question those
the growing relations between phenomenology and technologized lives. Dunnes (1999) problems with
cognitive science, are now setting a precedent for a audience perceptions of his work when shown in
first person treatment of HCI a phenomenologi- galleries led to later works like the Placebo project
cally-informed account of the study of people using to be placed with participants within their own
technologies (Turner, 2004; Ihde, 2002). homes over a period of time. The self-selecting
Understanding art may not be as daunting as it participants, or adopters of the products, filled in
first appears. HCI already knows how to conduct application forms detailing experiences and attitudes
phenomenologically informed inquiries, is used to to electronic products, and at the end of their allotted
methods revolving around the analysis of conversa- time, they were interviewed (although it is not made
tion and language, and has a history of cross- clear if the gallery audience also was interviewed).
disciplinary teams. Product designers frequently are Ideas and details from these interviews then were
involved in teams looking at tools; artists and art translated into a series of photographs expressing
theorists now should be able to provide valuable the central findings of the project (Dunne & Raby,
insight and be placed in teams engaged in the devel- 2002, 2002a).
opment of non-tools. This section now looks at the
work of Anthony Dunne followed by that of the Interactive Jewelery
author as practical examples of putting this broad
approach into practice. This project differs in its process from Dunnes
(1999) in its emphasis on source materials and works
Anthony Dunne through sketches and models (Figure 1) toward a
finished working product: in this case, interactive
Through conceptual genotypes, Anthony Dunne jewelery using ProSpeckz prototype technology (see
(1999) has sought to develop an aesthetics of use SpeckNet.org.uk). The aims of the project are to
based upon a products behavior rather than just its investigate how contemporary craft as an art disci-
form, and to extend preconceptions of our subjec- pline may benefit HCI reciprocally. The demonstra-
tive relationship with the world, our active relation- tion pendant (Figure 2) is fabricated from acrylic,
ship with other people (p. 5). Thief of Affections formica, mild steel, and gold leaf, and interacts with
was conceptualized as being based on an alternative other pieces in the same series to map social inter-
user persona, an otaku, or obsessive individual. action, specifically modes of greeting, through dy-
Seeking intimacy, this user would be able to techno- namic LED displays. The design is user-centered
logically grope the victims heart (Dunne, 1999, p. only in the sense that fashion is user-centered; that
97). Dunnes (1999) creative process followed two is, there is a target audience (a friendship group of
linesan investigation of the how, and the what
like. In keeping with his criteria for value fictions as
opposed to science fictions (Dunne, 1999), the tech- Figure 1. Source and sketches
nology had to be believable although not imple-
mented. The final concept has the thief stealing
weak radio signals from unsuspecting victims pace-
makers, using the narrative prop developed with a
sensitivity to the connotative aspects of its materials.
The design concept is presented in a series of
photographs rather than as a conventional prototype,
emphasising its psycho-social narrative possibili-
ties (Dunne, 1999, p. 100). In this and in a later
work with Fiona Raby can be seen a concern with
bracketing or framing concept designs in such a way
as to encourage the audience both to contextualize
34
Art as Methodology
CONCLUSION
35
Art as Methodology
Hallns, L., Melin, L., & Redstrm, J. (2002a). Post, E. R., Orth, M. A., Russo, P. R., & Gershenfeld,
Textile displays: Using textiles to investigate compu- N. (2000). E-broidery: Design and fabrication of
tational technology as a design material. Proceed- textile-based computing. IBM Systems Journal,
ings of the NordCHI 2002. 39(3, 4), 840-860.
36
Art as Methodology
Turner, P., & Turner, S. (2006). First person per- Genotype: Anthony Dunnes alternative to the
spectives on PDA use. Interacting with Comput- prototypea non-working yet complete product A
ers. Forthcoming. specifically aimed at provoking fictive, social, and
aesthetic considerations in an audience.
Winograd, T. (Ed.). (1992). Bringing design to
software. Boston: Addison-Wesley. Materiality: The way in which the manner of
material realization of an idea on the part of the artist
Winograd, T., & Flores, F. (1986). Understanding
or designer implicates subsequent experience of it.
computers and cognition. Norwood, NJ: Ablex
Corporation. Phenomenology: A strand of philosophy that
accounts for human action without mental represen-
Wypijewski, J. (Ed.). (1999). Painting by numbers;
tation. Martin Heidegger (18891976), currently
Komar and Melamids scientific guide to art.
demanding rereading in the HCI community, is one
Berkeley: California University Press.
of the most important thinkers in this field.
Ziarek, K. (2002). Art, power, and politics: Heidegger
Trajectories of Use: No designer, artist, or
on machenschaft and poiesis. Contretemps 3. Re-
developer can predict the outcomes of the many and
trieved from http://www.usyd.edu.au/contretemps/
consequential readings or uses to which a public will
dir/about.html
put his work. The work is a starting point of social
interaction, not an end in itself.
KEY TERMS Transparency: Also known as disappearance,
transparency is largely considered the hallmark of
Aesthetics of Use: The behavioral aspects of good interaction design, wherein the user is able to
an artifact, system, or device that precipitate an complete tasks without cognitive interference caused
aesthetic experience based on temporal as well as by the interface. The user is said to act through the
spatial elements. computer rather than to interact with it.
Artwork: An actively created physical instance User: The normative term used in the develop-
of a narrative. Created by a working through of ment of information devices, tools, and systems. Has
sensory perception and presented as an invitation to been criticized for its impersonal, non-performative
social discourse. implications. Alternative suggestions include actor,
Author: Much of the philosophy extended in audience, reader, and observer, depending on
analyses of technology stems from literary theory. context. No satisfactory term has been agreed upon
Author has connotations synonymous with artist that might take into account all of these contexts.
and designer and may be useful in future discus-
sions regarding terminology across more or less
user-centered processes.
37
38
Julie Thomas
American University of Paris, France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Attention Aware Systems
tems are examples of environments where the lack choices. Concerning the ability to respond to user
of knowledge and experience of users with the needs, consider for example, one of the metaphors A
subject at hand makes it harder for them to select the most often used for proactive systems: Negropontes
appropriate attentional focus and may easily cause a English butler (Negroponte, 1995). The best meta-
loss of focus. Life critical systems are examples of phor I can conceive of for a human-computer inter-
environments where an inappropriate selection of face is that of a well-trained English butler. The
attentional focus may cause serious damage. The agent answers the phone, recognizes the callers,
need for AASs is quite widespread especially if one disturbs you when appropriate, and may even tell a
considers that assessing, supporting, and maintain- white lie on your behalf. The same agent is well
ing users attention may be desirable in other envi- trained in timing, versed in finding the opportune
ronments such as entertainment and e-commerce. moments, and respectful of idiosyncrasies. People
who know the butler enjoy considerable advantage
Attention-Aware Systems in over a total stranger. That is just fine (p. 150). Isnt
HCI Research this proactive/adaptive system an exquisite example
of a transparent system? The English butler cer-
A large portion of research on human attention in tainly knows to disappear when it is the case, but he
digital environments is based on the findings of is there when required and is capable of proactive
cognitive psychology. For example, Raskin (2000) behavior such as selecting the calls you may want to
analyses how single locus of attention and habit receive or even telling a joke if appropriate! Con-
formation have important consequences on human cerning the design choices, a few considerations
ability to interact with computers. He proposes that should be made. First of all, any system needs to be
habit creation is a mechanism that can be used to proactive in certain situations (e.g., reporting errors)
shift the focus of users from the interface to the and transparent in others. Secondly, certain applica-
specific target task. tions, in particular those where the user has a good
This study follows the classic direct manipula- knowledge of the most effective attentional focus,
tion school (Shneiderman, 1992, 1997) which aims require mostly transparent interfaces, while certain
at supporting the attentional choices of the user by others, where the user is more in need of guidance,
making the device transparent so that the user can require more proactive interfaces. Also the users
focus on the task rather than on the interface. The needs, the systems functionality, and the use that is
wide range of systems designed with this aim is often made of the system, may change with time. There-
referred to as transparent systems, a term also fore, it may be desirable for a system, that is initially
employed in ubiquitous computing (Abowd, 1999; very proactive, to slowly become transparent, or
Weiser, 1991). vice-versa. Finally, applications exist where the user
Another area of research focuses instead on is expected to focus on the system/interface itself,
designing interfaces and systems capable of guiding that is, digital art. As a consequence, just as proac-
the users in the choice of attentional focus. The tive adaptive behaviors may not always be desirable,
system is seen as proactive, visible, and capable of transparency itself may, under certain conditions,
supporting the users in their choices. These types of not be desirable.
systems are often designed as artificial agents This brings us to another reason for studies
(Bradshaw, 1997; Huhns & Singh, 1997) acting as related to AASs. In the last two decades, there has
proactive helpers for the user (Maes, 1994; been a shift on the use and market of Information
Negroponte, 1997), and they are frequently referred and Communication Technologies (ICT) from strictly
to as proactive/adaptive systems. task oriented (work related) to more of a pervasive
The two approaches are often regarded as diver- personal and social use of these technologies. Per-
gent: (1) responding to different needs and (2) forming a task or achieving a goal may not be the
requiring different design choices. However this is main target of the user who instead may turn to ICT
not necessarily the case, as it should become appar- artifacts for their symbolic or affective value, enter-
ent from the following discussion of these two tainment, or pleasure in general; see, for example,
alleged differences on users needs and design Lowgrens arguments for Interactive Design versus
39
Attention Aware Systems
classic HCI in Lwgren (2002). Capturing and main- dality for computer-to-human communication is
taining user attention may then actually be the ulti- screen display. Using the results of psychological
mate goal of the system. studies in visual attention, some authors have pro-
The real challenge of modern interface design is posed visual techniques for notification displays
therefore at the meta-level. We should not aim at that aim at easy detection while minimising distrac-
designing transparent or proactive systems. Rather tion (Bartram, Ware, & Calvert, 2003). Attention
we should aim at designing systems capable of rea- on modalities other than visual, as well as attention
soning about users attention, and consequently de- across modalities, have not been investigated to the
cide how best to disappear or to gain and guide users same extent as visual attention. However, Bearne
attention. Focusing on attentional mechanisms also and his colleagues (Bearne, Jones, & Sapsford-
provides a framework that reconciles the direct Francis, 1994) propose guidelines for the design of
manipulation user interfaces approach and the inter- multimedia systems grounded in attentional mecha-
face agents approach as clearly presented and exem- nisms.
plified by Horvitz (1999). Systems capable of supporting and guiding user
attention must, in general, be able to: (1) assess the
current user focus, and (2) make predictions on the
HUMAN ATTENTION AND SYSTEMS cost/benefits of attention shifts (interruptions). We
CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING IT conclude this section with a review of the work
done so far in these two directions.
This section briefly reviews the work done so far in Several sensory-based mechanisms for the de-
AASs; for a more extensive review, see Roda and tection of users attention have been employed,
Thomas (2006). It should be noted that attention has including gaze tracking (Hyrskykari, Majaranta,
not often been prioritised as a specific subject of Aaltonen, & Rih, 2000; Vertegaal, 1999; Zhai,
research in HCI (with some notable exceptions in- 2003), gesture tracking (Hinckley, Pierce, Sinclair,
cluding the Attentional User Interface project at & Horvitz, 2000), head pose and acoustic tracking
Microsoft research [Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, (Stiefelhagen, 2002). Horvitz and his colleagues
2003]). As a consequence, much of the work rel- (2003) propose that sensory-based mechanisms
evant to the development of AASs appears in the could be integrated with other cues about the cur-
context of other research frames. This is especially rent users focus. These cues could be extracted
the case as attention processes are related to, and from users scheduled activities (e.g., using online
necessary for, the successful accomplishment of calendars), users interaction with software and
many diverse activities. devices, and information about the users and their
Human attention has been widely researched in patterns of activity and attention. In any case, even
cognitive psychology and, more recently, in neu- when employing mechanisms capable of taking into
ropsychology. Although there is no common agree- account all these cues, a certain level of uncertainty
ment on a definition of attention, attention is gener- about users focus, activities, goals, and best future
ally understood as the set of processes allowing actions will always remain and will have to be dealt
humans to cope with the, otherwise overwhelming, with within the system (Horvitz et al., 2003).
stimuli in the environment. Attention therefore refers The problem of evaluating the cost/benefit of
to the set of processes by which we select informa- interruptions has been researched mostly in the
tion (Driver, 2001; Uttal, 2000). These processes are context of notification systems (Brush, Bargeron,
mainly of two types: endogenous (i.e., guided by Gupta, & Grudin, 2001; Carroll, Neale, Isenhour,
volition) and exogenous (i.e., guided by reaction to Rosson, & McCrickard, 2003; Czerwinski, Cutrell,
external stimuli). Given this view of attention as a & Horvitz, 2000; Hudson et al., 2003; McCrickard,
selection of external stimuli, it is obvious that atten- Chewar, Somervell, & Ndiwalana, 2003b;
tion is somehow related to human sensory mecha- McCrickard, Czerwinski, & Bartram, 2003c). This
nisms. Visual attention, for example, has been widely research aims at defining the factors determining
studied in cognitive psychology, and it is particularly the likely utility of a given information, for a given
relevant to HCI since the current predominant mo- user, in a given context, and the costs associated
40
Attention Aware Systems
with presenting the information in a certain manner, several modalities is a field that also deserves fur-
to the user, in that context. McCrickard and Chewar ther research. A
(2003) integrate much of the research in this direc- Fifth, most of the work on the evaluation of the
tion and propose an attention-utility trade-off model. cost/benefits of interruptions has been done taking
the point of view of the user being interrupted; such
analysis, however, should also take into account the
FUTURE TRENDS cost/benefit to the interrupter, and the joint cost/
benefit (Hudson, Christensen, Kellogg, & Erickson,
AASs will be crucial for the development of applica- 2002; OConaill & Frohlich, 1995).
tions in a wide variety of domains including educa- Sixth, certain aspects of human attention related
tion, life critical systems (e.g., air traffic control), to social and aesthetic processes have been largely
support to monitor and diagnosis, knowledge man- disregarded in current research. How could these
agement, simulation of human-like characters, games, processes be taken into consideration? Furthermore,
and e-commerce. In order to unleash the whole most of the target applications in AASs assume that
potential of these systems however, there are many the user is in a work/task-oriented situation. How
fundamental aspects of attention, of the mechanisms would AAS design apply to different situations (play,
that humans use to manage it, and of their application entertainment)?
in digital environments that require further explora-
tion. As it will result obvious from the description
below, this exploration would greatly benefit from a CONCLUSION
more interdisciplinary approach to the design of
AASs. First, although a very significant amount of AASs are systems capable of reasoning about user
research on human attention has been undertaken in attention. In a task-oriented environment, such sys-
psychology, several HCI researchers agree that the tems address the problem of information overload by
reported theories are often too far removed from the striving to select and present information in a manner
specific issues relevant to human computer interac- that optimizes the cost/benefit associated with us-
tion to be easily applied to this field of research ers shifts of attentional focus between contexts and
(McCrickard et al., 2003c) and that more focused tasks. In this article, we have reviewed the work
research in this direction is needed (Horvitz et al., done so far in this direction. We have also indicated
2003). some issues related to the future development of
A second important issue in the design of AASs AASs. Among these, the most significant ones are
is the definition of parameters against which one the need to further investigate the application of
could measure their efficiency. In their work on AASs in environments that are not task-oriented,
notification systems, McCrickard and his colleagues and the need to take into account collaborative
(McCrickard, Catrambone, Chewar, & Stasko, situations when evaluating the cost/benefit of
2003a) advance a proposal in this direction; how- attentional shifts.
ever, further discussion is needed in order to achieve
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ware agents (pp. 57-66). AAAI Press/The MIT
input. Communications of the ACM, 46(3), 34-39.
Press.
OConaill, B., & Frohlich, D. (1995). Timespace in
the workplace: Dealing with interruptions. In the KEY TERMS
Proceedings CHI 95 Conference Companion,
Denver, Colorado (pp. 262-263). ACM Press. Direct Manipulation User Interfaces: Inter-
faces that aim at making objects and actions in the
Raskin, J. (2000). The humane interface: New systems visible by [graphical] representation. They
directions for designing interactive systems. were originally proposed as an alternative to com-
Addison-Wesley. mand line interfaces. The systems objects and
actions are often represented by metaphorical icons
Roda, C., & Thomas, J. (2004). Designing for atten-
on screen (e.g., dragging a file to the recycle bin for
tion. In the Proceedings HCI2004 Designing for
deleting a file). Designers of direct manipulation
Life18th British HCI group Annual Conference,
user interface strive to provide incremental revers-
Vol. 2, Leeds, UK (pp. 249-250). Bristol, UK:
ible operations and visible effects.
Research Press International.
Endogenous Attentional Processes: Refers
Roda, C., & Thomas, J. (2006). Attention aware
to the set of processes of voluntary (conscious)
systems: Theory, application, and research agenda.
control of attention. These processes are also re-
Computers in Human Behavior, Forthcoming.
ferred to as top-down or goal-driven. An example of
Shneiderman, B. (1992). Designing the user inter- endogenous attentional mechanism is the attention
face: Strategies for effective human-computer you are paying at this page as you are reading.
interaction. NY: ACM Press. Endogenous attention is voluntary; it requires ex-
plicit effort, and it is normally meant to last.
Shneiderman, B. (1997). Direct manipulation versus
agents: Path to predictable, controllable, and com- Exogenous Attentional Processes: Refers to
prehensible interfaces. In J. Bradshaw (Ed.), Soft- the set of processes by which attention is captured
ware agents (pp. 97-106). NY: AAAI Press/MIT by some external event. These processes are also
Press. referred to as bottom-up or stimulus-driven. An
example of this mechanism would be the attention
Stiefelhagen, R. (2002, October 14-16). Tracking
shift from your reading due to a sudden noise.
focus of attention in meetings. In the Proceedings
Exogenous attention is triggered automatically, and
4th IEEE International Conference on Multimodal
43
Attention Aware Systems
it normally lasts a short time before it is either shifted span from recognising the users current activity (or
or becomes controlled by endogenous processes. lack of), to recognising emotional states. Gesture
tracking is often used in combination with gaze
Gaze Tracking: The set of mechanisms allow-
tracking.
ing to record and analyse human eye-gaze. Gaze
tracking is normally motivated by the assumption Locus of Attention: Among all sensory input,
that the locus of eye-gaze may, to some extent, the locus of attention is the input to which one
correspond to the locus of attention, or it can help allocates mental resources. Input that falls outside
capturing user interests. Several techniques exist for the locus of attention may go absolutely unnoticed.
eye tracking varying in their level of intrusion (from An example of locus of attention is a specific section
requiring the user to wear special lenses to just of a computer screen.
having camera-like devices installed on the com-
Visual Attention: The process by which we
puter), their accuracy, and ease to use. Normally
select the visual information most relevant to our
devices need to be calibrated before use (some
current behaviour. In general, of all the visual stimuli
systems allow to memorise calibrations for specific
we receive, we only attend to a few, this determines
users).
what we see. Visual attention controls the selec-
Gesture Tracking: The set of mechanisms tion of appropriate visual stimuli both by pruning
allowing to record and analyse human motion. Ges- irrelevant ones and by guiding the seeking of rel-
ture may be tracked either in 2D or 3D. Gesture evant ones. Research in visual attention aims at
tracking ranges from the recording and analysis of understanding the mechanisms by which human
postures (e.g., head, body) to that of more detailed sensory and cognitive systems regulate what we
elements such as hand-fine movement or facial see.
expression. The aims of gesture tracking in HCI
44
45
Michael D. Harrison
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Building systems that are correct by design has As stated earlier, discount usability analysis methods
always been a major challenge of software develop- have been proposed as a means to achieve some
ment. Typical software development approaches degree of confidence in the design of a system from
(and in particular interactive systems development as early as possible in development. Nielsen and
approaches) are based around the notion of Molich (1990) proposed a usability inspection method
prototyping and testing. However, except for simple based on the assumption that there are a number of
systems, testing cannot guarantee absence of er- general characteristics that all usable systems should
rors, and, in the case of interactive systems, testing exhibit. The method (heuristic evaluation) involves
with real users can become extremely resource systematic inspection of the design by means of
intensive and time-consuming. Additionally, when a guidelines for good practice. Applying heuristic evalu-
system reaches a prototype stage that is amenable to ation involves setting up a team of evaluators to
testing, many design decisions have already been analyze the design of the user interface. Once all
made and committed to. In fact, in an industrial evaluators have performed their analysis, results are
setting, user testing can become useless if it is done aggregated thus providing a more comprehensive
when time or money is no longer available to sub- analysis of the design. To guide analysis, a set of
stantially change the design. design heuristics is used based on general purpose
To address these issues, a number of discount design guidelines. Over the years, different sets of
techniques for usability evaluation of early designs heuristics have been proposed for different types of
were proposed. Two examples are heuristic evalu- systems. The set proposed by Nielsen (1993) com-
ation, and cognitive walkthroughs. Although their prises nine heuristics: simple and natural dialog;
effectiveness has been subject of debate, reports speak the users language; minimize user memory
show that they are being used in practice. These load; be consistent; provide feedback; provide
are largely informal approaches that do not scale clearly-marked exits; provide short cuts; good
well as the complexity of the systems (or the error messages; and prevent errors.
complexity of the interaction between system and Usability inspection provides little indication of
users) increases. In recent years, researchers have how the analyst should check whether the system
started investigating the applicability of automated satisfies a guideline. Cognitive walkthrough (Lewis,
reasoning techniques and tools to the analysis of Polson, Wharton, & Rieman, 1990) is one technique
interactive systems models. The hope being that that provides better guidance to the analyst. Its aim
these tools will enable more thorough analysis of is to analyze how well the interface will guide the
the designs. user in performing tasks. User tasks must first be
The challenge faced is how to fold human fac- identified, and a model of the interface must be built
tors issues into a formal setting as that created by that covers all possible courses of action the user
the use of such tools. This article reviews some of might take. Analysis of how a user would execute
the work in this area and presents some directions the task is performed by asking three questions at
for future work. each stage of the interaction: Will the correct
action be made sufficiently evident to users?;
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
Will users connect the correct actions descrip- exhaustive state space analysis, the analysis be-
tion with what they are trying to achieve?; and comes fully automated. A main drawback of model
Will users interpret the systems response to the checking has to do with the size of the finite state
chosen action correctly? Problems are identified machine needed to specify a given system: useful
whenever there is a no answer to one of these specifications may generate state spaces so large
questions. that it becomes impractical to analyze the entire
Informal analytic approaches such as those de- state space. The use of symbolic model checking
scribed pose problems for engineers of complex somewhat diminishes this problem. Avoiding the
interactive systems. For complex devices, heuristics explicit representation of states and exploiting state
such as prevent errors can become too difficult to space structural regularity enable the analysis of
apply and validate. Cognitive walkthroughs provide state spaces that might be as big as 1020 states
more structure but will become extremely resource (Burch, Clarke, & McMillan, 1990). The technique
intensive as systems increase in complexity and the has been very successful in the analysis of hardware
set of possible user actions grows. and communication protocols designs. In recent
To address these issues, researchers have started years, its applicability to software in general has also
looking into the application of automated reasoning become a subject of interest.
techniques to models of interactive systems. These
techniques are generally more limited in their appli-
cation. This happens both because of the cost of AUTOMATED REASONING FOR
producing detailed initial models and because each USABILITY EVALUATION
tool performs a specific type of reasoning only.
Nevertheless, they have the potential advantage that Ensuring the quality (usability) of interactive sys-
they can provide a precise description that can be tems designs is a particularly difficult task. This is
used as a basis for systematic mechanical analysis in mainly due to the need to consider the human side of
a way that would not otherwise be possible. the interaction process. As the complexity of the
Automated theorem proving is a deductive ap- interaction between users and devices increases, so
proach to the verification of systems. Available does the need to guarantee the quality of such
theorem provers range from fully interactive tools to interaction. This has led researchers to investigate
provers that, given a proof, check if the proof is the applicability of automated reasoning tools to
correct with no further interaction from the user. interactive systems development.
While some systems provide only a basic set of In 1995, Abowd, Wang, and Monk (1995) showed
methods for manipulating the logic, giving the user how models of interactive systems could be trans-
full control over the proof strategy, others include lated into SMV (Symbolic Model Verifier) models
complex tactics and strategies, meaning the user for verification. SMV (McMillan, 1993) is a sym-
might not know exactly what has been done in each bolic model checker, at the time being developed at
step. Due to this mechanical nature, we can trust a Carnegie Mellon University, USA (CMU). They
proof done in a theorem prover to be correct, as specified the user interface in a propositional pro-
opposed to the recognized error prone manual pro- duction systems style using the action simulator tool
cess. While this is an advantage, it also means that (Curry & Monk, 1995). The specification was then
doing a proof in a theorem prover can be more analyzed in SMV using computational tree logic
difficult, as every little bit must be proved. (CTL) formulae. The authors proposed a number of
Model checking was proposed as an alternative templates for the verification of usability related
to the use of theorem provers in concurrent program properties. The questions that are proposed are of
verification (Clarke, Emerson, & Sistla, 1986). The the type: Can a rule somehow be enabled?; Is
basic premise of model checking was that a finite it true that the dialogue is deadlock free?; or
state machine specification of a system can be Can the user find a way to accomplish a task
subject to exhaustive analysis of its entire state from initialization?.
space to determine what properties hold of the The modeling approach was quite naive and
systems behavior. By using an algorithm to perform enabled the expression of models at a very high level
46
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
of abstraction only. Roughly at the same time, Patern language to model both the system and its proper-
(1995), in his D.Phil thesis, proposed an approach ties seems to solve some of the problem of transla- A
based on the LOTOS specification language (Lan- tion in Paterns approach, but the language was
guage of Temporal Ordering Specifications). Device limited in terms of the data types available.
models were derived from the task analysis and Bumbulis, Alencar, Cowan, and Lucena (1996)
translated into the Lite tool (LOTOS Integrated Tool showed how they were using HOL (a Higher Order
Environment). The models that could be verified with Logic theorem prover) in the verification of user
this approach were far more elaborate than with interface specifications. They specified user inter-
Abowd et al.s (1995), but the translation process faces as sets of connected interface components.
posed a number of technical difficulties. The lan- These specifications could then be implemented in
guage used to express the Lite models (Basic LOTOS) some toolkit as well as modeled in the higher order
was less expressive than the language used for the logic of the HOL system for formal verification. An
modeling of the system (LOTOS interactors). Nev- immediately obvious advantage of this approach is
ertheless, a number of property templates were that the formalism used to perform the analysis,
proposed for checking the specification. These were Higher Order Logic, was, at the same level of
divided into interactor, system integrity, and user expressiveness of the formalism, used to write the
interface properties. Regarding user interface prop- specification. So, again, the translation problems of
erties, templates fell into three broad classes: Paterns approach could be avoided. The logic
reachability, visibility, and task related. Reachability used, however, could not easily capture temporal
was defined as: ... given a user action, it is possible properties. What was specified was not so much
to reach an effect which is described by a specific the interaction between the users and the interface,
action. (Patern 1995, p. 103). All properties are but the interface architecture and how the different
expressed in terms of actions. This was due to there components communicate with each other. Al-
being no notion of a system state in the models and though the approach used a powerful verification
logic used. environment, it had two main drawbacks. The speci-
The main difference between both approaches fication style and the logic used did not allow
comes exactly from the specification notations and reasoning about some of the important aspects of
logics used. Abowd et al. (1995) adopted a simple interaction, and the verification process was quite
and easy to use approach. The approach might be too complex.
simple, however. In fact, for the verification to be Dwyer, Carr, and Hines (1997) explored the
useful, it must be done at an appropriate level of application of abstraction to reverse engineer toolkit-
detail, whereas action simulator was designed for based user interface code. The generated models
very high level abstract specifications. Patern (1995) were then analyzed in SMV. This is a different type
avoids this problem by using a more powerful speci- of approach since it does not rely on developers
fication notation. This, however, created problems building models for verification. Instead, models are
when specifications needed to be translated into the derived from the code.
model checkers input language (which was less Doherty, Massink, and Faconti (2001) applied
expressive). HyTech, a tool for reachability analysis in hybrid
In the following years, a number of different automata, to the analysis of the flight deck instru-
approaches was proposed, using not only model mentation concerning the hydraulics subsystem of
checking but also theorem proving. Most of this work an aircraft. The use of hybrid automata enabled the
was reported on the DSV-IS series of workshops. analysis of continuous aspects of the system.
dAusbourg, Durrieu, and Roch (1996) used the One of the characteristics of model checking is
data flow language Lustre. Models were derived that all possible interactions between user and
from UIL descriptions and expressed in Lustre. device will be considered during the verification
Verification is achieved by augmenting the interface step. While this enables a more thorough analysis of
with Lustre nodes modeling the intended properties the design, in many situations only specific user
and using the tool Lesar to traverse the automaton behaviors will be of interest. To address this, Doherty
generated from this new system. The use of the same et al. (2001) propose that a model of the user be
47
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
explicitly built. However, the user model used was The approach is not based on model checking nor
very simplistic: it corresponded simply to all the theorem prover, rather on simulation. Hence, it
actions that can be performed by the user. cannot provide the thoroughness of analysis of the
Rushby (2002) also used a model of the user in his other approaches. The main drawback, however, is
work. In this case, the user model was built into a the cost of programming the user model. According
previously-developed model of the system, and it to the authors, it seldom is cost effective to develop
defined the specific sequences of actions the user is a full model. Instead they argue that the formaliza-
expected to carry out. The analysis was performed tion process alone gives enough insight into the
in Mur (the Mur verification system), a state design without necessarily having to build a running
exploration tool developed at Stanford University, model.
USA (Dill, 1996), and the author used it to reason Thimbleby (2004) uses matrices to model user
about automation surprise in the context of an air- interfaces, and matrix algebra to reason about us-
craft cockpit. Also in the context of the analysis of ability related properties of the models. Instead of
mode confusion in digital flight decks, there has been using model checking to reason about the properties
work carried out at NASA Langley Research Cen- of finite state machines representing the user inter-
ter (Lttgen & Carreo, 1999). The models used faces, matrices are used to represent the transition
related to the inner working of the systems mode relation of those finite state machines. The author
logic, while the goal of the other approaches men- reverse engineers the user interface of three handheld
tioned herein is to build the models of the user devices, and shows how they can be analyzed using
interface. While this latter view might be criticized matrix algebra. The author argues that the approach
from the point of view that not all application logic is is simpler and requires less expertise than working
presented at the interface, it allows better explora- with model checking or theorem proving tools.
tion of the interaction between the user and the Finally, in all of the previously-mentioned ap-
system, and not simply of how the system reacts to proaches, the main emphasis is in the applicability of
commands. the model checking technology to the task of analyz-
Campos and Harrison (Campos, 1999; Campos ing properties of interactive systems models. Little
& Harrison, 2001) used SMV, but models were or no effort is devoted to making the approaches
expressed in Modal Action Logic and structured usable for a wider audience. Loer and Harrison have
around the notion of interactor (Duke & Harrison, moved in that direction with IFADIS (Loer, 2003), a
1993). This enabled richer models where both state tool for the analysis of user interface models. IFADIS
information and actions were present. Originally, uses OFAN Statecharts as the modeling notation,
only device models were built for verification. When- and Statemate as the tool to edit the models. Models
ever specific user behaviors needed to be discarded are than translated for verification in SMV. The
from the analysis, this was done in the properties to tools provides an environment for modeling, defini-
be verified instead of in the model. More recently, tion of properties, and analysis of the results of the
Campos has shown how it is possible to encode task verification process.
information in the model so that only behaviors that
comply with the defined tasks for the system are
considered (Campos, 2003). FUTURE TRENDS
A different style of approach is proposed in
Blandford and Good (1998) and Thimbleby (2004). With the exception of the IFADIS tool, work on the
In this case, the modeling process is centered around application of automated reasoning tools to the veri-
a cognitive architecture (Programmable User Mod- fication of interactive systems has, so far, attempted
els) that is supposed to simulate a user. This archi- mainly to prove the technical viability of the ap-
tecture is programmed with knowledge about the proaches. A large number of design notations and
device, and it is then run together with a device tools for model checking have been proposed. De-
model. Observation of the joint behavior of both veloping an understanding of usability and verifica-
models is performed in order to identify possible tion technology to go with it is not enough to guaran-
errors. tee a useful and usable approach to verification.
48
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
Interactive systems have specificities that make models started being considered, recognition grew
using typical model checking tools difficult. The of the need to include considerations about the user A
richness of the interaction between user and system or context of usage in the verification process. Some
places specific demands on the types of models that authors did this directly in the models; others en-
are needed. The assumptions that must be made coded that information in the properties to be proved.
about the users capabilities affects how the models More recently, the need has been recognized for
should be built and the analysis of the verification better tool support, and some steps have been given
results. Tools are needed that support the designer/ in that direction.
analyst in modeling, expressing properties, and rea- Applying automated reasoning tools will always
soning about the results of the verification from an mean incurring in the costs of developing adequate
interactive systems perspective. models and having adequate expertise. Tool support
A possibility for this is to build layers on top of should help decrease these costs. Increased recog-
existing verification tools, so that the concepts in- nition of the relevance of good usable designs,
volved in the verification of usability-related proper- especially when considering safety-critical and mass
ties are made more easily expressed. The use of market systems, should help make the remaining
graphical notations might be a useful possibility. The cost more acceptable.
area opens several lines of work. One is research on
interfaces for the verification tools. The STeP prover,
for example, uses diagrams to represent proof strate- REFERENCES
gies. Another is the need to support the formulation
of properties. Where properties are expressed as Abowd, G. D., Wang, H.-M., & Monk, A. F. (1995,
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target interface states could be used. dialogue development. In Proceedings of the First
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use in the verification process. Some work has 226). New York: ACM Press.
already been done, but the models used are typically
very simple. Increasing the complexity of the mod- Blandford, A., & Good, J. (1998). Introduction to
els, however, means larger state spaces which in programmable user modelling in HCI. British
HCI Group. HCI98 AM3 Tutorial Notes.
turn make verification more difficult.
Finally, some work has already been done on Bumbulis, P., Alencar, P. S. C., Cowan, D. D., &
reverse engineering of user interface code. This Lucena, C. J. P. (1996, June 5-7). Validating prop-
area deserves further attention. It can help in the erties of component-based graphical user inter-
analysis of existing systems, it can help verify imple- faces. In Bodart, F., & Vanderdonckt, J. (Eds.),
mentations against properties already proved of the Proceedings of the Eurographics workshop on
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347-365). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
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Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
Campos, J. C. (2003). Using task knowledge to Computer Science (Vol. 1301, pp. 244-261). Heidel-
guide interactor specifications analaysis. In J. A. berg: Springer-Verlag.
Jorge, N. J. Nunes, & J. F. Cunha (Eds.), Interac-
Lewis, C., Polson, P., Wharton, C., & Rieman, J.
tive systems: Design, specification and verifica-
(1990, April 1-5). Testing a walkthrough methodol-
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Loer, K. (2003). Model-based automated analysis
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for dependable interactive systems. PhD thesis.
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Department of Computer Science, University of
Clarke, E. M., Emerson, E. A., & Sistla, A. P. York.
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Lttgen, G., & Carreo, V. (1999). Analyzing mode
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Curry, M. B., & Monk, A. F. (1995). Dialogue Hampton, Virginia (pp. 23681-2199).
modelling of graphical user interfaces with a produc-
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KEY TERMS
Dwyer, M. B., Carr, V., & Hines, L. (1997). Model
checking graphical user interfaces using abstrac- Automated Theorem Prover: A software tool
tions. In M. Jazayeri & H. Schauer (Eds.), Software that (semi-)automatically performs mathematical
Engineering ESEC/FSE 97, Lecture Notes in proofs. Available theorem provers range from fully
50
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
interactive tools to provers that, given a proof, check Lite (LOTOS Integrated Tool Environ-
if the proof is correct with no further interaction ment): An integrated tool environment for working A
from the user. with LOTOS specifications. It provides specifica-
tion, verification/validation, and implementation sup-
Cognitive Walkthrough: A model-based tech-
port. The tools in LITE have been developed by
nique for evaluation of interactive systems designs.
participants in the LOTOSPHERE project (funded
It is particularly suited for walk up and use inter-
by the Commission of the European Community
faces such as electronic kiosks or ATMs. Its aim is
ESPRIT II programme).
to analyze how well the interface will guide first time
or infrequent users in performing tasks. Analysis is LOTOS (Language of Temporal Ordering
performed by asking three questions at each stage of Specifications): A formal specification language
the interaction: Will the correct action be made for specifying concurrent and distributed systems.
sufficiently evident to users?; Will users connect LOTOS syntax and semantics is defined by ISO
the correct actions description with what they standard 8807:1989. LOTOS has been used, for
are trying to achieve?; and Will users interpret example, to specify the Open Systems Interconnec-
the systems response to the chosen action cor- tion (OSI) architecture (ISO 7498).
rectly?
Lustre: A synchronous data-flow language for
DSV-IS (Design, Specification and Verifica- programming reactive systems. Lustre is the kernel
tion of Interactive Systems): An annual interna- language of the SCADE industrial environment de-
tional workshop on user interfaces and software veloped for critical real-time software design by CS
engineering. The first DSV-IS workshop was held in Vrilog (France).
1994 in Carrara (Italy). The focus of this workshop
Modal User Interface: A user interface is said
series ranges from the pure theoretical aspects to
to be modal (or to have modes) when the same user
the techniques and tools for the design, development,
action will be interpreted by the system differently
and validation of interactive systems.
depending on the systems state and/or the output of
Heuristic Evaluation: A technique for early the system means different things depending on
evaluation of interactive systems designs. Heuristic system state.
evaluation involves systematic inspection of the
Mode Error: A mode error happens when the
design by means of broad guidelines for good prac-
user misinterprets the mode the system is in. In this
tice. Typically, 3 to 5 experts should perform the
situation, actions by the user will be interpreted by
analysis independently, and afterwards combine and
the system in a way which will not be what the user
rank the results. A well-known set of heuristics is
is expecting, and/or the user will interpret the infor-
the one proposed by Nielsen: visibility of system
mation provided by the system erroneously. Mode
status; match between the system and the real
error typically leads to the user being confounded by
world; user control and freedom; consistency
the behavior of the system.
and standards; error prevention; recognition
rather than recall; flexibility and efficiency of Model Checker: A tool that automatically
use; aesthetic and minimalist design; help users checks a temporal logic formula against a state
recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors; machine. In the case of symbolic model checking,
help and documentation. the tool does not handle the states in the state
machine directly. Instead, it handles terms that
IFADIS (Integrated Framework for the
define sets of states. In this way, it is possible to
Analysis of Dependable Interactive Systems):
work with much larger state machines since it is not
A tool for the analysis of user interface models
necessary to explicitly build it.
developed at the University of York (UK).
OFAN: A Statecharts based task modelling
Lesar: A Lustre model checker developed a
framework developed at the Georgia Institute of
Verimag (France).
Technology (USA).
51
Automated Deduction and Usability Reasoning
SMV (Symbolic Model Verifier): A symbolic Task Model: A description of how the system
model checker originally developed at Carnegie is supposed to be used to achieve pre-defined goals.
Mellon University (USA). Currently, two versions Task models are usually defined in terms of the
exist: Cadence SMV, being developed by Cadence actions that must be carried out to achieve a goal.
Berkeley Laboratories (USA) as a research plat-
UIL (User Interface Language): A language
form for new algorithms and methodologies to incor-
for specifying user interfaces in Motif, the industry
porate into their commercial products, and NuSMV,
standard graphical user interfaces toolkit for UNIX
a re-implementation and extension of the original
systems (as defined by the IEEE 1295 specifica-
tool being developed as a joint project between the
tion).
ITC- IRST (Italy), Carnegie Mellon University
(USA), the University of Genova (Italy), and the Usability: The ISO 9241-11 standard defines
University of Trento (Italy). usability as the extent to which a product can be
used by specified users to achieve specified goals
The STeP Prover (Stanford Temporal
with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a
Prover): A tool to support the formal verification of
specified context of use.
reactive, real-time, and hybrid systems. SteP com-
bines model checking with deductive methods to User Model: A model that captures information
allow for the verification of a broader class of about users. User models range from simple collec-
systems. tions of information about users to cognitive archi-
tectures that attempt to simulate user behavior.
52
53
IQ Category IQ Dimensions
Intrinsic IQ Accuracy, objectivity, believability, reputation
Contextual IQ Relevancy, value-added, timeliness,
completeness, amount of information
Representational Interpretability, ease of understanding, concise
IQ representation, consistent representation
Accessibility IQ Access, security
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
These approaches are discussed in the main One of the first tools for the evaluation of HTML
sections. The indicators for content quality have not pages was Weblint (Bowers, 1996). It is a typical
resulted in many implementations and are presented system for syntax checking and operates on the
together with the interface evaluation in the subsec- following levels.
tion Page and Navigation Structure.
Syntax (Are all open tags closed? Are lan-
guage elements used syntactically correct?)
BACKGROUND HTML use (Is the sequence of the headings
consistent?)
In the past, mainly two directions of research have Structure of a site (Are there links that lead one
contributed to establish the automatic evaluation of hierarchy level up?)
Internet resources: bibliometrics and software test- Portability (Can all expressions be interpreted
ing. correctly by all browsers?)
Link analysis applies well-known measures from Stylistic problems (Is alternative text provided
bibliometrics to the Web. The number of references for graphics? Do words like here appear in link
to a scientific paper has been used as an indicator for text?)
its quality. For the Web, the number of links to a Web
page is used as the main indicator for the quality of The examples also illustrate how syntax-check-
that page (Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 2000). Mean- ing programs are related to human-computer inter-
while, the availability of many papers online and action. Some rules cover only the syntactical cor-
some technical advancement have made bibliometric rectness. Others address the user experience for a
systems for scientific literature available on the page. For example, missing alternative text for im-
Internet (Lawrence, Giles, & Bollacker, 1999). The ages poses no syntax problem, but it may annoy
availability of such measures will eventually lead to users of slow-loading pages. In their generality,
an even greater importance and impact of quantita- these simple rules do not apply for each context. For
tive evaluation. instance, a link upward may not be useful for
Software testing has become an important chal- nonhierarchical sites.
lenge since software gets more and more complex. A more comprehensive system than Weblint is
In software engineering, automatic software testing available from the National Institute of Standards
has attracted considerable research. The success of and Technology (NIST, http://zing.nscl.nist.gov/
the Internet has led to the creation of testing tools for WebTools/). Its system WebSAT is part of the Suite
standard Internet languages. Web Metrics. WebSAT is based on guidelines from
the IEEE and checks whether tags for visually
impaired users are present. It also tests whether
MAIN ISSUES IN THE AUTOMATIC forms are used correctly and whether the relation
EVALUATION OF INTERFACES ON between links and text promises good readability.
THE INTERNET An overview of systems for code checking is
provided by Brajnik (2000). Such systems can obvi-
ously lead only to a limited definition of quality.
HTML Syntax Checking
However, they will certainly be part of more com-
plex systems in the future.
Syntax-checking programs have been developed for
programming languages and markup languages.
Syntax checkers for HTML and other Web stan- Link Analysis
dards analyze the quality of Web pages from the
perspective of software engineering. However, some One of the main challenges for search engines is the
systems also consider aspects of human-computer heterogeneous quality of Internet pages concerning
interaction. both content quality and interface design (Henzinger,
Motwani, & Silverstein, 2002). In Web information
54
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
retrieval, the common approach to automatically was originally designed to work on the expanded
measure the quality of a page has been link analysis. result set of a search engine. A
However, link analysis is a heuristic method. The Link analysis has been widely applied; however,
number of links pointing to a page is considered as the it has several serious shortcomings. The assign-
main quality indicator (Brin & Page, 1998). From the ment of links is a social process leading to remark-
perspective of human-computer interaction, it is as- able stable patterns. The number of in-links for a
sumed that authors of Web pages prefer to link to Web page follows a power law distribution (Adamic
pages that are easy to use for them. & Huberman, 2001). For such a distribution, the
A large variety of algorithms for link analysis has median value is much lower than the average. That
been developed (Henzinger, 2000). The most well- means, many pages have few in-links while few
known ones are probably the PageRank algorithm pages have an extremely high number of in-links.
and its variants (Haveliwala, 2002; Jeh & Widom, This finding indicates that Web-page authors choose
2003). The basic assumption of PageRank and simi- the Web sites they link to without a thorough quality
lar approaches is that the number of in- or back-links evaluation. Rather, they act according to economic
of a Web page can be used as a measure for the principles and invest as little time as possible for
authority and consequently for the quality of a page their selection. As a consequence, social actors in
including its usability. PageRank assigns an authority networks rely on the preferences of other actors
value to each Web page that is primarily a function of (Barabsi, 2002). Pages with a high in-link degree
its back-links. Additionally, it assumes that links from are more likely to receive further in-links than other
pages with high quality should be weighed higher and pages (Pennock, Flake, Lawrence, Glover, & Giles,
should result in a higher quality for the receiving 2002). Another reason for setting links is thematic
page. To account for the different values each page similarity (Chakrabarti, Joshi, Punera, & Pennock,
has to distribute, the algorithm is carried out itera- 2002). Definitely, quality assessment is not the only
tively until the result converges. PageRank may also reason for setting a link.
be interpreted as an iterative matrix operation A study of university sites questions the assump-
(Meghabghab, 2002). tion that quality is associated with high in-link
As mentioned above, link analysis has its histori- counts. It was shown that the links from university
cal roots in the bibliometric analysis of research sites do not even lead to pages with scientific
literature. Meanwhile, link analysis is also applied to material in most cases. They rather refer the user
measure the quality of research institutes. For ex- to link collections and subject-specific resources
ample, one study investigates the relationship be- (Thelwall & Harries, 2003).
tween the scientific excellence of universities and Large-scale evaluation of Web information re-
the number of in-links of the corresponding university trieval has been carried out within TREC (Text
pages (Thelwall & Harries, 2003). Retrieval Conference, http://trec.nist.gov; Hawk-
The Kleinberg algorithm (1998) is a predecessor ing & Craswell, 2001). TREC provides a test bed
of PageRank and works similarly. It assigns two for information-retrieval experiments. The annual
types of values to the pages. Apart from the authority event is organized by NIST, which maintains a large
value, it introduces a so-called hub value. The hub collection of documents. Research groups apply
value represents the authority as an information their retrieval engines to this corpus and optimize
intermediate. The Kleinberg algorithm assumes that them with results from previous years. They submit
there are two types of pages: content pages and link their results to NIST, where the relevance of the
pages. The hub value or information-provider quality retrieved documents is intellectually assessed. A
is high when the page refers to many pages with high few years ago, a Web track was introduced in
authority. Accordingly, the topical authority is in- which a large snapshot of the Web forms the
creased when a page receives links from highly rated document collection. In this context, link-based
hubs (Kleinberg, 1998). Unlike PageRank, which is measures have been compared with standard re-
intended to work for all pages encountered by a Web trieval rankings. The results show that the consid-
spider of a search engine, the Kleinberg algorithm eration of link structure does not lead to better
55
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
retrieval performance. This result was observed in 1,200 essays, the system reached a correlation of 0.7
the Web track at TREC 2001. Only for the home- to the grades assigned by humans. The correlation
page-finding task have link-based authority mea- between two humans was not higher than that.
sures like the PageRank algorithm led to an improve- A similar level of performance was reached by a
ment (Hawking & Craswell, 2001). system by Larkey (1998). This prototype applies the
Link analysis is the approach that has attracted Bayesian K-nearest neighbor classifier and does not
the most research within automatic quality evalua- carry out any reduction of the word dimensions
tion. However, it has its shortcomings, and good (Larkey).
usability is only one reason to set a link. As a The readability of text depends to a certain extent
consequence, link-analysis measures should not be on the coherence within the text and between its
used as the only indicator for the quality of the user parts and sentences. In another experiment, LSI
interface. was used to measure the similarity between follow-
ing sentences in a text. The average similarity
Quality of Text between all sentence pairs determines the coher-
ence of the text. This value was compared to the
If systems for assessing the quality of text succeed, typical similarity in a large corpus of sentences. The
they will play an important role for human-computer results obtained are coherent with psychological
interaction. The readability of text is an important experiments estimating the readability (Larkey,
issue for the usability of a page. Good readability 1998).
leads to fast and more satisfying interaction. The In Web pages, some text elements are more
prototypes developed so far are focused on the important than others for navigation. The text on
application of teacher assistance for essay grading. interaction elements plays a crucial role for the usabil-
However, the use of such systems for Web re- ity. It is often short and cannot rely as much on context
sources will soon be debated. The automatic evalu- as phrases within a longer text. These text elements
ation of the quality of text certainly poses many need special attention. In one experiment, similar
ethical questions and will raise a lot of debate once measures as presented above were used to determine
it is implemented on a larger scale. the coherence between link text and the content of the
Two approaches are used in prototypes for the pages to which the link points (Chi et al., 2003). These
automatic evaluation of texts. The first approach is measures are likely to be applied to Web resources
to measure the coherence of a text and use it as a more extensively within the next few years.
yardstick. The second typical approach is to calcu-
late the similarity of the texts to sample texts that
have been evaluated and graded by humans. The PAGE AND NAVIGATION
new texts are then graded according to their similar- STRUCTURE
ity to the already graded texts.
The Intelligent Essay Assessor is based on latent Advanced quality models that take several aspects
semantic indexing (LSI; Foltz, Laham, & Landauer, into account are still at an experimental stage.
1999). LSI is a reduction technique. In text analysis, However, they are the most relevant for human-
usually each word is used for the semantic descrip- computer interaction. These systems go beyond
tion of the text, resulting in a large number of syntax checking and analyze the design of pages by
descriptive elements. LSI analyzes the dependen- extracting features from the HTML code of pages.
cies between these dimensions and creates a re- Prototypes consider the use of interaction elements
duced set of artificial semantic dimensions. The and design, for example, by looking for a balanced
Intelligent Essay Assessor considers a set of essays layout.
graded by humans. For each essay, it calculates the Whereas the first approaches evaluated the fea-
similarity of the essay to the graded essays using tures of Web pages intellectually (Bucy, Lang, Pot-
text-classification methods. The grade of the most ter, & Grabe, 1999), features are now extracted
similar cluster is then assigned to the essay. For more and more automatically. Most of these proto-
56
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
57
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
face design and identify design elements often and Choo, C. W., Detlor, B., & Turnbull, D. (2000). Web
successfully used. work: Information seeking and knowledge work
on the World Wide Web. Dordrecht et al.: Kluwer.
Foltz, P., Klintsch, W., & Landauer, T. (1998). The
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Foltz, P., Laham, D., & Landauer, T. (1999). The
Amento, B., Terveen, L., & Hill, W. (2000). Does
intelligent essay assessor: Applications to educa-
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the World-Wide Web. Proceedings of the Fifth eed/127/
International World Wide Web Conference
Hawking, D., & Craswell, N. (2001). Overview of
(WWW5). Retrieved from http://www5conf.inria.fr/
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fich_html/papers/P34/Overview.html
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Websites. Proceedings of the Sixth Conference html
on Human Factors and the Web (HFWEB), Aus-
Henzinger, M. (2000). Link analysis in Web infor-
tin, Texas. Retrieved from http://www.tri.sbc.com/
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Henzinger, M., Motwani, R., & Silverstein, C. (2002).
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Bucy, E., Lang, A., Potter, R., & Grabe, M. (1999).
Huang, K., Lee, Y., & Wang, R. (1999). Quality
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(1998). Strong regularities in World Wide Web
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58
Automatic Evaluation of Interfaces on the Internet
59
60
Yujin Zhang
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
the category boundaries. These four types of tech- that include facial features, a face, or body
niques are listed as follows: parts are extracted by thresholding the accu- A
mulated frame difference. Then, some rules
Knowledge-Based Methods: These rule- are set to measure the candidates. These ap-
based methods encode human knowledge about proaches are straightforward and easy to real-
what constitutes a typical face. Usually, the ize. However, they are not robust enough to
rules capture the relationships between facial detect noise and insignificant motion.
features. These methods are designed mainly Moving Image Contour: In the approach,
for face localization. the motion is measured through the estimation
Feature-Invariant Approaches: These al- of moving contours, such as optical flow. Com-
gorithms aim to find structural features that pared to frame difference, results from moving
exist even when the pose, viewpoint, or lighting contours are always more reliable, especially
conditions vary, and then use these features to when the motion is insignificant (Hjelmas, 2001).
locate faces. Usually, the facial features, such
as the edge of the eye and mouth, texture, skin
color, and the integration of these features, are REPRESENTING FACIAL
used to locate faces. These methods are de- EXPRESSION
signed mainly for face localization.
Template-Matching Methods: Several stan- After determining the location of the face, the
dard patterns of faces are stored to describe information of the facial expression can be ex-
the face as a whole or the facial features tracted. In this step, the fundamental issue is how to
separately. The correlations between an input represent the information of facial expression from
image and the stored patterns are computed for a static image or an image sequence.
detection. Usually, predefined face templates Benefiting from the development of image analy-
and deformable templates are used. These sis, object and face tracking, and face recognition,
methods have been used for both face localiza- many approaches have been proposed to represent
tion and detection. the information of facial expression. These methods
Appearance-Based Methods: In contrast to can be classified into different classes according to
template matching, models (or templates) are different criteria. Five kinds of approaches are
learned from a set of training images that discussed as follows.
should capture the representative variability of According to the type of input, the approaches
facial appearance. These learned models are for representing facial expression can be classified
then used for detection. Many learning models into two categories:
are studied, such as eigenface, the distribution-
based method, neural networks, support vector Static-Image-Based Approaches: The sys-
machines, the Nave Bayes classifier, the hid- tem analyzes the facial expression in static
den Markov model, the information-theoretical images. Typically, a neutral expression is needed
approach, and so forth. These methods are to find the changes caused by facial expres-
designed mainly for face detection. sions (Buciu, Kotropoulos, & Pitas, 2003; Chen
& Huang, 2003; Gao, Leung, Hui, & Tanada,
The face can also be detected by the motion 2003; Pantic & Rothkrantz, 2000b, 2004).
information from image sequences. The approaches Image-Sequence-Based Approaches: The
based on image sequences attempt to find the invari- system attempts to extract the motion or
ant features through face or head motion. They can changes of the face or facial features, and uses
be classified into two categories: the spatial trajectories or spatiotemporal infor-
mation to represent the facial expression infor-
Accumulated Frame Difference: In this type mation (Cohn, Sebe, Garg, Chen, & Huang,
of approach, moving silhouettes (candidates) 2003; Essa & Pentland, 1997; Tian, Kanade, &
61
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
Cohn, 2001; Zhang, 2003). Because facial ex- expressions (Chen & Huang, 2003; Gao et al.,
pression is a spatial-temporal phenomenon, it is 2003).
reasonable to believe that the approaches that Hybrid Approaches: Both the local facial
deal with the image sequences could obtain features and the whole face are considered to
more reliable results. represent the facial expression (Buciu et al.,
2003; Cohen et al., 2003; Essa & Pentland,
According to the space where the information is 1997; Lyons, Budynek, & Akamatsu, 1999).
represented, the representations of facial expression For example, a grid model of the whole face is
information can be categorized into three types: used to represent the whole face, and the
properties of local facial features are also
Spatial Space-Based Approaches: The de- used in the approach (Lyons et al.).
formation or the differences between the neu-
tral face or facial features and the current face According to information of the face, the ap-
or facial features is used to represent the facial proaches can be classified into image-based, 2-D-
expression information (Buciu et al., 2003; Chen model-based, and 3-D-model-based approaches.
& Huang, 2003; Gao et al., 2003; Pantic &
Rothkrantz, 2004). The methods used in face Image-Based Approaches: The intensity
recognition are usually adopted in this type of information is used directly to represent the
approaches. deformation or the motion of the face or facial
Spatial Trajectory-Based Approaches: The features (Chen & Huang, 2003; Donato,
spatial trajectory from the neutral face or facial Bartlett, Hager, Ekman, & Sejnowski, 1999).
features to the current face or facial features is 2-D-Model-Based Approaches: The face
used to represent the facial expression informa- is described with the aid of a 2-D face model,
tion (Tian et al., 2001). The fundamental issue including the facial features or the whole face
of this kind of method is the motion of the face region, without attempting to recover the volu-
or facial features. metric geometry of the scene (Buciu et al.,
Spatiotemporal Trajectory-Based Ap- 2003; Cohen et al., 2003; Gao et al., 2003;
proaches: The temporal information is also Pantic & Rothkrantz, 2004; Tian et al., 2001).
used besides the spatial trajectory (Cohen et al., 3-D-Model-Based Approaches: The face
2003; Essa & Pentland, 1997). These methods is described by a 3-D face model. These
are usually represented inside the spatiotempo- techniques have the advantage that they can
ral models, such as hidden Markov models. be extremely accurate, but have the disadvan-
tage that they are often slow, fragile, and
According to the regions of a face where the face usually must be trained by hand (Essa &
is processed, the representations can be categorized Pentland, 1997).
into local approaches, holist approaches, or hybrid
approaches: According to whether the representation is mod-
eled on the face surface or not, methods can be
Local Approaches: The face is processed by classified into appearance-based and muscle-based
focusing on local facial features or local areas approaches.
that are prone to change with facial expression
(Pantic & Rothkrantz, 2000b, 2004; Tian et al., Appearance-Based Approaches: The fa-
2001). In general, intransient facial features cial expressions are all represented by the
such as the eyes, eyebrows, mouth, and tissue appearance of the face or facial features, and
texture, and the transient facial features such as the information extracted from the appear-
wrinkles and bulges are mainly involved in fa- ance is used to analyze the facial expression
cial expression displays. (Buciu et al., 2003; Chen & Huang, 2003;
Holist Approaches: The face is processed as Cohen et al., 2003; Tian et al., 2001).
a whole to find the changes caused by facial
62
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
Muscle-Based Approaches: The approaches face. In this step, a set of categories should be
focus on the effects of facial muscle activities defined first. Then a mechanism can be devised for A
and attempt to interfere with muscle activities classification.
from visual information (Essa & Pentland, 1997;
Mase & Pentland, 1991). This may be achieved Facial Expression Categories
by using 3-D muscle models that allow mapping
of the extracted optical flow into muscle ac- There are many ways for defining the categories of
tions. The muscle-based approaches are able facial expressions. In the area of facial expression
to easily synthesize facial expressions. How- analysis research, two ways for categorizing are
ever, the relationships between the motion of usually used. One is the Facial Actions Coding
the appearance and motion of the muscle are System (FACS; Ekman & Friesen, 1978), and the
not so easily dealt with. other is prototypic emotional expressions (Ekman,
1982). Usually, the process of classifying the facial
After determining the representation of the facial expression into action units (AUs) in FACS is called
expression, the information of the facial expression facial expression recognition, and the process of
can be extracted according to the representation classifying the facial expression into six basic
approach. In general, the methods of extracting prototypic emotions is called facial expression inter-
facial expression information are determined by the pretation (Fasel & Luettin, 2003). Some systems can
type of facial expression representation. classify the facial expression to either AUs (Pantic
Each approach has its advantages and disadvan- & Rothkrantz, 2004; Tian et al., 2001) or one of six
tages. In a facial expression analysis system, the basic emotions (Buciu et al., 2003; Chen & Huang,
facial expression information is always represented 2003; Cohen et al., 2003; Gao et al., 2003). Some
using the combination of some types of facial ex- systems perform both (Essa & Pentland, 1997;
pression representation. Pantic & Rothkrantz, 2000b).
Because facial expression is a spatial-temporal
phenomenon, it is more reasonable to believe that the Mechanism for Classification
approaches that deal with image sequences and use
the spatiotemporal trajectory-based approaches could Like other pattern-recognition approaches, the aim
obtain more reliable results. The facial expression is of facial expression analysis is to use the information
the effect of the whole face, and any small change or patterns extracted from an input image and clas-
of facial appearance means the change of facial sify the input image to a predefined pattern. Gener-
expression. Though affected by accuracy and the ally, rule-based methods and statistic-based meth-
time consumed, the approaches using hybrid ap- ods are applied to classify facial expressions.
proaches or 3-D models to represent the face may
be more promising. The muscle-based approaches Rule-Based Methods: In this type of method,
seem to be sound; however, the relationship of the rules or facial expression dictionaries are de-
appearance and the motion of muscle is not so clear, termined first by human knowledge, then the
and is affected by the development of the image examined facial expression is classified by the
processing. Most of the approaches that deal with rules or dictionaries (Pantic & Rothkrantz,
the changes of appearance directly are more rea- 2000b, 2004).
sonable. Statistic-Based Methods: Statistic-based
methods are the most successful approaches in
pattern recognition. Most of the approaches in
CLASSIFYING FACIAL EXPRESSION the literature classify facial expressions using
statistic-based methods (Buciu et al., 2003;
After the information of facial expression is ob- Chen & Huang, 2003; Cohen et al., 2003; Essa
tained, the next step of facial expression analysis is & Pentland, 1997; Tian et al., 2001). Since the
to classify the facial expression conveyed by the early 1980s, statistic pattern recognition has
63
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
experienced rapid growth, especially in the varying ethnicity and performs multiple tokens
increasing interaction and collaboration among of most primary FACS action units.
different disciplines, including neural networks, CMU AMP Face Expression Database:
machine learning, statistics, mathematics, com- There are 13 subjects in this database, each
puter science, and biology. Each examined with 75 images, and all of the face images are
facial expression is represented as a point in an collected in the same lighting condition. It only
N-dimensional feature space according to the allows human expression changes.
representation of the facial expression infor- The Japanese Female Facial Expression
mation. Then, given a set of training patterns (JAFFE) Database: The database contains
from each class, the objective is to establish 213 images of seven facial expressions (six
decision boundaries in the feature space that basic facial expressions and one neutral) posed
separate patterns belonging to different classes. by 10 Japanese female models. Each image
Of course, according to the learning methods, has been rated on six emotion adjectives by 60
the statistic-based methods could be classified Japanese subjects. The database was planned
into many subcategories. For more details, and assembled by Miyuki Kamachi, Michael
refer to the papers of Fasel and Luettin (2003), Lyons, and Jiro Gyoba (Lyons et al., 1999).
Jain, Duin, and Mao (2000), and Pantic and Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expres-
Rothkrantz (2000a). sion of Emotion (JACFEE) and Neutral
Faces: The database consists of two sets of
photographs of facial expression. JACFEE
FACIAL EXPRESSION DATABASE shows 56 different people, half male and half
female, and half Caucasian and half Japanese.
Many facial expression analysis systems have been The photos are in color and illustrate each of
developed. Without a uniform facial expression da- seven different emotions. JACNEUF shows
tabase, these systems could not be compared. Some the same 56 subjects with neutral faces.
considerations for a facial expression database are
the following (Kanada, Cohn, & Tian, 2000).
FUTURE TRENDS AND
1. Level of description CHALLENGES
2. Transitions among expressions
3. Deliberate vs. spontaneous expression In spite of the applications, we think the future trends
4. Reliability of expression data would deal with the problems mentioned above and
5. Individual difference among subjects try to establish an ideal facial expression analysis
6. Head orientation and scene complexity system. Of course, the development of facial ex-
7. Image acquisition and resolution pression analysis would benefit from other areas,
8. Relation to nonfacial behavior including computer vision, pattern recognition, psy-
chological studies, and so forth.
Several databases have been developed to evalu- The challenge to facial expression analysis can
ate facial expression analysis systems. However, be outlined by an ideal facial expression system,
most of them are not open. A few databases that can which is proposed to direct the development of facial
be obtained freely or by purchase are as follows: expression analysis systems, as shown in Table 1.
Many researchers have attempted to solve the
CMU-Pittsburgh AU-Coded Face Expres- challenges mentioned above. However, in currently
sion Image Database (Kanada et al., 2000): existing systems of facial expression analysis, few
The database is the most comprehensive test of them did.
bed to date for comparative studies of facial In many systems, strong assumptions are made in
expression analysis. It includes 2,105 digitized each step to make the problem of facial expression
image sequences from 182 adult subjects of analysis more tractable. Some common assumptions
64
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
are the use of a frontal facial view, constant illumi- through the changes of the face surface. In this
nation, a fixed light source, no facial hair or glasses, article, three steps in automatic facial expression
and the same ethnicity. Only the method proposed by analysis, which are detecting the face, representing
Essa and Pentland (1997) in the literature deals with the facial expression, and classifying the facial
subjects of any age and outlook. In representing expression, have been discussed. Because of the
facial expression, it is always assumed that the lack of a uniform facial expression database, the
observed subject is immovable. facial expression analysis systems are hard to evalu-
None of the methods could distinguish all 44 ate. Though some developments have been achieved,
facial actions and their combinations. The method many challenges still exist.
developed by Pantic and Rothkrantz (2004) deals
with the most classes, that is, only 32 facial actions
occurring alone or in combination, achieving an 86% ACKNOWLEDGMENT
recognition rate.
Though some methods claim that they can deal This work has been supported by Grant RFDP-
with the six basic emotion categories and neutral 20020003011.
expression (Cohen et al., 2003), it is not certain that
all facial expressions displayed on a face can be
classified under the six basic emotion categories in REFERENCES
psychology. This makes the problem of facial ex-
pression analysis even harder.
Buciu, I., Kotropoulos, C., & Pitas, I. (2003). ICA
and Gabor representation for facial expression rec-
CONCLUSION ognition. IEEE International Conference on Im-
age Processing, 2, 855-858.
Facial expression is an important modality in human- Chen, X., & Huang, T. (2003). Facial expression
computer interaction. The essence of facial expres- recognition: A clustering-based approach. Pattern
sion analysis is to recognize the facial actions of Recognition Letters, 24, 1295-1302.
facial expression or perceive the human emotion
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Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
Cohen, I., Sebe, N., Garg, A., Chen, L., & Huang, T. Mase, K., & Pentland, A. (1991). Recognition of
(2003). Facial expression recognition from video facial expression from optical flow. IEICE Trans-
sequences: Temporal and static modeling. Com- actions, E74(10), 3474-3483.
puter Vision and Image Understanding, 91(1-2),
Pantic, M., & Rothkrantz, L. (2000a). Automatic
160-187.
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Donato, G., Bartlett, S., Hager, C., Ekman, P., & IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Ma-
Sejnowski, J. (1999). Classifying facial actions. chine Intelligence, 22(12), 1424-1445.
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Ma-
Pantic, M., & Rothkrantz, L. (2000b). Expert system
chine Intelligence, 21(10), 974-989.
for automatic analysis of facial expression. Image
Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face. and Vision Computing, 18(11), 881-905.
Cambridge University Press, UK.
Pantic, M., & Rothkrantz, L. (2004). Facial action
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial Action recognition for facial expression analysis from static
Coding System (FACS): Manual. Palo Alto, CA: face images. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man,
Consulting Psychologists Press. and Cybernetics, 34(3), 1449-1461.
Essa, I., & Pentland, A. (1997). Coding, analysis, Tian, Y., Kanade, T., & Cohn, J. (2001). Recogniz-
interpretation and recognition of facial expressions. ing action units for facial expression analysis. IEEE
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Ma- Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
chine Intelligence, 19(7), 757-763. Intelligence, 23(2), 97-115.
Fasel, B., & Luettin, J. (2003). Automatic facial Yang, M. H., Kriegman, D. J., & Ahuja, N. (2002).
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tion, 36, 259-275. actions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelli-
gence, 24(1), 34-58.
Gao, Y., Leung, M., Hui, S., & Tanada, M. (2003).
Facial expression recognition from line-based cari- Zhang, Y., & Ji, Q. (2003). Facial expression under-
catures. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, standing in image sequences using dynamic and
and Cybernetics Part A: Systems and Humans, active visual information fusion. Proceedings of
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Hjelmas, E. (2001). Face detection: A survey. Com-
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Jain, A. K., Duin, R. P. W., & Mao, J. (2000).
Face Detection: Given an arbitrary image, the
Statistical pattern recognition: A review. IEEE
goal of face detection is to determine whether or not
Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine
there are any faces in the image, and if present,
Intelligence, 22(1), 4-37.
return the image location and extent of each face.
Kanada, T., Cohn, J. F., & Tian, Y. (2000). Compre-
Face Localization: Given a facial image, the
hensive database for facial expression analysis.
goal of face localization is to determine the position
Proceedings of Fourth IEEE International Con-
of a single face. This is a simplified detection prob-
ference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recogni-
lem with the assumption that an input image contains
tion (pp. 46-53).
only one face.
Lyons, M. J., Budynek, J., & Akamatsu, S. (1999).
Face Model Features: The features used to
Automatic classification of single facial images.
represent (model) the face or facial features, such
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Ma-
as the width, height, and angle in a template of the
chine Intelligence, 21(12), 1357-1362.
66
Automatic Facial Expression Analysis
eye, or all nodes and triangles in a 3-D face mesh basic emotions defined by Ekman (1982) are used,
model. which are happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, A
and disgust.
Facial Action Coding System (FACS): It is
the most widely used and versatile method for Facial Features: The prominent features of the
measuring and describing facial behaviors, which face, which include intransient facial features, such
was developed originally by Ekman and Friesen as eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth, chin, and so forth,
(1978) in the 1970s by determining how the contrac- and transient facial features, such as the regions
tion of each facial muscle (singly and in combination surrounding the mouth and the eyes.
with other muscles) changes the appearance of the
Intransient Facial Features: The features that
face.
are always on the face, but may be deformed due to
Facial Expression Recognition: Classifying facial expressions, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth,
the facial expression to one facial action unit defined permanent furrows, and so forth.
in FACS or a combination of action units, which is
Transient Facial Features: Different kinds of
also called FACS encoding.
wrinkles and bulges that occur with facial expres-
Facial Expression Representation: Classify- sions, especially the forefront and the regions sur-
ing the facial expression to one basic emotional rounding the mouth and the eyes.
category or a combination of categories. Often, six
67
68
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
A Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada
Corporation, PacketWare Inc., NBTel InterActive, Learning Object Repositories (EduSource Canada)
Nautical Data International Inc., and Miranda Tech- created in 2002 to develop interoperable learning C
nologies Inc. CANARIE has funded more than 200 object repositories across Canada. EduSource
projects involving 500 Canadian companies and pro- Canada sponsored a number of learning object re-
viding an average of 30% of total project costs pository projects, including Broadband-Enabled Life-
(CANARIE, 2003). long Learning Environment (BELLE), Campus
Alberta Repository of Educational Objects (CAREO),
and Portal for Online Objects in Learning (POOL).
BACKGROUND
69
A Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada
tory initiatives currently in progress. There is little tion, organization, and funding. Based on the afore-
point in amassing thousands of learning objects for mentioned problems, valuable lessons can be de-
users if they do not see how the objects enhance rived to advance future development within Canada
learning. and in similar contexts. First, the existing problem of
public knowledge suggests that increased public
Problem of Organization understanding of broadband technology is needed.
One option is to gain greater private-sector partici-
The organization of broadband and broadband-based pation in promotional activities connected to
initiatives can create problems, particularly where CANARIE (i.e., supporting charities, scholarships,
public support is vital. There is strong potential for donations to public institutions, etc.), since compa-
public interest in the development in Canadian learn- nies are interested in gaining popular support. Greater
ing object repositories and repository networks ac- private-sector interest in CANARIE could increase
cessible by all Canadians. The problem is that media attention. On the other hand, there also must
EduSource (established in 2002) and some of the be careful consideration of the value structure
learning repository initiates emerged almost a decade governing stakeholder participation in broadband-
after broadband initiatives were funded. From an based initiatives in the public sphere. Parrish (2004)
engineering perspective, it made sense to invest also raises similar concerns in discussing the value
infrastructure development first and content second. of metadata development recommendations from
From a public interest perspective, however, earlier organizational entities like the ADRIADNE Foun-
development of learning repository networks could dation and the Advanced Distributed Learning
have raised public interest sooner by providing open (ADL) Initiative, which have invested financial
access. For instance, learning object repositories interests. Next, the problem of education and the
could have been created on narrowband networks underemphasis on how diverse individuals in differ-
while broadband network development was still un- ent contexts employ technology for educational
derway. ends suggests that that more efforts must be in-
vested into building pedagogical elements into broad-
Problem of Funding band technology development that satisfy the needs
of diverse populations in different contexts. This is
Another problem is related to project advancement is particularly important in the case of learning object
funding and funding continuity. For instance, the and learning object repositories, where learning is a
future of CANARIE and CANARIE-sponsored ini- major concern in project development. Whiley (2003)
tiatives was uncertain in 2003 due to delays in federal and Friesen (2003) make similar points in recent
funding commitment to renew the project (Anony- criticisms of learning object repository trends. Also,
mous, 2003). The trickledown effect of funding un- existing problems of organization suggest that the
certainty for umbrella projects like CANARIE af- sequence of developmental efforts is also an impor-
fected researchers and developers across the county. tant consideration. Assuming that public support is
The suspension of funding slowed and, in some vital, the organization of broadband and broadband-
cases, eliminated projects that previously were related development efforts should take public in-
funded. terest into consideration when planning develop-
mental phases. In the case of Canada, if more effort
were placed on learning object repository develop-
FUTURE TRENDS ment in the early 1990s, then stronger public support
of current broadband technology could have oc-
Lessons Learned curred. Moreover, existing financial problems sug-
gest that more stable funding investment for large-
A focus on non-technical aspects of broadband tech- scale projects like CANARIE is crucial.
nology and broadband-based developments revealed The aforementioned problems concerning broad-
problems revolving around public knowledge, educa- band development are not limited to the Canadian
context. For instance, financial difficulties in the
70
A Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada
U.S. arising from limited public interest in broadband work, learn, entertain themselves, and access fun-
services (i.e., Excite@Home) destabilized broad- damental government services (Ostry, 1994). How- C
band development by the end of the 1990s. As was ever, the general public is still unaware of what
the case in Canada, limited public knowledge and broadband can do for them. If people are to capital-
interest were key elements. Despite the efforts of a ize on these new technologies in order to improve
small group of researchers, developers, and compa- their standard of living and their quality of life, then
nies to explore the potential of broadband, the gen- greater attention to non-technical aspects of broad-
eral population was unaware of the benefits and the band technology in the field of human-computer
challenges that broadband introduced into their lives. interaction (HCI) is required.
Based on the discussion of broadband technology, The purpose of this article was to extend under-
broadband-based developments, and non-technical standing of non-technical aspects of broadband tech-
aspects of broadband, this section identifies key non- nology by focusing on Canadian broadband technol-
technical criteria that must be satisfied in order to ogy and broadband-based application development.
develop a broadband application that will be useful in It was based on the apparent lack of attention to non-
a national context. Toward this end, Table 1 de- technical human aspects of broadband develop-
scribes four key non-technical dimensions of broad- ment. The article explored how problems of public
band development: public knowledge, education, or- awareness, education, organization, and funding in-
ganization, and funding continuity. fluenced broadband development in Canada. Based
The dimensions listed in Table 1 are not intended on lessons learned, the article posited four important,
to be an exhaustive list. Rather, they are to be used non-technical dimensions of broadband develop-
as a foundation for exploring other non-technical ment intended to be used as a foundation for explor-
questions related to broadband technology and de- ing other non-technical questions related to broad-
velopmental strategies for broadband application band technology and developmental strategies for
planning. Broadband and broadband-based applica- broadband application planning.
tions have the potential to change the way people
71
A Case Study on the Development of Broadband Technology in Canada
72
73
Stavros Demetriadis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Andreas Pombortsis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough Interface Evaluation
74
Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough Interface Evaluation
Figure 1.
Almost all
C
users
Most
users
About half
the users
Some
users
Almost
no one
Few (2-3) Some (4-6) More (7-8) Many (>8)
1st attempt
attempts attempts attempts attempts
A. The digital form of the diagram (utilizing boxes) and countable assessment (horizontal axis in attempts)
t Almost all
users
Most
users
s About half
users
Some
. users
s Almost
no one
Novice Inter-
Beginner Advanced Expert
user mediate
B. The analog type of the diagram (utilizing lines) and internal assessment (horizontal axis depicts experience)
75
Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough Interface Evaluation
Application IV: Ergani CD A research question in this study was also whether
these modified versions are applicable to interfaces
This particular evaluation took place during the first of a broader scope. The research has shown that the
software usability seminar at the Department of modified methods performed efficiently in both mul-
Informatics of the University of Athens. The soft- timedia and educational interfaces, and valuable
ware under evaluation is called Business Plan: How results with fewer resources (time, money, effort,
to Start and Manage Your Own Business. It is etc.) were obtained.
vocational software that was constructed by the However, one always should bear in mind that
company Polymedia. The main characteristic of this these methods belong to the category of expert-
session was that all the evaluators were informatics based methodologies, and consequently, they show
experts, and all except one HCI were experts. the respective advantages and disadvantages. The
advantages of these methods are that they are
inexpensive and efficient in relation to the resources
OVERALL RESULTS that are needed, since only a few experts are able to
AND DISCUSSION pinpoint significant problems. Moreover, they can be
conducted at almost every stage of the design pro-
What was actually performed in the present work is cess, from the system specification stage to the
an empirical observational evaluation of the modi- construction phase of the product.
fied CGJ method. The evaluators actually acted as On the other hand, there are certain drawbacks.
users who perceived the method as a tool for achiev- The evaluators must be chosen carefully so that they
ing their goal, which was the evaluation of the are not biased. Moreover, the nature of the method
software under consideration. So, through the utili- is such that it focuses on the specific tasks and
zation of this tool in four applications, qualitative actions, often missing the point in the overall facet of
results were collected. Therefore, the results of this the system.
study are, in fact, the results of an empirical (user-
based) evaluation of the modified methods of CGW/
CGJ. FUTURE TRENDS
Throughout all the applications, the use of the
diagrams was characterized as successful. After a There are some suggestions for further investigation
short introduction in which the presenter described regarding the general reliability of the method. A
the method and the use of the diagrams, the evalu- fundamental issue that should be examined is the
ators were able to easily record their assessments validation of the suggestion regarding the augmenta-
during the session by ticking the appropriate boxes. tion of the reliability of the methods by means of its
There was no indication that assessing the augmen- combination with empirical sessions. Therefore, there
tation of the users experience during the use of the is a need a for more combinatory evaluations evi-
interface would be a difficult task; on the contrary, dence, as suggested in Karoulis and Pombortsis
the diagrams were considered to be the appropriate (2000).
tool for assessing this variable, and they quickly Another issue for further investigation is the ideal
became transparent in their use. composition of the evaluating team. Which disci-
The minimized conduct of one of the sessions plines are considered to be of most importance?
brought controversial results. The unexpected oc- Which are the desired qualities and skills of the
currence of a dispute concerning the notion of the evaluators? However, often the appropriate evalua-
expert evaluator made it necessary to have a camera tors are not available. In this case, what are the
clear; however, the whole minimalist approach of compromises one can make, and how far can the
this session speeded up the procedure. A tentative results be threatened in the case of having evalua-
conclusion is that this minimalist design provides the tors with limited qualities and skills? Finally, are
best cost/performance combination; however, it is teachers of informatics, because of their additional
inadequate in case a dispute occurs. cognitive background, an appropriate group for se-
lecting the evaluators? Of course, these are all major
76
Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough Interface Evaluation
questions not yet addressed, the answers to which 2. How many users will consider this action,
might significantly enhance the potential of the meth- and not some other, to be appropriate for C
ods. the intended goal?
3. How many users will know how to per-
form this action?
CONCLUSION 4. Is the system response obvious?
5. How many users will consider that the
About the Cognitive Graphical system response brings them closer to
Jogthrough their goal?
While the main aim of the original cognitive These modified questions are still in accordance
walkthrough was only to locate problems and mal- with the CE+ theory, the theory of exploratory
functions during the use of the interface, the incor- learning by Polson et al. (1992) (Rieman et al.,
poration of the diagrams adds the possibility of 1995), on which all mentioned methods are based.
assessing the intuition and the overall usability of the The graphical gradations in the text (bold type
interface. So, in the modified CGW/CGJ methods and smaller-sized characters) are considered to be
presented in this article, the aforementioned draw- important, since they also contribute in their own
backs either are diminished or eliminated. There- way to clarifying the meaning of the questions.
fore, it can be claimed that the methods provide both Irrespective of the final form of the evaluation,
augmented reliability compared to all previously the importance of the appropriate evaluating team
reported studies and augmented usability during must be emphasized once more. Cognitive science
their application. experts are indispensable, since they can lead the
session along the right path, using their comments
The Final Proposal and also focusing on the cognitive dimension of the
evaluation. The (anticipated) lack of double experts
The final form that the method can take now can be (i.e., those with expertise in the cognitive domain as
proposed. The following can be suggested: well as in HCI) is a known weakness of the methods.
Karavelaki, M., Papapanagiotou, G., & Demetriadis, guide. In J. Nielsen, & R.L. Mack (Eds.), Usability
S. (2000). Perivallon: A multidisciplinary multimedia inspection methods (pp. 105-139). New York: John
educational enviroment. Information & Communi- Wiley & Sons.
cation Technologies in Education, Proceedings of
the 2 nd Panhellenic Conference With Interna-
tional Participation, Patras, Greece. KEY TERMS
Karoulis, A., Demetriades, S., & Pombortsis, A. Cognitive Graphical Walkthrough: A modifi-
(2000). The cognitive graphical jogthroughAn cation of the initial Cognitive Walkthrough inter-
evaluation method with assessment capabilities. face evaluation method, which materializes dia-
Proceedings of the Applied Informatics 2000 grams to enable the evaluators to assess the time
Conference, Innsbruck, Austria. variable as well as accelerating the evaluation pro-
cedure.
Karoulis, A., & Pombortsis, A. (2000). Evaluating
the usability of multimedia educational software for Cognitive Jogthrough: A modification of the
use in the classroom using a combinatory evalua- initial Cognitive Walkthrough in order to speed up
tion approach. Proceedings of the Eden 4 th Open the procedure. A video camera now records the
Classroom Conference, Barcelona, Spain. evaluation session.
Polson, P.G., Lewis, C., Rieman, J., & Warton, C. Cognitive Walkthrough: An expert-based in-
(1992). Cognitive walkthroughs: A method for theory- terface evaluation method. Experts perform a
based evaluation of user interfaces. International walkthrough of the interface according to pre-speci-
Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 36, 741-773. fied tasks, trying to pinpoint shortcomings and defi-
ciencies in it. Their remarks are recorded by a
Preece, J., et al. (1994). Human-computer interac-
recorder and are elaborated by the design team.
tion. New York: Addison-Wesley.
Empirical Interface Evaluation: The empiri-
Reeves, T.C. (1993). Evaluating technology-based
cal evaluation of an interface implies that users are
learning. In G.M. Piskurich (Ed.), The ASTD hand-
involved. Known methods, among others, are ob-
book of instructional technology. New York:
servational evaluation, survey evaluation, and
McGraw-Hill.
thinking aloud protocol.
Rieman, J., Frazke, M., & Redmiles, D. (1995, May
Expert-Based Interface Evaluation: Evalua-
7-11). Usability evaluation with the cognitive
tion methodology that employs experts from differ-
walkthrough. Proceedings of the CHI-95 Confer-
ent cognitive domains to assess an interface. Known
ence, Denver, Colorado (pp. 387-388).
methods included in this methodology are (among
Roth, W., & Chair, L. (1997). Phenomenology, others) heuristic evaluation, cognitive
cognition and the design of interactive learning envi- walkthrough, and formal inspection.
ronments. Proceedings of the ED-MEDIA & ED-
Interface Evaluation: Interface evaluation of a
TELECOM 97, Charlottesville, Virginia.
software system is a procedure intended to identify
Rowley, D., & Rhoades, D. (1992). The cognitive and propose solutions for usability problems caused
jogthrough: A fast-paced user interface evaluation by the specific software design.
procedure. Proceedings of the ACM CHI 92,
Usability Evaluation: A procedure to assess
Monterey, California.
the usability of an interface. The usability of an
Schank, R., & Cleary, C. (1996). Engines for interface usually is expressed according to the fol-
education. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. lowing five parameters: easy to learn, easy to re-
member, efficiency of use, few errors, and subjec-
Wharton, C., Rieman, J., Lewis, C., & Polson, P.
tive satisfaction.
(1994). The cognitive walkthrough: A practitioners
78
79
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design
Derry (1990) that computers fill the role of cognitive cognitive areas that may influence learning. Conse-
extensions by performing tasks to support basic quently, an alignment map, as shown in Table 1, may
thinking requirements, such as calculating or holding offer some guidelines as to what aspects of the
text in memory, and thus allowed computers to be multimedia interface design would benefit from what
labeled cognitive tools. Jonassens (1991) central branch of the theory in order to gain a clearer
claim is that these tools are offered to students to channel of communication between the designer and
lower the cognitive load imposed during the learning the student.
process, which, in turn, allows them to learn by
experimentation and discovery.
Van Jooligan (1999) takes this concept a step CASE STUDY: DATA STRUCTURES
further by proposing an environment that allows MULTIMEDIA TUTORING SYSTEM
students to hypothesize and to pursue the conse-
quences of their hypotheses. He did this through The alignment map presents itself as an excellent
utilizing several windows in the same educational basis against which basic design issues of multime-
system. The system was composed of two main dia systems may be considered with the goal of
modules: the first supports the hypothesis formation making the best possible decisions.
step by providing menus to guide the process; the The multimedia tutoring system considered here
second provides a formatted presentation of experi- (Albalooshi & Alkhalifa, 2002) teaches data struc-
ments already tested and their results in a structured tures and was designed by considering the various
manner. They also added intelligent support to the design issues as dictated by the alignment map that
system by providing feedback to students to guide was specifically designed for the project and is
their hypothesis formation approach. shown in Table 1. An analysis of the key points
Ghaoui and Janvier (2004) presented a two-part follows:
system. The first part identified the various person-
ality types, while the second either had an interactive 1. Amount of Media Offered: The system pre-
or non-interactive interface. They report an in- sents information through textual and animated
crease in memory retention from 63.57% to 71.09% presentation only. This is done to avoid cogni-
that occurred for the students using the interactive tive overload caused by redundancy (Jonassen,
interface. They also provided a description of the 1991) that would cause students to find the
learning style preferences for the students tested, material more difficult to comprehend.
which exhibited particular trends, but these were not 2. How the Screen is Partitioned: The screen
analyzed in detail. grants two-thirds of the width to the animation
Montgomery (1995) published preliminary re- window that is to the left of the screen, while
sults of a study aimed at identifying how multimedia, the verbal description is to the right. Although
in particular, can be used to address the needs of the language used for the textual description is
various learning styles. Results indicate that active in English, all students are Arabs, so they are
learners appreciate the use of movies and interac- accustomed to finding the text on the right side
tion, while sensors benefit from the demonstrations. of the screen, because in Arabic, one starts to
Although a glimmer of interest in CLT exists, write from the right hand side. This design,
there is a distinct lack of a clear and organized therefore, targeted this particular pool of stu-
framework to help guide educational interface de- dents to ensure that both parts of the screen are
signers. awarded sufficient attention. It presents an
interface that requires divided attention to two
screens that complement each other, a factor
ALIGNMENT MAP FOR MULTIMEDIA that, according to Hampson (1989), minimizes
INSTRUCTIONAL INTERFACE interference between the two modes of pre-
sentation.
The problems that arose with learning styles reveal 3. Parallel Delivery of Information: Redun-
a need for a more fine-grained isolation of various dancy is desired when it exists in two different
80
Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design
Table 1. Alignment map from multi-media design questions to various cognitive research areas that
may be of relevance C
Multimedia Design Issues Cognitive Areas That May Be of Relevance
1. Amount of media offered 1. Cognitive load
2. Limited attention span
3. Interference between different mental
representations
2. How the screen is partitioned 1. Perception and recognition
2. Attention
3. Parallel delivery of information 1. Redundancy could cause interference
2. Limited working memory (cognitive load issues)
3. Limited attention span
4. Learner difference
4. Use of colors 1. Affects attention focus
2. Perception of edges to promote recall
5. Use of animation 1. Cognitive load reduction
2. Accommodates visualizer/verbalizer learners
6. Use of interactivity 1. Cognitive load reduction
2. Raises the level of learning objectives
7. Aural media 1. Speech perception issues like accent and clarity
2. Interference with other media
8. Verbal presentation of material 1. Clarity of communication
2. Accommodates verbal/serialist learners
media, because one re-enforces the other. It is 8. Verbal Presentation of Material: The ver-
not desired when it exists within the media, as bal presentation of the materials is concise and
when there is textual redundancy and things are fully explains relevant concepts to a sufficient
explained more than once. Consequently, the level of detail, if considered in isolation of the
textual description describes what is presented animation.
in the animation part, especially since only text
and animation media exist in this case, which
means that cognitive load issues are not of EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM
immediate concern (Jonassen, 1991).
4. Use of Colors: Colors were used to highlight The tool first was evaluated for its educational
the edges of the shapes and not on a wide scale impact on students. It was tested on three groups:
to ensure that attention is drawn to those. By one exposed to the lecture alone; the second to a
doing so, focus is expected to be directed to- regular classroom lecture in addition to the system;
ward the objects axes, as suggested by Marr and the third only to the system. Students were
and Nishihara (1978), in order to encourage distributed among the three groups such that each
memory recall of the shapes at a later point in group had 15 students with a mean grade similar to
time. the other two groups in order to ensure that any
5. Use of Animation: The animated data struc- learning that occurs is a result of the influence of
tures are under the users control with respect what they are exposed to. This also made it possible
to starting, stopping, or speed of movement. for 30 students to attend the same lecture session
This allows the user to select whether to focus composed of the students of groups one and two,
on the animation, text, or both in parallel without while 30 students attended the same lab session
causing cognitive overload. composed of the students of groups two and three
6. Use of Interactivity: The level of interactivity in order to avoid any confounding factors.
is limited to the basic controls of the animation. Results showed a highly significant improve-
7. Aural Media: This type of media is not offered ment in test results of the second group when their
by the system. post-classroom levels were compared to their lev-
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Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design
els following use of the multimedia system, with an are mapped to different question numbers in the
overall improvement rate of 40% recorded with post-test in order to minimize the possibility of
F=9.19, with p < 0.005 from results of an ANOVA students being able to recall them; a two-part ques-
test after ensuring all test requirements had been tion also was broken up for the same reason.
satisfied. The first and third groups showed no Results indicate that, although the group indeed
significant differences between them. was composed of students with different learning
Results shown indicate that learning did occur to preferences, they all achieved comparable overall
the group that attended the lecture and then used the improvements in learning. Notice, though, the differ-
system, which implies that animation does fortify ence in percentage improvement in Question 4. The
learning by reducing the cognitive load. This is question is: List and explain the data variables that
especially clear when one takes the overall mean are associated with the stack and needed to operate
grade of all groups, which is around 10.5, and checks on it. This particular question is clearly closer to
how many in each group are above that mean. Only heart to the verbalizer group than to the visualizer
six in group one were above it, while 11 were above group. Therefore, it should not be surprising that the
it in group two and 10 in group three. Since group verbalizer group finds it much easier to learn how to
three was exposed to the system-only option and describe the data variables than it is for students who
achieved a number very close to group two, which like to see the stack in operation. Another point to
had the lecture and the system option, then clearly, consider is that the visualizer group made a bigger
multimedia did positively affect their learning rate. improvement in the Q1+Q8 group in response to the
Since one of the goals of the system is to accom- question: Using an example, explain the stack con-
modate learner differences, a test was run on group cept and its possible use. Clearly, this question is
two students in order to identify the visualizers from better suited to a visualizer than to a verbalizer.
the verbalizers. The paper-folding test designed by
French et al. (1963) was used to distinguish between
the two groups. The test requires each subject to FUTURE TRENDS
visualize the array of holes that results from a simple
process. A paper is folded a certain number of folds, CLT already has presented us with ample evidence
a hole is made through the folds, and then the paper of its ability to support the design of more informed
is unfolded. Students are asked to select the image and, therefore, more effective educational systems.
of the unfolded paper that shows the resulting ar- This article offers a map that can guide the design
rangement, and results are evaluated along a median process of a multimedia educational system by high-
split as high vs. low visualization abilities. lighting the areas of CLT that may influence design.
These results then were compared with respect The aim, therefore, is to attract attention to the vast
to the percentage of improvement, as shown in Table pool of knowledge that exists in CLT that could
2. Notice that the question numbers in the pre-test benefit multimedia interface design.
Table 2. The percentage improvement of each group from the pretest to the posttest across the
different question types
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Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design
83
Cognitively Informed Multimedia Interface Design
84
85
Will Pearson
Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
This split between meaning, its encoding, and the of presentation. For example, a shop selling shoes
physical transmission of the meaning is recognised in may have a sign outside with a picture of a shoe on
psychology. Psychology considers that there are it. The image of the shoe is the sign, or the physical
three stages to receiving data: (a) the receiving of presence of the meaning, which in this case is an
sensory stimuli by a person, (b) the perception of icon, while the fact that it is a shoe shop is the
these stimuli into groups and patterns, and (c) the intended meaning. Equally, this could be represented
cognitive processing of the groups and patterns to using the words shoe shop as the physical sign, in
associate cognitively the meaning with the data this case a symbol of the English language, while the
(Bruno, 2002). Thus, for example, a receiver may meaning is again that of a shoe shop.
see a shape with four sides (the data) and associate This split of content and meaning from its physi-
the name square (the meaning) with it. There is cal presentation, which occurs naturally in human
accordingly a split between the input a person re- communication, allows for the same content and
ceives and the meaning he or she cognitively asso- meaning to be encoded in a variety of different forms
ciates with that input. and encoding methods. For example, the meaning of
Consider, for example, the words on this page as no dogs allowed can be encoded in a variety of
an example of the psychological process through visual images. For instance, there might be (a) an
which meaning is transmitted. The first stage of the image of a dog with a cross through it, (b) the words
process is where the reader receives sensory stimuli no dogs allowed, (c) an auditory sequence of
in the form of black and white dots transmitted to the sounds forming the words no dogs allowed, or (d)
eyes using light waves of varying wavelength. Upon the use of tactile alphabets such as Braille, which is
the stimuli reaching the reader, the brain will percep- used to encode printed writing into a form for the
tually group the different dots contained within the blind. However the content and meaning is con-
received stimuli into shapes and, ultimately, the veyed, it remains the same regardless of how it is
reader will cognitively associate the names of letters physically presented.
with these shapes and extract the meaning conveyed
by the words.
Semiotics, which is the study of signs and their SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURES FOR
meanings (French, Polovina, Vile, & Park, 2003; CONTENT SEPARATION
Liu, Clarke, Anderson, Stamper, & Abou-Zeid, 2002),
also indicates a split between meaning and its physi- For the true separation of presentation from content
cal presentation. Within semiotics, the way some- to occur therefore in software, the content (namely
thing is presented, known as a sign, is considered to the data or information itself as well as the applications
be separate from the meaning it conveys. Accord- operations, i.e., its business logic as indicated ear-
ingly, in semiotics there are three main categories of lier) is stored in a neutral format. This neutrality is
signs: icons, indexes, and symbols. This delineation achieved when the content is untainted by presenta-
is, however, not mutually exclusive as a particular tion considerations. This allows any given content to
sign may contain elements of all categories. Vile and be translated and displayed in any desired presenta-
Polovina (2000) define an icon as representative of tion format (e.g., through an HTML [hypertext
the physical object it is meant to represent; a symbol markup language] Web browser such as Microsofts
as being a set of stimuli, that by agreed convention, Internet Explorer, as an Adobe Acrobat PDF [Por-
have a specific meaning; and indexes as having a table Document Format], as an e-book, on a mobile
direct link to a cause, for example, the change of a phone, on a personal digital assistant [PDA], or
mouse pointer from an arrow shape to an hourglass indeed on any other device not mentioned or yet to
to reflect the busy state of a system. be invented). The theories of detaching content and
This classification of the physical representation meaning from its physical presentation thus give a
according to its relationship with the content and framework to separate content from presentation.
meaning it conveys provides further opportunities to Once that conceptual separation can be made, or at
distinguish content and meaning from its physical least continually realisable ways toward it are
presentation, and to classify the different elements achieved, then this approach can actually be de-
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Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
ployed in the design and implementation of computer In addition to embodying the four goals of soft-
systems. ware engineering, object orientation builds on these C
There are a number of methods offered by con- by providing three further principles: (a) encapsula-
temporary software languages and architectures to tion, (b) inheritance, and (c) polymorphism (Booch,
achieve this detachment between the content and 1990; Meyer, 1988; Polovina & Strang, 2004).
meaning, and how the content can thus be displayed. Inheritance allows an object to inherit the charac-
In the sphere of Web development, the extensible teristics and behaviours of another object. Utilising
markup language (XML) is one such example. XML this feature, it is possible to extend the functionality
provides a useful vehicle for separating presentation of an object to include new functionality, which may
from content (Quin, 2004a). Essentially, unlike HTML be new buttons or other interface elements within a
in which the tags are hard coded (e.g., Head, Body, user interface. Polymorphism is used to select an
H1, P, and so forth), XML allows designers or object based on its ability to meet a given set of
developers to define their own tags particular to their criteria when multiple objects perform similar func-
domain (e.g., Name, Address, Account-number, tions. For example, there may be two objects re-
Transactions, Debits, Credits, and so forth in, say, sponsible for displaying the same interface ele-
a banking scenario). How this content is presented ment; both display the same content and meaning,
has, of course, to be defined by the designer or but using different languages. In this scenario, the
developer; he or she can no longer rely on the concept of polymorphism can be used to select the
browser to format it by simply recognising the hard- one appropriate for the language native to the user.
coded HTML tags. The extensible stylesheet lan- Thus, object-orientated design can be used to natu-
guage (XSL) is the vehicle to achieve this (Quin, rally compliment the process of separating content
2004b). Equally, the scaleable vector graphics (SVG) and meaning from its method of presentation.
format, based on XML, is another World Wide Web A common practice within the field of software
format capable of separating content and meaning engineering is to base software designs on common,
from presentation. SVG specifies drawing objects, predefined architectures, referred to as patterns.
their dimensions, colour, and so forth, but leaves the One pattern, which lends itself well to the separa-
determination of presentation modality to the client tion of content and meaning from its method of
viewer application (Ferraiolo, Jun, & Jackson, 2003). presentation, is the n-tier architecture. The n-tier
Within enterprise systems, this separation can be architecture separates the objects used to create
achieved through the use of object-orientated and n- the design for a piece of software into layers
tier design methodologies. Object orientation works (Fowler, 2003). The objects contained within each
through its embodiment of the four goals of software layer perform a specific group of functions, such as
engineering (Booch, 1990; Meyer, 1988; Polovina & data storage. In the three-tier architecture, for
Strang, 2004). These four goals of software engi- example, one layer is responsible for handling the
neering, namely (a) abstraction, (b) cohesion, (c) softwares input and output with the user, another
loose coupling, and (d) modularity, determine the handles its business-logic processes, and the final
principled design of each object that makes up the layer handles the persistent storage of information
system. They seek to ensure that the object only between sessions of the software being executed.
performs the functions specific to its role, for ex- Through the use of an n-tier architecture and the
ample, to display a piece of information or to perform separation of the different areas of an applications
a calculation. Accordingly, these goals seek to en- design that it creates, it is possible to separate the
sure that presentation objects only present the infor- content from its mode of presentation within soft-
mation, while logic objects only perform calculations ware design.
and other business-logic operations. These content Software engineerings ability to separate con-
objects thus do not concern themselves with how the tent and meaning from its physical presentation can
information is presented to the user; instead these be aided by some contemporary implementation
content objects communicate their information via methods. These methods are based on component
presentation objects to perform this function. architectures that aim to create reusable segments
87
Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
88
Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
by using a one-size-fits-all user interface, some the time of transmission. This timing of the point at
users will find it difficult or impossible to use. which the content and meaning are encoded is C
By utilising the facilities offered by contempo- important. It gives the flexibility to encode the
rary software-engineering practices, it is possible to content and meaning in a form that is suitable for the
avoid this one-size-fits-all approach and its inherent characteristics of the situation (e.g., the channels
disadvantages in terms of human-computer interac- available, the languages used by the parties, and the
tion. By allowing the encoding scheme used to terminology that they know). This ensures that
present software interfaces to change with different humans communicate with each other in what they
users, interfaces will begin to mimic the processes consider to be the most appropriate and accurate
used to encode content and meaning that are found manner, leading to encoding schemes from which
in natural human-to-human communication. This the parties can access the content and meaning in an
change will result in interfaces that are accessible by easy method.
those who could not previously access them, and will This is not currently the case for software user
also result in greater ease of use for those who interfaces, which use a too tightly coupled associa-
previously had to learn the terminology used within tion between the content and meaning and the
the interface, hence improving interface usability. physical form used to encode it. By utilising contem-
porary Web-based or object-orientated component
architectures, this problem of fixed encoding schemes
FUTURE TRENDS can be overcome. Therefore, software user inter-
faces can more closely mimic natural language
One emerging trend is the use of explicit user encoding and gain all the benefits that it brings.
modeling to modify the behaviour and presentation
of systems based on a users historic use of that
system (Fischer, 2001). Explicit user modeling in- REFERENCES
volves tracking the preferences and activities of a
user over time, and building a model representing Booch, G. (1990). Object oriented design with
that behaviour and associated preferences. This, applications. Redwood City, CA: Benjamin-
coupled with the concept of presenting the content Cummings Publishing Co., Inc.
and meaning in the form most suitable for the user,
Bruno, F. (2002). Psychology: A self-teaching
holds the ability to tailor the content to a specific
guide. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
individuals needs. By monitoring how a user re-
ceives different types of information over time, a Ferraiolo, J., Jun, F., & Jackson, D. (Eds.). (2003).
historic pattern can be developed that can subse- SVG 1.1 recommendation. The World-Wide Web
quently be used to present the content and meaning Consortium (W3C). Retrieved October 4, 2005 from
based on an individuals actual requirements, not on http://www.w3.org/TR/SVG
a generalized set of requirements from a specific
group of users. Fischer, G. (2001). User modeling in human-com-
puter interaction. User Modeling and User-Adapted
Interaction, 11(1-2), 65-86.
CONCLUSION Fowler, M. (2003). Patterns of enterprise applica-
tion architecture. Boston: Addison Wesley Press.
Currently, by entwining the association between
content and meaning and the physical form used to French, T., Polovina, S., Vile, A., & Park, J. (2003).
represent it, software user interfaces do not mimic Shared meanings requirements elicitation (SMRE):
natural human-to-human communication. Within Towards intelligent, semiotic, evolving architectures
natural communication, the content and meaning for stakeholder e-mediated communication. Using
that is to be conveyed is detached from its physical Conceptual Structures: Contributions to ICCS
form, and it is only encoded into a physical form at 2003, 57-68.
89
Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
Liu, K., Clarke, R., Anderson, P., Stamper, R., & concepts conveyed through this article, the fact that
Abou-Zeid, E. (2002). Organizational semiotics: you must stop when a traffic light is red, and so on.
Evolving a science of information systems. Pro- Importantly, content is what is to be communicated
ceedings of IFIP WG8.1 Working Conference. but not how it is to be communicated.
MacDonald, M. (2004). Microsoft .NET distrib- Encoding: Encoding is the process by which the
uted applications: Integrating XML Web services content and meaning that is to be communicated is
and .NET remoting. Redmond, WA: Microsoft transformed into a physical form suitable for com-
Press. munication. It involves transforming thoughts and
ideas into words, images, actions, and so forth, and
Meyer, B. (1988). Object-oriented software con-
then further transforming the words or images into
struction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
their physical form.
Microsoft Corporation. (1998). Microsoft compo-
Object Orientation: A view of the world based
nent services: A technical overview. Retrieved
on the notion that it is made up of objects classified
August 29, 2004, from http://www.microsoft.com/
by a hierarchical superclass-subclass structure un-
com/wpaper/compsvcs.asp
der the most generic superclass (or root) known as
Polovina, S., & Strang, D. (2004). Facilitating useful an object. For example, a car is a (subclass of)
object-orientation for visual business organizations vehicle, a vehicle is a moving object, and a moving
through semiotics. In K. Liu (Ed.), Virtual, distrib- object is an object. Hence, a car is an object as the
uted and flexible organisations: Studies in relationship is transitive and, accordingly, a subclass
organisational semiotics (pp. 183-184). Dordrecht, must at least have the attributes and functionality of
The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. its superclass(es). Thus, if we provide a generic
user-presentation object with a standard interface,
Quin, L. (2004a). Extensible markup language then any of its subclasses will conform to that
(XML). Retrieved March 26, 2004, from http:// standard interface. This enables the plug and play of
www.w3.org/XML/ any desired subclass according to the users encod-
Quin, L. (2004b). The extensible stylesheet lan- ing and decoding needs.
guage family (XSL). Retrieved April 29, 2004, from Physical Form: The actual physical means by
http://www.w3.org/Style/XSL/ which thoughts, meaning, concepts, and so forth are
Shannon, C. (1948). A mathematical theory of com- conveyed. This, therefore, can take the form of any
munication. The Bell System Technical Journal, physical format, such as the writing or displaying of
27, 379-423, 623-656. words, the drawing or displaying of images, spoken
utterances or other forms of sounds, the carrying out
Vile, A., & Polovina, S. (2000). Making accessible of actions (e.g., bodily gestures), and so forth.
Websites with semiotics. Retrieved August 15, 2004,
from http://www.polovina.me.uk/publications/ Software Architecture: Rather like the archi-
Semiotics4AWDshortpaper.PDF tecture of a building, software architecture de-
scribes the principled, structural design of computer
software. Contemporary software architectures are
KEY TERMS multitier (or n-tier) in nature. Essentially, these stem
from a two-tier architecture in which user-presenta-
Accessibility: The measure of whether a per- tion components are separated from the informa-
son can perform an interaction, access information, tion-content components, hence the two overall
or do anything else. It does not measure how well he tiers. Communication occurs through a standard
or she can do it, though. interface between the tiers. This enables the easy
Content: The information, such as thoughts, swapping in and out of presentation components,
ideas, and so forth, that someone wishes to commu- thus enabling information to be encoded into the
nicate. Examples of content could be the ideas and most appropriate physical form for a given user at
any given time.
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Communication + Dynamic Interface = Better User Experience
Usability: A measure of how well someone can factors of an interaction other than whether some-
use something. Usability, in comparison to accessi- one can perform something, access information, and C
bility, looks at factors such as ease of use, efficiency, so forth, which are all handled by accessibility.
effectiveness, and accuracy. It concentrates on
91
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Simeon Keates
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
93
Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
that some spasticity in particular is brought on by limb selects a particular region. This region is then
movement, these devices offer a means of avoiding highlighted in subregions and this continues until a
that. particular button is selected. Therefore, this pro-
Studies performed using isometric joysticks (Rao, cess can involve several periods of waiting for the
Rami, Rahman, & Benvunuto, 1997), and an adapted appropriate sections of the screen to be highlighted,
Spaceball Avenger (Stapleford & Maloney, 1997), during which the user is producing no useful infor-
have shown that the ability to position the cursor is mation.
improved by using isometric devices. Brewster, Raty, and Kortekangas (1996) report
that for some users, each menu item must be
Touch Pad highlighted for as much as five seconds. There has
been much research on efficient scanning mecha-
The touch pad is a flat, touch-sensitive surface nisms, virtual keyboard layouts, and other ways of
representing all or part of the screen. The cursor is accelerating scanning input rates (e.g., Brewster et
moved by sliding a finger across the surface in the al., 1996; Simpson & Koester, 1999).
desired direction. It requires only a small range of A switch can also be used to provide input in
motion. Buttons for object selection are located near Morse code. This can be faster than scanning, but
the touch surface, and a drag button may or may not requires more accurate control of switch timing and
be available. the ability to remember the codes.
The most physically straightforward input device to Head-pointing systems operate by detecting the
operate is a single switch. Switches can come in users head position and/or orientation using ultra-
many different formats (Lazzaro, 1995) and be acti- sonic, optical, or magnetic signals, and using that
vated by hand, foot, head, or any distinct, controlled information to control the cursor. Nisbet and Poon
movement. There are also mouth switches, operated (1998) describe a number of existing systems and
by tongue position or by sudden inhalation or exhala- note them to be easy to use, providing both speed
tion (sip-puff switches). If a user is capable of and accuracy. The majority of these systems are
generating several of these motions independently, ultrasound based, such as the Logitech 6D mouse
then it is possible to increase the number of switches and the HeadMaster system (Prentke-Romich).
to accommodate this and increase the information An alternative system is the HeadMouse (Origin
transfer bandwidth. Instruments), which involves the user wearing a
Given their cheapness and the relatively low level small reflective patch on either the forehead or the
of movement required to operate them, switches bridge of a pair of spectacles.
have become extremely popular as the preferred As with most of the mouse-replacement sys-
method of input for the more severely impaired users. tems, no software-interface modifications are nec-
However, they do have drawbacks. essary to access most existing applications. How-
It is necessary to use switches in conjunction with ever, some kind of switch device is needed to make
some kind of software adaptation to generate the full selections. This is often a mouth-mounted sip-puff
range of input of a keyboard-mouse combination. switch as most users of these systems do not have
The most frequently used method for this is scanning sufficiently good arm movement to operate a hand
input. This involves taking a regular array of on- switch.
screen buttons, be they symbols, letters, or keys, and Learning to use head movements to control the
highlighting regions of the screen in turn. The high- cursor can take a little while as there is a lack of
lighting dwells over that region of the screen for a tactile feedback from the input device, but once
predetermined duration, then moves to another part used to it, users can control the cursor quite suc-
of the screen, dwells there, and so on until the user cessfully.
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Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
Eye Gaze Input inputs. They can reduce fatigue by reducing the
volume of input required, or they can provide alter- C
A review of these and other input devices in the natives to difficult movements. They can also
context of wheelchairs and environmental controls minimise the input required of the user, thus reducing
is presented by Shaw, Loomis, and Crisman (1995). effort and opportunities for error. Some examples of
Edwards (1995) reports that the most successful useful facilities that can be implemented in software
eye-gaze systems operate by detecting infrared light are the following.
bounced off the users retina, but there are still many
unsolved problems with this technology, such as The keyboard and mouse configuration, or the
coping with head movements. Todays eye-gaze sys- way the keyboard or mouse reacts to a given
tems may be either head mounted or remote, can be input, can be changed. For example, the delay
accurate to within 1 cm, and can be used to control before a key starts to repeat can be altered, or
off-the-shelf applications (e.g., ERICA, http:// the cursor can be made to move more slowly
www.eyeresponse.com/ericasystem.html). relative to the mouse. Another option sets the
computer to ignore repeated key presses within
Speech Recognition Systems a set time less than a particular threshold value.
This filters the input for tremor cases in which
Speech input is widely touted as the eventual suc- the user depresses a key more than once for a
cessor to the keyboard, being a natural form of single character input. Another powerful op-
human communication. Speech is a potentially very tion is Sticky Keys. This registers the pressing
good input medium for motor-impaired users, al- of keys such as Shift and Control and holds
though speech difficulties accompanying motor im- them active until another key is pressed. This
pairments may impede the recognition process. Nisbet removes the need for the user to operate sev-
and Poon (1998) also note that some users have eral keys simultaneously to activate keyboard
reported voice strain from using this input technique. shortcuts, hence simplifying the degree of co-
Besides the technical difficulties of the actual ordination demanded for the input. Simple al-
recognition process, environmental considerations terations like these can be very effective
also have to be addressed. Users with motor impair- (Brown, 1992; Nisbet & Poon, 1998; Trewin &
ments may be self-conscious and wish to avoid Pain, 1998).
drawing attention to themselves. An input system For those who do not use a keyboard but have
that involves speaking aloud fails to facilitate this. some form of pointing device, an on-screen
However, there have been cases in which speech keyboard emulator can be used to provide text
recognition systems have been found to be a good input. On-screen keyboards are built into many
solution. modern operating systems. Several commer-
Speech recognition systems can be programmed cial versions also exist, such as WiViK.
to offer verbal cursor control and so can replace both For users who find input slow or laborious,
the keyboard and mouse in the interaction process. macros can be used to perform common se-
However, true hands-free operation is not provided quences of operations with a single command.
in most of todays products. For example, a user who always enters the
same application and opens the same file after
logging on to a system could define a macro to
SOFTWARE SUPPORTING PHYSICAL open the file automatically. Many word-pro-
ACCESS cessing packages also include macro facilities
to allow commonly used text to be reproduced
Software programs can be used to alter the behaviour quickly. For example, a user could create a
of input devices or the input requirements of applica- macro representing his or her address as it
tions. Software modifications can tackle input errors appears at the top of a letter.
by changing an input devices response to specific When knowledge about the users task is avail-
able, more advanced typing support can be
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Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
provided through word prediction. Many word- an assessment session, an individual may try several
prediction systems have been developed, and a devices, each in a number of different positions, with
number are reviewed in Millar and Nisbet different control enhancers.
(1993). As a user begins to type a word, the Users often prefer to use standard equipment
prediction system offers suggestions for what whenever possible (Edwards, 1995). Alternative
the word might be. If the desired word is input devices can often be slower to use and may not
suggested, the user can choose it with a single provide access to the full functionality of applica-
command. In practice, word-prediction sys- tions the user wishes to use (Anderson & Smith,
tems have been observed to reduce the number 1996; Mankoff, Dey, Batra, & Moore, 2002; Shaw
of keystrokes required by up to 60% (Newell, et al., 1995). Also, skills for standard equipment
Arnott, Cairns, Ricketts, & Gregor, 1995). learned at home can be transferred to machines at
Newell et al. report that using the PAL word- work, college, or other public places. Finally, their
prediction system, some users were able to use does not identify the user as different or dis-
double their input speed. However, studies abled.
with disabled users have also shown that a Many less severely impaired users can use stan-
reduction in keystrokes does not necessarily dard input devices with minor modifications. For
produce an increase in input rate (for more some people, positioning is very important. Adjust-
detailed summaries, see Horstmann, Koester, able tables allow keyboard and screen height to be
& Levine, 1994; Horstmann & Levine, 1991). adjusted, and this in itself can have a dramatic effect
Word prediction is most useful for very slow on input accuracy. The keyboard tilt can also be
typists, particularly switch users. Those who adjusted. For those who find it tiring to hold their
type at a rate of greater than around 15 words arms above the keyboard or mouse, arm supports
a minute may find that the time spent searching can be fitted to tables. Wrist rests can also provide
the lists of suggestions for the right word is a steadying surface for keyboard and mouse use.
greater than the time saved (Millar & Nisbet). Some users wear finger or hand splints while others
Nevertheless, faster users may still find word use a prodder or head stick to activate keys.
prediction helpful in reducing fatigue, reducing The potential effectiveness of physical modifica-
errors, or improving spelling (Millar & Nisbet). tions to input devices is illustrated by Treviranus,
Shein, Hamann, Thomas, Milner, and Parnes (1990),
Input acceleration and configuration are who describe three case studies of users for whom
complementary approaches. The former improves modification of standard pointing devices was re-
accuracy and/or comfort while the latter reduces the quired. They define the physical demands made by
volume of input required, thus increasing the input direct manipulation interfaces, and the difficulties
rate. For users with slow input rates, or those who these caused for three users with disabilities. In all
tire easily, both techniques can be useful. cases, the final solution involved a combination of
pointing devices or minor modifications to a standard
device.
CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE
INPUT MECHANISM
FUTURE TRENDS
Finding the best input mechanism for a given indi-
vidual requires the analysis and adjustment of many Clearly, the field of input device technology is an
interrelated variables, including the choice of device, evolving one, with new technologies emerging all the
its position and orientation, the need for physical time. For example, some of the most exciting devel-
control enhancers such as mouth sticks, and the opments in computer input in recent years have been
available configuration options of the device itself in the field of brain-computer interfaces. For re-
(Cook & Hussey, 1995; Lee & Thomas, 1990). This views of recent research progress, see Moore (2003)
is best achieved through professional assessment. In and Wolpaw, Birbaumer, McFarland, Pfurtscheller,
96
Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
97
Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
Cooper, W. (1983). Cognitive aspects of skilled McCormack, D. (1990). The effects of keyguard
typewriting. New York: Springer-Verlag. use and pelvic positioning on typing speed and
accuracy in a boy with cerebral palsy. American
Edwards, A. D. N. (1995). Extra-ordinary human-
Journal of Occupational Therapy, 44(4), 312-
computer interaction: Interfaces for users with
315.
disabilities. Cambridge University Press.
Millar, S., & Nisbet, P. (1993). Accelerated writing
Forrester Research, Inc. (2003). The wide range of
for people with disabilities. University of Edinburgh,
abilities and its impact on computer technology.
CALL Centre and Scottish Office Education De-
Cambridge, MA: Author.
partment.
Glennen, S., & DeCoste, D. (1997). Handbook of
Moore, M. (2003). Frontiers of human-computer
augmentative and alternative communication. San
interaction: Direct-brain interfaces. Frontiers of
Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group.
Engineering: Reports on Leading-Edge Engi-
Greenstein, J., & Arnaut, L. (1987). Human factors neering from the 2002 NAE Symposium on Fron-
aspects of manual computer input devices. In G. tiers of Engineering, 47-52.
Salvendy (Ed.), Handbook of human factors (chap.
Newell, A., Arnott, J., Cairns, A., Ricketts, I., &
11.4, pp. 1450-1489). New York: John Wiley &
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Sons.
and language impaired people: A portfolio of re-
Horstmann, H. M., Koester, H., & Levine, S. (1994). search. In A. D. N. Edwards (Ed.), Extra-ordinary
Learning and performance of able-bodied individu- human-computer interaction: Interfaces for us-
als using scanning systems with and without word ers with disabilities (chap. 5, pp. 83-101). Cam-
prediction. Assistive Technology, 6(1), 42-53. bridge University Press.
Horstmann, H. M., & Levine, S. P. (1991). The Nisbett, P., & Poon, P. (1998). Special access
effectiveness of word prediction. Proceedings of technology. University of Edinburgh, CALL Centre
RESNA 91 (pp. 100-102). and Scottish Office Education Department.
Jacko, J., & Sears, A. (Eds.). (2003). The human Perelmouter, J., & Birbaumer, N. (2000). A binary
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(1997). Evaluation of an isometric joystick as an
Kroemer, K. (2001). Keyboards and keying: An interface device for children with CP. RESNA97,
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Computer Access for Motor-Impaired Users
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RESNA97 (pp. 321-323). KEY TERMS
Treviranus, J., Shein, F., Hamann, G., Thomas, D.,
Accessibility: A characteristic of information
Milner, M., & Parnes, P. (1990). Modifications of
technology that allows it to be used by people with
direct manipulation pointing devices. In Resna 90:
different abilities. In more general terms, accessibil-
Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference (pp.
ity refers to the ability of people with disabilities to
151-152).
access public and private spaces.
Trewin, S., & Pain, H. (1998). A study of two
Assessment: A process of assisting an indi-
keyboard aids to accessibility. In H. Johnson, L.
vidual with a disability in the selection of appropriate
Nigay, & C. Roast (Eds.), People and Computers
assistive technology devices and/or configurations
XIII: Proceedings of HCI 98, 83-97.
of standard information technology devices.
Trewin, S., & Pain, H. (1999). Keyboard and mouse
Input Acceleration: Techniques for expanding
errors due to motor disabilities. International Jour-
user input, allowing a large volume of input to be
nal of Human-Computer Studies, 50, 109-144.
provided with few user actions.
Vaughan, T. M., Heetderks, W. J., Trejo, L. J.,
Motor Impairment: A problem in body motor
Rymer, W. Z., Weinrich, M., Moore, M. M., et al.
function or structure such as significant deviation or
(2003). Brain-computer interface technology: A re-
loss.
view of the second international meeting. IEEE
Transactions on Neural Systems & Rehabilita- Transducer: An electronic device that converts
tion Engineering, 11, 94-109. energy from one form to another.
99
100
Figure 1. A concept map in the Webster concept mapping tool. Nodes in this concept map portray a
variety of representational possibilities: A node may contain a textual description of a concept,
object, event, or action, or may be an image or a link to a Web site, audio, video, spreadsheet, or any
other application-specific document.
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Computer-Based Concept Mapping
detailed level of the overall map (Alpert, 2003). et al., 1990; Gaines & Shaw, 1995b; Kommers,
Concept maps, thus, can be viewed as knowledge Jonassen, & Mayes, 1992), and there exist shareware C
visualization tools. programs as well as commercial products for this
activity (e.g., Inspiration,1 Axon,2 Decision Explorer,3
SemNet, 4 SMART Ideas, 5 and the IHMC
CONCEPT MAPS AS CmapTools6). With such tools, users using a mouse
COGNITIVE TOOL and keyboard can create, position, organize, modify,
evolve, and store and retrieve the nodes and links
Concept maps have been used in educational set- that comprise concept maps. Concept-mapping soft-
tings since the early 1970s as both pedagogical and ware offers the same sorts of benefits that word
evaluation tools in virtually every subject area: read- processors provide over composing written works
ing and story comprehension, science, engineering, on paper. That is, such software facilitates revision
math word problems, social studies, and decision of existing work, including additions, deletions, modi-
making (see, e.g., Bromley, 1996; Chase & Jensen, fications, or reorganizations. In fact, students often
1999; Fisher, Faletti, Patterson, Thornton, Lipson, & revisit their existing maps to revise them as their
Spring, 1990; Novak, 1998). Concept maps permit knowledge of a subject evolves (Anderson-Inman &
students to demonstrate their knowledge of a do- Zeitz, 1993).
main; act as organizational and visualization tools to Computer-based concept mapping tools have
aid study and comprehension of a domain, a story, or also been used outside educational settings. In busi-
an expository text; and support the generation and ness settings, for example, concept-map tools have
organization of thoughts and ideas in preparation for been used for organizing notes taken during meet-
prose composition. They are also used as instruc- ings and lectures, and for the preparation of presen-
tional materials whereby teacher-prepared maps tations and written works. There have also been
present new materials to learners, showing the efforts to use concept maps as organizing vehicles
concepts and relationships among concepts of a for both designers and end users of Web sites and
domain new to the students. Concept maps con- other hypermedia environments (e.g., Gaines &
structed by students help those students to learn and Shaw, 1995a; Zeiliger, Reggers, & Peeters, 1996).
exercise the metacognitive practice of reflecting on In this context, concept maps have provided visual-
what they know to explain or demonstrate their izations of the structure of the pages, documents, or
knowledge to others. Such activities may lead to resources of a site and the hyperlink relationships
self-clarification and elaboration of their knowledge. among them, as well as a mechanism for directly
There is considerable anecdotal and experimental navigating to specific pages.
evidence that the use of graphical knowledge-visu-
alization tools such as concept maps helps improve
student comprehension and enhance learning. For FUTURE TRENDS
example, Fisher et al. (1990) have reported that
providing concept maps constructed by domain ex- More recently, concept-mapping tools have been
perts to present new information to learners and enhanced to enable the representation of informa-
illustrating how an expert organizes concepts of the tion or knowledge that is neither textual nor propo-
domain results in demonstrable pedagogical ben- sition based. In many tools, for example, a node may
efits. Dunston (1992) and Moore and Readance be an image rather than a geometric shape with an
(1984) have shown that concept maps are pedagogi- embedded textual description. In the Inspiration
cally effective when students create their own maps product, nodes in a concept map may also reference
to reflect on and demonstrate their own knowledge. media files, such as video and audio, and application-
In educational environments, the use of concept specific files, such as spreadsheet or presentation
maps has evolved from paper-and-pencil to com- documents. The Webster knowledge mapping tool
puter-based tools. A number of computer-based (Alpert & Grueneberg, 2000) offers a Web-enabled
concept-mapping tools have been reported by re- version of these facilities, in which nodes in a
searchers (e.g., Alpert & Grueneberg, 2000; Fisher concept map may reference any media that can be
101
Computer-Based Concept Mapping
presented or played in a Web browser (including typically presented to end users textually as well.
Web-based tools and applications, such as The XML (extensible markup language) Topic Maps
Flashinteractive programs). As new sense-based (XTM) specification is an ISO/IEC standard that
resources, such as tactile, haptic, and aroma-based defines an XML-based language for defining and
media, become available on inexpensive computers, sharing Web-based topic maps (International Orga-
concept maps should also be capable of incorporating nization for Standardization & International
nodes representing such information for end-user Electrotechnical Commission, 2002). But the speci-
navigation and playback with the goal of having fication does not specify or suggest tools for the
concept maps comprehensively represent knowl- visualization of a maps topics, Web-based re-
edge of a domain (Alpert, 2005). sources, or their interrelationships. In practice to
Concept-map tools have now integrated other date, topic maps are often displayed for users using
Web facilities as well, such as nodes that act as a textual (plus hyperlink) format. However, several
hyperlinks to Web sites. This innovation allows con- developers are beginning to apply the concept map
cept maps to incorporate the vast amount of knowl- visualization model to provide users with a graphical
edge and information available on the World Wide mechanism for both understanding topic maps and
Web. For learning, users need content organized in navigating to specific pages contained therein (e.g.,
some fashion, focused on a particular topic or do- HyperGraph 7 and Mondeca8).
main. Rather than a generic search engine to, hope-
fully, find relevant content and its resulting flat view
of information, a concept map provides a centralized CONCLUSION
place to access knowledge and information. Such a
tool visually organizes relevant content in lucidly Concept maps are a form of knowledge represen-
structured ways while providing semantic links be- tation and knowledge visualization portraying knowl-
tween knowledge and information elements. Con- edge and information about a domain of interest in
cept maps can thereby help students by imposing a visual and organized fashion. Concept maps have
order on the perhaps overwhelming amounts and evolved from paper-and-pencil tools, to computer-
complexity of information germane to a domain. This based text-only applications, to computer-based
can be especially useful when that information is tools that permit the incorporation of any sort of
distributed across numerous locations on the Web. knowledge or information source available in any
Concept maps can thereby serve as personal knowl- computational form. As new forms of sensory
edge management tools for students and other knowl- output become available in digital form, concept
edge workers. maps should provide facilities for the inclusion of
Concept maps are also emerging as visualization such media in order to fully represent and share
tools for the nascent area of topic maps. Topic maps knowledge of any domain. Concept maps have
are used to organize, for end-user navigation, re- been used as cognitive tools, especially in educa-
sources available on the Web that are germane to a tional settings, for organizing thoughts and ideas, for
particular domain of interest and/or multiple topically knowledge elicitation, and for learning.
related domains. A topic map is defined as a model
for representing the structure of information re-
sources used to define topics, and the associations REFERENCES
(relationships) between topics (Pepper & Moore,
2001). Thus, the conceptual connection to concept Alpert, S. R. (2003). Abstraction in concept map
maps is obvious. Topic maps are consistent with the and coupled outline knowledge representations.
ideas expressed above regarding knowledge man- Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 14(1),
agement: The value of a topic map is that it organizes 31-49.
for the user, in a single location, resources that reside
in multiple disparate locations on the Web. However, Alpert, S. R. (2005). Comprehensive mapping of
topic maps are defined using a textual language and knowledge and information resources: The case of
Webster. In S. Tergan & T. Keller (Eds.), Knowl-
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Computer-Based Concept Mapping
edge visualization and information visualiza- IEC). (2002). ISO/IEC 13250: Topic maps (2nd
tion: Searching for synergies (pp. 208-225). Heidel- ed.). Retrieved from http://www.y12.doe.gov/sgml/ C
berg: Springer-Verlag. sc34/document/0322_files/iso13250-2nd-ed-v2.pdf
Alpert, S. R., & Grueneberg, K. (2000). Concept Jonassen, D. H. (1992). Semantic networking as
mapping with multimedia on the Web. Journal of cognitive tools. In P. A. M. Kommers, D. H. Jonassen,
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9(4), & J. T. Mayes (Eds.), Cognitive tools for learning
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Anderson-Inman, L., & Ditson, L. (1999). Com- Kommers, P. A. M., Jonassen, D. H., & Mayes, J.
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Moore, D. W., & Readance, J. E. (1984). A quan-
Anderson-Inman, L., & Zeitz, L. (1993). Computer- titative and qualitative review of graphic organizer
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tive learners. The Computing Teacher, 21(1), 6- 11-17.
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Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, creating, and
Brachman, R. J., & Levesque, H. J. (Eds.). (1985). using knowledge: Concept maps as facilitative
Readings in knowledge representation. Los Al- tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ:
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Creating story maps with childrens books (2nd maps (XTM) 1.0. Retrieved from http://
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Chase, M., & Jensen, R. (Eds.). (1999). Meeting Quillian, M. R. (1968). Semantic memory. In M.
standards with Inspiration: Core curriculum Minsky (Ed.), Semantic information processing
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Dunston, P. J. (1992). A critique of graphic orga- Zeiliger, R., Reggers, T., & Peeters, R. (1996).
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MEDIA 96. Retrieved from http://www.gate.cnrs.fr/
Fisher, K. M., Faletti, J., Patterson, H., Thornton, R.,
~zeiliger/artem96.doc
Lipson, J., & Spring, C. (1990). Computer-based
concept mapping: SemNet software: A tool for
describing knowledge networks. Journal of Col- KEY TERMS
lege Science Teaching, 19(6), 347-352.
Concept Map: A visual representation of knowl-
Gaines, B. R., & Shaw, M. L. G. (1995a). Concept
edge of a domain consisting of nodes representing
maps as hypermedia components. International
concepts, objects, events, or actions interconnected
Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 43(3), 323-
by directional links that define the semantic relation-
361. Retrieved from http://ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/ar-
ships between and among nodes.
ticles/ConceptMaps
Knowledge Management: Organizing knowl-
Gaines, B. R., & Shaw, M. L. G. (1995b). WebMap:
edge, information, and information resources and
Concept mapping on the Web. World Wide Web
providing access to such knowledge and information
Journal, 1(1), 171-183. Retrieved from http://
in such a manner as to facilitate the sharing, use,
ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/articles/WWW/WWW4WM/
learnability, and application of such knowledge and
International Organization for Standardization & resources.
International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/
103
Computer-Based Concept Mapping
104
105
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
the learning domain, and development of self- with the system and creates the learner model
regulation skills (i.e., metacognitive skills that (Brusilovsky, 1999). Further levels of adaptivity are
let the learner observe and diagnose his/her achieved by using the learner model to adapt the
self-thinking process and self-ability to regu- presentation of the course material, navigation
late or control self-activity); through it, its sequencing, and its annotation, to the
Support Interaction: Maintaining interaction learner. Furthermore, collaborative Web-based edu-
with the other learners, in order to attain the cational systems use models of different learners to
personal goal associated with the interaction; form a matching group of learners for different kinds
this leads to learning by self-expression (learn- of collaboration. This kind of adaptivity is called
ing by expressing self-thinking process, such as adaptive collaboration support. Alternatively, such
self-explanation and presentation), and learn- systems can use intelligent class monitoring to com-
ing by participation (learning by participating as pare different learner models in order to find signifi-
an apprentice in a group of more advanced cant mismatches, for example, to identify the learn-
learners); ers who have learning records essentially different
Social: The goals of the learning group as a from those of their peers. These learners need
whole are setting up the situation for peer special attention from the teacher and from the
tutoring (the situation to teach each other), as system, because their records may indicate that they
well as setting up the situation for sharing are progressing too slow, or too fast, or have read
cognitive or metacognitive functions with other much more or much less material than the others, or
learners (enabling the learners to express their need additional explanations.
thinking/cognitive process to other learners, to Intelligence in a Web-based educational system
get advise from other learners, discuss the nowadays usually means that the system is capable
problem and the solution with the peers, and the of demonstrating some form of knowledge-based
like). reasoning in curriculum sequencing, in analysis of
the learners solutions, and in providing interactive
Web-Based Education problem-solving support (possibly example-based)
to the learner. Most of these intelligent capabilities
Web-based education has become a very important exist in traditional intelligent tutoring systems as
branch of educational technology. For learners, it well, and were simply adopted in intelligent Web-
provides access to information and knowledge based educational applications and adapted to the
sources that are practically unlimited, enabling a Web technology.
number of opportunities for personalized learning,
tele-learning, distance-learning, and collaboration, CSCL Model
with clear advantages of classroom independence
and platform independence. On the other hand, CSCL technology is not a panacea. Learners who
teachers and authors of educational material can use use it need guidance and support online, just as
numerous possibilities for Web-based course offer- students learning in the classroom need support from
ing and teleteaching, availability of authoring tools their instructor. Hence, developers of CSCL tools
for developing Web-based courseware, and cheap must ensure that collaborative learning environ-
and efficient storage and distribution of course ma- ments support active online participation by remote
terials, hyperlinks to suggested readings, digital li- teachers, as well as a variety of means for the
braries, and other sources of references relevant for learners to deploy their social interaction skills to
the course. collaborate effectively.
In order for each CSCL system to be effective,
Adaptivity and Intelligence it must be based on a certain model, such as the one
suggested by Soller (2001) that integrates the fol-
Typically, an adaptive educational system on the lowing four important issues:
Web collects some data about the learner working
106
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
Learner Educational
Servers
Pedagogical
Pedagogical
Agents
Agents
Teacher / Learner
Client
Learner
107
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
Classical CSCL: This comprises setting up ciency depends on joining an appropriate learning
CSCL in Web classrooms, as well as infra- group. Hence the question, How to form a group?
structure for CSCL in distance learning; is important.
Learning Companions: These are artificial Opportunistic group formation (OGF) is a frame-
learners, for example, programs that help human work that enables pedagogical agents to initiate,
learners learn collaboratively if they want so, carry out, and manage the process of creating a
even when no other peer learners are around; learning group when necessary and conducting the
Learning Communities: Remote learners learners participation to the group. Agents in OGF
can communicate intensively not only by solv- support individual learning, propose shifting to col-
ing a problem in a group, but also by sharing laborative learning, and negotiate to form a group of
common themes, experiences, opinions, and learners with appropriate role assignment, based on
knowledge on the long run; the learners information from individual learning.
Web Services: This general and extremely In OGF, collaborative learning group is formed
popular recent technology is nowadays used in dynamically. A learner is supposed to use an intelli-
learning situations as well; gent, agent-enabled Web-based learning environ-
Hybrid Modes: Some, or even all of the above ment. When an agent detects a situation for the
capabilities can be supported (at least to an extent) learner to shift from individual to collaborative learn-
in an intelligent Web-based CSCL system. ing mode (a trigger, such as an impasse or a need
for review), it negotiates with other agents to form
Design Issues a group. Each group member is assigned a reason-
able learning goal and a social role. These are
It is quite understood that the learning process is consistent with the goal for the whole group.
more effective if the user interface is designed to be
intuitive, easy-to-use, and supportive in terms of the
learners cognitive processes. With CSCL systems, APPLICATIONS
additional flexibility is required. The learners have to
work collaboratively in a shared workspace environ- Two practical examples of CSCL systems described
ment, but also use private workspaces for their own in this section illustrate the issues discussed earlier.
work. Moreover, since work/learning happens in
small groups, the interface should ideally support the
group working in one environment, or in synchronous COLER
shared environments. It also must support sharing of
results, for example, exchanging settings and data COLER is an intelligent CSCL system for learning
between the groups and group members, as well as the principles of entity-relationship (ER) modelling
demonstrating the groups outcomes or conclusions. in the domain of databases (Constantino-Gonzlez,
A suitable way to do it is by using a public workspace. Suthers, & Escamilla de los Santos, 2003). The
This division of learning/work into shared and learners using the system through the Web solve a
private workspaces leads to the idea of workspaces specific ER modelling problem collaboratively. They
that can contain a number of transparent layers see the problems description in one window and
(Pinkwart, 2003). The layers can have solid ob- build the solution in another one, which represents a
jects (synchronizeable visual representations), that shared workspace. Each learner also has his/her
is, handwriting strokes or images. Also, the layers own private workspace in which he/she builds his/
can be private or shared, for example, a private her own solution and can compare it to the evolving
handwriting layer used for personal annotations. group solution in the shared workspace. A learner
can invoke a personal coach (an intelligent peda-
Group Formation gogical agent) to help him/her solve the problem and
contribute to the group solution. In addition to such
If for any reason a learner wants to participate in guidance, there is also a dedicated HELP button to
collaborative learning on the Web, the learning effi- retrieve the basic principles of ER modelling if
108
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
necessary. At any time during the problem solving, work. The objects have a specified domain-related
a learner can see in a specially-designated panel on functionality and semantics, enriched with rules and C
the screen which team-mates are already connected interpretation patterns. Technically, Cool Modes is
and can ask for floor control. When granted control, integrated with visual modelling languages and has a
the learner contributes to the group solution in the set of domain-specific palettes of such objects (see
shared workspace by, for example, inserting a new the palette on the right-hand side of Figure 2). The
modelling element. He/she can also express feelings palettes are defined externally to encapsulate do-
about the other team-mates contributions through a main-dependent semantics and are simply plugged-
designated opinion panel, and can also engage in in the system when needed. Currently, the system
discussion with them and with the coach through a has palette support for modelling stochastic pro-
chat communication window. cesses, system dynamics, Petri nets, and other engi-
neering tools, as well as for learning Java.
Cool Modes
109
Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning
the same network/application. Moreover, the CSCL learning theories and instructional design issues
application can link the learners with other relevant should be given lower priority than technological
learning resources or remote peers and tutors through support. On the contrary, new technology offers
the Internet. more suitable ways for implementing and evaluating
instructional expertise in CSCL systems.
CSCL and the Semantic Web
What kinds of groups exist in collaborative Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by col-
learning? laborative learning? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.), Col-
Who is suitable for attaining the group? laborative learning: Cognitive and computational
What roles should be assigned to the members? approaches (pp. 1-19). Amsterdam, The Nether-
What is the learning goal of the whole group? lands: Elsevier Science.
Dillenbourg, P., Baker, M. J., Blaye, A., & OMalley,
C. (1996). The evolution of research on collabora-
CONCLUSION tive learning. In P. Reimann, & H. Spada (Eds.),
Learning in humans and machines: Towards an
This article surveyed important issues in CSCL in interdisciplinary learning science (pp. 189-211).
the context of intelligent Web-based learning envi- Oxford: Pergamon.
ronments. Current intelligent Web-based CSCL sys-
tems integrate a number of Internet and artificial Dillenbourg, P., & Schneider, D. (1995). Collabora-
intelligence technologies. This is not to say that tive learning and the internet. [Online]. Retrieved
110
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November 2004, from http://tecfa.unige.ch/tecfa/ TIP (2004). Explorations in learning & instruc-
research/CMC/colla/iccai95_1.html tion: The theory into practice database. [Online]. C
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Johnson, W. L., Rickel, J., & Lester, J. C. (2000).
Animated pedagogical agents: Face-to-face inter-
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national Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Edu-
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Using models of different learners to form a match-
Muehlenbrock, M., & Hoppe, U. (2001, May). A
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ration.
Proceedings of the International Conference on
Artificial Intelligence in Education AIED-2001, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learn-
San Antonio, Texas (pp. 154-165). Amsterdam, The ing (CSCL): The process related to situations in
Netherlands: IOS Press. which two or more subjects build synchronously and
interactively a joint solution to some problem
Pinkwart, N. (2003). A plug-in architecture for
(Dillenbourg, 1999; Dillenbourg et al., 1996;
graph based collaborative modelling systems. In the
Dillenbourg & Schneider, 1995).
Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Artificial
Intelligence in Education, Sydney, Australia (pp. Group Formation: The process of creating a
535-536). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press. suitable group of learners to increase the learning
efficiency for both the individual peers and the group
Roschelle, J., & Teasley, S. (1995). The construc-
as a whole.
tion of shared knowledge in collaborative problem
solving. In C. OMalley (Ed.), Computer-supported Pedagogical Agents: Autonomous software
collaborative learning (pp. 69-97). Berlin: Springer- entities that support human learning by interacting
Verlag. with learners and teachers and by collaborating with
other similar agents, in the context of interactive
SemanticWeb.org (2004). The semantic Web com-
learning environments (Johnson et al., 2000).
munity portal. [Online]. Retrieved December 2004,
from http://www.semanticweb.org Private Workspace: Part of the CSCL system,
usually represented as a designated window in the
Soller, A. L. (2001). Supporting social interaction in
systems GUI, where a member of the learning
an intelligent collaborative learning system. Inter-
group builds his/her own solution of the problem the
national Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Edu-
group solves collaboratively, and where he/she can
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Supnithi, T., Inaba, A., Ikeda, M., Toyoda, J., & prepare contributions to the group solution.
Mizoguchi, R. (1999, July). Learning goal ontology
Shared Workspace: Part of the CSCL system,
supported by learning theories for opportunistic group
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formation. In the Proceedings of the International
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tion AIED-1999, Le Mans, France (pp. 263-272).
solve collaboratively.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press.
111
112
Figure 1. Design guidelines for interfaces defined by Norman (1988), summarized by Lienard (2000)
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Conceptual Models and Usability
Effectiveness
C
Improvement in task performance in terms of speed and/or error rate by a given
percentage of the population within a given range of the users tasks (related to
the users environment)
Learnability
Within some specified time from commissioning and start of user training based
upon some specified amount of user support and within some specified relearning
time each time for intermittent users
Flexibility
With flexibility allowing adaptation to some specified percentage variation in task
and/or environments beyond those first specified
Attitude
Within acceptable levels of human cost in terms of tiredness, discomfort,
frustration and personal effort, so that satisfaction causes continued and enhanced
usage of the system
definition was established in ISO 9241-11:1998 and The word conceptual stems from the word
is summarized by Maguire (1998): concept. This also implies some form of abstraction
and, hence, a model. In psychology-oriented fields,
Effectiveness: How well the user achieves this term may be used synonymously with the word
the goals he or she sets out to achieve using the idea and, therefore, has connotations relating to
system. cognition, perception, innovation, and, most impor-
Efficiency: The resources consumed in order tantly, models stored in the mind. Alternatively, in
to achieve his or her goals. (product) design-oriented fields, a conceptual model
Satisfaction: How the user feels about his use is more likely to be interpreted as an abstraction
of the system. concerned only with the key or fundamental proper-
ties of an artefact (i.e., a model considerably lacking
These definitions are widely cited. However, the detail). Further, such models typically are expressed
ISO 9241-11:1998 arguably has superseded that of in concrete terms (e.g., a designers sketch, clay
Shackel (1991) and is, therefore, used throughout model, or engineers prototype).
the remainder of this article. The HCI domain incorporates principles related
to both psychology and (product) design (an ICT
Definitions of a Conceptual Model system is a product). Similarly, both of the two
(overlapping) definitions of a conceptual model pre-
The word model implies an abstraction of the sub- sented have relevance here.
ject matter, or artefact, being modeled. This is true
whether that artefact is an ICT system, a motor- Mental Models
cycle, or a house. Inevitably, a model lacks the full
detail present within an actual artefact, so, in pro- More in keeping with a (product) design-oriented
ducing the model, some properties of the artefact view of conceptual models, we might define and
will be ignored or simplified. The particular abstrac- express the conceptual model of an ICT system in
tion will depend on the (intended) use of the model concrete terms, using devices such as storyboards
(e.g., a technical drawing of a motorcycle used in its and Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERDs). How-
manufacture abstracts different properties from that ever, these conceptual models only can be utilized
of an artists sketch used in a sales brochure). once inside our minds (i.e., once converted into a
Similarly, a usability engineer may model only those mental model). Indeed, most cognitive scientists
properties of an ICT system concerned with its agree that our entire perception of the world, includ-
interface, while a technical architect might model in ing ourselves, is constructed from models within our
terms useful to coding the system. In both cases, the minds. Further, we only can interact with the world
subject matter is common, yet the abstractions and through these mental models. This is an insight
resulting models are very different.
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Conceptual Models and Usability
generally credited to Craik (1943), although its ori- Efficiency: Users with a good mental model
gins can be traced back to Plato. will be more efficient in their use of an ICT
Mental models inevitably are incomplete, con- system, because they already will understand
stantly evolving, and contain errors (Khella, 2002). the (optimal) way of achieving tasks; they will
They usefully can be considered as an ecosystem, a not have to spend time learning these mecha-
term used by Ratey (2002) to describe the brain, nisms.
which, of course, stores and processes our mental Effectiveness: Users will be more effective
models. This means that particular models can come due to their understanding of the systems
and go, increase or decrease in accuracy, and con- capabilities and the principles by which these
stantly mutate and adapt, both as a result of internal capabilities may be accessed.
processing and in response to external stimuli. Satisfaction: As a result of increased effi-
A person may maintain simultaneously two or ciency and effectiveness and because users
more compatible mental models of the same subject can predict more successfully the behavior of
matter, as with the example of the technical drawing the system, they also are likely to be more
and the artists sketch used for a motorcycle (Khella, satisfied when using the system.
2002). Similarly, it is possible for a person to maintain
simultaneously two or more contradictory mental Conversely, users with a largely incomplete,
models, a condition known as cognitive dissonance distorted, or inaccurate mental model may experi-
(Atherton, 2002). ence one or more of the following usability prob-
In the early 1980s, the idea was established that a lems, which again, are categorized using the ele-
person may acquire and maintain two basic types of ments of usability defined in ISO 9241-11:1998:
mental models for an ICT system: a functional model
and a structural model. Functional models, also Efficiency: The user may execute functions
referred to as task-action mapping models, are con- in a (highly) suboptimal way (e.g., not utilizing
cerned with how users should interact with the available shortcuts).
system in order to perform the desired tasks and Effectiveness: The users understanding of
achieve their goals. ICT professionals such as usabil- the system will be limited detrimentally in
ity engineers typically are concerned with this type of scope, so (potentially) useful functionality might
model. Structural models are concerned more with be hidden from him or her.
the internal workings and architecture of the system Satisfaction: The users mental model may
and on what principles it operates (i.e., how a system work (to a certain degree) until task complex-
achieves its functionality). This type of model is ity increases or until completely new tasks are
generally the concern of ICT professionals such as required. At this stage, catastrophic model
systems architects and coders. Of course, this fits failure may occur (e.g., a user fails to predict
well with the idea that an individual may maintain the consequences of a particular input to the
simultaneously two or more compatible mental mod- system and gains an outcome very different
elsan informed user of an ICT system may have from that expected). Such failure can be quite
both a good functional and structural mental model of disastrous, leaving users confused and
the system. demotivated. Indeed, this is one pathology of
so-called computer rage, a term popular at
the time of writing.
MENTAL MODELS AND USABILITY
These factors explain why the highest level of
The arguments for a user possessing a good mental usability occurs when an individual operates a sys-
model of the ICT system they are using can be tem that they have designed themselves. Here, the
expressed using the elements of usability defined in designer and users model of the system can be
ISO 9241-11:1998: identical (since they belong to the same person).
This also explains why these user-designed sys-
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Conceptual Models and Usability
tems very often fail when rolled out to other users Norman (1981) hypothesized that if users are left
(Eason, 1988). These systems often are successful to self-model in this way, they always will develop a C
in the designers hands, but this success is attributed mental model that explains (their perception of) the
to the design of the system itself rather than simply ICT system, and research carried out by Bayman
being a consequence of the fact that the designer and Mayer (1983) supports this hypothesis. Norman
inevitably has an excellent mental model of (how to (1981) also argued that, in these situations, the
use) the system. mental models developed by the users are likely to be
Given this, it seems obvious that a users mental incorrect (e.g., a user simply may miss the fact that
model of an ICT system benefits from being as a metaphor is being used or how the metaphor
comprehensive and accurate as possible. This is translates into the ICT system (a scenario that is
why Norman (1988) included this element in his likely to result in the usability problems cited earlier).
design guidelines for interfaces (summarized in Fig- Another problem with this approach is that with
ure 1 by Lienard [2000]). The question then is how pervasive ICT systems where users are often anony-
do we develop and exploit these models to promote mous, it can be extremely difficult to predict accu-
usability? rately what mental models already are possessed by
the target user group.
The Intuitive Interface Approach to
Developing Users Mental Models The Conceptual Model Approach to
Developing Users Mental Models
Today, many ICT systems are designed with the
anticipation (or hope) that users will be able to (learn An alternative approach to exploiting mental models
how to) operate them within a matter of minutes or is to explicitly provide users with a conceptual model
even seconds. Further, these users often are anony- of the ICT system that accurately reflects its true
mous to the system designers. This is particularly properties. This conceptual model approach was
true in the case of pervasive ICT systems such as advocated in hypothetical terms by Norman (1981),
those found on the World Wide Web (WWW). Carroll and Olson (1988), and Preece (1994). In
Many contemporary practitioners propose that practice, this approach generally is realized by pre-
quick and easy access to pervasive ICT systems can senting the users with suitable schemas or meta-
be achieved by designing an intuitive interface. phors relevant to the system. In relation to this,
This term is widely interpreted to mean that a user Norman (1983) offered some revised definitions of
can operate a system by some innate or even nearly modeling terminologyhe distinguished between
supernatural ability (Raskin, 1994). However, this the tangible conceptual model that is provided to the
notion is ill founded in the HCI domain (Norman, user as an explanation of the system, which might
1999; Raskin, 1994) and lacks supporting empirical use, for example, a story board or ERD and the
evidence (Raskin, 1994). Rather, so-called intuitive resulting mental model that is formed in the users
interfaces simply rely on the fact that users already mind. This distinction is useful and will be used
possess mental models that are sufficiently relevant throughout the remainder of this article.
to a system such that they can (at least) begin to use With the conceptual model approach, it seems
the system. In other words, the term intuitive simply unlikely that a users mental model will overlap
implies familiar (Raskin, 1994). This familiarity is completely with the conceptual model presented.
often exploited through the use of metaphors, This is because the formation of mental models is a
whereby a mental model that was developed for use highly complex process involving human beings with
in the physical world (e.g., Windows) is leveraged by all of their individual abilities, preferences, and idio-
the system designers to aid its use. Important in this syncrasies. Further, determining the degree of over-
approach is the idea (or hope) that, from a position lap is somewhat problematic, since it is notoriously
of (some) familiarity, users then are able to develop difficult to elicit and understand the mental model a
their understanding of the system by self-exploration user has of an ICT system and how it is being
and self-learning, or self-modeling. exploited during interaction. Indeed, many studies
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Conceptual Models and Usability
have attempted to do this and have failed (Preece, digital presentations. These might constitute a type
1994; Sasse, 1992). Given this, it is difficult to prove of mini-lecture about the conceptual model for the
a casual link between the conceptual model ap- system, perhaps utilizing (abstractions of) the very
proach and increased usability. However, a large schemas used to design the system (e.g., storyboards
number of studies has demonstrated that, when and ERDs or suitable metaphors). This is a similar
users are explicitly presented with accurate concep- idea to online help, except that the user support is
tual models, usability can be improved significantly. much more conceptual and self-explanatory in na-
These studies include Foss, et. al. (1982), Bayman ture.
and Mayer (1983), Halasz and Moran (1983), Kieras Many organizations produce (online) digital pre-
and Bovair (1984), Borgman (1986), and Frese and sentations to complement their products and ser-
Albrecht (1988). As an example, Borgman (1986) vices. However, such presentations typically are
showed how users could better operate a library exploited to sell the system rather than to explain its
database system after being provided with a concep- use. There are digital presentations that are educa-
tual model of the system that utilized a card index tionally biased. These include a vast amount of
metaphor, as compared with users in a control group computer-based training (CBT) resources available
who were taught in terms of the operational proce- both online (WWW) and in compact disk (CD)
dures required to achieve specific goals and tasks. format. However, these tend to focus on how par-
Further, research from Halasz (1984) and Borgman ticular tasks are performed rather than developing a
(1986) demonstrated that the usability benefits of the deep understanding of the concepts that underpin
conceptual model approach increase with task com- the system. Similarly, there are some good examples
plexity. of how digital presentations have been used to
While these studies demonstrated well the us- communicate concepts (e.g., EDS). However, these
ability benefits of the conceptual model approach, presentations generally are not directed at using a
they were limited in that the conceptual models were specific ICT system or for use by the typical user.
explained through some form of face-to-face teach- Site maps in WWW-based systems are (argu-
ing. This presents two interrelated problems within ably) an example of online devices designed to
the context of modern-day pervasive ICT systems. convey conceptual understanding. However, while
First, this type of education is expensive. Second, the their use is now widespread and these devices are
user population may be diverse and largely unknown sometimes useful, they are limited in the scope of
to the system vendors. In summary, this sort of face- what they convey and their ability to explain them-
to-face approach is often unviable within this con- selves. This is in contrast to an online presentation
text. specifically designed to explain a suitable conceptual
model of a system.
Progression in this field might be sought in two Works related to both of the approaches discussed
important ways. First, to address the limitations of in the previous section (intuitive interface and con-
the conceptual model approach cited previously, it ceptual model) share some similarity in that they
would be useful to establish viable means of present- both focus on the users knowledge of the systems
ing users with conceptual models when the ICT interface and, therefore, the development of func-
system is pervasive. Second, the opportunity exists tional mental models. This might be expected in an
to develop better conceptual models with which to HCI-related field. However, over reliance on (just)
explain ICT systems. functional mental models inevitably limits the users
understanding of the system, and it can be argued
Online Conceptual Models that this consequentially limits usability.
Some researchers (e.g., Preece, 1994) have
A means of providing conceptual models where the hypothesised that users might benefit greatly from
ICT system is pervasive is through the use of online (also) acquiring structural mental models of the
116
Conceptual Models and Usability
systems they use. Such models may better help the Bayman, P., & Mayer, R. E. (1983). A diagnosis of
users to anticipate the behavior of the system, beginning programmers misconceptions of BASIC C
particularly in new contexts of use and when the programming statements. Communications of the
system is being used nearly at its performance limits. Association for Computing Machinery (ACM),
Indeed, the benefit of having a good structural 26, 677-679.
mental model helps to explain why the user-designed
Borgman, C. L. (1986). The user mental model of an
ICT systems discussed earlier are so usablethe
information retrieval system: An experiment on a
designer of a system inevitably has a good structural
prototype online catalogue. International Journal
mental model. The problem with this approach is that
of Man-Machine Studies, 24, 47-64.
simply inferring structural models through self-mod-
eling is extremely difficult and likely to fail (Miyake, Carroll, J. M., & Olson J.R. (1988). Mental models
1986; Preece, 1994). However, it may be possible to in human computer interaction. In M. Helendar
develop useful structural mental models in users by (Ed.), Handbook of human computer interaction
providing them with appropriate conceptual models. (pp. 45-65). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Further, if users are provided with both structural
and functional conceptual models with which to form Craik, K. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cam-
their mental model, triangulation can take place bridge: Cambridge University Press.
a user is able to think critically about whether the Eason, K. D. (1988). Information technology and
functional and structural models are complementary organisational change. London: Taylor and Francis.
or are the source of cognitive dissonance; in which
case users may seek greater clarity in their under- EDS. (n.d.). Web services. Retrieved February 14,
standing. Indeed, such use of triangulation is an 2004, from www.eds.com/thought/thought_
established principle of understanding any subject leadership_web.shtml
matter (Weinstein, 1995). Foss, D. J., Rosson, M. B., & Smith, P. L. (1982).
Reducing manual labor: An experimental analysis of
learning aids for a text editor. Proceedings of the
CONCLUSION Human Factors in Computing Systems Confer-
ence, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
The merit in users having a good mental model of an
ICT system would seem to be universally recognized Frese, M., & Albrecht, K. (1988). The effects of an
and has been inferred by many research studies. active development of the mental model in the
Some professionals in this field might argue that training process: Experimental results in word pro-
progression has slowed since the 1980s and that the cessing. Behaviours and Information Technol-
arguments and conclusions presented here might ogy, 7, 295-304.
make a useful agenda for future research and Halasz, F. G. (1984). Mental models and problem
consultancy. Specifically, we might proceed by en- solving using a calculator. Doctoral thesis.
couraging users to develop more structural mental Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
models of ICT systems. Similarly, presenting con-
ceptual models using online digital presentations Halasz, F. G., & Moran, T. P. (1983). Mental models
may be of key importance in improving the usability and problem solving using a calculator. Proceed-
of pervasive ICT systems. ings of the Conference of the Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM), Special Interest
Group on Computer and Human Interaction
REFERENCES (SIGCHI) and the Human Factors Society, Bos-
ton.
Atherton, J. S. (2002). Learning and teaching: Khella, K. (2002). Knowledge and mental models
Cognitive dissonance. Retrieved February 19, 2003, in HCI. Retrieved February 19, 2003, from
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htm
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Conceptual Models and Usability
119
120
Xing Xie
Microsoft Research Asia, China
Hanqing Lu
Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Wei-Ying Ma
Microsoft Research Asia, China
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
an automatic image browsing path to display every studies, the user interface of future applications will
image element serially for a brief period of time. In exploit multiple coordinated modalities in contrast to C
Chen, Ma, and Zhang (2003), a novel approach is todays uncoordinated interfaces (Coles et al., 2003).
devised to adapt large Web pages for tailored display The exact combination of modalities will seamlessly
on mobile device, where a page is organized into a and continually adapt to the users context and
two-level hierarchy with a thumbnail representation preferences. This will enable greater mobility, a
at the top level for providing a global view and index richer user experience of the Web application, and a
to a set of sub-pages at the bottom level for detail more flexible user interface. In this article, we focus
information. However, these methods have not con- on overcoming display constraints rather than other
sidered utilizing multiple display areas in various small form factors (Ma, Bedner, Chang, Kuchinsky,
devices to help information browsing. & Zhang, 2000) on mobile devices.
For the second case, there exist a number of The Ambient Intelligence technologies provide a
studies to search relevant information for various vision for creating electronic environments sensitive
media. The traditional image retrieval techniques and responsive to people. Brad (2001) proposed to
are mainly based on content analysis, such as those unite desktop PCs and PDAs together, in which a
content-based image retrieval (CBIR) systems. In PDA acts as a remote controller or an assistant input
Dumais, Cutrell, Cadiz, Jancke, Sarin, and Robbins device for the desktop PC. They focused on the shift
(2003), a desktop search tool called Stuff Ive Seen usage of mobile devices mainly like PDAs as ex-
(SIS) was developed to search desktop information tended controllers or peripheries according to their
including email, Web page, and documents (e.g., mobility and portability. However, it cannot work for
PDF, PS, MSDOC, etc.). However, these ap- many cases such as people on the move without
proaches have not yet taken into account the phase access to desktop computers.
of information distribution in various devices. Whats Though multiple displays are available for users,
more, user interface needs further consideration there still exist many tangles to make multiple de-
such as to facilitate users access to the information vices work cooperatively to improve the users
that distributes in various devices. experience of information browsing in mobile de-
In this article, we propose a cooperative frame- vices. In our framework, we design a distributed
work to facilitate users information browsing in interface that crosses devices to cooperatively
mobile environment. The details are to be discussed present information to mobile users. We believe our
in the following sections. work will benefit users browsing and accessing of
the available information on mobile devices with
small display areas.
OUR FRAMEWORK
Communication Protocol
Uniting Multiple Displays Together
The rapid growth of wireless connection technolo-
Traditionally, the design of user interface for appli- gies, such as 802.11b or Bluetooth, has enabled
cations or documents mainly focus on desktop com- mobile devices to stay connected online easily. We
puters, which are commonly too large to display on propose a communication protocol to maintain the
small display areas of mobile devices. As a result, cooperative browsing with multiple devices. When a
readability is greatly reduced, and users interac- user manipulates information in one device, our task
tions are heavily augmented such as continual scroll- is to let other devices work cooperatively. To better
ing and zooming. illustrate the communication, we introduce two nota-
However, as users acquire or gain access to an tions as follows: (1) Master device is defined as the
increasingly diverse range of the portable devices, device that is currently operated on or manipulated
the thing changes; the display area will not be limited by a user; and (2) Slave device refers to the device
to a single device any more, but extended to display that displays cooperatively according to users inter-
areas on all available devices. According to existing actions with a master device.
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A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
We define a whole set of devices available for vices. Though users can browse an overview
users as a cooperative group. A rule is regulated that through such a display style, they still have to use
there is only one master device in a cooperative group panning/zooming operations for a further view.
at a time, and other devices in the group act as slave However, users experiences have not been im-
devices. We call a course of cooperative browsing proved yet since these operations are difficult to be
with multiple devices as a cooperative session. In finished in a thumbnail representation.
such a session, we formulate the communication We propose a within-document cooperative strat-
protocol as follows: egy to solve this problem, where we develop a so-
called two-level representation for a large docu-
A user selects a device to manipulate or access ment: (1) presenting an index view on the top level
information. The device is automatically set as with each index pointing to detailed content portion
the master device in the group. A cooperative of a document in the master device; and (2) a click
request is then multicast to the slave devices. in each index leads to automatic display updates of
The other devices receive the cooperative re- the corresponding detailed content in the slave
quest and begin to act as slave devices. devices.
When the users manipulate the information on We believe such an approach can help users
the master device, the features are automati- browse documents on small devices. For example,
cally extracted according to the analysis of users can easily access the interesting content
interactions, and are then transferred to slave portions without scrolling operations but a click on
devices. the index view.
According to the received features, the corre-
sponding cooperative display updates are auto- 2: Between-Document Cooperative
matically applied on the slave devices. Browsing
When a user quits the manipulation of informa-
tion in the master device, a cooperative termi- As shown in previous studies (Hua, Xie, Lu, & Ma,
nation request is multicast to the slave devices 2004, 2005; Nadamoto & Tanaka, 2003), users tend
to end the current cooperative session. to view similar documents (e.g., image and Web
page) concurrently for a comparative view of their
Two-Level Browsing Scheme contents. Users experience will be especially de-
graded in such scenarios due to two reasons. Firstly,
We set out to construct distributed user interfaces by its difficult for users to seek out relevant informa-
uniting the multiple display areas on various devices tion on a mobile device, and the task becomes more
to overcome the display constraint in a single device. tedious with the increase of the number of devices
In our framework, we propose a two-level coopera- for finding. Secondly, its not feasible to present
tive browsing scheme, namely within-document and multiple documents simultaneously on a small dis-
between-document. If a document itself needs to be play area, and its also tedious for users to switch
cooperatively browsed across devices, we define through documents for a comparative view.
this case as within-document browsing. Otherwise, if In our system, we propose a between-document
a relevant document needs to be cooperatively cooperative mechanism to address this problem.
browsed across devices, we consider this case as Our approach comprises of two steps: (1) relevant
between-document browsing. documents are automatically searched based on the
information a user is currently focusing on the
1: Within-Document Cooperative Browsing master device; and (2) the searched documents are
presented on the slave devices. Therefore, this
There exist many studies to improve the browsing method can facilitate users comparative view with-
experiences on small screens. Some studies pro- out manual efforts. Thus, users can easily achieve
posed to render a thumbnail representation (Su, a comparative view with a simple glimpse through
Sakane, Tsukamoto, & Nishio, 2002) on mobile de- devices.
122
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
a b
123
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
Furthermore, our system automatically scrolls the relevant pages that contain similar information. In
relevant document to the similar passages that hold common scenarios, users need to manually search
the maximal similarity. these relevant pages through a search engine or
check-through related sites. Here, we develop an
Cooperative Browsing of Web Pages automatic approach to present relevant Web pages
through a cross-device representation.
With the pervasive wireless connection in mobile Our method to find out similar pages comprises
devices, users can easily access the Web. However, three steps: (1) extracting all links from the page,
Web pages are mostly designed for desktop comput- which are assumed to be potential candidates that
ers, and the small display areas in mobile devices are contain relevant information; (2) automatically down-
consequently too small to display them. Here, we loading content information for each extracted links,
apply our framework to employ a cooperative way to and representing each document as a term-fre-
generate a tailored view of large Web pages on quency feature vector; and (3) comparing the simi-
mobile devices. larity of extracted pages and current page based on
the Cosine distance through the feature vector.
1: Within-Page Cooperative Browsing Thus, the page with the maximal similarity is se-
lected as the relevant one, and its URL is sent to
Different from documents (e.g., MSWord), Web other devices for an automatic display update. An
pages include more structured contents. There exist example is shown in Figure 4.
a lot of studies on page segmentation to partition
Web pages into a set of tailored blocks. Here, we Cooperative Browsing of Images
adopt the methods by Chen, Xie, Fan, Ma, Zhang,
and Zhou (2003), in which each page is represented Lpictures are not fitful for the display on mobile
with an indexed thumbnail with multiple segments devices with small display areas. Here we apply our
and each of them points to a detailed content unit. framework to facilitate users image browsing
Figure 3 shows an example of this case. In our through a cooperative cross-device representation.
system, we deliver the detailed content blocks to
various devices. Additionally, each detailed content 1: Within-Image Cooperative Browsing
block is displayed on a most suitable display area.
In addition to all previous automatic image browsing
2: Between-Page Cooperative Browsing approaches in a single small device (Chen, Ma, &
Zhang, 2003; Liu, Xie, Ma, & Zhang, 2003), we
Besides improving page readability in small display provide in our approach a so-called smart navigation
areas of mobile devices, users also need to browse mode (Hua, Xie, Lu, & Ma, 2004). In our approach,
8
1 3 6
2
4 7
5
a b
a b
124
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
Thumbnail
panel
a
Detail Sync
a b c panel PDA1
panel
125
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
126
A Cooperative Framework for Information Browsing in Mobile Environment
Small Form Factors: Mobile devices are de- inverse document frequency is that terms that ap-
signed for portability and mobility, so the physical pear in many documents are not very useful for C
size is limited actually. This phase is called small distinguishing a relevant document from a non-
form factors. relevant one.
TFIDF Vector Model: TF is the raw frequency Visual Attention: Attention is a neurobiological
of a given term inside a document, which provides conception. It implies the concentration of mental
one measure of how well that term describes the powers upon an object by close or careful observing
document contents. DF is the number of documents or listening, which is the ability or power to concen-
in which a term appears. The motivation for using an trate mentally.
127
128
Khalil Drira
Laboratoire dAnalyse et dArchitecture des Systmes du CNRS (LAAS-CNRS), France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
uted classrooms over an ATM network through a systems may be designed to improve the efficiency
giant electronic whiteboard the size of an ordinary of the group working process by high-quality multi- C
blackboard. Microsoft NetMeeting (Netmeeting, media material. The networked system must support
2001), together with Intel Proshare (now Polycom both small- and large-scale deployments, allowing
company) (Picture Tel, 2004), are very popular and reduced or universal access (Demos project, 1997).
common synchronous CSCW toolkits based on the Defining the requirements of a networked synchro-
H.320 and H.323 standards and both composed of a nous CSCW system needs multidisciplinary exper-
shared electronic board, a videoconference, and an tise and collaboration. For this purpose, we distin-
application sharing space. These tools are used most guish three distinct viewpoints: functional, architec-
of the time on top of the classical Internet that limits tural, and technological.
their efficiency due to its not guaranteed quality of Moreover, several objectives may be targeted by
service and its irregular rate. Most of their ex- the networked solution retained for the synchronous
changes are based on short events made with TCP/ CSCW system, including adaptability, upgradability,
IP protocol in peer-to-peer relationships. The multi-user collaboration, and interaction support. In
ClassPoint (ClassPoint, 2004) environment has been practice, the design and development of a networked
created by the First Virtual Communications society solution first involve general skills such as software
(formerly White Pine society). It is composed of architecture, knowledge organization, and other work
three tools: a videoconference based on See You resources management; and the second develop-
See Me for direct video contacts among the distrib- ment of domain-specific multimedia cooperation
uted group members, the dialogs, and views of the tools. We identify three generic interaction levels
students being under the control of the teacher. An that are likely to be significant for the different
electronic whiteboard reproduces the interactions viewpoints: the cooperation level, the coordination
made by classroom blackboards. A Web browser has level, and the communication level. Their content is
been customized by a synchronous browsing function summarized in Table1.
led by the teacher and viewed by the whole-distrib- For software architecture design, level-based
uted class. This synchronous browsing can be relaxed layering allows different technologies to be used for
by the teacher to allow freer student navigation. implementing, integrating, and distributing the soft-
ware components. This separation increases the
upgradability of the systems. Layering allows the
BACKGROUND implemented system to likely guarantee the end-user
quality of service while taking advantage of the
A Structuring Model for Synchronous different access facilities. For adaptability, multi-
Cooperative Systems user collaboration, and interaction support, level-
based decomposition allows functional separation
Different requirements are identified for the design between individual behaviors and group interaction
of networked synchronous CSCW systems. Such rules definition.
Table 1. The three levels and three viewpoints of the structuring model
129
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
From a functional viewpoint, the cooperation level BetriebsGesellshaft (IABG). The other members
describes the interaction paradigms that underlay the of the DSE project belong to technology providers
member interactions during the group working pro- and research centers: Silogic, Societa Italiana
cess. From an architectural viewpoint, it defines the Avionica (SIA), University of Paris VI (LIP6),
tool set covering the above paradigms. From a tech- LAAS-CNRS, and D3 Group.
nological viewpoint, the cooperation level describes
the different technologies that are used to implement Research Objectives
the individual tools, including interfacing and pro-
cessing. The Engineering Life Cycle for complex systems
According to the functional viewpoint, the coordi- design and development, where partners are dis-
nation level lists the functions that are used to man- persed in different locations, requires the setup of
age the user collaboration, providing document shar- adequate and controlled processes involving many
ing and group awareness. From an architectural different disciplines (Drira et al., 2001; Martelli et
viewpoint, it describes the underlying user services, al., 2000).
as tools group coordination, membership manage- The design integration and the final system physi-
ment, and component activation/deactivation. From a cal/functional integration and qualification imply a
technological viewpoint, the coordination level de- high degree of cross-interaction among the part-
fines the integration technology used to make compo- ners. The in-place technical information systems
nents interact, including interaction among peers supporting the life cycle activities are specialized
(different components of the same tool), tools, and with respect to the needs of each actor in the
users. process chain and are highly heterogeneous among
From a functional viewpoint, the communication them.
level describes the conventions that manage the To globally innovate in-place processes, involved
information exchange between users. From an archi- specialists will be able to work as a unique team in
tectural viewpoint, it enumerates multicast protocols, a Virtual Enterprise model. To this aim, it is neces-
allowing user-to-user or tool-to-tool group communi- sary to make interoperable the different Technical
cation. From a technological viewpoint, the commu- Information Systems and to define Cooperative
nication level defines the protocols used to handle Engineering Processes that take into account dis-
groups and to exchange requests between compo- tributed roles, shared activities, and distributed pro-
nents, including tools and services. cess controls. DSE is an innovative study in this
In the sequel of this article, this multi-view/level frame. It addressed this process with the goal of
model for cooperative applications has been applied identifying that proper solutions (in terms of design,
for the analysis, comparison, and development of a implementation, and deployment) have been car-
group-based networked synchronous platform. The ried out.
application domain of this platform relates to Distrib-
uted System Engineering. DSE Software Platform
130
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
Figure 1. Responsibility and session management The EDR is implemented using the following
GUI technologies: C
ORACLE Portal 3.0 for EDR features
ORACLE database 8i release 2
icons
icons Communications are implemented with:
131
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
(iv) Domain-specific interfaces ELV (Paris): ATM 2Mbps to/from LIP6, Pub-
A graphical client component for distributed lic Internet
simulation based on High Level Architecture IABG (Munich): ISDN 2xBRI with ALS,
(HLA) Public Internet
SILOGIC (Toulouse): Public Internet
Remark: Some light DSE clients are only com- D3 (Berlin): Public Internet
municating with Web-based protocols and are not SIA (Turin): Public Internet, High Speed local
using CORBA services. connection with ALS
LAAS (Toulouse): ATM to/from LIP6, Pub-
A Preliminary Design Review (PDR) server is lic Internet
added for the domain-specific application. The PDR LIP6 (Paris): ATM to/from LAAS and ELV,
validation scenario will be presented in a next sec- Public Internet
tion.
Machines used for validation were running Win-
DSE Deployment Architecture dows NT 4.0. However, the light DSE clients also
can run on PCs with Windows 2000 or on Solaris 2.x
Figure 2 shows the architecture of the DSE platform SUN workstations.
with clients and servers distributed among the in-
volved partners. The network connections used by Validation Scenario
the partners during the Integration and Validation
phases are listed below: The context of collaborative design and analysis
scenarios is based on real design material from the
ALS (Turin): ISDN 2xBRI with IABG, Public flight segment development program of the Auto-
Internet mated Transfer Vehicle (ATV). The ATV missions
are to:
DSE client
IABG
Munich
Awareness
DSE client
server
SIA
Torino
ALENIA
SILOGIC LAAS-CNRS
Torino
Toulouse Toulouse
132
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
Deliver freight to the International Space Sta- the customers with the support of prime contractors.
tion (ISS) They decide to implement or reject the review C
Reboost ISS committees recommendations. Then, they decide
Collect ISS garbage and destroy them to begin the next program phase or not.
The precise DSE validation scenario is called Pre- The main applicative goal of the DSE project is to
liminary Design Review (PDR). The PDR process realize the PDR process in a distributed way. The
is a very codified design phase for which a set of three phases of the PDR review (prepare the re-
contractors has to submit a large set of documenta- view, execute the review, and process the review
tion to the customer review team. The PDR Review results) were supported through the set of distrib-
Objectives can be detailed in: uted networked tools and components that has been
developed and integrated. Using this set of compo-
Obtaining an independent view over program nents, the session manager was able to organize the
achievements review. This included definitions of group members,
Identifying difficulties and major risks in order tasks, roles, and progress level of the review. The
to reduce them second offered service was the management of the
Assessing the progress report data issued during the PDR activity, the Review
Putting documents and product in a validated Items Discrepancies (RID). Using the EDR data-
baseline base from the main DSE server, the RID documents
Supporting the management in deciding to con- were created remotely, accessed, shared, and modi-
tinue or not fied during the review process.
133
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
134
CSCW Experience for Distributed System Engineering
MultiTeam Project. (1996). Retrieved from http:// port groups of people engaged in a common task (or
147.8.151.101/ElectronicClassroom/munin.html goal) and that provide an interface to a shared C
environment (p. 40). Another similar definition
Netmeeting. (2001). Microsoft netmeeting 2001.
(Kraemer et al., 1988) is computer-based technol-
Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com/windows/
ogy that facilitates two or more users working on a
netmeeting
common task.
Picture Tel. (2004). Retrieved from http://
Cooperation: A group of people working on a
www.picturetel.com
common global task.
VNC. (2004). Virtual network computing appli-
Coordination: Enabling and controlling the co-
cation. Retrieved from http://www.realvnc.com/
operation among members of a group of human or
Williams, N., & Blair, G. S. (1994). Distributed software-distributed agents. It can be considered as
multimedia applications: A review. Computer Com- software glue for groupware tools, including archi-
munications, 17(2), 119-132. tectural and behavioral issues. Coordination includes
several synchronization and management services.
Electronic Board: A classic groupware tool
KEY TERMS that supports the functionalities of a traditional
whiteboard (sharing sketches, pointing, annotating)
Application-Sharing Space: A groupware tool through a set of distributed computers.
that produces multiple distributed remote views of a Groupware: The software and technological
particular space. Any single-user application put part of CSCW. It contains application studies and
under the control of the particular space can be platforms adapted to groups and supporting group
viewed remotely and controlled by the group mem- working.
bers that have access to this space. Therefore, the
application-sharing space transforms any single- Synchronous Cooperation: Members are
user application put under its control into a multi-user present in the same time within the cooperation
shared application. group (co-presence). The communications among
them are interactive and made with live media, such
Asynchronous Cooperation: Members are not as videoconferences or application sharing spaces.
present in the same time within the cooperation
group (no co-presence). They communicate with System Engineering: The branch of engineer-
asynchronous media (e.g., e-mail messages) on top ing concerned with the development of large and
of extended and improved message systems. complex systems. It includes the definition and setup
of adequate and controlled processes for the design
Computer Supported Cooperative Work and development of these complex systems.
(CSCW): According to Ellis, et al. (1991), CSCW
platforms are computer-based systems that sup-
135
136
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
ers and some machine users). The other six organi- by another similar previous project, namely INTOPS-1
zations included some governmental organizations (see also Zhlke, Romberg, & Rse, 1998). The C
for import administration and some research insti- tests are based on the analysis of the following:
tutes for machine user-interface design in China. Choong and Salvendy (1998); Shih and Goonetilleke
The analysis was conducted by a native speaking (1998); Dong and Salvendy (1999); Piamonte,
Chinese researcher from the Center for Human- Abeysekera, and Ohlsson (1999); and Rse (2002a).
Machine-Interaction in Kaiserslautern, Germany. However, to find out more details of the Chinese
user requirements, a few new tests and a more
Study Methods detailed questionnaire and interview checklist have
been developed for the INTOPS-2 project. An over-
The following three investigation methods were view of all the implemented tests is presented in
applied in the INTOPS-2 project: test, questionnaire, Table 1.
and interview. These methods have been followed
137
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
The main categories of questionnaire and inter- native-speaking Chinese, there was no problem in
view checklist are the following: language communication.
In total, 35 main interviewees were involved.
Questionnaire: Basic information about vis- Fifty-eight percent of the interviewees were ma-
ited companies, information about machine pur- chine tool users in China. They came from different
chasing, requirements on machine service, re- application areas, like automobile, motorcycle, and
quirements on machine user-interface and re- machine tool industrial sector. The interviewees
quirements on machine technical documenta- were either responsible for machine purchasing
tion (e.g., Figure 1) decisions (the chief manager, chief engineer, and
Interview: Basic information about visited com- factory/workshop director) or responsible for ac-
panies, information about machine purchasing, tual machine applications in practice (the chief
application situation of imported machines in engineer, factory/workshop director, equipment
practice, requirements on machine user inter- engineer, and technician).
face, requirements on technical documentation, Most of the questionnaires were filled out di-
requirements on service, information about work rectly after the interviews by the same interviewees
organization, and training. or by other people in charge. A total of 19 question-
naires were obtained in the investigation. About
Study Conditions 63% of the questionnaires were filled out by the
state owned firms in China. Forty-seven percent of
The tests were conducted in the break room. The the questionnaires were filled out by machine tool
subjects were all Chinese machine operators. A total users in China.
of 42 users have participated in the tests, most of
them in more than one test. The total test span was Brief Results
controlled within 30 minutes, which has proven in
practice as almost the maximum acceptable time for As an example for test results, the results of the
one subject being willing to participate. Due to this English understanding test revealed that Chinese
constraint, none of the subjects had participated in machine operators have generally unsatisfactory
more than four tests. English understanding for safe and effective ma-
The interviews were mainly conducted in the chine operation (see test in Table 1 and Rose, Liu,
office of the interviewees. All interviews were con- & Zhlke, 2001). Table 2 shows the results for the
ducted in Chinese. Since the investigator was a understanding rate of the English terms.
138
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
Table 2.
C
Terms OK OFF Stop Home Help kg ON Start mm End Enter Del
% 95,7 82,6 82,6 73,9 73,9 73,9 69,6 69,6 69,6 65,2 56,5 52,2
Terms Exit Reset Shift Menu Edit rpm inch Disk Undo Esc Icon PIN
% 43,5 39,1 39,1 39,1 30,4 26,1 26,1 26,1 21,7 21,7 13,0 8,7
Therefore, text coding in English should be operator. In fact, the interviews have pointed out
restricted in a very limited scope (see also del Galdo, that the Chinese users require a self-defined user
1990). More detailed requirements at this point are interface to fit their individual production tasks. In
summarized in the following: conclusion, the menu structure should correspond
well to the operation tasks of the Chinese machine
1. The most important information should at any operators and the cultural-based organizational and
time be encoded using Chinese text (and with structural diversity. The new menu structure should
combination to other information coding meth- be characterized by separated (and hierarchical)
ods such as color, shape, and position, etc.). access rights of different machine operators to
2. Only when it is really necessary, English texts different machine functions, with the menu structure
which express some general machine opera- for each operator group thus simplified. For machine
tions such as On, Off, Start, Stop, and so forth, operators, the operation functions should be much
and are closely related to some daily use such simpler. This could also make the operation of
as Ok, Yes, Help, Home, and so forth, could be specific machine functions more quickly reachable.
applied for information coding. But the applica- Because the actual working organization for each
tion of most English abbreviation in text label- customer is different, it is impossible for machine
ing should be avoided. producers to provide an individual menu structure
3. In many cases, other information coding meth- for each customer. Generally, there should be one
ods should be applied together with Chinese consistent menu structure provided by machine pro-
text to ensure that the machine can be well ducers and the flexibility of users to configure the
maintained by foreign-service engineers. structure specifically for a particular working orga-
nization. Based on this consideration, the
Chinese machine operators have often very little modularization of the menu structure to leave room
experience with the operation of a Microsoft Win- for further adaptation is a good design strategy.
dows user interface. Therefore, the application of Then, the menu structure for a specific customer
the Windows user interface for machine operation in could be configured according to individual needs.
China will meet some problems at the beginning. Chinese customers have a very low assessment
Furthermore, the more freely structured dialogue of their own machine operators. The operators
provided by MS WINDOWS user interface, in compari- themselves also have very low self-evaluations.
son to guided dialogue, also could make Chinese Both groups often made a remark that operators
machine operators unsure about their operations. have quite low qualifications and could not under-
The results suggested that the application of the MS stand complicated machine operations. This status
WINDOWS user interface in China is not encouraged suggests that machine operators could have poten-
for machine operation at present time. tial fear to actively interact with the machine and
The most obviously different requirements in would prefer to follow the definite operation instruc-
menu structure come from the different working tions provided by the system. Consequently, the
organization in China. A Chinese operators task dialogue system must provide more error tolerance
range is narrower than that for a German machine for the operation and should have a very clear guide
139
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
for workers to enable them to follow the operation working group to discuss problems detailing the
process. focus of the study, contacting firms, arranging visits,
The questionnaires results show that the main conducting pre-tests, and many other tasks. Careful
problem of the Chinese machine operators is based preparation is very important for completing an
on a bad understanding of different machine func- evaluation of an intercultural project. For such field
tions and different operation processes. Accord- analysis, everything must be made easy
ingly, the user interface must provide a navigation Second, all the test material was translated to
concept that presents general machine functions and Chinese. This is the only acceptable method of
operation processes in an overview to enable opera- localization research and a guarantee for the collec-
tors to establish easily a clearer overall image of tion of trustworthy relevant data.
machine operation. Third, the investigation in Mainland China was
carried out by a native-speaking Chinese member of
the team. His background knowledge was product
FUTURE TRENDS design and usability, and he was deeply involved in
the preparation of the study.
Finally, this article should mention cultural diversity Without these frame conditions, it is not possible
in user requirements and their relevance in time of to get real cultural impact data from a user target
globalization. Mainland China is only an example for culture. Culture-oriented design will continue to be a
a new and increasing market with an interesting and challenge. The sooner software engineers start to
diverse user culture. integrate cultural diversity of users into international
Product localization is not possible without re- product development, the sooner products become
quirement analysis in the target user culture. Only more fit for a global market.
this can guarantee to meet the user expectations on
product use in the future. This method is, however in
internationalization or localization context, a needed ACKNOWLEDGMENT
base to engineer user-oriented human machine sys-
tems (see Rse, 2002). Many thanks to the sponsors of this project, the
For researchers and developers working on ad- companies: MAN Roland Druckmaschinen AG,
vancing user-oriented design, one must realize that, IWKA AG, Bhler AG Amriswil-CH and Rittal
in time of globalization, the culture-orientation is an Rudolf Loh GmbH & Co. KG. A special thanks to
essential component for successful usability and the PhD student Long Liu. He collected the data in
user friendliness. Culture is an influence factor on Mainland China and worked with many engage-
user interface design, and it is also an element of ments in this project.
user-experiences. Engineers of products for the
global market have to address this issue (see Rse,
2001). REFERENCES
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Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
141
Cultural Diversity and Aspects of Human Machine Systems in Mainland China
142
143
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Culture(s) of Cyberspace
144
The Culture(s) of Cyberspace
be most relevant for the fluid, dynamic, and even Subcultures of/in Cyberspace
contradictory cultured environment of cyberspace. C
Are subcultures identifiable within the cultural mi-
Cybercultural Values lieu of cyberspace? A number of theorists discuss
the online cultures of specific subgroups: Castells
Are the values of cyberculture simply the imported (2001) discusses the hacker culture in detail,
values of existing non-virtual cultures? Or does cy- Leonardi (2002) investigates the online culture and
berculture represent a newly evolving cultural mi- website designs of U.S. Hispanics, and Gibbs and
lieu? Various authors speculate about the nature and Krause (2000) explore the metaphors used by dif-
origins of cybercultural values. Anderson (1995) ferent Internet subcultures (hackers, cyberpunks).
argues that cyberculture values are speed, reach, Rather than simply itemizing and describing
openness, quick response (p. 13). Castells (2001) cyberspace subcultures, however, a growing num-
believes that hacker culture is foundational to ber of studies are exploring the marginalization in or
cyberculture, and carries with it meritocratic values, lack of access to cyberspace of some cultural
an early notion of cybercommunity, and a high valu- groups. Howe (1998) argues, for example, that
ing of individual freedom. Jordan (1999) contends radical differences in cultural values make
that it is power which structures culture, politics and cyberspace inhospitable for Native Americans.
economics, and theorizes the existence of Keniston and Hall (1998) offer statistics on the
technopower as the power of the Internet lite that English language and Western dominance of the
shapes the normative order of cyberculture. Later Internet; they discuss the reality that 95% of the
(Jordan, 2001), and similarly to Castells, he elabo- population of the worlds largest democracyIn-
rates on the Anglo-American language and culture diaare excluded from computer use because they
bias of cyberspace, which he argues is founded on lack English language fluency. Anderson (1995)
competition and informational forms of libertarian suggests that the liberal humanist traditions of
and anarchist ideologies. Knupfer (1997) and Morse Islamic and Arab high culture (p. 15) are absent
(1997) explore the gendered (masculine) nature of from the world of cyberspace, not because they do
cyberculture, while Kolko et al. (2000) theorize that not translate to new media, but because they are
(the predominantly Anglo-American) participants in literally drowned out by the cultural values attached
new virtual communities bring with them the (pre- to the dominant language and culture of cyberspace
dominantly American) values of their home cultures. as it is currently configured. Similarly, Ferris (1996),
As a result, and as Star (1995) had already pointed Morse (1997) and Knupfer (1997) suggest that the
out, there is no guarantee that interaction over the gendered culture of cyberspace has tended to ex-
net will not simply replicate the inequities of gender, clude women from this virtual world. Interestingly,
race and class we know in other forms of communi- Dahan (2003) reports on the limited online public
cation (p. 8). Essays in Shields (1996) edited col- sphere available to Palestinian Israelis relative to
lection examine features of cybercultural values and the Jewish majority population in Israel. Rather
practice such as attitudes to censorship, social inter- than being the result of Anglo-American cultural
action, politics of domination and gendered practices domination of the Internet, this author convincingly
of networking. argues that this imbalance demonstrates that ex-
Others, however, speculate that cyberspace is the isting political and social disenfranchisement ( 1)
site of creation of an entirely new culture. Lvy in Israeli society is simply mirrored in cyberspace.
(2001a) argues, for example, that cyberculture ex- More generally, Davis (2000) reports on the poten-
presses the rise of a new universal, different from tial for disenfranchisement from the global
the cultural forms that preceded it, because it is technoculture depending on their different mani-
constructed from the indeterminateness of global festations of a diversity of human affinities and
meaning (p. 100), and Healy (1997) characterizes values (p. 105). Stald and Tufte (2002) meanwhile
cyberspace as a middle landscape between civiliza- present a series of reports on cyberspace activities
tion and wilderness, where new cultural directions of a number of discrete and identifiable minority
and choices can be selected. communities: rural black African males in a South
145
The Culture(s) of Cyberspace
146
The Culture(s) of Cyberspace
networked computer technologies facilitate and shape Dahan, M. (2003). Between a rock and a hard place:
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Davis, D. M. (2000). Disenfranchisement from the
interface between individual humans and machines.
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Any effort to examine networked human communi-
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Technology and Communication, 2000, Perth,
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Dystopia: The converse of Utopia, a Dystopia is
Vygotsky, L. S., & Luria, A. R. (1994). Tool and any society considered to be undesirable. It is often
symbol in child development. In R. van der Veer, & used to refer to a fictional (often near-future) soci-
J. Valsiner (Eds.), The Vygotsky reader (Trans. T. ety where current social trends are taken to terrible
Prout & S. Valsiner) (pp. 97-174). Cambridge. MA: and socially-destructive extremes.
Blackwell Publishers.
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Webb, S. (1998). Visions of excess: Cyberspace, fers to the political, cultural, and economic forms
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mation, Communication & Society, 1(1), 46-69. that characterize contemporary Western and, argu-
ably, industrialized society. In particular, modernist
Wilson, M., Qayyum, A., & Boshier, R. (1998). cultural theories have sought to develop rational and
WorldWide America? Think globally, click locally. universal theories that can describe and explain
Distance Education, 19(1), 109-123. human societies.
Postmodern: Theoretical approaches charac-
KEY TERMS terized as postmodern, conversely, have abandoned
the belief that rational and universal social theories
Culture: Multiple definitions exist, including es- are desirable or exist. Postmodern theories also
sentialist models that focus on shared patterns of challenge foundational modernist assumptions such
learned values, beliefs, and behaviours, and social as the idea of progress, or freedom.
constructivist views that emphasize culture as a
shared system of problem-solving or of making Technological Determinism: The belief that
collective meaning. The key to the understanding of technology develops according to its own internal
online cultureswhere communication is as yet laws and must therefore be regarded as an autono-
dominated by textmay be definitions of culture mous system controlling, permeating, and condition-
that emphasize the intimate and reciprocal relation- ing all areas of society.
ship between culture and language. Technological Instrumentalism: The view that
Cyberculture: As a social space in which hu- technologies are merely useful and culture-neu-
man beings interact and communicate, cyberspace tral instruments, and that they carry no cultural
can be assumed to possess an evolving culture or set values or assumptions in their design or implementa-
of cultures (cybercultures) that may encompass tion.
beliefs, practices, attitudes, modes of thought, Utopia: A real or imagined society, place, or
behaviours and values. state that is considered to be perfect or ideal.
Cyberspace: While the Internet refers more
explicitly to the technological infrastructure of net-
149
150
Design Frameworks
John Knight
University of Central England, UK
Marie Jefsioutine
University of Central England, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Design Frameworks
13407, 1999). Additionally, Gould and Lewis (1985) ing/modelling, and testing/evaluation. Furthermore,
emphasise the importance of early and continual by applying these methods in the context of the EDF, D
user testing and integrating all aspects of usability. a better understanding of the user experience as a
These principles of UCD set out a clear approach whole can be achieved.
around which to plan a design life cycle, but they
focus very much on design for usability. The EDF Observation and Exploration
proposes that the same principles be applied to other
qualities of design. These methods are about finding out and can be
drawn from demography, ethnography, market re-
Qualities, Dimensions and Effectors of search, psychology, and HCI (e.g., task analysis,
an Experience field observation, interviews, questionnaires, focus
groups, affinity diagramming, laddering, and experi-
It was felt that one of the reasons UCD methods ence diaries). The EDF indicates the kind of infor-
were seen as irrelevant and limited was that the mation that should be sought, such as the range of
traditional focus on usability does not capture other user characteristics including personality, motiva-
aspects of the user-experience. The EDF identifies tions, social affiliations, physical or mental disabili-
a broader set of qualities that address the less ties, and so forth.
tangible aspects of an experience, such as pleasure
and engagement. It then identifies the different Communicating and Modelling
dimensions of experiencing, visceral, behavioural,
reflective, and social (from Jordan, 2000; Norman, These methods serve to communicate the research
2003) that need to be addressed to design a holistic data, design requirements, and ideas to a multi-
user experience. It identifies a number of aspects disciplinary team who may not have a common
that have an effect on an experience, such as who, vocabulary (e.g., user profiles and personas, use
why, what, where, when, and how, that help to guide cases or task scenarios, scenario-based design, mood
research, design, and evaluation. boards, written briefs and specifications,
storyboarding, and prototypes). Again, the EDF
helps to focus the information that is communicated
METHODS AND TOOLS on issues pertinent to the whole user experience.
Product design, HCI, and human factors research Participation and Empathy
are awash with methods and tools that can be used
to support user-centred design. Generally, tools have These methods represent an approach aimed at
focused on technological aspects of design, either in gaining a deeper understanding and empathy for
terms of making coding easier or automating aspects users, socio-political and quality of life issues (e.g.,
of design. Where tools have related to usability, this immersive methods such ethnographic participant-
has often focused on evaluation. A less developed observation and the eat your own dog food ap-
area is in tools that support the understanding of the proach). Other methods such as participatory design
user at early stages of design and supporting the advocate designing with users rather than for them
entire user-centred design process (some rare ex- (see Schuler & Namioka, 1993).
amples are HISER, 1994; NISTs WebCAT, 1998).
Jordan (2000) describes a collection of empirical Testing and Evaluating
and non-empirical methods suitable for the new
human factors approach to designing pleasurable Gould and Lewis (1985) recommend iterative design
products. Rather than prescribing a process or a set based on empirical testing (e.g., usability testing
of key methods or tools, the EDF suggests that a through controlled observation and measurement).
range of tools and techniques can be employed The EDF broadens the test and evaluative criteria
provided they cover four basic purposes of observ- from the traditional focus on cognitive and behavioural
ing/exploring, participation/empathy, communicat- measures, like the time taken to complete a task or
151
Design Frameworks
the number of errors or deviations from a critical and tools to guide and support the design process
path, to include methods such as transcript analysis, within a principled context, without being prescrip-
attitude measurement, and emotional response. tive or restricting, and as such can be used within
User-Lab has used the EDF to adapt and focus any design life cycle, and at any stage. It provides
methods for requirements research, brief develop- a common vocabulary to a multi-disciplinary team
ment, ideation, and testing, and has developed a range and also serves to direct research and the develop-
of services and training based on this research. ment of new methods and tools. Although designed
primarily for digital media product design, it is broad
enough to be applied to other areas of product
FUTURE TRENDS design. It is illustrative of what seems to be a
growing trend in multi-disciplinary approaches to
The growing number of design frameworks results design and in bridging the gaps between research
from an increasingly multi-disciplinary field where and practice.
any single approach is not sufficient. They are,
perhaps, indicative of a rejection of prescriptive
approaches to design. Competitive work environ- REFERENCES
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tracted to tools and methods that can be adapted to
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their working practices. A design framework pro-
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KEY TERMS
International Organization for Standardization, ISO/
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Design Framework: An open-ended design
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Jefsioutine, M., & Knight, J. (2004). Methods for activity.
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bridge, MA: MIT Press.
design and evaluation tools and methods aimed at
Nielsen, J. (1994). Guerrilla HCI: Using discount improving usability with the minimum resources.
usability engineering to penetrate the intimidation
Human-Centred Design: An alternative name
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standards.
demic Press.
Multidisciplinary Design: A collaborative ap-
NIST WebCAT (1998). Category analysis tool.
proach to design that shares research and design
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
activities among a range of disciplines.
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zing.ncsl.nist.gov/WebTools/WebCAT/ Product Design: An overall term that covers
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physical products.
Norman, D. (2003). Emotional design. New York:
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153
154
Philippe Palanque
Universit Paul Sabatier, France
Eric Barboni
Universit Paul Sabatier, France
David Navarre
Universit Paul Sabatier, France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development
2. Provide means to support argumentation when Indeed, the basic elements of design rationale have
design choices are to be made to be gathered first, such as the pertinent criteria and D
3. Provide means to keep track of these design factors according to the domain and the character-
choices in order to be able to justify when istics of the project. The other interesting aspect of
choices have been made Figure 2 is the fact that the cost of the development
of the project decreases according to the number of
Such approaches increase the production of ra- projects as reuse from design rationale increases
tional designs, that is, where trust in designers accordingly. The white parts of the bars represent
capabilities can be traced back. One of the main the increasing savings due to the reuse of informa-
arguments for following a rationale-based-design tion by using the design-rationale approach of previ-
development process is that such processes in- ous projects. This amount is likely to follow a loga-
crease the overall quality of systems. However, rithmic curve, that is, to reach a certain level where
when it comes to putting design rationale into prac- the cost decrease will reduce. However, our expe-
tice, that is, within development teams and real rience of design-rationale approaches is not wide
projects, more concrete arguments around costs and enough to give more precise information about this.
benefits have to be provided. Development processes in the field of safety-
Figure 2 reuses the same argumentation process critical systems (such as RTCA/DO-178B, 1992)
as the one used in Figure 1 for justifying the profit- explicitly require the use of methods and techniques
ability of user-centred approaches. While user- for systematically exploring design options and for
centred approaches find their profitability when increasing the traceability of design decisions. DO-
costs related to the actual use of the system are 178B is a document describing a design process.
taken into account, design rationale finds its profit- However, even though such development processes
ability when costs are taken into account amongst are widely used in the aeronautical domain, the
several projects. Figure 2 is made up of three bars, design-rationale part remains superficially addressed.
each representing a different project. The grey parts We believe that this underexploitation of such a
of the bars represent the development cost for the critical aspect of the design process lies in two main
project. The black parts represent the additional points.
costs for using a development process following a
design-rationale approach. As shown, the lengths of There is no integration of current practice in
the black parts of the bars remain the same, repre- user-centred design processes and design ra-
senting the fact that costs related to design-rationale tionale. For instance, no design-rationale nota-
activities remain the same across projects. Accord- tion or tool relates to task modeling, scenarios,
ing to the projects we have been working on, it is dialogue models, usability heuristics, and so
clearly not true for the first project in a given domain. forth that are at the core of the discipline.
There is no adequate tool to support a demand-
ing activity such as design rationale that is
heavily based on information storage and re-
Figure 2: Profitability related to design rationale trieval as well as on reuse. In software engi-
neering, similar activities are supported by case
tools that are recognised as critical elements
Design costs
Additional costs related to design rationale
for the effective use of notations.
Cost reductions related to reuse of previous designs
The next section presents a set of design-ratio-
nale notations and a tool, based on the QOC (ques-
Project 3
tions, options, criteria) notation (MacLean, Young,
Project 2 Bellotti, & Moran, 1991) that is dedicated to the
Project 1
rationale design of interactive systems.
155
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development
In this section, we detail the extensions that we Quality factors: requirements expressed by
propose. These extensions integrate HCI principles the clients and/or users
into the notation.
156
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development
TOOL SUPPORT
16
3
9-
O4 6 - 11 C4 Scenario 4
Task Model 2
157
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development
Farenc, C., & Palanque, P. (1999). Exploiting design cepts, techniques, and use. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence
rationale notations for a rationalised design of inter- Erlbaum Associates.
active applications. IHM99: 11 th French-Speak-
Martin, J. (1991). Rapid application development.
ing Conference on Human Computer-Interac-
UK: Macmillan Publishing Co.
tion, (pp. 22-26).
Mayhew, D., & Bias, R. (1994). Cost-justifying
Freitas, C., Cava, R., Winckler, M., & Palanque, P.
usability. Pages Academic Press.
(2003). Synergistic use of visualisation technique
and Web navigation model for information space McCall, J., Richards, P., & Walters, G. (1977).
exploration. Proceedings of Human-Computer Factors in software quality (Vol. 3, RADC-TR-
Interaction International (pp. 1091-1095). 77-369). Rome Air Development Center (RADC).
Gruber, T. R., & Russell, D. M. (1990). Design Newman, S. E., & Marshall, C. C. (1991). Pushing
knowledge and design rationale: A framework Toulmin too far: Learning from an argument
for representation, capture, and use (Tech. Rep. representation scheme (Tech. Rep. No. SSL-92-
No. KSL 90-45). Stanford University, Knowledge 45). Xerox PARC.
Systems Laboratory, California.
Norman, D. A., & Draper, S. W. (1986). User-
Kunz, W., & Rittel, H. (1970). Issues as elements of centred system design: New perspectives on hu-
information systems. Berkeley: University of Cali- man computer interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
fornia. Erlbaum Associates.
Lacaze, X., Palanque, P., & Navarre, D. (2002). Patern, F. (2001). Task models in interactive soft-
Evaluation de performance et modles de tches ware systems. In S. K. Chang (Ed.), Handbook of
comme support la conception rationnelle des software engineering and knowledge engineer-
systmes interactifs. IHM02: 14th French-Speak- ing (pp. 355-370). London: World Scientific Publish-
ing Conference on Human Computer-Interac- ing Co.
tion, (pp. 17-24).
RTCA/DO-178B. (1992). Software considerations
Lacaze, X., Palanque, P., Navarre, D., & Bastide, in airborne systems and equipment certification.
R. (2002). Performance evaluation as a tool for RTCA Inc.
quantitative assessment of complexity of interactive
systems. In Lecture notes in computer science: Vredenburg, K., Isensee, S., & Righi, C. (2001).
Vol. 2545. DSV-IS02 9 th Workshop on Design User-centered design: An integrated approach.
Specification and Verification of Interactive Sys- Prentice Hall.
tems (pp. 208-222). Springer.
Lee, J. (1991). Extending the Potts and Bruns model KEY TERMS
for recording design rationale. Proceedings of the
13th International Conference on Software Engi- Bifocal Tree: The Bifocal Tree (Cava et al.,
neering (pp. 114-125). 2002) is a visual representation for displaying tree
structures based on a node-edge diagram. The tech-
MacLean, A., Young, R. M., Bellotti, V., & Moran, nique displays a single tree structure as a
T. (1991a). Questions, options and criteria: Ele- focus+context visualisation. It provides detailed and
ments of design space analysis. Journal on Human contextual views of a selected sub-tree (Freitas,
Computer Interaction, 6(3-4), 201-250. Cava, Winckler, & Palanque, 2003, p. 1093).
MacLean, A., Young, R. M., Bellotti, V. M. E., & Criterion: The expressed characteristics of an
Moran, T. P. (1996). Questions, options, and criteria: interactive system. The criterion must be valuable,
Elements of design space analysis. In T. P. Moran and it denies or supports options.
& J. M. Carroll (Eds.) Design rationale: Con-
158
Design Rationale for Increasing Profitability of Interactive Systems Development
159
160
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Development of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Interface
to start applications/functions and select items from tem relied on the user learning a series of special
menus. The small keyboard proved difficult to use, characters, which, though simple, was irksome to D
however, and the following 5c model in 1997 used an many users. The CIC JOT and Microsoft Pocket PC
innovative foldout miniature QWERTY keyboard. systems have been developed to avoid the use of
These genuinely handheld devices with their inter- special symbols or characters and to allow the user
face innovations and ability to synchronize data with to input more naturally by using standard upper and
a host personal computer made the PSION models lower case printed letters. Both systems also recog-
particularly successful and firmly established the nize most of the original Palm Graffiti-based special
personal digital assistant (PDA) as a portable com- characters.
puting tool for professionals. The arrival of the Short Messaging Service (SMS),
otherwise known as text messaging, for cellular
phones in the late 1990s led several PDA manufac-
ALTERNATIVE INTERFACES AND turers to adopt an alternative Thumb Board inter-
THE INTEGRATION OF MULTIMEDIA face for their PDAs. SMS allows an individual to
send short text and numeric messages (up to 160
The limitations of keyboard-based data entry for characters) to and from digital cell phones and public
handheld devices had been recognized, and follow- SMS messaging gateways on the Internet. With the
ing PSIONs lead, Apple Computers introduced the widespread adoption of SMS by the younger genera-
Newton Message Pad in 1993. This device was the tion, thumb-based text entry (using only one thumb to
first to incorporate a touch-sensitive screen with a input data on cell phone keypads) became popular
pen-based graphical interface and handwriting-rec- (Karuturi, 2003). Abbreviations such as C U L8er
ognition software. Although moderately successful, for see you later and emoticons or smileys to
the devices handwriting recognition proved slow reduce the terseness of the medium and give short-
and unreliable, and in 1998, Apple discontinued its hand emotional indicators developed. The rapid com-
PDA development (Linzmayer, 1999). However, mercial success of this input interface inspired the
the PDA market now was becoming based firmly implementation of Thumb Board keyboards on some
upon devices using pen-based handwriting recogni- PDAs (i.e., the Palm Treo 600) for text interface.
tion for text entry, and in mid-2001, PSION, with Clip-on Thumb Board input accessories also have
dwindling sales and difficulties with business part- been developed for a range of PDAs.
nerships, ceased trading. US Robotics launched the Current developments in PDA-based interfaces
Palm Pilot in 1996, using its simple Graffiti handwrit- are exploring the use of multimedia, voice recogni-
ing recognition system, and Compaq released the tion, and wireless connectivity. The expansion of
iPAQ in 1997, incorporating the new Microsoft memory capabilities and processor speeds for PDAs
Windows CE/Pocket PC operating system with the has enabled audio recording, digital music storage/
first PDA color screen (Wallich, 2002). playback, and now digital image and video record-
Microsofts relatively late entry into this market ing/playback to be integrated into these devices.
reflected the considerable research and develop- This and the integration of wireless network and
ment it undertook in developing a user-friendly pocket cellular phone technologies have expanded their
PC handwriting recognition interface. This remains utility considerably.
a highly competitive field, and in November 2002, Audio input has become very attractive to the
PalmSource (the new company owning the Palm mobile computer user. Audio is attractive for mobile
Operating System) replaced the Graffiti system with applications, because it can be used when the users
Computer Intelligence Corporations JOT as the hands and eyes are occupied. Also, as speech does
standard and only handwriting software on all new not require a display, it can be used in conditions of
Palm Powered devices. Computer Intelligence Cor- low screen visibility, and it may consume less power
poration (CIC) was founded in conjunction with than text-based input in the PDA. The latest PDA
Stanford Research Institute, based on research con- interface innovations include voice command and
ducted by SRI on proprietary pattern recognition dictation recognition (voice to text), voice dialing,
technologies (CIC, 1999). The original Graffitti sys- image-based dialing (for cell phone use, where the
161
The Development of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Interface
user states a name or selects an image to initiate a of ROM and 1GB of RAM or more). This area of
call), audio memo recording, and multimedia messag- technological development remains highly competi-
ing (MMS). Several devices (e.g., the new Carrier tive, and by necessity, the user interface for these
Technologies i-mate) also incorporate a digital cam- devices has developed to fulfill the portable design
era. brief, including the use of pen- and voice-based data
Wireless connectivity has enabled Internet con- input, collapsible LCD displays, wireless network
nectivity, enabling users to access e-mail, text/graphi- connectivity, and now cell phone integration. Mod-
cal messaging services (SMS and MMS), and the ern PDAs are much more sophisticated, lightweight
Web remotely (Kopp, 1998). These developments devices and are arguably much closer to Kays
gradually are expanding the PDAs functionality into original vision of mobile computing than the current
a true multi-purpose tool. laptop or tablet computers and possibly have the
potential to replace this format with future interface
developments. Indeed, if the interface issues are
FUTURE TRENDS addressed successfully, then it is probable that
these devices will outsell PCs in the future and
Coding PDA applications to recognize handwriting become the major computing platform for personal
and speech and to incorporate multimedia requires use.
additional code beyond traditionally coded interfaces.
PDA application design and development need to
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CONCLUSION Windows mobile pocket PCs. Retrieved August
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Since the early models, manufacturers have contin- tary/future-wm.htm
ued to introduce smaller and improved portable com-
puters, culminating in the latest generation of power- GSM World. (2002). GSM technology: What is
ful handheld PDAs offering fast (400 MHz and SMS? Retrieved June 24, 2004, from http://
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Karuturi, S. (2003). SMS history. Retrieved August Emoticon: Text (ASCI) characters used to indi-
8, 2004, from http://www.funsms.net/sms_history. cate an emotional state in electronic correspon- D
htm dence. Emoticons or smileys, as they are also called,
represent emotional shorthand. For example :-) rep-
Kay, A. (1972a). A personal computer for children
resents a smile or happiness.
of all ages. Proceedings of the ACM National
Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Laptop: A portable personal computer small
enough to use on your lap with a QWERTY key-
Kay, A. (1972b). A dynamic medium for creative
board and display screen. It usually has an A4-sized
thought. Proceedings of the National Council of
footprint in a clamshell configuration and may incor-
Teachers of English Conference, Seattle, Wash-
porate a variety of peripheral devices (e.g., trackball,
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CD-ROM, wireless network card, etc.).
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Media Player: A device or software application
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Kopp, A. (1998). Get mobile with todays handheld media such as compressed audio files (e.g., MPEG
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No Starch Press. bine multiple formats such as text, graphics, sound,
and video (e.g., a video incorporating sound and
Louderback, J. (2004). PalmSource CTO on the subtitles or with text attached that is concurrently
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Stanford University. (2003). Human computer in- ing the transmission of text, pictures, audio, and
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gust 10, 2004, from http://cnscenter.future.co.kr/ PDA: Personal Digital Assistant. A small
resource/rsc-center/gartner/portabledevices.pdf handheld computing device with data input and
Wallich, P. (2002). The ghosts of computers past. display facilities and a range of software applica-
IEEE Spectrum, 39(11), 38-43. tions. Small keyboards and pen-based input systems
are commonly used for user input.
163
The Development of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Interface
164
165
Paula Kotz
University of South Africa, South Africa
B u Business
s in e s s
I n t e r n a l
Internal G o v Government/Outside
e r n m e n t /o u ts id e T r aTransaction
n s a c tio n
U s e r s s t a kStakeholders
e h o ld e r s
Users
I T D IT
e pDepartment
a r tm e n t
D Data
a ta
I n f o r m a tio n
Information
S y s te m
System
C u s to m e r S u p p lie r s
Suppliers
Customer
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Development Methodologies and Users
Traditional Systems Development of users for most computer systems: These are
Approaches nave, novice, skilled, and expert users. With the
widespread introduction of information and commu-
Under the traditional development approaches, there nication technology into our everyday lives, most
are various methodologies. All of these approaches computer users today have limited computer experi-
have the following phases in common: Planning ence, but are expected to use such systems.
(why build the system?): Identifying business value, Usability is a measurable characteristic of a
analysing feasibility, developing a work plan, staff- product user interface that is present to a greater or
ing the project, and controlling and directing the lesser degree. One broad dimension of usability is
project; Analysis (who, what, when, where will the how easy for novice and casual users to learn the
system be?): Analysis, information gathering, pro- user interface (Mayhew, 1999). Another usability
cess modelling and data modelling; Design (how will dimension is how easy for frequent and proficient
the system work?): Physical design, architecture users to use the user interface (efficiency, flexibility,
design, interface design, database and file design powerfulness, etc.) after they have mastered the
and program design; Implementation (system deliv- initial learning of the interface (Mayhew, 1999).
ery): Construction and installation of system. We Williges, Williges, and Elkerton (1987) have pro-
will look at the Dennis and Wixom Approach (2000). duced an alternative model of systems development
to rectify the problems in the traditional software
OO Methodologies development models. In their model, interface de-
sign drives the whole process. Preece, Rogers, and
Although diverse in approach, most object-oriented Sharp (2002) suggest a simple life cycle model,
development methodologies follow a defined system called the Interaction Design Model, consisting of
development life cycle, and the various phases are identifying needs/establishing requirements; evalu-
intrinsically equivalent for all the approaches, typi- ating; building an interactive version; and
cally proceeding as follows (Schach, 2002): require- (re)designing. Other life cycle models that focus on
ments phase; OO analysis phase (determining what HCI aspects include the Star Model of Hartson and
the product is to do) and extracting the objects; OO Hix (1989), the Usability Engineering Life Cycle of
(detailed) design phase; OO programming phase Mayhew (1999), Organizational Requirements Defi-
(implementing in appropriate OO programming lan- nition for Information Technology (ORDIT) method,
guage); integration phase; maintenance phase; and Effective Technical and Human Implementation of
finally retirement. OO stages are not really very Computer-based Systems (ETHICS), visual
different from the traditional system development prototyping and Hackos and Redishs model (1998).
approaches mentioned previously. These methods also introduce various strategies for
The OO development approach in general lends the development of effective user interfaces.
itself to the development of more effective user
interfaces because of the iterative design process,
although this process does not seem to be effectively ASSESSING THE METHODOLOGIES
managed and guidelines for doing so are often
absent. The authors analyzed three OO methodolo- One of the problems with the traditional model for
gies: The Rumbaugh, Blaha, Premerlani, Eddy, and software development and the OO approaches is
Lorensen (1991), Coad and Yourdan (1991), and that they do not, in general, clearly identify a role for
IBM (1999) approaches and their relationship to the HCI in systems development. User interface con-
aspects illustrated in Figure 1. cerns are mixed in with wider development activi-
ties. This may result in one of two problems: either
HCI-Focused Life Cycle Methodologies HCI is ignored, or it is relegated to the later stages
of design as an afterthought. In either case, the
The HCI proponents aim to focus more on the consequences can be disastrous. If HCI is ignored,
human and end-user aspects. There are four types then there is a good chance that problems will occur
in the testing and maintenance stages. If HCI is
166
Development Methodologies and Users
Government
Suppliers
Customers
Internal
Department
Component
UI
IT
Users
The Dennis and Wixom (2000) Approach
Planning no yes not involved not involved actively part not involved
of
Analysis no yes not involved not involved actively part not involved
of
Design yes yes not involved not involved actively part not involved
of
Implementation yes yes not involved not involved actively part not involved
of
The Rumbaugh et al. (1991) model
Analysis phase attempts attempts not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
System design no not involved not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
Object design no not involved not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
The Coad and Yourdan (1991) Model
Analysis no attempts not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
Design yes attempts not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
The IBM (1999) model
OO design phase yes attempts not part of not part of actively part not part of
of
The design the business model phase no not part of not part of not part of not part of not part of
Williges et al. (1987)
Initial Design yes yes attempts attempts actively part attempts
of
Formative Evaluation yes yes attempts attempts actively part attempts
of
Summative Evaluation yes yes attempts attempts actively part attempts
of
Hackos and Redish (1998) Approach
Systems development no attempts attempts attempts actively part attempts
of
Interface design yes yes attempts attempts actively part attempts
of
Design and implementation yes yes attempts no actively part no
of
Testing phase yes yes attempts no actively part no
of
relegated to the later stages in the development cycle a. In the Dennis and Wixom (2000) approach,
then it may prove very expensive to massage interface design is only considered in the later
applications functionality into a form that can be stages of development. The components of
readily accessed by the end-user and other stake- Figure 1 only partially map onto this approach,
holders. with no reference to the customers, suppliers,
If we examine the methodology matrix (Table 1) the IT department specifically, or the govern-
in more detail in respect of all the components mental issues.
reflected in Figure 1, we find the following with b. In the Rumbaugh et al. (1991) approach, there
regard to the structured development and OO devel- is no special consideration given to the design
opment methodologies: of the user interface or any of the other
components reflected in Figure 1.
167
Development Methodologies and Users
c. In the Coad & Yourdon (1991) model, the users, such as customers, suppliers, and govern-
human interaction component includes the ac- ment. Hackos and Redish (1998) are silent on this
tual displays and inputs needed for effective issue, however, and do not elaborate on what they
human-computer interaction. This model is a mean by corporate objectives. If the corporate
partial fit onto Figure 1. While the internal users objectives do include the outside stakeholders, this
of the system are well catered for, the other is the only model that we investigated that does this.
stakeholders are not actively involved in the In fact, if this is the case, the model maps onto
process at all. Figure 1. The usability engineering is done in par-
d. The IBM (1999) model considers the users in allel with the systems development, and integrated
the development of the system, but Figure 1 is throughout.
still only a partial fit onto this model. The
internal users are considered in the develop-
ment of the system, but the external users and FUTURE TRENDS
other stakeholders are sidelined.
There are major gaps of communication between
It is clear from this that there are several missing the HCI and SE fields: the methods and vocabulary
components in all these software developments life being used by each community are often foreign to
cycles (SDLCs). The Coad and Yourdan (1991) the other community. As a result, product quality is
approach explicitly takes into account the HCI as- not as high as it could be, and (avoidable) re-work is
pect and tends to ignore the other aspects of Figure often necessary (Vanderdonckt & Harning, 2003).
1. The same applies to the IBM (1999) approach, but The development of mutually accepted standards
the process is much shorter. The Rumbaugh et al. and frameworks could narrow the communication
(1991) approach is very detailed but still ignores the gap between the HCI and SE fields.
issue of direct mapping to the final user interface
application. Although in this approach, use case
scenarios are actively employed and users get in- CONCLUSION
volved in systems design, it does not map directly
onto the systems user interface design. The shortcomings of all the methodologies are there-
The root cause of this poor communication is that fore related to the complexity of the wider environ-
all the conventional development methodologies (in- ment introduced by the issues highlighted in Figure 1,
cluding the traditional development approach and and how these aspects should inform the systems
the OO approach) do not devote adequate attention development process. None of the development
to the human aspect of systems development. Many methodologies addressed the human component or
researchers have proposed ways of improving the the issue of other stakeholders sufficiently. Both the
systems interface, but most of this has not been traditional SDLC and OO approaches fall short on
integrated into the development techniques. The the issue of human aspects and stakeholder involve-
researchers findings are a confirmation of the work ment. Although we expected the OO approaches to
of Monarchi and Puhr (1992). fare better on these issues, the results given earlier
When we consider Table 1 with regard to the clearly illustrate that these methodologies still have
HCI-focused development models, we find that: (a) a long way to go in fully integrating environmental
Williges et al. (1987) try to introduce the usability issues. Which one fared the best? Although the
issues at a much earlier stage of the development Williges et al. (1987) and Hackos and Redish (1998)
process, but this model is not widely used; (b) The approaches focusing on the user go a long way
Hackos and Redish (1998) model seems to be the towards achieving this, several shortcomings can
most comprehensive one we assessed. The short- still be identified. There has to be a balanced ap-
coming of this model is, however, that it still ignores proach to systems development and HCI develop-
the outside stakeholders, unless the corporate objec- ment components in the overall systems develop-
tives phase states categorically that the organization ment process.
should give special consideration to the external
168
Development Methodologies and Users
169
170
Kinshuk
Massey University, New Zealand
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
A Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies
171
A Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies
for the digital asset. In order to describe the meta- sharing and management of content, there is con-
data and associated files, a description language siderable research in the construction and stan-
(Media Vocabulary Markup Language MVML) dardization of learning object repositories (McGreal
has been developed (Verhaart & Kinshuk, 2004), and & Roberts, 2001). IEEE Learning Technology Stan-
is based on the standards mentioned previously: dards Committee (IEEE LTSC) (1999) and Shar-
XML, RDF, Dublin Core and vCard. able Content Object Reference Model (SCORM)
(Advanced Distributed Learning, 2003) compliancy
Annotations is considered to be the current standard although
many countries are developing standards based on
The ability to capture the many types of knowledge these, such as United Kingdom Learning Object
possessed by an individual is an integral part of Metadata (UK LOM) Core (Cetis, 2004) and the
creating a Virtual Me. Implicit knowledge is the Canadian equivalent, Cancore (Friesen, Fisher, &
simplest, since it can be easily written down, while Roberts, 2004). Content packagers such as RE-
tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1958) is often impossible LOAD (2004) are evolving to allow manifests of
to be communicated in words and symbols (Davidson files to be easily bundled together with learning
& Voss, 2002) and is much more difficult to capture. object meta-data. A survey by Verhaart (2004)
Tacit knowledge is often recalled when a context is indicated that problems such as ownership have
presented, and in the physical world can be preceded caused learning object repositories to become meta-
with Oh.. I remember. What about missing data sites linked to personal content. This is a
knowledge, that is, the knowledge we dont know persuasive argument for the Virtual Me frame-
we dont know? This is where visitors can assist. In work.
the real world, this is made up of research or personal The second major trend is that of the semantic
contacts filling in the blanks. The Virtual Me needs Web. This is the vision of the modern Internets
the ability for visitors to add their own annotations at creator Tim Berners Lee, and the W3C (2004) is
various levels. Annotations can be classified at three investing a significant part of its resources to mak-
levels: creator only (intended to operate like post-it ing this vision a reality. The semantic Web is
type notes, although they should be viewable by site fundamentally about adding context and meaning to
owner), creator and site owner (a direct communica- the Web content. Use of the structures suggested in
tion between them), and public (viewable to any this article will enable media and multimedia objects
visitor). to retain and maintain their original context even
Another technology gaining popularity to capture when used in many different contexts.
missing knowledge is the wiki. Cortese (2003) indi-
cated that a wiki is Web collaboration software used
by informal online groups, and is taking hold in the CONCLUSION
business realm. First coined in 1995 by Ward
Cunningham, wiki means quick in Hawaiian This article presents a discussion where the man-
(Jupitermedia Corporation, 2004). It is proposed that agement of information is returned back to the
in the Virtual Me, a wiki type field is available to individual, even though there is a prevailing trend to
users for each sniplet (Figure 1). Here, a visitor centralize information. Observations in an educa-
would make a copy of the sniplet and be able to edit tional setting indicate that many content deliverers:
it. The site owner could then update the actual sniplet tutors and lecturers, prefer to customize material to
from the wiki to allow inclusion of missing knowl- reflect their personal styles. Further, personal own-
edge. ership is a powerful motivator in the management
and evolution of information.
The Virtual Me framework attempts to address
FUTURE TRENDS this issue, allowing for the creation of a personal
learning portfolio where visitors can contribute to
Development of learning resources is a costly and the building of the content repository.
time consuming process. In order to facilitate the
172
A Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies
173
A Dynamic Personal Portfolio Using Web Technologies
Sampson, I. Aedo, L. Uden, & E. Khknen (Eds.), Meta-Data: Commonly data about data. For
Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Con- example, a digital asset has meta-data which would
ference on Advanced learning Technologies include the derived data (size, width) and annotated
2004, Joensuuu, Finland (pp. 651-653). Los data (creator, description, context).
Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.
Multimedia Object (MMO): A self-describ-
W3C. (2004) Semantic Web. Retrieved on Decem- ing manifest of files used to encapsulate an elec-
ber 11, 2004, from http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/ tronic media element. Consists of media files con-
forming to a defined naming standard and an asso-
W3C. (2004b) Extensible Markup Language
ciated MVML file.
(XML). Retrieved on December 11, 2004, from
http://www.w3.org/2001/XML/ Resource Definition Framework (RDF): Part
of the Semantic Web, and is a way to uniquely
Wikipedia. (2004) Content management system.
identify a resource whether electronic or not.
Retrieved December 11, 2004, from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_content_management Sniplet: A piece of knowledge or information
that could be represented by one overhead transpar-
Winer, D. (2002) The history of Weblogs. Re-
ency.
trieved December 11, 2004, from http://
newhome.weblogs.com/historyOfWeblogs vCARD: A meta-data format that enables a
person to be described. This is used extensively in
commercial e-mail systems and can be thought of as
KEY TERMS an electronic business card.
Digital Asset: An electronic media element, Virtual Me: A framework that uses Internet
that may be unstructured such as an image, audio, or technologies to structure a personal portfolio and
video, or structured such as a document or presen- allows external users to add annotations. A sniplet is
tation, usually with associated meta-data. its basic unit, and digital assets are structured as
multimedia objects (MMOs).
Dublin Core: A set of 15 meta-data fields such
as title and author, commonly used by library sys- Web Log (Blog): An online diary, typically
tems to manage digital assets. (All fields are op- authored by an individual, where unstructured com-
tional.) ments are made and annotations can be attached.
Learning Object: An artifact or group of arti- Wiki: A publicly modifiable bulletin board, where
facts with learning objectives that can be used to anyone can change the content. Some provide fea-
increase our knowledge. tures so that changes can be un-done. From wiki
meaning quick in Hawaiian, and coined by Ward
Media Vocabulary Markup Language Cunningham in 1995.
(MVML): A XML-based language that describes a
media element.
174
175
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Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web
176
Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web
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nected to the Internet and more often called a host.
works.com/
Protocol: A set of formal rules defining how to
van der Veen, J., de Boer, W., & van de Ven, M.
transmit data.
(2000). W3LS: Evaluation framework for World
Wide Web learning. Journal of International Fo- TCP/IP Protocol Suite: The system of proto-
rum of Educational Technology & Society, 3(4), cols developed to network computers and to share
132-138. information. There are two protocols: the Transmis-
sion Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Proto-
col (IP).
KEY TERMS
World Wide Web: A virtual space of electronic
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) information and data storage.
was originally developed for the use of plain text to
hide HTTP links.
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Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
site maps enhance use if topics reflect the tion on the top of the page and the least used
users conceptual structure. Other aids such as information at the bottom of the page.
headers and navigation paths may also be use- Speaking the Users Language: Speaking
ful. the users language refers to speaking the
Consistency: WordNet, maintained by the language of the intended audience. Koyani et
Cognitive Science Laboratory of Princeton Uni- al. (2003, p. 145) found a strong expert opinion
versity (2005), defines consistency as a har- to support avoiding acronyms. It follows that if
monious uniformity or agreement among things site owners must use acronyms, they should
or parts. The purpose of consistency is to provide an acronym finder and/or glossary.
allow users to predict system actions based on Other ways to speak the users language are to
previous experience with other system ac- avoid jargon and to provide a search engine that
tions (NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, recognizes naturalistic language, or language
1996, p. 1). Ways to make a Web site consis- consistent with real-world conventions.
tent include placing navigation elements in the Easy Scanning: Koyani et al. (2003, p. 157)
same location (Koyani et al., 2003, p. 59), and found with moderate evidence that 80% of
placing labels, text, and pictures in the same users scan any new page and only 16% read
location (Koyani et al., 2003, p. 97). Using the word-by-word. Therefore, it may be useful to
same or similar colors, fonts, and backgrounds make information easy to scan, especially when
for similar information will also provide consis- presenting large amounts of information. Ways
tency, as will following business, industry, and to accomplish this may be to use a bold or
government standards. italicized font when users need to understand
Error Prevention and Error Recovery: differences in text content. Avoid underling,
The least costly way to prevent errors is to however, as users may confuse an underlined
provide a well-designed Web site at the outset. word or phase with a link. In addition, highlight-
Even though users tend to accommodate for ing may make information easy to visually
inconsistencies, Koyani et al. (2003, p. 97) scan. However, Koyani et al. (2003, p. 77)
found strong research support showing a rela- advise, Use highlighting sparingly(use it
tionship between decreased errors and visual for)just a few items on a page that is other-
consistency. In addition, Asim Ant Ozok and wise relatively uniform in appearance.
Gavriel Salvendy (2003) found well-written Proper Printing: For this study, providing for
sites decrease comprehension errors. Addi- proper printing means providing for the
tional ways to prevent errors may be to provide printed page to look the same as the presented
Undo and Redo commands as well as Back and page on the computer screen. For example, a
Forward commands, provide a Frequently- printed copy of a Web page should not show
Asked Questions section, and provide help the right side of the page trimmed off, if it does
menus and search menus. However, even the not appear as such to the user. Not all users
best designed site will not prevent all errors. know how to query the Help function to assist
When errors do occur, sites need to provide them with this problem. Although Koyani et al.
users with ways to recover from them. Ben (2003, p. 21) did not find support for providing
Shneiderman (1998, p. 76) advises, Let the proper printing in experimental research, they
user see the source of error and give specific did find a strong expert opinion supporting
positive instructions to correct the error. proper printing.
Inverted Pyramid Style: For the purposes of Short Download Time: Download time re-
this paper, the inverted pyramid style refers to fers to the time to copy data (usually an entire
putting the most important information at the file) from a main source to a peripheral device
top of the page. Koyani et al. (2003, p. 47) (Webopedia, 2005). Koyani et al. (2003, p. 16)
found moderate research support for the use- found moderate support for the usefulness of
fulness of putting the most important informa- minimizing Web page download time. The best
180
The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
181
The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
D D S D D D
ED E
D
SE T
E U E E E
U R N IO A
T FI IT
G O FU IE X R IS C
TI B N R A
N
ST T X
FA C
O
IS
O U SA
E
D FR
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The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
The author also recommends future research to our users deserve a fulfilling experience. The ben-
address individual personality differences and situ- efits of helping all Web users find the information E
ational differences. Examples of questions include: they need and want should be well worth the chal-
Do certain guidelines produce better results for lenge in increased effectiveness, efficiency, and
situational differences such as chaotic or stressful satisfaction.
situations, than they do for calm situations? In
addition, Do certain guidelines produce better re-
sults for different personality types? For example, DISCLAIMER
some users may enjoy the challenge of finding
hard-to-find information, while others may be The views expressed in this article are those of the
annoyed or frustrated by the same situation. author and do not reflect the official policy or
The author also cautions that self-reported emo- position of the United States Air Force, Department
tions may not be reflective of true emotions. Some of Defense, or the U.S. Government.
participants may have reasons to present them-
selves as being positive or at ease with a site when
they are not. For example, many users feel that ease REFERENCES
of use is a sign of intelligence so they may want to
appear at ease. They may also want to appear Danielson, D. (2002). Web navigation and the be-
positive or happy to please the tester. One emerging havioral effects of constantly visible site maps.
trend in software research that may address prob- Interacting with Computers, 14, 601-618.
lems with self-reporting is biometric research. Bio-
metric data includes heart activity, sweat gland Faulkner, L. (2003). Beyond the five-user assump-
activity, blood pressure, and brain activity. Although tion: Benefits of increased sample sizes in usability
these data are more objective than self-reported testing. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments,
emotion, users may have different emotions than and Computers, 35(3), 379-383.
they normally do simply because of the apparatus. Kitajima, M., Kariya, N., Takagi, H., & Zhang, Y.
Therefore, the author recommends both subjective (to appear). Evaluation of Web site usability using
and objective studies to capitalize on the benefits of Markov chains and latent semantic analysis.
both types of software metrics. Institute of Electronics Information and Communi-
cation Engineers Transactions on Communications.
183
The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
Nielsen, J., & Mack, R. L. (1994). Usability in- Minimalist Design: Refers to providing simple
spection methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons. and easy to read screen designs. When Web designs
are not minimalist, they may cause cognitive over-
Ozok, A. A., & Salvendy, G. (2003). The effect of
load, or the presence of too much information for
language inconsistency on performance and satis-
users to process. Keeping pages uncluttered and
faction in using the Web: Results of three experi-
chunking information into categories are examples
ments. Behavior and Information Technology,
of ways to provide a minimalist design.
22(3), 155-163.
Providing for Recognition rather than Re-
Pearrow, M. (2000). Web site usability handbook.
call: Recognition is easier than recall, as evidenced
Rockland, MA: Charles River Media, Inc.
in most multiple-choice questions compared to
Princeton University Cognitive Science Laboratory. fill-in-the-blank questions. For example, when users
(2005). WordNet, a lexical database for the En- return to a Web site, they may not recall where
glish language. Retrieved on February 4, 2005, certain information occurred, although they may
from http://wordnet.princeton.edu/ recognize it when they see it. Examples of ways to
provide for recognition rather than recall include
Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the user inter- providing drop-down menus, providing for book
face. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Longman. marking, and providing a search engine. When pro-
Virzi, R. A. (1992). Refining the test phase of viding a search engine, most experts recommend
usability evaluation: How many subjects is enough? explaining its use as well as providing for advanced
Human Factors, 34, 457-468. searching. This accommodates the needs of novice
users as well as advanced users.
Webopedia (2005, February). Retrieved on Febru-
ary 4, 2005, from http://webopedia.internet.com/ Short Download Time: Download time refers
TERM/d/download.html to the time to copy data (usually an entire file) from
a main source to a peripheral device (Webopedia,
2005). Sanjay Koyani, Robert W. Bailey, and Janice
KEY TERMS R. Nall (2003, p. 16) found moderate support for the
usefulness of minimizing Web page download time.
Consistency: Consistency in Web sites refers The best way to decrease download time is to limit
to keeping similar Web pages similar in their look and the number of bytes per page (Koyani, 2003, p. 17).
feel. Examples of ways to achieve consistency
include using the same or similar colors, font, and Speaking the Users Language: Refers to
layout throughout the site. speaking the language of the intended Web audi-
ence. It means avoiding jargon, acronyms, or system
Easy Scanning: Sanjay Koyani, Robert W. terms that some of the intended audience may not
Bailey, and Janice R. Nall (2003, p. 157) found with understand. If you must use jargon, acronyms or
moderate evidence that 80% of users scan any new system terms, provide a glossary, and/or an acronym
page and only 16% read word-by-word. Therefore, finder. Another way to speak the users language is
it may be useful to make information easy to scan to ensure your search engine recognizes naturalistic
when presenting large amounts of information. Ways language.
to accomplish this may be to use a bold or italicized
font so users can quickly pick up differences in Visibility of Location: In the field of Web
content. Avoid underling, however, as the user may usability, visibility of location refers to letting users
confuse an underlined word or phrase with a link. In know where they are in a Web site as well as the
addition, highlighting may make information easy to status of their inputs and navigation. Examples of
visually scan. However, Koyani et al. (2003, p. 77) ways to increase visibility of location include provid-
advise, Use highlighting sparingly (using) just a few ing a site map, headers, and navigation paths.
items on a page that is otherwise relatively uniform
in appearance.
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The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
APPENDIX A
E
Visibility of Location
The interface:
enables users to know where they are within the system
provides a link to the Web sites home page
provides the user with a shortcut to go back to topics
Consistency
The interface uses:
consistent terminology
consistent color, for same or similar topic headings
consistent background for same or similar pages
consistent layout for pages
consistent colors for accessed links
consistent colors for unaccessed links
Easy Scanning
Key words and phrases are easily visible (for example, by highlighting)
The interface organizes information into manageable chunks
The user can see the screen without scrolling horizontally with 640 480 resolution on a 14 monitor
185
The Effect of Usability Guidelines on Web Site User Emotions
Proper Printing
The user can print selected pages (rather than everything)
Printed contents are free of right sidetrimmings
Provide Assistance
The interface provides:
shortcuts for frequent users
legends describing icon buttons
presentation that is flexible to user needs
a search engine
advanced search capabilities
recognition rather than recall
e-mail addresses for contact
phone numbers for contact
postal addresses for traditional mail contact
e-mail addresses for technical assistance
phone numbers for technical assistance
186
187
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
Slider
most typical examples for such a case are scroll bar tionality of a slider is to select a single value or entry
and slider interfaces, for which the dragging of the by moving the slider thumb along the slider bar,
scroll bar or slider thumb to a target position is which usually represents an interval of values. A
mapped to the corresponding movements within an typical selection task is, for example, the modifica-
associated document. One common problem with tion of the three values of an RGB color by three
scroll bars and sliders is that a random document different sliders, one for each component. If visual
length has to be matched to their scale, which is feedback is given in real-time, sliders can also be
limited by window size and screen resolution (the used for navigation either in a continuous, time-
scaling problem; compare Figure 2). Hence, if the dependent media file, such as a video clip, or to
document is very long, specific parts of the file are modify the currently visible part of a static, time-
not accessible directly because being able to access independent document whose borders expand be-
any random position of the document would require yond the size of its window (similar to the usage of
movements of the slider thumb on a subpixel level. a scroll bar). In both cases, again, the user drags the
This is impossible with direct manipulation since a thumb along the bar in order to select a single value.
pixel is the smallest unit to display (and thus to In the first case, this value is a specific point in time
manipulate) on the screen. In addition, the move- (or the corresponding frame of the video), and in the
ment of the documents content during scrolling second case, it is a specific position in the document
becomes rather jerky, which is usually considered (and the task is to position the corresponding content
irritating and disturbing by users. This is where within the visible area of the screen).
elastic interfaces come into play: Since the scrolling Most approaches that try to avoid the scaling
speed is indirectly manipulated based on the map- problem have been proposed either for selection
ping of the distances between cursor and thumb to a tasks or for scrolling interfaces that enable naviga-
corresponding speed, navigation becomes indepen- tion in static, time-independent data. The most well
dent of the scroll bars or sliders scale and thus known is probably the Alphaslider introduced by
independent of the actual length of the document. If Ahlberg and Shneiderman (1994). Here, the thumb
the function for the distance-to-speed mapping is of a slider or a scroll bar is split into three different
chosen appropriately, subpixel movements of the areas, each of which allows for navigation at a
thumb and thus slow scrolling on a finer scale can be different granularity level. Ayatsuka, Rekimoto, and
simulated. Matsuoka (1998) proposed the Popup Vernier in
Other solutions to solve the scaling problem have which the user is able to switch between different
been proposed in the past, mainly as extensions or scrolling resolutions by using additional buttons or
replacements of slider interfaces. The basic func- keys. Instead of relying on different granularities for
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Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
the whole slider scale, the TimeSlider interface intro- ders of the corresponding window, thus resulting in
duced by Koike, Sugirua, and Koseki (1995) works situations that might be critical to handle when the E
with a nonlinear resolution of the scale. This way, thumb reaches these borders. Approaches such as
users can navigate through a document at a finer the Alphaslider circumvent this problem by not
level around a particular point of interest. modifying the sliders scale explicitly, but instead by
So far, only few projects have dealt with the doing an internal adaptation in which the move-
scaling problem in the context of navigation through ments of the input devices are mapped differently
continuous, time-dependent data such as video files. (i.e., with a finer resolution) to the movements of
One of the few examples is the Multi-Scale Timeline the corresponding pointer on the screen. However,
Slider introduced by Richter, Brotherton, Abowd, this only works with a device that controls the
and Truong (1999) for browsing lecture recordings. pointer on the screen remotely, such as a mouse, but
Here, users can interactively add new scales to a it can be critical in terms of usability if a device is
slider interface and freely modify their resolution in used that directly interacts with the object on the
order to be able to navigate through the correspond- screen, such as a pen on a touch screen. In the
ing document at different granularity levels. Other following two sections, we describe how elastic
approaches have been proposed in the context of interfaces can be used successfully to avoid both of
video editing (see Casares et al., 2002, for example). the problems just mentioned as well as the scaling
However, video editing is usually done on a static problem.
representation of the single frames of a video rather
than on the continuous signal, which changes over
time. Thus, approaches that work well for video ELASTIC INTERFACES APPLIED TO
editing cannot necessarily be applied for video brows- STATIC, TIME-INDEPENDENT DATA
ing (and vice versa). In Hrst, Gtz, and Jarvers
(2004), we describe two slider variants, namely the In their original work about elastic interfaces, Masui
ZoomSlider and the NLslider, which allow for inter- et al. (1995) introduced the so-called FineSlider to
active video browsing at different granularity levels solve the scaling problem in relation to the task of
during replay. Both feature some advantages com- value selection. The FineSlider is illustrated in Fig-
pared to other approaches, but unfortunately they ure 3 together with a possible distance-to-speed
share some of their disadvantages as well. mapping that defines how the distance between the
Most of the approaches described above rely on current position of the sliders thumb and the mouse
a modification of the scale of the slider in order to pointer is mapped to the actual scrolling speed. Its
enable slower scrolling or feature selection at a finer feasibility and usefulness were proven in a user
granularity. However, this has one significant disad- study in which the test persons had to select a single
vantage: Adjusting the sliders scale to a finer reso- value from a list of alphabetically sorted text entries
lution makes the slider bar expand beyond the bor- of which only one entry was visible at a time (Masui
0.0
189
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
et al.). This task is similar to a random-selection task crete documents (compare Figure 2), occurs here as
in which a single value is selected from a somehow well. In fact, it is sometimes considered even more
sorted list of values. However, the authors describe critical because the resulting jerky visual feedback
usages of the FineSlider concept in relation to some can be particularly disturbing in the case of a con-
other applications as well, including the integration tinuous medium such as the visual stream of a video.
of the elastic scrolling functionality into a regular In Hrst, Gtz, et al. (2004), we applied the concept
scroll bar in order to solve the scaling problem when of elastic interfaces described above to video brows-
navigating through static documents such as text or ing. The conceptual transfer of elastic interfaces
images. An actual implementation of this is pre- from static data to continuous data streams is straight-
sented in Masui (1998), in which the LensBar inter- forward. Instead of selecting single values or posi-
face for the visual browsing of static data was tions within a static document, a value along a
introduced. Among other functionalities, the LensBar timeline is manipulated. In a video, this value relates
offers elastic navigation by moving a scroll-bar-like to a single frame, which is displayed instantly as a
thumb and thus enables skimming through a docu- result of any modification of the slider thumb caused
ment at a random granularity. In addition to these by the user. However, because of the basic differ-
navigation tasks, Masui et al. describe the usage of ences between these two media types (i.e., discrete
elastic interfaces for the modification of the position values or static documents vs. time-dependent, con-
of single points in a 2-D (two-dimensional) graphics tinuous data streams), it is not a matter of course that
editor. In such a situation, direct positioning is nor- the concept works as well for continuous media as
mally used because the task is not to remotely it does for discrete data in terms of usability. For
modify an object, but to reposition the object itself example, when using a scroll bar to navigate through
(compare Figure 1). However, elastic interfaces can some textual information, it is not only a single entity
still be useful in such a situation, for example, if such as a line or even just a word that is usually
accurate positioning on the pixel level is hard to do, visible to the user, but there is also some context, that
which is sometimes the case with pen-based input is, all the lines of the text that fit into the actual
devices and touch screens. window size. With a continuous visual data stream,
All these tasks for the selection of values, the for example, a video, just one frame and therefore no
navigation in documents, or the repositioning of context is shown at a time. While this is also true for
objects have been discussed and realized in relation value selection using a slider, those values are
to time-independent, static data. However, the con- usually ordered in some way, making navigation and
cept of elastic interfaces can also be applied to browsing much easier. Ramos and Balakrishnan
continuous visual data streams, as we describe in the (2003) introduced the PVslider for video browsing,
next section. which features some sort of elastic behavior as well.
However, the authors assume a slightly different
interpretation of the term elastic by measuring the
ELASTIC INTERFACES APPLIED TO distance (i.e., the tension of a virtual rubber band)
TIME-DEPENDENT DATA between the mouse pointer and a fixed reference
point instead of a moving object (the slider thumb),
If a media player and the data format of the respec- which makes their approach more similar to an
tive file support real-time access to any random elastic fast-forward and rewind functionality than to
position within the document, a slider can be used to the idea of an elastic interface as it was introduced
visually browse the files content in the same way as originally by Masui et al. (1995).
a scroll bar is used to navigate and skim discrete In an informal study with the interface presented
data, for example, a text file. This technique, which on the left side of Figure 5, we showed the useful-
is sometimes referred to as random visible scrolling ness and feasibility of the original elastic-slider
(Hrst & Mller, 1999), has proven to be a very approach in relation to video browsing (Hrst, Gtz,
easy, convenient, and intuitive way for the visual et al., 2004). With this implementation, users are
browsing of continuous data streams. However, the able to visually skim through the video very fast (by
scaling problem, which appears in relation to dis- moving the mouse pointer quickly away from the
190
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
thumb) or very slow (by moving the mouse pointer pare Figure 4a). Moving the slider to the right or left
closer to the thumb), even on the level of single enables forward or backward browsing, respec-
frames. However, we also identified some problems tively, along a virtual scale that extends to both sides
with this approach. Some users complained that they of the virtual slider thumb (compare Figure 4b). The
have to focus on two things when browsing the resulting movements of the thumb, and thus the
video: the actual content as well as the slider widget. scrolling speed, are similar to the elastic slider
While this is also true with a regular slider, it is more illustrated in Figure 3: Scrolling is slow if the thumb
critical in the case of an elastic interface because the and pointer are close to each other, and the speed
scrolling speed depends directly on the pointers and increases with the distance between those two
the thumbs movements. As a consequence, acci- objects. Distance is only measured horizontally along
dental changes of the scrolling direction happen the virtual slider scale. Vertical movements of the
quite frequently when a user tries to reduce the mouse pointer do not influence scrolling behavior,
scrolling speed. In such a case, both the thumb and but only make the visualization of the virtual thumb
the pointer are moving toward each other. Since a and scroll bar follow the pointers movements (i.e.,
user is more likely to look at the content of the the widgets on the screen are glued to the pointer).
document in such a situation rather than at the slider The beginning and the end of the virtual scale are
thumb, it can happen quite easily that the pointer mapped to the borders of the player window. This,
accidentally moves behind the thumb, thus resulting together with the association of the initial clicking
in an unwanted change of the scrolling direction. position with the actual position in the document at
These observations were the main reason for us that time, can result in a mismatch of the scales to
to introduce a modification of the concept of elastic both sides of the slider thumb (compare Figure 4c).
interfaces called elastic panning. With elastic pan- However, since the original motivation of elastic
ning, browsing gets activated by clicking anywhere interfaces was to make scrolling independent of the
on the window that shows the content of the docu- actual length of a document (and thus of the sliders
ment. As a consequence, an icon appears on the scale), this mismatch does not influence the overall
screen that represents a slider thumb and is associ- scrolling behavior. It is therefore uncritical as we
ated with the current position within the file (com- also confirmed in the evaluation presented in Hrst,
191
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
Figure 5. Snapshots of a video player featuring an elastic slider (left) and elastic panning (right),
respectively
Enlargement of
the virtual slider
thumb for elastic
panning
Gtz, et al. (2004). However, it was observed that a separate slider widget for browsing. Users liked
some users were irritated by the change of the scale, that they did not have to continuously change be-
which is why we revised the interface design by tween looking at the video and the slider widget, but
showing only the part of the virtual slider bar facing could focus on the player window all the time. This
the actual scrolling direction and by not representing seems to be a big advantage on small devices as well,
the actual values on the scale but only relative for which display space is limited and hence videos
positions (compare Figure 5, which shows a snap- are often played in full-screen mode.
shot of the actual implementation of the revised In addition to video browsing, we also applied
interface design). The improvement resulting from elastic panning successfully to the task of the visual
this revision was confirmed by the test persons when browsing of recorded lectures, that is, visual streams
we confronted them with the revised design. In that contain recorded slides used in lectures as well
addition, we ran a couple of experiments, for ex- as handwritten annotations made on the slides (Hrst
ample, with different distance-to-speed mappings & Gtz, 2004). Here, we are dealing with a mixture
(compare Figure 3, right side), in order to optimize of static data, that is, the prepared slides that contain
the parameters of the implementation. text, graphics, and still images, and a continuous
In Hrst, Gtz, et al. (2004), we present a quali- signal, that is, the annotations that are made and
tative usability study in which 10 participants had to recorded during the lecture that are replayed by the
perform a search task with elastic panning as well as player software in the same temporal order as they
with a standard slider interface. This comparative appeared during the live event. Especially if there
study showed the feasibility of the proposed ap- are a lot of handwritten annotations, for example, if
proach as well as its usefulness for video browsing. a mathematical proof was written down by the
It circumvents the problem of accidental direction lecturer, the scaling problem can become quite
changes that frequently appears with the interface critical. Again, usersin this case students who use
illustrated in the first snapshot in Figure 5. Generally, recorded lectures for recapitulation and exam prepa-
elastic panning was considered by the participants rationhighly appreciated that with this interface
as intuitive as well as easy to learn and operate. In they are able to quickly skim through the visual signal
addition to it solving the scaling problem, most users of the recording as well as slow down easily to
appreciated that the movements were less jerky with analyze the content in more detail. Being able to
elastic panning than with the original slider. Some scroll and navigate at the smallest possible level
noted that they particularly liked the ability to quickly allows the users, for example, to access every
navigate the file and to be able to easily slow down position in which some event happened in the visual
once they get closer to a target position. Another stream, such as a small annotation made in a graphi-
feature that was highly appreciated is the ability to cal illustration, and to start replay at the correspond-
click directly on the window instead of having to use ing position in the lecture recording easily.
192
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
193
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
Hrst, W., Gtz, G., & Lauer, T. (2004). New GVU-99-30). Georgia Institute of Technology, USA.
methods for visual information seeking through video
browsing. Proceedings of the 8 th International
Conference on Information Visualisation, IV 2004 KEY TERMS
(pp. 450-455).
Elastic Interfaces: Interfaces or widgets that
Hrst, W., & Lauer, T. (in press). Interactive speech manipulate an object, for example, a slider thumb,
skimming via time-stretched audio replay. In C. not by direct interaction but instead by pulling it along
Ghaoui (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human computer a straight line that connects the object with the
interaction. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Reference. current position of the cursor. Movements of the
object are a function of the length of this connection,
Hrst, W., Lauer, T., & Gtz, G. (2004a). An elastic
thus following the rubber-band metaphor.
audio slider for interactive speech skimming. Pro-
ceedings of the 3 rd Nordic Conference on Hu- Elastic Panning: An approach for navigation in
man-Computer Interaction, NordChi 2004 (pp. visual data, which has proven to be feasible not only
277-280). for the visual browsing of static, time-independent
data, but for continuous, time-dependent media
Hrst, W., Lauer, T., & Gtz, G. (2004b). Interac-
streams as well. Similar to the FineSlider, it builds on
tive manipulation of replay speed while listening to
the concept of elastic interfaces and therefore solves
speech recordings. Proceedings of ACM Multime-
the scaling problem, which generally appears if a
dia 2004 (pp. 488-491).
long document has to be mapped on a slider scale
Hrst, W., & Mller, R. (1999). A synchronization that is limited by window size and screen resolution.
model for recorded presentations and its relevance
FineSlider: A special widget introduced by
for information retrieval. Proceedings of ACM
Masui et al. (1995) for navigation in static, time-
Multimedia 1999 (pp. 333-342).
independent data. It is based on the concept of
Koike, Y., Sugirua, A., & Koseki, Y. (1995). elastic interfaces and therefore solves the scaling
TimeSlider: An interface to specify time point. Pro- problem, which generally appears if a long document
ceedings of the 10th Annual ACM Symposium on has to be mapped on a slider scale that is limited by
User Interface Software and Technology, UIST window size and screen resolution.
1997 (pp. 43-44).
Random Visible Scrolling: If a media player
Masui, T. (1998). LensBar: Visualization for brows- and a data format support real-time random access
ing and filtering large lists of data. Proceedings of to any position within a respective continuous, time-
1998 IEEE Symposium on Information Visualiza- dependent document, such as a video recording, a
tion (pp. 113-120). common slider interface can be used to visually
browse the files content in a similar way as a scroll
Masui, T., Kashiwagi, K., & Borden, G. R., IV.
bar is used to navigate and browse static informa-
(1995). Elastic graphical interfaces for precise data
tion, such as text files. This technique is sometimes
manipulation. Conference Companion to the
referred to as random visible scrolling.
SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Com-
puting Systems, ACM CHI 1995 (pp. 143-144). Rubber-Band Metaphor: A metaphor that is
often used to describe the behavior of two objects
Ramos, G., & Balakrishnan, R. (2003). Fluid inter-
that are connected by a straight line, the rubber band,
action techniques for the control and annotation of
in which one object is used to pull the other one
digital video. Proceedings of the 16th Annual ACM
toward a target position. The moving speed of the
Symposium on User Interface Software and Tech-
pulled object depends on the length of the line
nology, UIST 2003 (pp. 105-114).
between the two objects, that is, the tension on the
Richter, H., Brotherton, J., Abowd, G. D., & Truong, rubber band: Longer distances result in faster move-
K. (1999). A multi-scale timeline slider for stream ments, and shorter distances in slower movements.
visualization and control (Tech. Rep. No. GIT-
194
Elastic Interfaces for Visual Data Browsing
Scaling Problem: A term that can be used to Visual Data Browsing: A term generally used
describe the problem of scroll bars and sliders not to summarize all kinds of interactions involved in E
scaling to large document sizes. If a document is visually skimming, browsing, and navigating visual
very long, the smallest unit to move the scroll bar or data in order to quickly consume or identify the
slider thumb on the screen, that is, one pixel, already corresponding content or to localize specific infor-
represents a large jump in the file, thus resulting in mation. Visual data in this context can be a static
jerky visual feedback that is often considered irritat- document, such as a text file, graphics, or an image,
ing and disturbing, and in the worst case leads to a as well as a continuous data stream, such as the
significant loss of information. visual stream of a video recording.
195
196
Engagability
John Knight
University of Central England, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Engagability
197
Engagability
Engagability and Conference, University of Cen- Functional Use Qualities: The quality of a
tral England, Birmingham. product to deliver a beneficial value to the user.
Laurel, B. (1991). Computers as theatre. Reading, Hedonic Use Qualities: The quality of a prod-
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. uct to deliver pleasurable value to the user.
Norman, D. (2003). Emotional design: Why we Product Life Cycle: The evolution of a product
love [or hate] everyday things. New York: Basic from conception onward.
Books.
Suprafunctional Use Qualities: Qualities ex-
Quinn, C. N. (1997). Engaging learning. Instruc- perienced in interacting with a product or service
tional Technology Forum (ITFORUM@UGA.CC. that do not have an immediate instrumental value.
UGA.EDU), Invited Presenter. Retrieved on June Suprafunctional user qualities include aesthetics
19, 2004, from http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/pa- and semantics that influence the user experience
per18/paper18.html but are not the primary goal of use.
Use Quality: The value of the experience of
KEY TERMS interacting with a product or service.
198
199
INTRODUCTION 4. Non-malefiance
5. Fidelity
The goal of HCI research and design has been to
deliver universal usability. Universal usability is At an everyday level, ethics (the philosophy of
making interfaces to technology that everyone can morality) informs people about the understanding of
access and use. However, this goal has been chal- the world. The motivation for ethical behaviour goes
lenged in recent times. Critics of usability (e.g., Eliot, beyond the gratification of being a good person.
2002) have argued that usability dumbs down the Social cohesion is based on a shared understanding
user-experience to the lowest common denomina- of good and bad. Bond (1996, p. 229) suggests that
tor. The critics propose that focusing on ease of use ethics tries to: Reconcile the unavoidable separate-
can ignore the sophistication of expert users and ness of persons with their inherently social nature
consumers. At the same time, researchers have and circumstances.
begun to investigate suprafunctional qualities of
design including pleasure (Jordan, 2000), emotion
(Norman, 2003), and fun. While recent discussions DESIGN
in HCI have bought these questions to the surfaces,
they relate to deeper philosophical issues about the Design is the intentional creation of utilitarian ob-
moral implications of design. Molotch (2003, p. 7), jects and embodies the values of the maker. Harvey
states that: Molotch (2003, p. 11) argues that products affect
people:
Decisions about what precisely to make and
acquire, and when, where, and how to do it At the most profound level, artefacts do not just
involve moral judgements about what a man is, give off social signification but make meaning of
what a woman is, how a man ought to treat his any sort possibleobjects work to hold meaning
aged parentshow he himself should grow old, more or less, less still, solid and accessible to
gracefully or disgracefully, and so on. others as well as ones self.
One response to this moral dilemma is to promote The moral responsibility of design has led some
well-being rather than hedonism as an ethical design (e.g., William Morris) towards an ethical design
goal. approach. Ethical design attempts to promote good
through the creation of products that are made and
consumed within a socially accepted moral frame-
BACKGROUND work. Victor Papanek (1985, p. 102) has focused on
the ecological impact of products and has demanded
The Western ethical tradition goes back to ancient a high social and moral responsibility from the
Greece. Ethics develop the concept of good and bad designer. Whiteley (1999, p. 221) describes this
within five related concepts: evolution of ethical design as: [Stretching] back to
the mid-nineteenth century and forward to the present.
1. Autonomy However, just what it is that constitutes the ethical
2. Benefiance dimension has changed significantly over 150 years,
3. Justice and the focus has shifted from such concerns as the
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Ethics and HCI
virtue of the maker, through the integrity and aes- 8. Informed consent
thetics of the object, to the role of the designerand 9. Ownership and property
consumerin a just society. 10. Privacy
Unlike Morriss arts and craft approach, engi- 11. Trust
neering and science based design is often perceived 12. Universal usability
as value free. Dunne (1999) quotes Bernard Waites
to counter this apparent impartiality: All Guidelines are often used to communicate HCI
problemsare seen as technical problems ca- ethics. Fogg (2003, pp. 233-234) provides guidelines
pable of rational solution through the accumulation for evaluating the ethical impact of persuasive com-
of objective knowledge, in the form of neutral or puting. This requires researchers to:
value-free observations and correlations, and the
application of that knowledge in procedures arrived 1. List all stakeholders.
at by trial and error, the value of which is to be judged 2. List what each stakeholder has to gain.
by how well they fulfil their appointed ends. These 3. List what each stakeholder has to lose.
ends are ultimately linked with the maximisation of 4. Evaluate which stakeholder has the most to
societys productivity and the most economic use of gain.
its resources, so that technology.becomes instru- 5. Evaluate which stakeholder has the most to
mental rationality incarnate. lose.
6. Determine ethics by examining gains and losses
in terms of values.
HCI 7. Acknowledge the values and assumptions you
bring to your analysis.
HCI applies scientific research to the design of user-
interfaces. While many (e.g., Fogg, 2003) have Standards are a more mandatory form of ethical
promoted ethics in HCI, Cairns and Thimbleby (2003, guidelines and prescribe processes, quality, and fea-
p. 3) go further to indicate the similarities between tures. Compliance can be informal or through de
the two: HCI is a normative science that aims to jure agreements (e.g., International Organization
improve usability. The three conventional normative for Standardization, 2000). Cairns and Thimbleby
sciences are aesthetics ethicsand logic. Broadly, (2003, p. 15) offer a less stringent set of HCI ethical
HCIs approaches can be separated into these cat- principles ethics comprising:
egories: logic corresponds to formal methods in HCI
and computer science issues; modern approaches, 1. A rule for solving problems
such as persuasive interfaces and emotional impact, 2. A rule for burden of proof
are aesthetics; and the core body of HCI corre- 3. A rule for common good
sponds with ethicsHCI is about making the user 4. A rule of urgency
experience good. 5. An ecological rule
In promoting good HCI, ethics has concen- 6. A rule of reversibility
trated on professional issues and the impact of
functionality, ownership, security, democracy, ac- Citing Perry (1999) as evidence, Cairns and
cessibility, communication, and control. Friedman Thimbleby (2003, p. 15) imply that ethical rules are
(2003) summarises this work as pertaining to: a poor substitute for knowledge:
200
Ethics and HCI
to undertake their work. However, it is a dynamic diminishes the social and rational basis of emotion.
activity to develop any such framework in the Alternatively, Jordan (2000) suggests that attrac- E
complex and conflicting real world. tion is based on Lionel Tigers (1992) four plea-
sures:
Developing ethical knowledge requires under-
standing and empathy with users. This becomes 1. Socio-pleasure
harder as the design goal shifts from usable user 2. Pyscho-pleasure
interface to engaging designed experience. Patrick 3. Physio-pleasure
Jordans (2000) new human factors describes an 4. Ideo-pleasure
evolution of consumers where usability has moved
from being a satisfier to a dissatisfier. This The focus on pleasure raises a number of ethical
argument implies that it would be unethical to ignore dilemmas. Epicurus suggests that pleasure and dis-
users deeper wants and needs, which he maintains pleasure need to be measured against their impact
are based on pleasure and emotional benefit. An on well-being. Singer (1994, p. 188) cites Epicurus
important advance from traditional HCI is Jordans treatise on The Pursuit of Pleasure:
emphasis on the product life cycle and the changing
relationships that people have with their possessions. Every pleasure then because of its natural
The emotions involved in buying a mobile telephone kinship to us is good, yet not every pleasure is to
are different from those elicited though ownership be chosen: even as every pain also is an evil, yet
and long-term use. The key difference with Jordans not all are always of a nature to be avoided
approach (to traditional HCI) is the importance placed For the good on certain occasions we treat as
on the benefit of the users interaction. bad, and conversely the bad as good.
As well as emotional interaction, another recent
trend in HCI argues that interfaces are not just used
but are experienced. Shedroffs (2001, p. 4) model of EMOTIONAL ENGAGEMENT
experience design offers users an attraction, an
engagement, and a conclusion. Experience design is How are users emotionally engaged in an experi-
about the whole experience of an activity. Activities ence? Laurel (1991, p. 113) applies the concept of
occur in time and involve a number of agents, artefacts, engagement from Aristotle. Quinn (1997) uses en-
and situations. Experiences are predicated by moti- gagement as a paradigm for learning applications.
vation and the reward of the conclusion. Combining While synthetic experiences that seize the human
Jordans emphasis on the emotional benefit of inter- intellect, emotions and senses have the potential for
action and Shedroffs model of experience, an alter- good; they could also be harmful. Computer games
native set of design qualities are suggested: can be compulsive but they do not necessarily
benefit the user? Learning can be boring but it is
1. Attraction often the precursor to the reward of greater knowl-
2. Engagement edge and experience. Indeed, Dejean (2002, pp.
3. Benefit 147-150) suggests that apparently unpleasant expe-
riences, such as difficulty, challenge, and fatigue,
can be rewarding in certain circumstances.
EMOTIONAL ATTRACTION
201
Ethics and HCI
possessions and weave their way into the fabric of well-being. Sullivan (2000, pp. 2-4) suggests that
the peoples lives. Bonapace (2002, pp. 187-217) well-being is based on three criteria: Antonovskys
presents a hierarchical model of users expectations Sense Of Coherence (Antonovsky, 1993), Self-
with safety and well-being, at ground level, function- Esteem, and Emotional Stability (Hills & Argyle,
ality, and then usability, leading up to an apex of 2001). Alternatively, Hayakawa (1968, pp. 51-69)
pleasure. Dunne (1999) challenges the goal of us- suggests personal qualities of fully-functioning hu-
ability, although his critique replaces usability with mans:
aesthetics, turning products into art. The foreword
(1999, p. 7) to Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products, 1. Nonconformity and individuality
Aesthetic Experiences and Critical Design pro- 2. Self-awareness
poses that: 3. Acceptance of ambiguity and uncertainty
4. Tolerance
The most difficult challenge for designers of 5. Acceptance of human animality
electronic objects now lies not in technical and 6. Commitment and intrinsic enjoyment
semiotic functionality, where optimal levels of 7. Creativity and originality
performance are already attainable, but in the 8. Social interest and ethical trust
realms of metaphysics, poetry and aesthetics, 9. Enlightened self-interest
where little research has been carried out. 10. Self-direction
11. Flexibility and scientific outlook
Aesthetic use-values may be of limited profit for 12. Unconditional self-acceptance
people. Owning a beautiful painting can provide 13. Risk-taking and experimenting.
pleasure for the individual but may be of little benefit 14. Long-range hedonism.
to them or society. In contrast, the goal of ethics, 15. Work and practice
individual and social well-being, are universally ben-
eficial. Bond (1996, p. 209) promotes self-interest as An alternative to designing for hedonic use quali-
an intrinsically human goal: Morality, we have ties is to try to build products that promote well-
saidis a value for all humanity, because it profits being. This can be shown as a hierarchy of user
us, because it is a contribution, a necessary contribu- needs (Figure 1) that includes ethical and aspirational
tion, to our thriving, flourishing, happiness, or well- dimensions linked to design goals. Picard (1999) is
being or eudaimonia. one of the few designers and researchers to offer an
insight into how products might facilitate well-being.
Her Affective Mirror enables users to see how
FUTURE TRENDS others see them and so enables them to change their
behaviour and perception.
There is a discernible trend in HCI away from the
more functional aspects of interaction to the
suprafunctional. As well as emotion and pleasure,
there is a growing concern for traditional design Figure 1. An ethical framework for HCI design
issues of aesthetics. Ethics has a role to play in and research
advancing inquiry into these areas but more impor-
tantly provides an alternative perspective on the Self-actualising need
benefit and quality of the user experience.
In focusing on well-being, Bond distinguishes Design Goal Ethical Goal
Eudaimonia Autonomy
between short-term and long-term hedonism. Fun is Pleasure Benefiance
balanced against long-term well-being that often Usability Non-malefiance
involves challenges including learning about the world User-participation Fidelity
Accessibility Justice
and the self. This is echoed in the work of Ellis
(1994) whose rational emotive therapy (RET) fo- Physiological need
cuses on self-understanding as a prerequisite to
202
Ethics and HCI
203
Ethics and HCI
204
205
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Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI
206
Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI
to be associated with the color blue and baby girls Past Experience
clothes to be pink. However, this has not always been E
the case. In America, up until the 1940s, this stereo- The role of past experience and knowledge in
type was the opposite, as shown by the following two developing our expectations has already been men-
quotations: tioned; these are viewed as important determinants
in our attitudes toward technology, as demonstrated
[U]se pink for the boy and blue for the girl, if you by the following study. Noyes and Starr (2003)
are a follower of convention. (Sunday Sentinal, carried out a questionnaire survey of British Air-
March 1914) ways flight deck crew in order to determine their
expectations and perceptions of automated warn-
[T]he generally accepted rule is pink for the boy ing systems. The flight deck crew was divided into
and blue for the girl. The reason is that pink being those who had experience flying with automated
a more decided and stronger color is more suitable warning systems (n=607) and those who did not
for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and have this experience (n=571). It was found that
dainty, is pertier for the girl. (Ladies Home automation was more favored by the group who had
Journal, June 1918) experience flying using warning systems with a
greater degree of automation. Those without expe-
Most people would probably agree that blue for a rience of automation had more negative expecta-
boy and pink for a girl is a strong population stereo- tions than those who had experienced flying with
type in the UK/North America, and today, it would be more automated systems. This suggests that we are
quite unusual for a young male to be dressed in pink. more negative toward something that we have not
Yet, this stereotype has developed only recently. tried. These findings have implications for HCI,
training, and the use of new technology; in particu-
Consistency lar, where there already exists a similar situation
with which the individual is familiar. Pen- and
A further consideration is that of consistency (i.e., a speech-based technologies provide examples of
match between what people expect and what they this; most of the adult population has expectations
perceive when actually using the product/system). about using these emerging technologies based on
Smith and Mosier (1986) alluded to this in their their experiences and knowledge of the everyday
guidelines, although they referred to consistency in activities of writing and talking.
interface design, which could be interpreted as being Noyes, Frankish, and Morgan (1995) surveyed
consistent in terms of controls, functions, move- peoples expectations of using a pen-based system
ments, and so forth when using the software (e.g., the before they had ever used one. They found that
same command is always used for exit). In design individuals based their expectations on using pen
terms, consistency also can be interpreted as com- and paper; for example, when asked to make a
patibility (i.e., compatibility between what we expect subjective assessment of the sources of errors,
and what we get). One of the classic studies demon- most people thought these would arise when input-
strating the importance of consistency/compatibility ting the lower-case characters. This is understand-
was carried out by Chapanis and Lindenbaum (1959). able, since if we want to write clearly, we tend to do
They looked at four arrangements of controls and this by writing in capitals rather than lower-case.
burners as found, for example, on electric/gas stoves. However, the pen recognition systems are not
They found that the layout, which had the greatest working on the same algorithms as people, so there
spatial compatibility between the controls and the is no reason why errors are more likely to occur
burners, was superior in terms of speed and accu- with lower-case letters. In fact, this was found to be
racy. This study has been repeated many times (Hsu the case. When participants were asked about their
& Peng, 1993; Osborne & Ellingstad, 1987; Payne, perceptions after having used the pen-based sys-
1995; Ray & Ray, 1979; Shinar & Acton, 1978). tem, they indicated the upper-case letters as being
the primary source of errors.
207
Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI
None of the participants in this work had previ- munications, and when the recognition system does
ously used a pen-based system; perhaps lack of not recognize an utterance, we speak more loudly,
familiarity with using the technology was a signifi- more slowly, and perhaps in a more exaggerated
cant factor in the mismatch between their expecta- way. This creates problems when we use ASR,
tions and perceptions. If this was the case, eliciting because the machine algorithms are not working in
peoples expectations about an activity with which the same way as we do when not understood by a
they are familiar should not result in a mismatch. fellow human. A further irony is that the more
This aspect recently has been investigated by the natural our interaction with the technology is, the
author in a study looking at peoples expectations/ more likely we are to assume we are not talking to
preconceptions of their performance on activities a machine and to become less constrained in our
with which they are familiar. When asked about dialogue (Noyes, 2001). If perfect or near-perfect
their anticipated levels of performance when using recognition was achievable, this would not be a
paper and computers, participants expected to do problem. Given that this is unlikely to be attained in
better on the computer-based task. After carrying the near future, a less natural interaction, where the
out the equivalent task on paper and computer, it was speaker constrains his or her speech, will achieve
found that actual scores were higher on paper; thus, better recognition performance.
peoples task performance did not match their ex- In addition to intuitiveness not always being de-
pectations. sirable, humans are adaptive creatures, and they
adapt to non-intuitive and counter-intuitive designs.
Intuitiveness Take, for example, the standard keyboard with the
QWERTY layout. This was designed in the 1860s as
An underlying aspect relating to expectations in HCI part of the Victorian typewriter and has been shown
is naturalness (i.e., we expect our interactions with repeatedly to be a poor design (Noyes, 1998); how-
computers and technology to be intuitive). In terms ever, it now dominates computer keyboards around
of compatibility, designs that are consistent with our the world. There have been many keyboards devel-
expectations (e.g., burners that spatially map onto oped that fit the shape of the hands and fingertips,
their controls) could be perceived as being more but these more natural keyboards have been unsuc-
natural/intuitive. Certainly, in the Chapanis and cessful in challenging the supremacy of QWERTY.
Lindenbaum (1959) study, participants performed Likewise, most hob designs still have incompatible
best when using the most compatible design. It is control-burner linkages, but users adapt to them. We
reasonable, therefore, to anticipate that intuitive also learn to use counter-intuitive controls (e.g., car
designs are more beneficial than those that are not accelerator and brake pedal controls) that have
intuitive or counter-intuitive, and that HCI should similar movements but very dissimilar results. This
strive for naturalness. ability to adapt to designs that are not intuitive
However, there are two primary difficulties as- further weakens the case for naturalness; however,
sociated with intuitive design. With emerging tech- this approach would have considerable human costs,
nologies based on a primary human activity, intu- and it would be unreasonable to support the notion
itiveness may not always be desirable. Take, for that poor design is admissible on these grounds.
example, the pen-based work discussed previously.
Peoples expectations did not match their percep-
tions, which was to the detriment of the pen-based CONCLUSION
system (i.e., individuals had higher expectations).
This was primarily because people, when confronted Expectations are an important aspect of human
with a technology that emulates a task with which behavior and performance and, in this sense, need to
they are familiar, base their expectations on this be considered in HCI. A mismatch between expec-
experiencein this case, writing. A similar situation tations and perceptions and/or ignoring peoples
occurs with automatic speech recognition (ASR) expectations could lead them to feel frustrated and
interfaces. We base our expectations about using irritated,and to make unnecessary mistakes. Finding
ASR on what we know about human-human com- out about peoples expectations is achieved readily,
208
Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI
as demonstrated by the studies mentioned here, and Meeting of the Human Factors Society, Santa
will bring benefits not only to the design process but Monica, California. E
also to training individuals to use new technology.
Payne, S. J. (1995). Nave judgments of stimulus-
Expectations are linked intrinsically with natural-
response compatibility. Human Factors, 37, 495-
ness and intuitiveness expressed through consis-
506.
tency and compatibility in design. However, intu-
itiveness in design is not necessarily always desir- Ray, R. D., & Ray, W. D. (1979). An analysis of
able. This is especially the case when technology is domestic cooker control design. Ergonomics, 22,
being used to carry out familiar everyday tasks (e.g., 1243-1248.
writing and speaking). The situation is further com-
pounded by the ability of the human to adapt, in Shinar, D., & Acton, M. B. (1978). Control-display
particular, to counter-intuitive designs. relationships on the four-burner range: Population
stereotypes versus standards. Human Factors, 20,
13-17.
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lines for user-system interface software [Report
Chapanis, A., & Lindenbaum, L. E. (1959). A reac- MTR-9420]. Bedford, MA: Mitre Corporation.
tion time study of four control-display linkages.
Human Factors, 1, 1-7.
KEY TERMS
Hsu, S. -H., & Peng, Y. (1993). Control/display
relationship of the four-burner stove: A reexamina- Compatibility: Designs that match our expecta-
tion. Human Factors, 35, 745-749. tions in terms of characteristics, function, and opera-
Lutz, M. C., & Chapanis, A. (1955). Expected tion.
locations of digits and letters on ten-button keysets. Consistency: Similar to compatibility and some-
Journal of Applied Psychology, 39, 314-317. times used interchangeably; designs that match our
Noyes, J. M. (1998). QWERTYThe immortal expectations in terms of characteristics, function,
keyboard. Computing & Control Engineering and operation, and are applied in a constant manner
Journal, 9, 117-122. within the design itself.
Noyes, J. M. (2001). Talking and writingHow Expectations: In HCI terms, how we expect
natural in human-machine interaction? International and anticipate a product/system to respond and
Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 55, 503- react when we use it.
519. Intuitiveness: Knowing or understanding im-
Noyes, J. M., Frankish, C. R., & Morgan, P. S. mediately how a product/system will work without
(1995). Pen-based computing: Some human factors reasoning or being taught. Intuitiveness is linked
issues. In P.J. Thomas (Ed.), Personal information closely to naturalness (i.e., designs that are intuitive
systems: Business applications (pp. 65-81). also will be perceived as being natural).
Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes. Perceptions: In HCI terms, how we perceive a
Noyes, J. M., & Starr, A. F. (2003). Aircraft auto- product/system to have responded and reacted when
mationExpectations versus perceptions of flight we have used it. Ideally, there should be a good
deck crew. In C. Stephanidis (Ed.), Adjunct pro- match between expectations and perceptions.
ceedings of HCI International (pp. 199-200). Perceptual Illusions: Misperceptions of the
Heraklion, Greece: Crete University Press. human visual system so that what we apprehend by
Osborne, D. W., & Ellingstad, V. S. (1987). Using sensation does not correspond with the way things
sensor lines to show control-display linkages on a really are.
four-burner stove. Proceedings of 31 st Annual
209
Expectations and Their Forgotten Role in HCI
Population Stereotypes: These comprise the Schema and Scripts: Mental structures that
well-ingrained knowledge that we have about the organize our knowledge of the world around specific
world, based on our habits and experiences of living themes or subjects and guide our behavior so that we
in a particular cultural environment. act appropriately and according to expectation in
particular situations.
210
211
Linden J. Ball
Lancaster University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
Figure 1. Corneal reflection and bright pupil as (Just & Carpenter, 1976). This eye-mind hypothesis
seen in the infrared camera image means that eye movement recordings can provide a
dynamic trace of where a persons attention is being
directed in relation to a visual display. Measuring
other aspects of eye movements, such as fixations
(i.e., moments when the eyes are relatively station-
ary, taking in or encoding information), also can
reveal the amount of processing being applied to
objects at the point-of-regard. In practice, the pro-
cess of inferring useful information from eye-move-
first Purkinje image) is also generated by the infra- ment recordings involves the HCI researcher defin-
red light, appearing as a small but sharp glint (see ing areas of interest over certain parts of a display or
Figure 1). interface under evaluation and analyzing the eye
Once the image processing software has identi- movements that fall within such areas. In this way,
fied the center of the pupil and the location of the the visibility, meaningfulness, and placement of spe-
corneal reflection, the vector between them is mea- cific interface elements can be evaluated objec-
sured, and, with further trigonometric calculations, tively, and the resulting findings can be used to
point-of-regard can be found. Although it is possible improve the design of the interface (Goldberg &
to determine approximate point-of-regard by the Kotval, 1999). For example, in a task scenario where
corneal reflection alone (as shown in Figure 2), by participants are asked to search for an icon, a
tracking both features, eye movements critically can longer-than-expected gaze on the icon before even-
be disassociated from head movements (Duchowski, tual selection would indicate that it lacks meaning-
2003, Jacob & Karn, 2003). fulness and probably needs to be redesigned. A
Video-based eye trackers need to be fine-tuned detailed description of eye-tracking metrics and
to the particularities of each persons eye move- their interpretation is provided in the following sec-
ments by a calibration process. This calibration tions.
works by displaying a dot on the screen, and if the
eye fixes for longer than a certain threshold time and
within a certain area, the system records that pupil- EYE TRACKING AS A RESEARCH
center/corneal-reflection relationship as correspond- AND USABILITY-EVALUATION TOOL
ing to a specific x,y coordinate on the screen. This is
repeated over a nine- to 13-point grid pattern to gain Previous Eye-Tracking Research
an accurate calibration over the whole screen
(Goldberg & Wichansky, 2003). Mainstream psychological research has benefited
from studying eye movements, as they can provide
Why Study Eye Movements in HCI insight into problem solving, reasoning, mental imag-
Research? ery, and search strategies (Ball et al., 2003; Just &
Carpenter, 1976; Yoon & Narayanan, 2004; Zelinsky
What a person is looking at is assumed to indicate the & Sheinberg, 1995). Because eye movements pro-
thought on top of the stack of cognitive processes vide a window into so many aspects of cognition,
Figure 2. Corneal reflection position changing according to point-of-regard (Redline & Lankford, 2001)
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Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
there also are rich opportunities for the application of human factors research to measure situation aware-
eye-movement analysis as a usability research tool in ness in air-traffic-control training (Hauland, 2003) E
HCI and related disciplines such as human factors in order to evaluate the design of cockpit controls to
and cognitive ergonomics. Although eye-movement reduce pilot error (Hanson, 2004) and to investigate
analysis is still very much in its infancy in HCI and and improve doctors performances in medical pro-
usability research, issues that increasingly are being cedures (Law et al., 2004; Mello-Thoms et al.,
studied include the nature and efficacy of information 2002). The commercial sector also is showing in-
search strategies with menu-based interfaces creased interest in the use of eye-tracking technol-
(Altonen et al., 1998; Byrne et al., 1999; Hendrickson, ogy in areas such as market research, for example,
1989) and the features of Web sites that correlate to determine what advert designs attract the great-
with effective usability (Cowen et al., 2002; Goldberg est attention (Lohse, 1997) and to determine if
et al., 2002; Poole et al., 2004). Additionally, eye Internet users look at banner advertising on Web
trackers have been used more broadly in applied sites (Albert, 2002).
Table 1. Fixation-derived metrics and how they can be interpreted in the context of interface design
and usability evaluation (references are given to examples of studies that have used each metric)
213
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
The main measurements used in eye-tracking re- No encoding takes place during saccades, so they
search are fixations (described previously) and sac- cannot tell us anything about the complexity or
cades, which are quick eye movements occurring salience of an object in the interface. However,
between fixations. There is also a multitude of regressive saccades (i.e., backtracking eye move-
derived metrics that stem from these basic mea- ments) can act as a measure of processing difficulty
sures, including gaze and scanpath measurements. during encoding (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). Al-
Pupil size and blink rate also are studied. though most regressive saccades (or regressions)
are very small, only skipping back two or three
Fixations letters in reading tasks; much larger phrase-length
regressions can represent confusion in higher-level
Fixations can be interpreted quite differently, de- processing of the text (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989).
pending on the context. In an encoding task (e.g., Regressions equally could be used as a measure of
browsing a Web page), higher fixation frequency on recognition value, in that there should be an inverse
a particular area can be indicative of greater interest relationship between the number of regressions and
in the target (e.g., a photograph in a news report), or the salience of the phrase. Saccade-derived metrics
it can be a sign that the target is complex in some are described in Table 2.
way and more difficult to encode (Jacob & Karn,
2003; Just & Carpenter, 1976). However, these Scanpaths
interpretations may be reversed in a search task
a higher number of single fixations, or clusters of Describes a complete saccade-fixate-saccade se-
fixations, are often an index of greater uncertainty in quence. In a search task, typically an optimal scan
recognizing a target item (Jacob & Karn, 2003). The path is viewed as being a straight line to a desired
duration of a fixation also is linked to the processing target with a relatively short fixation duration at the
time applied to the object being fixated (Just & actual target (Goldberg & Kotval, 1999). Scanpaths
Carpenter, 1976). It is widely accepted that external can be analyzed quantitatively with the derived
representations associated with long fixations are measures described in Table 3.
not as meaningful to the user as those associated
with short fixations (Goldberg & Kotval, 1999).
Fixation-derived metrics are described in Table 1.
Table 2. Saccade-derived metrics and how they can be interpreted in the context of interface design
and usability evaluation (references are given to examples of studies that have used each metric)
214
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
Table 3. Scanpath-derived metrics and how they can be interpreted in the context of interface design
and usability evaluation (references are given to examples of studies that used each metric) E
Eye-Movement What it Measures Reference
Metric
Scanpath duration A longer-lasting scanpath indicates less Goldberg and
efficient scanning. Kotval (1999)
Scanpath length A longer scanpath indicates less Goldberg et al.
efficient searching (perhaps due to a (2002)
suboptimal layout).
Spatial density Smaller spatial density indicates more Goldberg and
direct search. Kotval (1999)
Transition matrix The transition matrix reveals search Goldberg and
order in terms of transitions from one Kotval (1999);
area to another. Scanpaths with an Hendricson
identical spatial density and convex hull (1989)
area can have completely different
transition valuesone is efficient and
direct, while the other goes back and
forth between areas, indicating
uncertainty.
Scanpath regularity Once cyclic scanning behavior is Goldberg and
defined, and then deviation from a Kotval (1999)
normal scanpath can indicate search
problems due to lack of user training or
bad interface layout.
Spatial coverage Scanpath length plus convex hull area Goldberg and
calculated with define scanning in a localized or larger Kotval (1999)
convex hull area area.
Scanpath direction This can determine a participants Altonen et al.
search strategy with menus, lists, and (1998)
other interface elements (e.g., top-down
vs. bottom-up scanpaths). Sweep
denotes a scanpath progressing in the
same direction.
Saccade/ fixation This compares time spent searching Goldberg and
ratio (saccades) to time spent processing Kotval (1999)
(fixating). A higher ratio indicates more
processing or less searching.
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Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
Researchers have to work with limits of accu- Users could position a cursor by simply looking at
racy and resolution. A sampling rate of 60hz is good where they want it to go or click an icon by gazing at
enough for usability studies but inadequate for read- it for a certain amount of time or by blinking. The first
ing research, which requires sampling rates of around obvious application of this capability is for disabled
500hz or more (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). It is also users who cannot make use of their hands to control
imperative to define areas of interest that are large a mouse or keyboard (Jacob & Karn, 2003). How-
enough to capture all relevant eye movements. Even ever, intention often can be hard to interpret; many
the best eye trackers available are only accurate to eye movements are involuntary, leading to a certain
within one degree of actual point-of-regard (Byrne Midas Touch (see Jacob & Karn, 2003), in that you
et al., 1999). Attention also can be directed up to one cannot look at anything without immediately activat-
degree away from measured point-of-regard with- ing some part of the interface. One solution to this
out moving the eyes (Jacob & Karn, 2003). problem is to use eye movements in combination
Eye trackers are quite sensitive instruments and with other input devices to make intentions clear.
can have difficulty tracking participants who have Speech commands can add extra context to users
eyewear that interrupts the normal path of a reflec- intentions when eye movements may be vague, and
tion, such as hard contact lenses, bifocal and trifocal vice versa (Kaur et al., 2003).
glasses, and glasses with super-condensed lenses. Virtual reality environments also can be con-
There also may be problems tracking a person with trolled by the use of eye movements. The large
very large pupils or a lazy eye such that the persons three-dimensional spaces in which users operate
eyelid obscures part of the pupil and makes it often contain faraway objects that have to be ma-
difficult to identify. Once a person is calibrated nipulated. Eye movements seem to be the ideal tool
successfully, the calibration procedure then should in such a context, as moving the eyes to span long
be repeated at regular intervals during a test session distances requires little effort compared with other
in order to maintain an accurate point-of-regard control methods (Jacob & Karn, 2003). Eye move-
measurement. ment interaction also can be used in a subtler way
There are large differences in eye movements (e.g., to trigger context-sensitive help as soon as a
between participants on identical tasks, so it is user becomes confused by performing too many
prudent to use a within-participants design in order regressions, for example, or while reading text [Sibert
to make valid performance comparisons (Goldberg et al., 2000]). Other researchers (Ramloll et al., 2004)
& Wichansky, 2003). Participants also should have have used gaze-based interaction to help autistic
well-defined tasks to carry out (Just & Carpenter, children learn social skills by rewarding them when
1976) so that their eye movements can be attributed they maintain eye contact while communicating.
properly to actual cognitive processing. Visual dis- Some techniques alter a display, depending on
tractions (e.g., colorful or moving objects around the the point-of-regard. Some large-display systems,
screen or in the testing environment) also should be such as flight simulators (Levoy & Whitaker, 1990;
eliminated, as these inevitably will contaminate the Tong & Fisher, 1984), channel image-processing
eye-movement data (Goldberg & Wichansky, 2003). resources to display higher-quality or higher-resolu-
Finally, eye tracking generates huge amounts of tion images only within the range of highest visual
data, so it is essential to perform filtering and analy- acuity (i.e., the fovea) and decrease image process-
sis automatically, not only to save time but also to ing in the visual range where detail cannot be
minimize the chances of introducing errors through resolved (the parafovea). Other systems (Triesch,
manual data processing. Sullivan, Hayhoe & Ballard, 2002) take advantage of
the visual suppression during saccades to update
graphical displays without the user noticing. Yet
EYE TRACKING AS AN another rather novel use is tracking the point-of-
INPUT DEVICE regard during videoconferencing and warping the
image of the eyes so that they maintain eye contact
Eye movements can be measured and used to enable with other participants in the meeting (Jerald &
an individual actually to interact with an interface. Daily, 2002).
216
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
217
Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
Goldberg, J. H., Stimson, M. J., Lewenstein, M., environment. Proceedings of the Eye Tracking
Scott, N., & Wichansky, A. M. (2002). Eye tracking Research and Applications Symposium.
in Web search tasks: Design implications. Proceed-
Levoy, M., & Whitaker, R. (1990). Gaze-directed
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volume rendering. Proceedings of the 1990 Sym-
tions Symposium 2002.
posium on Interactive 3D Graphics.
Hanson, E. (2004). Focus of attention and pilot error.
Lohse, G. L. (1997). Consumer eye movement
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patterns on Yellow Pages advertising. Journal of
Applications Symposium 2000.
Advertising, 26, 61-73.
Hauland, G. (2003). Measuring team situation aware-
Mello-Thoms, C., Nodine, C. F., & Kundel, H. L.
ness by means of eye movement data. Proceedings
(2004). What attracts the eye to the location of
of the HCI International 2003.
missed and reported breast cancers? Proceedings
Hendrickson, J. J. (1989). Performance, prefer- of the Eye Tracking Research and Applications
ence, and visual scan patterns on a menu-based Symposium 2002.
system: Implications for interface design. Proceed-
Pomplun, M., & Sunkara, S. (2003). Pupil dilation as
ings of the CHI89.
an indicator of cognitive workload in human-com-
Inhoff, A. W., & Radach, R. (1998). Definition and puter interaction. Proceedings of the HCI Interna-
computation of oculomotor measures in the study of tional 2003.
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Poole, A., Ball, L. J., & Phillips, P. (2004). In search
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Ready to deliver the promises. In J. Hyn, R. ings of HCI 2004. London: Springer-Verlag.
Radach, & H. Deubel (Eds.), The minds eye:
Ramloll, R., Trepagnier, C., Sebrechts, M., &
Cognitive and applied aspects of eye movement
Finkelmeyer, A. (2004). A gaze contingent environ-
research (pp. 573-605). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
ment for fostering social attention in autistic chil-
Jerald, J., & Daily, M. (2002). Eye gaze correction dren. Proceedings of the Eye Tracking Research
for videoconferencing. Proceedings of the Eye and Applications Symposium 2004.
Tracking Research and Applications Symposium
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychol-
2002.
ogy of reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1976). Eye fixa- Hall.
tions and cognitive processes. Cognitive Psychol-
Redline, C. D., & Lankford, C. P. (2001). Eye-
ogy, 8, 441-480.
movement analysis: A new tool for evaluating the
Karn, K., et al. (2000). Saccade pickers vs. fixation design of visually administered instruments. Pro-
pickers: The effect of eye tracking instrumentation ceedings of the Section on Survey Research
on research. Proceedings of the Eye Tracking Methods of the American Statistical Association.
Research and Applications Symposium 2000.
Sibert, J. L., Gokturk, M., & Lavine, R. A. (2000).
Kaur, M., et al. (2003). Where is it? Event syn- The reading assistant: Eye gaze triggered auditory
chronization in gaze-speech input systems. Pro- prompting for reading remediation. Proceedings of
ceedings of the Fifth International Conference the Thirteenth Annual ACM Symposium on User
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A. J. (2004). Eye gaze patterns differentiate novice report on an eye-slaved area-of-interest visual
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Eye Tracking in HCI and Usability Research
Air Force Base, TX: Air Force Human Resources the researcher knows where a person is looking at
Laboratory. any given time and how the a persons eyes are E
moving from one location to another.
Triesch, J., Sullivan, B. T., Hayhoe, M. M., &
Ballard, D. H. (2002). Saccade contingent updating Eye-Mind Hypothesis: The principle at the
in virtual reality. Proceedings of the Eye Tracking origin of most eye-tracking research. Assumes that
Research and Applications Symposium 2002. what a person is looking at indicates what the person
currently is thinking about or attending to. Recording
Yoon, D., & Narayanan, N. H. (2004). Mental
eye movements, therefore, can provide a dynamic
imagery in problem solving: An eye tracking study.
trace of where a persons attention is being directed
Proceedings of the Eye Tracking Research and
in relation to a visual display such as a system
Applications Symposium 2004.
interface.
Zelinsky, G., & Sheinberg, D. (1995). Why some
Fixation: The moment when the eyes are rela-
search tasks take longer than others: Using eye
tively stationary, taking in or encoding information.
movements to redefine reaction times. In J. M.
Fixations last for 218 milliseconds on average, with
Findlay, R. Walker, & R. W. Kentridge (Eds.), Eye
a typical range of 66 to 416 milliseconds.
movement research: Mechanisms, processes and
applications (pp. 325-336). North-Holland: Elsevier. Gaze: An eye-tracking metric, usually the sum of
all fixation durations within a prescribed area. Also
called dwell, fixation cluster, or fixation cycle.
KEY TERMS
Point-of-Regard: Point in space where a per-
Area of Interest: An area of interest is an son is looking. Usually used in eye-tracking research
analysis method used in eye tracking. Researchers to reveal where visual attention is directed.
define areas of interest over certain parts of a
Regression: A regressive saccade. A saccade
display or interface under evaluation and analyze
that moves back in the direction of text that has
only the eye movements that fall within such areas.
already been read.
Eye Tracker: Device used to determine point-
Saccade: An eye movement occurring between
of-regard and to measure eye movements such as
fixations, typically lasting for 20 to 35 milliseconds.
fixations, saccades, and regressions. Works by track-
The purpose of most saccades is to move the eyes to
ing the position of various distinguishing features of
the next viewing position. Visual processing is auto-
the eye, such as reflections of infrared light off the
matically suppressed during saccades to avoid blur-
cornea, the boundary between the iris and sclera, or
ring of the visual image.
apparent pupil shape.
Scanpath: An eye-tracking metric, usually a
Eye Tracking: A technique whereby an
complete sequence of fixations and interconnecting
individuals eye movements are measured so that
saccades.
219
220
Sigrn Gunnarsdttir
Siminn, Iceland
Gyda Atladttir
University of Iceland, Iceland
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
From User Inquiries to Specification
getting things to work. A popular approach to Space for Learning. The process borrows ideas
requirements elicitation is developing prototypes. from or uses scenarios, interviews, feature-based .
There has been less emphasis on bridging the gap development, soft systems methodology, claims
between the above two efforts, for example, to deliver analysis, phenomenology, and UML.
a method that gives practical guidelines on how to
produce specifications from qualitative data (Hertzum,
2003). One reason for this gap can be that people from FOLLOWING A PROCESS
different disciplines work on the two aspects, for
example, domain analysts or experts in HCI, and The proposed process comprises five distinct steps
software engineers who read and use requirements or subprocesses, each with defined input and output
specification as a basis for design. Another reason for (Table 1). The input to a step is the data or informa-
this gap may be in the difference in the methods that tion that is available before the step is carried out,
the two sides have employed, that is, soft methods and the output is the work product or a deliverable of
(i.e., informal) for elicitation and analysis and hard the step. We have also defined who, for example
methods (i.e., formal) for specification. what roles, will carry out the steps. We will describe
In this article, we suggest a method to translate individual steps of the processes in more detail in
qualitative data to requirements specification that subsequent sections.
we have applied in the development of a Smart
221
From User Inquiries to Specification
The specific goals of field studies are different from On site, the researcher uses the Elicitation Design
one project to another. Examples of goals include framework to inquire about the work domain. The
analysing hindrances, facilitators of work, qualities, first part of the interview gathers information through
and context. The general goal is to build a software questions about the current work domain with the
system that solves a problem and/or fulfills the actors help of hypothetical scenarios. In the second part of
goals. data gathering, claims analysis (Rosson & Carroll,
To prepare for visiting the work domain, we 2002) is performed on suggested new features of a
design a framework that should guide us to elicit system. In claims analysis, people are asked to give
information on what type of work is carried out, who positive and negative consequences to users of
does it, in what context, and the quality of work such particular features. An example can be: Apples are
as frequency, performance, and criticality. Analysts sweet and delicious (positive) but they are of many
should gather as much background information be- types that make it difficult to choose from.
forehand as possible, for example, from marketing It is useful to notice best practice in interviewing,
studies, manuals, current systems, and so forth. To and ask the interviewee for concrete examples and
understand the context of the system, a CATWOE to show evidence of work or artefacts. The inter-
analysis (Checkland & Scholes, 1999) is conducted. viewer should act as an apprentice, show interest in
Before the field studies, designers may brain- the work and be objective. Data is gathered by
storm some possible features of the system. When writing down answers and recording audio. It is
creating a system for a new technological environ- almost necessary to have a team of two persons
ment, designers tend to have some ideas on how it where one is the writer and the other is the inter-
can further advance work. The work product of this viewer.
step should be an Elicitation Design in a form of a
handbook that describes overall goals of the contex- Data Analysis
tual inquiries. In qualitative studies, researchers should
not predefine hypotheses before the inquiry, but they As soon as the site visit is over, the analyst should
can nonetheless be informed. Instead of visiting the review the data gathered and write down additional
work domain empty-handed, we suggest that ana- facts or observations that he/she can remember,
lysts be prepared with descriptions of hypothetical and encode the audiotapes to text. After this prepa-
scenarios or narrations of work with embedded ques- ration, the actual analysis takes place, but the
tions on more details or procedures in this particular analysis can start already at the data-gathering
instance. Fictional characters can be used to make phase. With large amounts of data, as is usual in
the scenarios more real. qualitative studies, there is a need to structure it to
Work is determined by some life cycle of artefacts. see categorizations of phenomena or facts. Data is
The questions can be formed in the framework of initially coded to derive classes of instances. There
such a life cycle. In many domains, a life cycle of are several ways of doing this, but we propose to
artefacts is already a best practice, and the goal can use one table for each goal or question, where the
be to investigate how close the particular instance is lines are individual instances of facts observed from
to the life cycle. To reach this goal, several initial a domain client and the columns are answers. The
questions can be designed, bearing in mind that more data is coded by creating a column that can be an
can be added during the field study. Another way to answer to a question. The columns can subse-
reach this goal is through observation of work with quently be categorized, thus building a hierarchy of
intermittent questions. codes.
A part of the preparation is the selection of clients The output of the analysis is to derive understand-
and planning of the site visits. Analysts should recog- ing of phenomena, their characteristics, relation-
nize that users could be a limited resource. ships, and behavior. We can formulate this knowl-
edge in propositions and theories. One way of build-
ing theory, attributed to Glaser and Strauss, is called
222
From User Inquiries to Specification
the grounded theory approach (Taylor & Bogdan, This section describes the needs assessment
1998). resulting from companies interviews, but the entire .
analysis is outside the scope of this article and will be
Model Specification described elsewhere. The aim of SS4L is to support
companies in offering effective learning to their
From the analysis, we derive the model specifica- employees, which serves the needs of organizations,
tion. It is described with different element types that intelligent support to employees through personal-
are listed in Table 2. A further step can be taken to ization and learning profiles and open interfaces
refine this to a more formal model, using for ex- between heterogeneous learning systems and learn-
ample, UML or Z. ing content.
Seven processes of the learning life cycle were
Validation introduced for the interviews: Training needs, Train-
ing goals, Input controlling, Process controlling,
The last step of the process is the validation. The Output controlling, Transfer controlling, and Out-
analyst walks through the model and reviews it in come controlling. These processes were built on the
cooperation with stakeholders. evaluation model of Kirkpatrick (1996) with its four-
level hierarchy. He identifies four levels of training
evaluation: reaction (do they like it?), learning (do
VALIDATION IN A CASE STUDY they learn the knowledge?), transfer (does the knowl-
edge transfer?), and influence (do they use it and
The method has been successfully applied in a case does it make a difference to the business?). The
study of eliciting and specifying requirements for a study was conducted in 18 companies in five differ-
software system that supports corporations with ent countries.
training management. This system is called Smart The aim of this qualitative requirements study
Space for Learning (SS4L). was threefold. First, we aimed at assessing the
current and future needs of corporate training man-
223
From User Inquiries to Specification
agement. A second objective was to collect ideas required to get interviewees to give evidence through
from companies on what type of IT-support they artefacts and explain answers with examples from
foresee to be useful. Finally, a third objective was to the domain. As in any qualitative study, the data
find out positive and negative consequences to users analysis is quite tedious, but coding the interviews
of the features developed in SS4L. into tables proved useful and a good basis for
The main results of the requirements studies are: determining the components of the model as de-
scribed in Table 2. A good tool for tracking the data,
1. Training management life cycle as a qual- that is, from answers to tables to models will give
ity model for learning. We have seen through researchers confidence that no data is lost and that
the interviews that measuring the success of a it is correct. Using a combination of interviews and
course or a seminar implies an overall quality claims analysis for proposed features creates inter-
model for learning. First, one has to define the esting results and may reveal inconsistencies. For
goals, plan the strategy for implementation, and example, users express the desire to select training
then it can be assessed whether the results courses based on the evaluation of peers but are
meet the goals. The interviews showed that reluctant themselves to enter ratings of training
some companies are still lacking this overall courses or other personal information because of
quality model. Only some steps of the overall threat to privacy. The final steps in the study are to
process are performed, and therefore the train- translate the activities to use cases (Larman, 2002)
ing management leads to unsatisfactory re- and to prioritize them and determine their feasibility.
sults.
2. Functions, that will be useful to have in an IT
system for training management, were ana- FUTURE TRENDS
lyzed.
Assessment of current and needed knowl- There seems to be a growing interest in qualitative
edge. methods that require analysts to gather data in
Targeted communication of strategies. context. The reason may be that software systems
Peer evaluation or consulting. are more than ever embedded into the environment
Problem driven and on-demand learning. and used in every day life, requiring access for
Assessment of transfer during work by everybody. Developers will expect to make deci-
experienced colleagues. sions on design based on empirical studies. This may
Budget controlling. call for combined qualitative and quantitative meth-
3. Stakeholders demand certain qualities of a ods. The cause for the latter is that it may be easier
training management system. During the to collect extensive usage information in a larger
interview and the claims analysis, users also population and a triangulation of methods will be
demanded other qualities. Confidence and used to retrieve reliable results.
quality of data has to be ensured when imple- Although interdisciplinary research has been and
menting a system that includes features that continues to be difficult, there is a growing trend to do
rely on contextual information such as personal research at the boundaries in order to discover inno-
or corporate profile and recommendation of vative ideas and to work cross-discipline. The motiva-
peers. In general, all companies that partici- tion is that there is a growing awareness to examine
pated in this study revealed a certain concern the boundaries between software systems, humans
about training management and the need for and their cognitive abilities, artificial physical systems,
supportive systems that allow for a greater and biological and other natural systems.
transparency.
224
From User Inquiries to Specification
226
227
David John
Bournemouth University, UK
Anthony C. Boucouvalas
Bournemouth University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
ries of keyword tagging, lexical affinity, statistical The transition from one physiological state to
methods, or real-world models (Liu, Lieberman, & another is a gradual one. These states cannot be
Selker, 2003). treated as classical sets, which either wholly include
We have developed a textual emotion-extraction a given affect or exclude it. Even within the physi-
engine that can analyze text sentences typed by ological response variables, one set merges into
users. The emotion extraction engine has been pre- another and cannot be clearly distinguished from
sented by Xu and Boucouvalas (2002). another. For instance, consider two affective states:
The emotion-extraction engine can analyze sen- a relaxed state and an anxious state. If classical sets
tences, detect emotional content, and display appro- are used, a person is either relaxed or anxious at a
priate expressions. The intensity and duration of the given instance, but not both. The transition from one
expressions are also calculated and displayed in real set to another is rather abrupt and such transitions do
time automatically. The first version of our engine not occur in real life.
searched for the first person, I, and the current
tense, therefore the ability of the engine was very
limited. In our latest version, the engine applies not EMOTION EXTRACTION ENGINE
only grammatical knowledge, but also takes real-
word information and cyberspace knowledge into The emotion extraction engine is a generic prototype
account. It intends to satisfy the demands of compli- based on keyword tagging and real-world knowl-
cated sentence analysis. edge. Figure 1 depicts an overview of the architec-
The users mood is defined as the feelings per- ture of the emotion-extraction engine.
ceived from a users series are input in the emotion- The sentence analysis component includes three
extraction engine. The current emotion of a user is components: input analysis, the tagging system, and
based totally on the information assessed within a the parser. The input-analysis function splits textual
single sentence. messages into arrays of words and carries out initial
A users mood may not be consistent with the analysis to remove possible errors in the input. The
current emotion of the user. For example, a user may tagging system converts the array of words into an
present a sad feeling in one sentence, but previously array of tags. The parser uses rewrite rules and AI
the user was talking about happy and interesting (artificial intelligence) knowledge to carry out infor-
things. The sad feeling presented may not be a mation extraction. The engine classifies emotions
significant emotion and overall the users mood may into the following categories: happiness, sadness,
be still happy. surprise, fear, disgust, and anger. For further details,
To calculate the mood of a user, previous emo- please refer to Xu and Boucouvalas (2002) and Xu
tions and current emotions need to be analyzed (2005). This article only discusses the fuzzy-logic
together. We assume that emotions are additive and components, which can be seen as an extension to
cumulative. One way of calculating the mood is to the parser. With fuzzy logic methods, the emotion-
average the historic emotions and then find out what extraction engine can be used to analyze complex
category the averaged emotion is in. This approach situations.
is described by Xu (2005). Here, an alternative
fuzzy-logic approach is presented. Conflicting Emotion Detection
228
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
Sentence Emotion
Sentence
Extraction
Emotion Extraction
Component
component
Emotion
Emotion parameters
Parameters
Y
N Emotion parameters
Emotion Parameters
Conflicting
Conflicting
Emotion Parameters
Emotion parameters
Emotion Filter
Emotion Filter
Filtered Emotion
Filtered Emotion
Parameters
parameters
Emotion States
Emotion states
Mood
Mood Selection
Selection Emotion Storage
Emotion Storage
Emotion
Emotion
States
states
Current Emotion
Current emotion
States
states
Current Mood
Current mood
When a sentence contains conflicting emotions, When a sentence with conflicting emotions is
judging which emotion represents the overall emo- found, the emotion-filter component will be called;
tional feeling is not only based on the current sen- otherwise, the emotion parameters are passed to
tence, but also on the mood. For example, in the the mood-selection component for further opera-
emotion extraction engine, the mood happy indicates tion.
that the previous messages an individual typed con-
tain overwhelmingly more happy feelings than oth- Mood Selection Component
ers. When the user types a sentence containing both
happy and sad emotions, the perceived current mood The inputs of the mood-selection component are the
of the user may still be happy instead of happy and emotion parameters from the sentence emotion
sad. The reason is that the individual was in a extraction component and the previous emotions
predominately happy mood, and the presented sad stored in the emotion-storage component.
emotion may not be significant enough to change the The aim of the mood selection component is to
mood from happy to sad. determine the current mood. To achieve this, the
The positive emotion category and negative emo- first step of the mood selection component is to
tion category are introduced to handle conflicting convert the emotion parameters into the current
emotions. Positive emotions include happiness and emotions by filtering the tense information. For
surprise, while negative emotions are sadness, fear, example, the emotion parameter [happiness][middle
anger, and disgust. A sentence is treated as a con- intensity][present tense] is converted to the current
flicting-emotion sentence only if the sentence con- emotion [happiness][middle intensity]. The current
tains both positive and negative emotions. emotion is sent to the storage component as well.
229
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
The previous emotions of the user are stored in the Figure 2. The decay of emotion over time
storage component. The format is [emotion
category][intensity]. To covert the emotion data into
the format acceptable for a fuzzy system, the follow- Value
ing fuzzy-data calculations are carried out.
EMO EMO EMO EMO EMO
230
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
E[ x ] STORAGE COMPONENT
low( x) = 1 5 .
E[i]
i =0
(4) The inputs of the storage component are the current
emotions. The storage component is implemented as
a first in, first remove (FIFR) stack with a length of
Fuzzy Rules five. The structure is shown in Figure 3.
Rule 3:
IF the negative emotions are high FUTURE TRENDS
AND positive emotions are low
THEN the current mood is the highest negative Fuzzy logic is a popular research field in autocontrol,
emotion and the intensity is decreased by 0.1 AI, and human factors. As adaptivity becomes an
extremely important interface design criteria, fuzzy
logic shows its own advantage in creating adaptive
MOOD SELECTION
When a dialog starts, there are no cues as to what Figure 3. The structure of the storage component
mood a user is in. However, it is reasonable to
assume that the mood of a new user is neutral. As
the emotion extraction engine acquires more data Emotions in
Emotions in
231
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
systems: There are no clear category boundaries, Elliot, C. (1992). The affective reasoner: A pro-
and it is easily understood by humans. Fuzzy logic cess model of emotions in a multi-agent system.
can be integrated with other techniques (e.g., induc- Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern
tive logic, neural networks, etc.) to create fuzzy- University, Institute for the Learning Sciences,
neural or fuzzy-inductive systems, which can be Evanston, IL.
used to analyze complex human-computer interac-
El-Nasr, M. S., Yen, J., & Ioerger, T. (2000).
tions. For this article, possible future studies may
FLAME: A fuzzy logic adaptive model of emotions.
include a comparison of the emotions detected by
Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems,
the engine with emotions by human observers. Also,
3(3), 219-257.
the applicability of the fuzzy-logic functions with
different events should be tested by comparing the Kaiser, S., & Wehrle, T. (2000).
performance of the emotion-extraction engine to the Ausdruckspsychologische Methoden [Psychologi-
different contexts that the emotion-extraction en- cal methods in studying expression]. In J. H. Otto, H.
gine is applied. A. Euler, & H. Mandl (Eds.), Handbuch
Emotionspsychologie (pp. 419-428). Weinheim,
Germany: Beltz, Psychologie Verlags Union.
CONCLUSION
Liu, H., Lieberman, H., & Selker, T. (2003). A
model of textual affect sensing using real-world
This article presents an overview of the fuzzy logic
knowledge. Proceedings of the Seventh Interna-
components applied in our emotion-extraction en-
tional Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces
gine. Fuzzy-logic rules are followed to determine the
(pp. 125-132).
correct mood when conflicting emotions are de-
tected in a single sentence. The calculation of cur- Picard, R. W., & Healey, J. (1997). Affective
rent mood involves an assessment of the intensity of wearables. Proceedings of the First International
current emotions and the intensity of previously Symposium on Wearable Computers (pp. 90-97).
detected emotions. This article presents an example
of fuzzy-logic usage in human-computer interaction. Velasquez, J. (1997). Modeling emotions and other
Similar approaches can be tailored to fit situations motivations in synthetic agents. Proceedings of the
like emotional-system interaction, telecare systems, AAAI Conference 1997 (pp. 10-15).
and cognition-adaptive systems. Wehrle, T., Kaiser, S., Schmidt, S., & Scherer, K. R.
(2000). Studying dynamic models of facial expres-
sion of emotion using synthetic animated faces.
REFERENCES Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
78(1), 105-119.
Bates, J. (1992). The role of emotion in believable
agents. Communications of the ACM, 37(7), 122- Xu, Z., & Boucouvalas, A. C. (2002). Text-to-
125. emotion engine for real time Internet communica-
tion. International Symposium on Communica-
Bezdek, J. C. (1989). The coming age of fuzzy logic. tion Systems, Networks and DSPs, 164-168.
Proceedings of IFSA.
Xu, Z. (2005). Real-time expressive Internet com-
Brave, S., & Nass, C. (2002). The human-computer munications. PhD thesis, Bournemouth University,
interaction handbook: Fundamentals, evolving tech- UK.
nologies and emerging applications archive. In Hu-
man factors and ergonomics archive (pp. 81-96). Zentner, M. R., & Scherer, K. R. (1998). Emotionaler
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ausdruck in Musik und Sprache [Emotional expres-
sion in music and speech]. Deutsches Jahrbuch fr
Musikpsychologie, 13, 8-25.
232
Fuzzy Logic Usage in Emotion Communication of Human Machine Interaction
233
234
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
comes, and planning strategies (Batty et al., 1994; tion. GIS technology, as a human-computer interac-
Burrough et al, 1980; Choi & Usery, 2004; Clapp et tion (HCI) tool, can provide an efficient platform /
al., 1997; GIS@Purdue, 2003; Golay et al., 2000; that is easy to customize and rich enough to support
Goodchild et al., 1999; IFFD, 1998; Jankowski, a vector-raster integration environment beyond the
1995; Joerin et al., 2001; Kohsaka, 2001; Korte, traditional visualization.
2001; McDonnell & Kemp, 1995; Mohan, 2001; A GIS has four main functional subsystems: (1)
Ralston, 2004; Sadoun, 2003; Saleh & Sadoun, 2004). data input, (2) data storage and retrieval, (3) data
manipulation and analysis, and (4) data output and
display subsystem. A data input subsystem allows
BACKGROUND the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial
and thematic data into digital form. The data inputs
A working GIS integrates five key components: usually are derived from a combination of hard copy
hardware, software, data, people, and methods. GIS maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images,
stores information about the world as a collection of reports, survey documents, and so forth. Maps can
thematic layers that can be linked together by geog- be digitized to collect the coordinates of the map
raphy. GIS data usually is stored in more than one features. Electronic scanning devices also can be
layer in order to overcome technical problems caused used to convert map lines and points to digital
by handling very large amounts of information at information (see Figure 3).
once (Figure 2). This simple but extremely powerful The data storage and retrieval subsystem orga-
and versatile concept has proved invaluable for nizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form that
solving many real-world problems, such as tracking permits them to be retrieved quickly by the user for
delivery vehicles, recording details of planning appli- analysis and permits rapid and accurate updates to
cations, and modeling global atmospheric circula- be made to the database. This component usually
involves use of a database management system
(DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data
Figure 2. Illustration of GIS data layers usually is encoded and maintained in a proprietary
(GIS@Purdue, 2003) file format.
The data manipulation and analysis subsystem
allows the user to define and execute spatial and
235
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
attribute procedures to generate derived information. scanned map/picture. Both vector and raster mod-
This subsystem commonly is thought of as the heart els for storing geographic data have unique advan-
of a GIS and usually distinguishes it from other tages and disadvantages. Modern GISs are able to
database information systems and computer-aided handle both models.
drafting (CAD) systems. The data output subsystem
allows the user to generate graphic displaysnor-
mally maps and tabular reports representing derived GIS SOFTWARE
information products.
The basic data types in a GIS reflect traditional A number of GIS software packages exist commer-
data found on a map. Accordingly, GIS technology cially, providing users with a wide range of applica-
utilizes two basic data types: (1) spatial data that tions. Some of them are available online for free.
describes the absolute and relative location of geo- Before selecting a GIS package, the user should
graphic features and (2) attribute data, which de- find out whether the selected GIS can meet his or
scribe characteristics of the spatial features. These her requirements in four major areas: input, manipu-
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative lation, analysis, and presentation. The major GIS
in nature. Attribute data often is referred to as tabular vendors are ESRI, Intergraph, Landmark Graphics,
data. and MapInfo. A brief description of these packages
GIS works with two fundamentally different types is given next.
of geographic models: vector and raster (see Figure
4). In the vector model, information about points, ESRI Packages
lines, and polygons is encoded and stored as a collec-
tion of x y coordinates. The location of a point feature The Environmental Systems Research Institute
can be described by a single x y coordinate. Linear (ESRI) provides database design application, data-
features, such as roads and rivers, can be stored as base automation, software installation, and support
a collection of point coordinates. Polygonal features, (Korte, 2001; McDonnell et al., 1995; Ralston,
such as sales territories, can be stored as a closed 2004). ARC/INFO allows users to create and man-
loop of coordinates. age large multi-user spatial databases, perform
The vector model is extremely useful for describ- sophisticated spatial analysis, integrate multiple data
ing discrete features but less useful for describing types, and produce high-quality maps for publica-
continuously varying features such as soil type or tion. ARC/INFO is a vector-based GIS for storing,
accessibility costs to hospitals. The raster model has analyzing, managing, and displaying topologically
evolved to model such continuous features. A raster structured geographic data.
image comprises a collection of grid cells such as a ArcView is considered the worlds most popular
desktop GIS and mapping software. ArcView pro-
vides data visualization, query, analysis, and inte-
Figure 4. GIS data model (IFFD, 1998) gration capabilities along with the ability to create
and edit geographic data. ArcView makes it easy to
create maps and add users own data. By using
ArcView softwares powerful visualization tools, it
Raster
is possible to access records from existing data-
bases and display them on maps. The ArcView
network analyst extension enables users to solve a
variety of problems using geographic networks
Vector such as streets, ATM machines, hospitals, schools,
highways, pipelines, and electric lines. Other pack-
ages by ESRI include Database Integrator,
ArcStorm, ArcTools, and ArcPress.
Real
World
236
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
237
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
loaded into a PC, which then connects to a database GIS techniques can be used along with remote
containing information on land ownership, endan- sensing schemes for urban planning, implementa-
gered species, and access roads within the area of tion, and monitoring of urban projects. Such a com-
the fire. Those maps are printed out on mobile bination has the capability to provide the needed
plotters at the scene and distributed to firefighters. physical input and intelligence for the preparation of
Preservation groups use GIS software to assess basemaps and the formulation of planning proposals.
possible danger caused by environmental changes. They also can act as a monitoring tool during the
In such a case, GIS is used as a tool for integrating implementation phase. Large-scale city and urban
data across borders and helping to bring people projects need decades to complete. Satellite images
together to solve problems in an effective manner. can be used to maintain a real record of terrain
For example, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmo- during this period. Clearly, GIS and remote sensing
spheric Administration and other organizations use are powerful tools for monitoring and managing land
GIS systems to create maps of the Tijuana River by providing a fourth dimension to the citytime
watershed, a flood-prone area that spans the border (Joerin et al., 2001; Kohsaka, 2001).
of San Diego (USA) and Tijuana (Mexico). The GIS systems can be used to aid in urban eco-
maps include soil and vegetation class structure nomic calculations. A basic goal of urban economics
from each city, which allows city and urban planners is to analyze spatial relationships. This typically
to see across the borders when predicting flood takes the shape of costs to ship customers, employ-
danger. ees, merchandise, or services between various loca-
GIS can be used efficiently as human-machine tions. Real estate planners often seek to quantify the
interactive (HMI) tools to realize land-parcel re- relations between supply and demand for a particu-
structuring within a well-defined zone, whose par- lar land type in a given geographical region. Spatial
cels structure is found to be inadequate for agricul- economic theory shows that transportation costs are
tural or building purposes. Golay, et al. (2000) have the most essential factors that determine ease of
proposed a new a prototype of an interactive engi- access. GIS can estimate transportation costs in a
neering design platform for land and space-related better way by computing the distances along roads,
engineering tasks, based on the real-time aggrega- weighting interstate roads less than local roads and
tion of vector and raster GIS data. This concept adding delay factors for construction spots, tunnels,
allows engineers to get real-time aggregate values and so forth (Jankowski, 1995; Joerin et al., 2001).
of a continuously defined spatial variable, such as GIS can handle complex network problems, such
land value, within structures they are reshaping. as road network analysis. A GIS can work out travel
GIS tools can be used to manage land efficiently. times and shortest path between two cities (sites),
Before the advent of GIS, land management ser- utilizing one of the shortest path algorithms. This
vices in public administration used to make decisions facility can be built into more complicated models
without analyzing related data properly. These days, that might require estimates of travel time, accessi-
such organizations are using GIS to properly manage bility, or impedance along a route system. An ex-
land based on the data provided by GIS analysis. ample is how a road network can be used to calcu-
One example includes the decision support model late the risks of accidents.
called MEDUSAT, which proposes a structured GIS can be used to model the flow of water
application of GIS and multicriteria analysis to sup- through a river in order to plan a flood warning
port land management. MEDUSAT presents an system. Real-time data would be transmitted by
original combination of these tools (Joerin et al., flood warning monitors/sensors, such as rain gauges
2001). In this context, GIS is used to manage infor- and river height alarms, which could be received and
mation that describes the territory and offer spatial passed to a GIS system to assess the hazard. If the
analysis schemes. The multicriteria analysis schemes amount and intensity of rain exceeds a certain limit,
then are used to combine such information and to determined by the GIS flood model for the area, a
select the most adequate solution, considering the flood protection plan could be put into operation with
decision makers preference (Jankowski, 1995; computer-generated maps demarcating the vulner-
Joerin et al., 2001). able areas at any point in time (Golay et al., 2000;
238
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
Jankowski, 1995; Joerin et al., 2001; Kohsaka, 2001; North Carolina, police use ArcView to follow the
Mohan, 2001; Sadoun, 2003; Saleh & Sadoun, 2004). relationships between illegal activities and commu- /
nity troubles like untidy lots, deserted trash, and
shattered windows.
FUTURE TRENDS In India, GIS technology has been applied to
analyze spatial information for the environmental
GIS systems are effective HCI tools that have change implications, such as the work done for Delhi
received wide acceptance by organizations and in- Ridge (Golay et al., 2000; Jankowski, 1995; Joerin et
stitutions. Many towns and cities worldwide have al., 2001; Mohan, 2001; Sadoun, 2003; Saleh &
started or are in the process of using it in planning Sadoun, 2004). Integrated GIS approaches can pro-
and engineering services and zones. Many vendors vide effective solutions for many of the emerging
have developed GIS software packages of various environmental change problems at local, regional,
features and options. Using GIS software is becom- national, and global levels, and may become the
ing more and more friendly with the addition of new preferred environment for ecological modeling. GIS
features in the software such as the Graphical User tools have been used to monitor vegetation cover
Interfaces (GUIs), animation, validation, and verifi- over periods of time to evaluate environmental con-
cation features. GUI helps make the interface be- ditions. The Delhi population has grown by about
tween the developer/user and the computer easier 25% per year since 1901. Therefore, it is vital to
and more effective. Animation helps to verify mod- predict the rate of increase of CO2 emission and
els and plans, as a picture is worth a thousand words. ozone depletion in such a heavily populated city. GIS
The latter also makes the GIS package more salable. technology can help a lot in predicting possible
These days, there is a trend to use GIS for almost all scenarios and environmental plans and solutions.
applications that range from planning transportation
systems in cities and towns to modeling of the flow
of water through rivers in order to have a proper CONCLUSION
flood warning system, where real-time data can be
sent by flood warning sensors, such as rain gauges GIS technology is an important human computer
and river height alarms, which could be received and interactive (HCI) tool that has become vital to
passed to a GIS system to assess the hazard. modern city and urban planning/engineering. Using
During the past few years, law enforcement GIS can produce cost-effective plans/designs that
agencies around the world have started using GIS to can be modified, tuned, or upgraded, as needed. GIS,
display, analyze, and battle crime. Computer-gener- as an HCI-based tool, is becoming an interdiscipli-
ated maps are replacing the traditional push-pin nary information technology and information sci-
maps that used to cover the walls of law enforce- ence field that has numerous applications to city and
ment agencies. Such a tool has given police officers urban planning/engineering, ranging from land man-
the power to classify and rearrange reams of data in agement/zoning to transportation planning/engineer-
an attempt to find patterns. In the United States, ing. Engineering and computer science departments
officers in many precincts are using this technology worldwide have started to offer undergraduate and
to track down crimes. Officers gather reports on graduate programs/tracks in this important, evolving
offenses like car thefts or residential robberies onto discipline. These days, GIS is a must for modern city
weekly hot sheets, which then they enter into a planning and engineering, since it can (a) streamline
computer that has a GIS software package. The GIS customer services in an interactive manner; (b)
mapping program, in turn, relates each incident to reduce land acquisition costs using accurate quanti-
some map information by giving it latitude and tative analysis; (c) analyze data and information in a
longitude coordinates within a map of the suspected speedy manner, which is important for quick and
area. better decisions-making; (d) build consensus among
Some police departments in developed countries decision-making teams and populations; (e) optimize
employ GIS computer mapping to persuade resi- urban services provided by local governments; (f)
dents to get involved in community development. In provide visual digital maps and illustrations in a much
239
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
more flexible manner than traditional manual auto- Kohsaka, H. (2001). Applications of GIS to urban
mated cartography approaches; and (g) reduce pol- planning and management: Problems facing Japa-
lution and cost of running transportation means by nese local governments. GeoJorunal, 52, 271-280.
finding the shortest paths to desired destinations.
Korte, G.B. (2001). The GIS book, (5 th ed.). Al-
bany, NY: Onword Press.
REFERENCES McDonnell, R., & Kemp, K. (1995). International
GIS dictionary. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Uni-
Batty, M., et al. (1994). Modeling inside GIS. Inter- versity Press.
national Journal of GIS, 8, 291-307.
Mohan, M. (2001). Geographic information system
Burrough, P., Evans, A., & McDonned, R. (1980). application for monitoring environmental change and
Principles of GIS. Oxford, UK: Oxford University restoration of ecological sustainable development
Press. over Delhi, ridge. Proceedings of the Interna-
tional Conference on Spatial Information for
Choi, J., & Usery, E. (2004). System integration of
Sustainable Development, Nairobi, Kenya.
GIS and a rule-based expert system for urban map-
ping. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Ralston, B. (2004). GIS and public data. Albany,
Sensing Journal, 70(2), 217-225. NY: Onword Press.
Clapp, J. M., Rodriguez, M., & Thrall, G. (1997). Sadoun, B. (2003). A simulation study for automated
How GIS can put urban economic analysis on the path planning for transportation systems. Proceed-
map? Journal of Housing Economics, 6, 368-386. ings of the 2003 Summer Computer Simulation
Conference, SCSC2003, Montreal, Canada.
GIS@Purdue. (2003). Retrieved from http://
pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~caagis/tgis/overview.html Saleh, B., & Sadoun, B. (2005). Design and imple-
mentation of a GIS system for planning. Interna-
Golay, F., Gnerre, D., & Riedo, M. (2000). Towards
tional Journal on Digital Libraries. Berlin, Ger-
flexible GIS user interfaces for creative engineer-
many: Springer-Verlag.
ing. Proceedings of the International Workshop
on Emerging Technologies for Geo-Based Appli- Shannon, R. (1976, December 6-8). Simulation mod-
cations, Ascona, Switzerland. eling and methodology. Proceedings of the 76th
Bicentennial Conference on Winter Simualtion,
Goodchild, M., Egenhofer, M., Feheas, R., &
Gaithersburg, Maryland (pp. 9-15).
Kottman, C. (Eds.). (1999). Interoperating geo-
graphic information systems. Berlin, Germany:
Springer-Verlag. KEY TERMS
IFFD. (1998). Draft training manual for ArcView
Cartography: The art, science, and engineering
GIS, IFFD.
of mapmaking.
Jankowski, P. (1995). Integrating geographical sys-
City and Regional Planning/Engineering: The
tems and multiple criteria decision-making methods.
field that deals with the methods, designs, issues, and
International Journal of Geographical Informa-
models used to have successful plans and designs
tion Systems, 9, 251-273.
for cities, towns, and regions.
Joerin, F., Theriault, M., & Musy, A. (2001). Using
Coordinate System: A reference system used
GIS and multicriteria analysis for land-use suitability
to gauge horizontal and vertical distances on a
and assessment. International Journal of Geo-
planimetric map. It usually is defined by a map
graphical and Information Science, 15(2), 153-
projection, a spheroid of reference, a datum, one or
174.
more standard parallels, a central meridian, and
240
GIS Applications to City Planning Engineering
possible shifts in the x- and y-directions to locate x information that can be analyzed to aid in problem
y positions of point, line, and area features. For solving and planning. Analytical tools in a geographic /
example, in ARC/INFO GIS system, a system with information system (GIS) are used for building spa-
units and characteristics defined by a map projec- tial models. Models can include a combination of
tion. A common coordinate system is used to spa- logical expressions, mathematical procedures, and
tially register geographic data for the same area. criteria that are applied for the purpose of simulating
a process, predicting an outcome, or characterizing
Data: A collection of attributes (numeric, alpha-
a phenomenon. Shannon defined a model as the
numeric, figures, pictures) about entities (things,
process of designing a computerized model of a
events, activities). Spatial data represent tangible
system (or a process) and conducting experiments
features (entities). Moreover, spatial data are usu-
with this model for the purpose either of understand-
ally an attribute (descriptor) of the spatial feature.
ing the behavior of the system or of evaluating
Database Management Systems (DBMS): various strategies for the operation of the system
Systems that store, organize, retrieve, and manipu- (pp. 9-15).
late databases.
Raster Analysis: Raster analysis implements
Digital Map: A data set stored in a computer in its spatial relationships mainly on the location of the
digital form. It is not static, and the flexibility of cell. Raster operations performed on multiple input
digital maps is vastly greater than paper maps. raster data sets usually output cell values that are the
Inherent in this concept is the point that data on result of calculations on a cell-by-cell foundation.
which the map is based is available to examine or The value of the output for one cell is usually
question. Digital maps can be manipulated easily in independent on the value or location of other input or
GIS package environments. output cells.
GIS: A computer system that permits the user to Spatial Data: Represents tangible or located
examine and handle numerous layers of spatial data. features, such as a river, a 1,000 by 1,000 meter lot
The system is intended to solve problems and inves- in a grid, a campus, a lake, a river, or a road.
tigate relationships. The data symbolizes real-world
Validation: Refers to ensuring that the assump-
entities, including spatial and quantitative attributes
tions used in developing the model are reasonable in
of these entities.
that, if correctly implemented, the model would
GPS: Global Positioning System. GPS is a satel- produce results close to that observed in real sys-
lite-based navigation system that is formed from a tems. Model validation consists of validating as-
constellation of 24 satellites and their ground sta- sumptions, input parameters and distributions, and
tions. GPS uses these satellites as reference points output values and conclusions.
to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters.
Vectro Analysis: In vector analysis, all opera-
Actually, with advanced forms of GPS, you can
tions are possible, because features in one theme are
make measurements to better than a centimeter!
located by their position in explicit relation to existing
These days, GPS is finding its way into cars, boats,
features in other themes. The complexity of the
planes, construction equipment, movie-making gear,
vector data model makes for quite complex and
farm machinery, and even laptop computers.
hardware-intensive operations.
Information Systems: Information systems are
Verification: Verification is the process of find-
the means to transform data into information. They
ing out whether the model implements the assump-
are used in planning and managing resources.
tions considered. A verified computer program, in
Model: An abstraction of reality that is struc- fact, can represent an invalid model.
tured as a set of rules and procedures to derive new
241
242
Balqies Sadoun
Al-Balqa Applied University, Jordan
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
mation. Moreover, integration of Geographical Posi- Figure 2 illustrates a descriptive diagram of the
tioning System (GPS) data into our GIS system is GIS data model creation, measuring, development, /
implemented to create many layers required for the and implementation stages.
analysis.
Once the geospatial database for the city and the
banks is ready, the rest of the work is easy and IMPLEMENTATION
flexible, and the planners can integrate their func-
tions and conditions in no time and will be able to SPOT image is used as the registration reference
provide better decision making. Moreover, part of frame for all scanned hardcopy maps, as indicated in
the data could be made public and accessible through the schematic GIS data model in Figure 2. The
the Web to help not only in locating the sites of reference system is the Jordanian Transverse
ATMs but also in doing the banking interactions, Mercator (JTM). Figure 3 illustrates the reference
which is a sort of human computer interaction mecha- points in the registration process using the Geomedia
nism as it is done in the developed countries (Batty software.
et al., 1994a; Burrough et al., 1980; Goodchild, 2003; Digitization is followed to create the polygon and
Longley et al., 1999a, 1999b). line layers. Figure 4 shows a digital scanned map
image while digitizing, and the drawn redline is the
digitized line on the map.
METHODOLOGY AND MODELING Figure 5 (parts a, b, and c) shows examples of the
resulting layers (maps) using line features such as
Using scanning, digitizing, and registration tech- highways, subways, and roads digitized layers, re-
niques as well as collected and available attributes of spectively.
data, many layers were created for the database. Figure 6 (parts a, b, c, and d) shows examples of
Figure 1 illustrates the general procedure for creat- the resulting layers (maps) using polygon features
ing the needed layers. such as district, subdistrict, urban, and governorate
Many basic geospatial data layers were built (by layers, consecutively.
feature) for the project, as follows: Figure 7 shows some of the created layers for
banks, ATMs, hospitals, and gas station locations.
1. Line features such as (street layers) highways, Finally, imposing all of the previous layers, a final
subways, roadways, and railways. resulting map was made available to help in the
2. Polygon features such as urban, circles, farms, decision-making process. Any kind of information
gardens, Jordan Governorates, Amman dis- could be provided from any layer to help in the
tricts, Amman subdistricts, and so forth. planning, improvement, or finding of the location of
3. Point features such as banks and/or ATMs, an ATM, a new bank branch, and so forth.
restaurants, hotels, large stores, hospitals, sport
clubs, cinemas (movie theaters), cultural and
social centers, gas stations, and police stations.
Scanning
Digitizing
Attribute
Data
Registration GPS
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A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
SATELLITE IMAGES
DIGITIZATION
GPS
MEASUREMENTS Geodatabase
Into FEATURES
FIANAL MAP
DECISION SUPPORT
SYSTEM AND
ANALYSIS
244
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
Figure 4. Digitizing process; line is the digitized line on the tourist map
/
245
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
Figure 7(a). Bank of Jordan locations layer Figure 7(b). ATM locations for all banks layer
246
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
Figure 7(c). All banks locations layer efficient human interactive tools. All kinds of analy-
sis could be conducted using the software ability, and /
the results will be geographically posted on maps
related to the geographic site. Many analysis tech-
niques could be used, such as thematic maps tech-
niques (a map of all banks and business centers in
Amman), classification techniques (classify by color
at each subdistrict), querying techniques about the
shortest path or the largest population or the smallest
area (the distance between two branches of the
bank), and buffering (circle buffer around the exist-
ing banks to show the served area). Another impor-
tant analysis that is possible using GIS is the statis-
tical analysis.
Figure 7(e). Gas station locations layer
A case study as an application on the decision-
making process and planning with GIS is to locate
sites for ATMs in Amman, as we mentioned earlier.
In order to integrate our location constraints in the
decision-making process using the GIS data that we
created, we first had to define our choice of criterion
and then use it for our locations spotting. We used
the bank selection criterion for an ATM location to
satisfy the following:
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A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
Figure 8(a). Abdali area with Bank of Jordan Figure 8 (b). All Point Features of Interest Like
locations Trade Stores, Restaurants, Hotels, Malls, Gas
Station, etc.
Figure 8 (b). Al
Interest Like Tr
Restaurants, Ho
Station, etc.
92,080 inhabitants; namely, Al-Shemesany, Al- erage is within a circular area of a 5-km radius
Madeena, Al-Reyadeyah, Al-Lweebdeh, and (see Figure 8(d)).
Jabal Al-Hussein (see Figure 8(a)).
Make another query to have a map for all busy Finally, by combining all of these conditions (map
commercial areas full of stores, restaurants, overlay), we can find the best ATMs at new loca-
hotels, and important gas stations that are lo- tions to satisfy the bank constraints. Figure 9 shows
cated on a highway or busy crowded streets. the suggested ATM locations in Amman.
Make a query. Have a map that shows the The results shown in Figure 9 for the new loca-
distribution of all banks in the study area (Fig- tions match those that resulted from the study of the
ure 8(c)). bank-planning department. This comparison is made
Create a buffer zone layer around the existing to demonstrate to the directors of the bank and the
banks, branches, and ATMs in order to have a public the capability, effectiveness, and accuracy of
map to show clearly the served areas (inside the GIS technology as a human computer interactive
the circles). Our constraints bank service cov- tool for engineering and planning purposes. The
248
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
Figure 8(d). Circular buffer zone layer to show are in the process of using it in planning and engi-
the areas covered by banking service neering services. Today, there are many GIS soft- /
ware packages of various features and options that
are available commercially. Using GIS software has
become friendlier with the addition of new features
in the software such as the animation, verification
and validation features, and graphical user inter-
faces (GUIs). Verification helps to verify models in
order to make sure that the model is a real represen-
tation of real systems under analysis. Validation is
used to make sure that the assumptions, inputs,
distribution, results, outputs, and conclusions are
accurate. GUI is designed and used to provide an
effective and user-friendly computer interactive
environment. Animation helps provide a visual way
to verify models and to make the GIS package more
salable and enjoyable for potential users and buyers.
GIS technology is becoming a trendy technology
geospatial interactive data are now available for for almost all applications that range from planning
further analysis and planning of projects in all areas irrigation systems to planning ATM systems for
such as real estate and loan grants applications. banks and financial institutions. Recently, law en-
forcement agencies around the world have started
using GIS to display, analyze, and battle crime.
FUTURE TRENDS Computer-generated maps are replacing the tradi-
tional maps that used to cover the walls of law
GIS technology is an effective, accurate, and eco- enforcement agencies. Such a tool has given police
nomical HCI tool that has received wide acceptance officers the power to classify and rearrange reams
by numerous organizations and institutions and for all of data in an attempt to find patterns. Some police
kinds of applications. Many financial institutions, departments in developed countries employ GIS
banks, towns and cities worldwide have started or computer mapping to persuade residents to get
249
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
involved in community development. In India, GIS developing a country has become more accurate,
technology has been applied to analyze spatial infor- economical, effective, and quantitative. The avail-
mation for the environmental change implications ability of digital databases has helped in better
such as the work done for Delhi Ridge (Mohan, decision making in urban planning. Such databases
2001; Joerin et al., 2001; Sadoun, 2003; Saleh & can help to convince the developed world to have
Sadoun, 2004; Golay et al., 2000; Jankowski, 1995). business and trade with developing countries. Build-
GIS technology has been used to provide effec- ing a digital database or a GIS system can help in all
tive solutions for many of the emerging environmen- domains. GIS has become a vital tool to solve
tal problems at local, regional, national, and global administrative, security, health, commercial, and
levels. For example, GIS has been used to monitor trade matters.
vegetation cover over periods of time in order to GIS technology offers an interactive and power-
evaluate environmental conditions. It can be used to ful tool to help in decision making and planning. It
predicate the increase in CO2 emission and ozone offers answers on maps that are easy to visualize
depletion in heavily populated cities such as Tokyo, and understand. Moreover, the user/planner/engi-
New York, Mexico City, Chicago, Los Angeles, and neer can build his or her database once and then later
so forth. GIS technology can help provide all possible can easily alter it as needed in almost no time. It can
solutions and outcomes for different scenarios and be used interactively and reduce the paper maps and
settings. allow customization of all specific encountered prob-
Computer interactive tools such as GIS technol- lems. Moreover, it allows great storage and fast
ogy used to support decision-making activities can access to data. Finally, the advancement of the
have different purposes: information management World Wide Web has allowed public access to all
and retrieval, multi-criteria analysis, visualization, needed information to help in better serving the
and simulation. The quality of human computer world. The world is looking for standardization of
interface can be measured not only by its accuracy database systems and centralization of the source to
but also by its ease of use. Therefore, most state-of- make it easy to find and use.
the art GIS software tools seek to provide user- It is worth mentioning that development needs
friendly interfaces using features such as the GUI quantitative planning and informed decision making
and animation options. using modern technologies such as a digital database
Many other software packages have started to and a GIS, as such technologies provide quick,
add GIS-like functionality; spreadsheets and their accurate, interactive, and convincing plans and rec-
improved graphics capabilities in handling 2-D maps ommendations.
and 3-D visualizations are examples of such a trend. In this work, we present recommendations based
Software is being divided up on the desktop into on the analysis of collected digital data using GIS
basic modules that can be integrated in diverse techniques for building the needed maps for city
ways, while other software is becoming increasingly planning. A case study is considered here, which
generic in that manner. GIS is changing as more deals with finding the proper locations of ATMs for
functions are embodied in hardware. the Bank of Jordan located in the capital city of
Jordan, Amman. The registration and digitization
processes, the GPS measurements integration, and
CONCLUSION, REMARKS, AND the implementation of statistical data such as popu-
RECOMMENDATIONS lation and other related information are presented.
Our work also presents the criteria used in the spatial
The tremendous advancement in information and analysis for modeling the process of the ATM sites
computer technologies has changed the way of selection. Finally, the article provides a map of the
conducting all aspects of our daily life. Due to the new proposed ATM sites selected for the case
amazing progress in these technologies, planning for study.
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A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
251
A GIS-Based Interactive Database System for Planning Purposes
ARC/INFO GIS system, a system with units and constellation of 24 satellites and their ground sta-
characteristics defined by a map projection). A tions. GPS uses these satellites as reference points
common coordinate system is used to spatially reg- to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters.
ister geographic data for the same area. Actually, with advanced forms of GPS, you can
make measurements to better than a centimeter!
Data: A collection of attributes (numeric, alpha-
These days, GPS is finding its way into cars, boats,
numeric, figures, pictures) about entities (things,
planes, construction equipment, movie-making gear,
events, activities). Spatial data represent tangible
farm machinery, and even laptop computers.
features (entities). Moreover, spatial data are usu-
ally an attribute (descriptor) of the spatial feature. Model: An abstraction of reality that is struc-
tured as a set of rules and procedures to derive new
Database Management Systems (DBMS):
information that can be analyzed to aid in problem
Systems that store, organize, retrieve, and manipu-
solving and planning. Analytical tools in a geographic
late databases.
information system (GIS) are used for building spa-
Digital Map: A digital map is a data set stored tial models. Models can include a combination of
in a computer in digital form. It is not static, and the logical expressions, mathematical procedures, and
flexibility of digital maps is vastly greater than paper criteria, which are applied for the purpose of simu-
maps. Inherent in this concept is the point that data lating a process, predicting an outcome, or charac-
on which the map is based is available to examine or terizing a phenomenon. Shannon defined a model as
question. Digital maps can be manipulated easily in the process of designing a computerized model of a
GIS package environments. system (or a process) and conducting experiments
with this model for the purpose either of understand-
Digital Satellite Images: Digital images sent ing the behavior of the system or of evaluating
by satellite systems that are usually launched in various strategies for the operation of the system
special orbits such as the geostationary orbit. The (pp. 9-15).
latter type of satellite systems rotate at about 35,000
Km from the surface of the earth and is able to cover Spatial Data: Spatial data represent tangible or
the same area of the earth 24 hours a day. located features such as a river, a 1,000 by 1,000
meter lot in a grid, a campus, a lake, a river, a road,
Digitation: The process of converting analog and so forth.
data to digital data where binary systems are usually
used. Programmers find dealing with digital data is Validation: Validation refers to ensuring that
much easier than dealing with analog data. the assumptions used in developing the model are
reasonable in that, if correctly implemented, the
GIS: A computer system that permits the user to model would produce results close to that observed
examine and handle numerous layers of spatial data. in real systems. Model validation consists of validat-
The system is intended to solve problems and inves- ing assumptions, input parameters and distributions,
tigate relationships. The data symbolize real-world and output values and conclusions.
entities, including spatial and quantitative attributes
of these entities. Verification: Verification is the process of find-
ing out whether the model implements the assump-
GPS: Global Positioning System is a satellite- tions considered. A verified computer program, in
based navigation system that is formed from a fact, can represent and invalid model.
252
253
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Globalization, Culture, and Usability
for the user in culture B. Therefore, it is important with ergonomic considerations based on ergonomic
to mention this fact and to analyze the culture- rules and guidelines. Beyond this, the intercultural
specific user-requirements. Honold (2000) human machine system takes into account the cul-
describes intercultural influence on the users tural diversity of usersaccording to culture-spe-
interface engineering process in these main cific user requirementsand specific technical fea-
aspects: user-requirements, user interface design tures as well as frame or context requirements
and user interface evaluation. In case of based on cultural specifics. Hence, the intercultural
localization, it is necessary to know the specific human machine systems offering needed functions
users needs of the cultural-oriented product/ and information to realize a user-oriented human
system. It is necessary to analyze the culture- machine system, which is optimized for the target
specific user-requirements. Such an analysis is user and the used application in his/her culture
the basis for a culture-specific user interface determine usage context (Rse, 2004).
design (see also ISO 13407, 1999). To get valid It has to be mentioned that there are cultural-
data from the evaluation of current systems or based differences between user and developer.
prototypes with a culture-specific user interface, Therefore, the integration of cultural specifics is a
an intercultural evaluation is necessary. Culture natural tribute to the diversity of user and developer
influences the whole user interface engineering cultures in time of globalization. The mental model of
process as well as the HMS engineering process. a developer from Germany is mostly very different
Through this influence, a management of from the mental model of a developer in China.
intercultural usability engineering is necessary. Differences between developers and users stem
This is a challenge for the future. from differences of their implementation in a cultural
context.
Modern user-centered approaches include cul-
tural diversity as one key aspect for user-friendly
products (Rse, 2004). Liang (2003) has observed FUTURE TRENDS
the multiple aspects of cultural diversity, the micro-
view on the user and the macro-view on the engi- New research or application fields offer new chal-
neering process. lenges. Intercultural human machine system design
is a new field with huge challenges. Smith and Yetim
Technology has changed the ways people doing (2004) state the following:
their activities and accelerated the trend of
globalization. The consequences are the increase Effective strategies that address cultural issues
of cultural diversity embedded in the interaction in both the product and the process of information
and communication and the pervasiveness of systems development now often are critical to
interactive systems applied in almost every human system success. In relation to the product of
activities Therefore, when we look at cultural development, cultural differences in signs,
issues in interactive systems, we should consider meanings, actions, conventions, norms or values,
not only human activities supported by the systems etc., raise new research issues ranging from
but also the activities or processes of the design, technical usability to methodological and ethical
the implementation and the use. (Liang, 2003) issues of culture in information systems. In
relation to the process of development, cultural
According to Rse (2002), the usage of intercul- differences affect the manner, in which users are
tural user interfaces and intercultural human ma- able to participate in design and to act as subjects
chine systems describes the internationalization and in evaluation studies. (Smith & Yetim, 2004)
localization of products, and excludes global prod-
ucts. Intercultural human machine systems are The field of intercultural human machine sys-
defined as systems, where human and machine have tems, which is mainly mentioned in the research field
the same target and the needed functions and infor- of big global companies, is, in practice, a typical topic
mation to reach the target are offered and displayed for global players. But the developers in different
254
Globalization, Culture, and Usability
application areas have knowledge gaps in this field. Proceeding of HCI 96 (pp. 35-47). London:
An analysis of developers requirements in produc- Springer Verlag. /
tion automation area has shown the following: more
del Galdo, E. M. (1990). Internationalization and
than half like to adapt an existing user system to
translation: Some guidelines for the design of hu-
foreign countries (internationalization) or to a spe-
man-computer interfaces. In J. Nielsen (Ed.), De-
cific user culture (localization). Forty percent think
signing user interfaces for international use
the globalization problem is solved, and more than
(pp. 1-10). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publish-
52% would be interested to support intercultural
ers.
design, that is, by developing guidelines (Rse &
Zhlke, 2001). Therefore, developing intercultural del Galdo, E. M., & Nielsen, J. (1996). Interna-
human machine systems is still a challenge for the tional user interface. New York: John Wiley &
future. Resolving such a challenge would inform Sons.
developers and help them focus more on cultural
aspects of design and engineering of products and Evers, V., Rse, K., Honold, P., Coronado, J., &
systems (Evers, Rse, Honold, Coronado, & Day, Day, D. (Eds.) (2003, July). Designing for global
2003). markets 5. Workshop Proceedings of the Fifth
International Workshop on Internationalisation
of Products and Systems, IWIPS 2003, Berlin,
Germany (pp. 17-19).
CONCLUSION
Hoft, N. (1996). Developing a cultural model. In E.
This article has shown the importance of globaliza- M. del Galdo & J. Nielsen (Eds), International
tion and culture to usability. An introduction to cul- user interfaces (pp. 41-73). New York: Wiley.
tural diversity in the context of human machine
systems and a definition of intercultural human ma- Honold, P. (2000, July 13-15). Intercultural usability
chine systems were given. Usability experts need engineering: Barriers and challenges from a Ger-
information about the target culture and the culture- man point of view. In D. Day, E. M. del Galdo, &
specifics of the users. This information is a basis for G. V. Prabhu (Eds.), Designing for global mar-
culture- and user-oriented human machine system kets 2. Second International Workshop on
design. Internationalisation of Products and Systems
Ergonomics human machine systems that accept (IWIPS 2000), Baltimore (pp. 137-148). Backhouse
and reflect cultural diversity of the targeted users are Press.
strongly needed. ISO 13407 (1999). Benutzer-orientierte Gestaltung
Giving attention to users and developers needs interaktiver Systeme (user-oriented design of inter-
in the context of globalization, usage, and engineering active systems).
enable the creation of products and systems with high
usability. Liang, S. -F. M. (2003, August 24-29). Cross-
cultural issues in interactive systems. In Ergonom-
ics in the Digital Age. Proceedings of the Inter-
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Day, D. (1996). Cultural bases of interface accep- Prabhu, G., & Harel, D. (1999, August 22-26). GUI
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Globalization, Culture, and Usability
Smith, A., & Yetim, F. (2004). Global human-com- Internationalization: As one of three degrees
puter systems: Cultural determinants of usability. of international products, it means a base structure
Interacting with Computers, The Interdiscipli- with the intent of later customizing and with struc-
nary Journal of Human-Computer-Interaction, tural and technical possibilities for it (in accordance
16(January), 1-5. Special Issue, Global human- with Day, 1996).
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ability. national products, it means a developing of culture
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User-Oriented Design: Development approach
with a focus on users requirements and users
needs as basis for a system or product development.
256
257
Peter G. Fairweather
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA
Mark K. Singley
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) is Preaching to the choir, Dan Shapiro at the 1994
largely an applied discipline, technologically sup- Conference on CSCW made a strong call for a
porting multiple individuals, their group processes, broader integration of the social sciences to better
their dynamics, and so on. CSCW is a research understand group- and organizational-level com-
endeavor that studies the use of, designs, and evalu- puter systems (Shapiro, 1994). Shapiro contrasted
ates computer technologies to support groups, orga- his proposal with the dominant use of
nizations, communities, and societies. It is interdisci- ethnomethodology in CSCW research. As he noted,
plinary, marshalling research from different disci- ethnomethodology implies a commitment to a
plines such as anthropology, sociology, organiza- worldview in which theories and other abstractions
tional psychology, cognitive psychology, social psy- are rejected. Therefore, ethnographic accounts of
chology, and information and computer sciences. behavior are driven not by explanation but by the
Some examples of CSCW systems are group deci- stringent discipline of observation and description
sion support systems (e.g., Nunamaker, Dennis, (p. 418). The result has been perhaps excellent
Valacich, Vogel, & George, 1991), group authoring designs, but typically, there is little sustained work to
systems (e.g., Guzdial, Rick, & Kerimbaev, 2000), develop first principles that can be applied else-
and computer-mediated communication systems (e.g., where (Barley et al., 2004).
Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). Finholt and Teasley (1998) provided evidence of
Behavioral and social sciences provide a rich Shapiros concern by analyzing citations in the ACM
body of research and theory about principles of Proceedings of the Conference on CSCW. For
human behavior. However, researchers and devel- example, examination of the 162 papers that ap-
opers have rarely taken advantage of this trove of peared between 1990 and 1996 showed that each
empirical phenomena and theory (Kraut, 2003). conference had a small number of papers with a
Recently, at the 2004 Conference on CSCW, there psychological orientation. Overall, however, the pro-
was a panel discussion chaired by Sara Kiesler ceedings indicated only modest attention to psycho-
(Barley, Kiesler, Kraut, Dutton, Resnick, & Yates, logical questions, and this attention is diminishing.
2004) on the topic of incorporating group and orga- For instance, 77 out of 695 citations referenced the
nization theory in CSCW. Broadly speaking, the psychological literature in the 1990 Proceedings. By
panel discussed some theories applicable to CSCW 1996, despite a 34% increase in the total number of
and debated their usefulness. citations, the number of references to the psycho-
In this article, we use the theory of small groups logical literature decreased by 39% to 46 out of 933
as complex systems from social psychology in a citations. Thus, based on this study, the authors
brief example to allude to how it can be used to argue that the CSCW community should adopt a
inform CSCW methodologically and conceptually. stronger orientation to social science disciplines.
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Grounding CSCW in Social Psychology
Greater attention to psychological literature will were stripping prisoners naked and denying them
offer well-validated principles about human behav- food. Zimbardo and his colleagues concluded that
ior in group and organizational contexts, and convey anyone given a guards uniform and power over
data collection and analysis methods that identify prisoners succumbs to that situations siren call to
salient and generalizable features of human behav- abuse underlings. Currently, the validity and conclu-
ior (Finholt & Teasley, 1998). sions of these studies are being challenged on the
Kraut (2003, p. 354) warns of disciplinary in- grounds that the study used artificial settings and
breeding, where researchers tend to cite work abuses by the guards stemmed from subtle cues
within their own community. For instance, contrast- given by experimenters (p. 106). In a recent and
ing with the earlier numbers on the decrease of similar study to explore the dynamics of power in
citations to psychological literature, citations to the groups, Haslam and Reicher (2003) are indicating
CSCW literature grew from 70 in 1990 to 233 in that tyranny does not arise simply from one group
1996, an increase of 330% (Finholt & Teasley, having power over another. Group members must
1998). Kraut argues that unlike theories in cognitive share a definition of their social roles to identify with
psychology, social psychology as a theoretical base each other and promote group solidarity. In this
has been inadequately mined in the HCI and CSCW study, volunteers assigned to be prison guards had
literatures (Barley et al., 2004). Part of the reason is trouble wielding power because they failed to de-
the mismatch of goals and values of CSCW research velop common assumptions about their roles as
with those of social psychology. CSCW is primarily guards. It is the breakdown of groups and resulting
an engineering discipline, whose goal is problem sense of powerlessness that creates the conditions
solving; in contrast, social psychology views itself as under which tyranny can triumph, (p. 108) Haslam
a behavioral science, whose mission is to uniquely holds.
determine the causes for social phenomena. In light of the above-mentioned study, the theory
of groups as complex systems has at least two
implications for CSCW. First, the theory warrants a
EXAMPLE research strategy that draws on both experimental
and naturalistic traditions (Arrow et al., 2000). This
Social psychology has a rich body of theoretical will allow researchers to mitigate for difficulties of
literature that CSCW can build on (Beenen et al., both laboratory experiments (e.g., lack of contextual
2004; Farooq, Singley, Fairweather, & Lam, 2004; realism) and field studies (e.g., lack of
Kraut, 2003). Let us take an example of a theory generalizability). Such a theory-driven research strat-
from social psychology that entrains implications for egy can enrich current evaluation techniques in
CSCW. Consider the theory of small groups as CSCW by increasing methodological robustness and
complex systems (for details of the theory, refer to validation (e.g., Convertino, Neale, Hobby, Carroll,
Arrow, McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000). According to & Rosson, 2004).
the theory, groups are intact social systems embed- Second, the theory sheds light on the dynamics of
ded within physical, temporal, socio-cultural, and power in a group. Arrow et al. (2000) assert that
organizational contexts. Effective study of groups negotiations among members about power needs
requires attention to at least three system levels: and goals typically involve both dyadic struggles to
individual members, the group as a system, and clarify relative power and collective norms about the
various layers of embedding contextsboth for the status and influence structure (this was corrobo-
group as an entity and for its members. The follow- rated by Haslam and Reicher, 2003). This entails
ing social psychological study illustrates how this design implications for CSCW. Drawing on Arrow
theory can be leveraged in CSCW. et al.s (2000) theory, CSCW systems should then
In the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment (Bower, support, in general, design features that allow the
2004), Zimbardo randomly assigned male college fulfillment of group members needs for attaining
students to roles as either inmates or guards in a functional levels of agreement, explicit or implicit,
simulated prison. Within days, the young guards regarding the following: (1) How membership status
258
Grounding CSCW in Social Psychology
259
Grounding CSCW in Social Psychology
Guzdial, M., Rick, J., & Kerimbaev, B. (2000, De- Complex Systems: This concept is borrowed
cember 2-6). Recognizing and supporting roles in from Complexity Theory (see Arrow et al., 2000, for
CSCW. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on a detailed discussion). Complex systems are sys-
Computer Supported Cooperative Work, Phila- tems that are neither rigidly ordered nor highly
delphia (pp. 261-268). New York: ACM Press. disordered. System complexity is defined as the
number and variety of identifiable regularities in the
Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. (2003). A tale of two
structure and behaviour of the group, given a de-
prison experiments: Beyond a role-based explana-
scription of that group at a fixed level of detail. Given
tion of tyranny. Psychology Review, 9, 2-6.
this definition, Arrow et al. (2000) suggest that
Kraut, R. E. (2003). Applying social psychological groups tend to increase in complexity over time, i.e.
theory to the problems of group work. In J. M. the number and variety of patterned regularities in
Carroll (Ed.), HCI models, theories, and frame- the structure and behaviour of the group increase
works: Toward a multidisciplinary science (pp. over time.
325-356). San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann Pub-
Disciplinary Inbreeding: A phrase coined by
lishers.
Kraut (2003, p. 354) to refer to the phenomenon of
Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific researchers citing academic work within their own
revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. community. He used it in specific context of the
CSCW community.
Nunamaker, J. F., Dennis, A. R., Valacich, J. S.,
Vogel, D. R., & George, J. F. (1991). Electronic Ethnomethodology: In the context of work, it is
meeting systems to support group work. Communi- an approach to study how people actually order their
cations of the ACM, 34(7), 40-61. working activities through mutual attentiveness to
what has to be done. Ethnomethodology refuses any
Shapiro, D. (1994, October 22-26). The limits of epistemological or ontological commitments, and
ethnography: Combining social sciences for CSCW. limits its inquiry to what is directly observable and
Proceedings of the Conference on Computer what can be plausibly inferred from observation.
Supported Cooperative Work, Chapel Hill, NC
(pp. 417-428). New York: ACM Press. Small Groups: According to the theory of small
groups as complex systems (Arrow et al., 2000), a
Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1991). Connections: New group is a complex, adaptive, dynamic, coordinated,
ways of working in the networked organization. and bounded set of patterned relations among mem-
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. bers, task, and tools. Small groups generally have
more than one dyadic link (although a dyad can
KEY TERMS comprise a group) but are bounded by larger collec-
tives (e.g., an organization).
Computer Supported Cooperative Work
(CSCW): Research area that studies the design,
evaluation, and deployment of computing technolo-
gies to support group and organizational activity.
260
261
Venda 2%
N d e b e le 2 %
Z u lu 2 2 %
S w a ti 3 %
X hosa 18%
Tsonga 4%
Z u lu 2 2 % A frik a a n s 1 6 %
Tsw ana 7% N o rth e rn S o th o 1 0 %
S o u th e rn E n g lis h 9 %
S o th o 7 % S o u th e rn S o th o 7 %
E n g lis h 9 % X hosa 18% Tsw ana 7%
Tsonga 4%
N o rth e rn S w a ti 3 %
S o th o 1 0 % A frik a a n s 1 6 %
N d e b e le 2 %
Venda 2%
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
HCI in South Africa
the need to establish rules that will govern To promote universal access primarily in un-
electronic commerce; der-serviced areas.
the need to bring the opportunities of e-com- To remove and prevent barriers to electronic
merce to the entire population. communications and transactions in the Re-
public.
EC has not only affected government but has also To promote e-government services and elec-
actively moved into the mainstream South Africans tronic communications and transactions with
economy. Sectors of the economy that are using this public and private bodies, institutions, and citi-
technology are listed in Table 1, along with examples zens.
of companies using EC in each sector. To ensure that electronic transactions in the
Republic conform to the highest international
Electronic Communications and standards.
Transactions Bill To encourage investment and innovation in
respect of electronic transactions in the Re-
The Electronic Communications and Transactions public.
Bill (2002) is an attempt by the Republic of South To develop a safe, secure, and effective envi-
Africa to provide for the facilitation and regulation of ronment for the consumer, business and the
electronic communications and transactions; to pro- government to conduct and use electronic trans-
vide for the development of a national e-strategy for actions.
the Republic; to promote universal access to elec- To promote the development of electronic trans-
tronic communications and transactions and the use action services, which are responsive to the
of electronic transactions by small, medium and needs of users and consumers.
micro enterprises (SMMEs); to provide for human To ensure that, in relation to the provision of
resource development in electronic transactions; to electronic transactions services, the special
prevent abuse of information systems; and to en- needs of particular communities and areas, and
courage the use of e-government services, and the disabled are duly taken into account.
provide for matters connected therewith. To ensure compliance with accepted interna-
Some provisions of the bill are specifically di- tional technical standards in the provision and
rected at making policy and improving function in development of electronic communications and
HCI-related areas. These are elucidated in the transactions.
following bulleted items:
Table 1. Sectors of the SA economy using EC, companies using EC within those sectors and their URLs
262
HCI in South Africa
Though these objectives are Utopian, they are is lagging seriously behind in this area. For instance,
the first steps towards developing a manageable there is the worry that SA is not meeting the special 0
framework for the sustainable development of the e- challenges resulting from our multi-lingual society
community in South Africa. It is only by actions like or the need to enable people with low levels of
these that we can get active role players involved in literacy to enjoy the benefits afforded by ICT. In
the development of a strategy for the e-community in short, there is a concern that the average South
South Africa. African will not gain value from rolling out current
e-government initiatives. The opportunity for SA
researchers and developers lies not just in meeting
THE STATE OF THE INTERNET the specific needs of the country, but in positioning
IN SA themselves as leaders in HCI in developing coun-
tries (Miller, 2003). According to Hugo (2003), the
Internet access in South Africa continues to grow South African Usability community is small in size
each year, but the rate of growth has slowed signifi- but large in quality. There are only a handful of
cantly. According to one study on Internet access in practitioners, but their work is making a big impact
SA (Goldstuck, 2002), only 1 in 15 South Africans on the local IT industry.
had access to the Internet at the end of last year. By A number of educators are introducing HCI into
the end of 2002, Internet access will have improved the computer science curricula, and practitioners
only marginally, to 1 in 14 South Africans. According are working with application developers to inte-
to the report, the slow growth is largely the result of grate user-centered design (UCD) into the overall
delays in licensing a second network operator, product development life cycle. In addition, the
Telkoms own uncompromising attitude towards local HCI special interest group (CHI-SA, the
Internet service providers and market ignorance South African ACM SIGCHI Chapter) is actively
about the continued value of the Internet in the wake working with several stakeholders, including aca-
of the technology market crash of 2000 and 2001. demics and non-government organizations to raise
South Africa will continue to lag behind the rest of the awareness of the impact of UCD on usability and
world in Internet use until the local telecommunica- overall organizational performance. In a few orga-
tion climate is more favorable (Worthington-Smith, nizations, important progress has been made to-
2002). wards institutionalizing UCD.
As Goldstuck (2002) points out, the educational Special attention is being given in South Africa to
environment in particular is poised for a boom in the relationship between multi-culturalism and tech-
access, with numerous projects under way to con- nology dissemination. HCI practitioners are paying
nect schools to the Internet. That will not only be a special attention to the processes of enculturation,
positive intervention in the short term, but will provide acculturation, and cultural identities in the localiza-
a healthy underpinning for the long-term growth of tion of software. They have also recognized the
Internet access in South Africa. need to encourage developers to understand the
role of the many cultural factors at work in the
design of computing products, as well as the issues
HCI IN SA involved in intercultural and multi-cultural software
design and internationalization, and how they affect
HCI is a discipline concerned with the design, evalu- the bottom line for organizations.
ation, and implementation of interactive computer The usability community, which essentially con-
systems for human use. It also includes the study of sists of members of the CHI-SA, is currently a
phenomena surrounding interactive systems. Ulti- group of 116 people, 16 of whom are also members
mately, HCI is about making products and systems of ACM SIGCHI. After only one year as an official
easier to use and matching them more closely to SIGCHI Chapter, CHI-SA distinguished itself in
users needs and requirements. HCI is a highly active 2002 by presenting a workshop on multi-cultural
area for R&D and has applications in many coun- HCI at the Development Consortium of CHI 2002
tries. Concern has been expressed by some that SA in Minneapolis.
263
HCI in South Africa
There is little evidence of SA commerce and Miller (2003) reports several barriers that are hin-
industry taking up the principles and practice of dering the development of HCI in SA, such as:
HCI (Miller, 2003). Bekker (2003), a usability
consultant with Test and Data Services, has no- There is minimal awareness or a lack of appre-
ticed the following issues relating to HCI in the SA ciation within practitioners community of what
industry: HCI is about and the advantages of better
usability.
Most of her clients use the Rational Unified There is a lack of HCI culture in the country,
Process and Microsoft Solutions Framework and therefore a lack of appreciation of its
methodologies. commercial benefits in industry.
Her clients are new to the concepts of HCI. There is a lack of collaboration between the
SA companies are not designing usable soft- research and practitioner communities.
ware. There are concerns that the National Research
People at the heart of the development process Foundation (NRF) review panel lacks adequate
(the project managers and developers) fail to HCI expertise.
see the benefits of usability, and tend to ignore Only a small number of researchers are inter-
it (I think it is because they hardly ever have ested in HCI; ICT-related industry bodies are
contact with the users and have no idea how fragmented.
the users experience their system. They are There is a reliance on overseas provision of
highly computer literate people and cannot computer hardware such as high-resolution
understand that anyone can battle using their screens, and so forth.
system). Government has offered little support other
Developers do not fully understand the nature than the NRF Grant System and the Innova-
of the users, which frustrate them. tion Fund, which provide only low levels of
It is mostly the marketing and business depart- funding.
ments of companies that request usability work
from her.
264
HCI in South Africa
Pretorius, L., & Bosch, E. S. (2003). Enabling NRF: National Research Foundation, a govern-
computer interaction in the indigenous languages of ment national agency that is responsible for promot-
South Africa: The central role of computational ing and supporting basic, applied research as well as
morphology. Interactions, 10, 56-63. innovation in South Africa.
Wesson, J., & van Greunen, D. (2003, July 1-5). Usability: The ISO 9241-11 standard definition
New horizons for HCI in South Africa. Paper for usability identifies three different aspects: (1) a
presented at the Human-Computer Interaction: In- specified set of users, (2) specified goals (asks)
teract 03, Zurich, Switzerland. which have to be measurable in terms of effective-
ness, efficiency, and satisfaction, and (3) the context
Worthington-Smith, R. (Ed.). (2002). The e-busi- in which the activity is carried out.
ness handbook: The 2002 review of how South
African companies are making the Internet work.
Cape Town: Trialogue.
265
266
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Hedonic, Emotional, and Experiential Perspectives on Product Quality
theory, which formulates antecedents of personal Huang, 2003), while others see it as non-task related
well-being. Similarly, Csikszentmihalyis (1997) flow attributes, such as novelty or a products ability to 0
theory, which became especially popular in the evoke memories (e.g., Hassenzahl, 2003). Beside
context of analyzing Internet use (see Chen, Wigand, these slight differences in meaning, instrumental and
& Nilan, 1999; Novak, Hoffman, & Yung, 2000), non-instrumental aspects are mostly viewed as sepa-
suggests that individuals will experience a positive rate but complementing constructs. Studies, for ex-
psychological state (flow) as long as the challenge ample, showed instrumental as well as non-instru-
such an activity poses is met by the individuals mental aspects to be equally important predictors of
skills. Interactive products could tackle these chal- product appeal (e.g., Hassenzahl, 2002a; Huang,
lenges by opening up for novel and creative uses 2003). A noteworthy exception to the general notion
while, at the same time, providing appropriate means of ideally addressing instrumental and non-instru-
to master these challenges. mental needs simultaneously is Gavers et al. (2004b)
A second need identified by Ryan and Deci concept of ludic products. According to them, a
(2000) is relatednessa sense of closeness with ludic product promotes curiosity, exploration and de-
others. To experience relatedness requires social emphasizes the pursuit of external (instrumental)
interaction and as Robinson (1993, cited in Leventhal, goals. Or as Gaver (personal communication) put it:
Teasley, Blumenthal, Instone, Stone, & Donskoy, Ludic products ... arent clearly useful, nor are
1996) noted, products are inevitably statements in they concerned with entertainment alone. Their
the on-going interaction with relevant others. A usefulness is rather in prompting awareness and
product can be understood as an extension of an insight than in completing a given task. Gaver et al.
individuals self (Belk, 1988)its possession and (2004b) argue, then, for a new product category
use serves self-expressive functions beyond the aimed at solely supporting personal growth/com-
mere instrumental (e.g., Wicklund & Gollwitzer, petence by providing a context for new, challenging
1982). and intrinsically interesting experiences and by de-
To summarize, an appealing interactive product liberately turning the users focus away from func-
may support needs beyond the mere instrumental. tionality.
Needs that are likely to be important in the context A question closely related to instrumental and
of design and evaluation are competence/personal non-instrumental needs is their relative importance.
growth, which requires a balance between chal- Jordan (2000) argued for a hierarchical organization
lenge and ability and relatedness/self-expression, of needs (based on Maslows [1954] hierarchical
which requires a product to communicate favorable concept of human needs): The first level is product
messages to relevant others. functionality, the second level is usability and the
third level is pleasure, which consists of his four
non-instrumental aspects already presented earlier.
NEEDS BEYOND THE Such a model assumes that the satisfaction of instru-
INSTRUMENTAL mental needs is a necessary precondition for valuing
non-instrumental needs. A product must, thus, pro-
In this article, the terms instrumental and non- vide functionality, before, for example, being appre-
instrumental are used to distinguish between HCIs ciated for its self-expressive quality.
traditional view on IPQ and newer additions. Re- This strict assumption can be questioned. Souve-
peatedly, authors refer to instrumental aspects of nirs, for example, are products, which satisfy a non-
products as utilitarian (e.g., Batra & Ahtola, 1990), instrumental need (keeping a memory alive, see
functional (e.g., Kempf, 1999) or pragmatic (e.g., Hassenzahl, 2003) without providing functionality.
Hassenzahl, 2003), and to non-instrumental as he- However, for many products, functionality can be
donic. However, hedonic can have two different seen as a necessary precondition for acceptance. A
meanings: some authors understand it as the affec- mobile phone, for instance, which does not work will
tive quality (see section below) of a product, for definitely fail on the market, regardless of its non-
example, pleasure, enjoyment, fun derived from instrumental qualities.
possession or usage (e.g., Batra & Ahtola, 1990;
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Hedonic, Emotional, and Experiential Perspectives on Product Quality
One may, thus, understand a hierarchy as a par- the complex interplay of an individuals psychologi-
ticular, context-dependent prioritization of needs cal state (e.g., expectations, moods, saturation level)
(Sheldon, Elliott, Kim, & Kasser, 2001). The relative and the situation (product and particular context of
importance of needs may vary with product catego- use). Slight differences in one of the elements can
ries (e.g., consumers versus producers goods), lead to a different emotion. Another important
individuals (e.g., early versus late adopters) or spe- aspect is that emotions are transient. They occur,
cific usage situations. Hassenzahl, Kekez, and are felt, and last only a relatively short period of
Burmester (2002), for example, found instrumental time. Nevertheless, they are an important element
aspects of Web sites to be of value, only if participants of experience.
were given explicit tasks to achieve. Instrumental The ephemeral nature of emotions and the com-
aspects lost their importance for individuals with the plexity of eliciting conditions may make it difficult to
instruction to just have fun with the Web site. explicitly design them (Hassenzahl, 2004). Design-
ers would need control over as many elements of an
experience as possible. Good examples for environ-
EMOTIONS, AFFECT, AND ments with a high level of control from the designers
EXPERIENCE perspective are theme parks or movies. In product
design, however, control is not as high and, thus,
Recently, the term emotional design (Norman, 2004) designers may have to be content with creating the
gained significant attention in the context of HCI. possibility of an emotional reaction, for example, the
Many researchers and practitioners advocate the context for an experience rather than the experi-
consideration of emotions in the design of interactive ence itself (Djajadiningrat et al., 2000; Wright,
productsan interest probably triggered by sciences McCarthy, & Meekison, 2003).
general, newly aroused attention to emotions and In 1980, Zajonc (1980) questioned the view of
their interplay with cognition (e.g., Damasio, 1994). emotions as consequences of a cognitive appraisal.
In the context of HCI, Djajadiningrat, Overbeeke, He showed that emotional reactions could be in-
and Wensveen (2000), for instance, argued for ex- stantaneous, automatic without cognitive process-
plicitly taking both into account, knowing and feeling. ing. And indeed, neurophysiology discovered a neu-
Desmet and Hekkert (2002) went a step further by ral shortcut that takes information from the senses
presenting an explicit model of product emotions directly to the part of the brain responsible for
based on Ortony, Clore, and Collins (1988) emotion emotional reactions (amygdala) before higher order
theory. cognitive systems have had a chance to intervene
In general, emotions in design are treated in two (e.g., LeDoux, 1994). However, these instanta-
ways: some authors stress their importance as con- neous emotional reactions differ from complex
sequences of product use (e.g., Desmet & Hekkert, emotions like hate, love, disappointment, or satis-
2002, Hassenzahl, 2003; Kim & Moon, 1998; faction. They are more diffuse, mainly representing
Tractinsky & Zmiri, in press), whereas others stress a good/bad feeling of various intensities about an
their importance as antecedents of product use and object, person, or event. To distinguish this type of
evaluative judgments (e.g., Singh & Dalal, 1999), emotional reaction from the more complex dis-
visceral level in Norman (2004). cussed earlier, they are often called affective reac-
The Emotions as consequencesperspective tions in contrast to emotions. Norman (2004) la-
views particular emotions as the result of a cognitive beled the immediate reaction visceral (bodily) as
appraisal process (see Scherer, 2003). Initial affec- opposed to the more reflective.
tive reactions to objects, persons, or events are Importantly, ones own immediate, unmediated
further elaborated by combining them with expecta- affective reactions are often used as information
tions or other cognitive content. Surprise, for ex- (feelings-as-information, Schwarz & Clore, 1983),
ample, may be felt, if an event deviates from expec- influencing and guiding future behavior. Damasio
tations. In the case of a positive deviation, surprise (1994) developed the notion of somatic markers
may then give way to joy. An important aspect of attached to objects, persons, or events, which influ-
emotions is their situatedness. They are the result of ence the way we make choices by signaling good
268
Hedonic, Emotional, and Experiential Perspectives on Product Quality
or bad. Research on persuasion, for example, has of needs (when attributed to the product) is per-
identified two ways of information processing: sys- ceived as quality. Certainly, individuals have instru- 0
tematic (central) and heuristic (peripheral). Indi- mental goals and functional requirements that a
viduals not capable or motivated to process argu- product may fulfill; however, additional non-instru-
ment-related information, rely more strongly on pe- mental, hedonic needs are important, too. Two needs
ripheral cues, such as their own immediate affective seem to be of particular relevance: personal growth/
reactions towards an argument (e.g., Petty & competence and self-expression/relatedness.
Cacioppo, 1986). These results emphasize the im- Product attributes have to be identified, which signal
portance of a careful consideration of immediate, and fulfill instrumental as well as non-instrumental
product-driven emotional reactions for HCI. needs. A beautiful product, for example, may be
especially good for self-expression (Hassenzahl, in
press; Tractinsky & Zmiri, in press); a product that
FUTURE TRENDS balances simplicity/ease (usability) and novelty/stimu-
lation may fulfill the need for personal growth.
To design a hedonic interactive product requires Human needs are important, and individuals can
an understanding of the link between designable certainly reach general conclusions about their rela-
product features (e.g., functionality, presentational tive importance (see Sheldon et al., 2001). However,
and interactional style, content), resulting product quality is also rooted in the actual experience of a
attributes (e.g., simple, sober, exciting, friendly) and product. Experience consists of numerous elements
the fulfillment of particular needs. In the same vein (e.g., the product, the users psychological states,
as a particular user interface layout may imply their goals, other individuals, etc.) and their interplay
simplicity, which in turn promises fulfillment of the (see Wright et al., 2003). The complexity of an
need to achieve behavioral goals, additional at- experience makes it a unique eventhard to repeat
tributes able to signal and promote fulfillment of and even harder to create deliberately. But experi-
competency or self-expression needs (and ways to ence nevertheless matters. Experiences are highly
create these) have to be identified. We may, then, valued (Boven & Gilovich, 2003), and, consequen-
witness the emergence of principles for designing tially, many products are now marketed as experi-
hedonic products comparable to existing principles ences rather than products (e.g., Schmitt, 1999).
for designing usable products. From an HCI perspective, it seems especially impor-
As long as HCI strongly advocates a systematic, tant to better understand experiences in the context
user-centered design process (usability engineer- of product use.
ing, e.g., Mayhew, 1999; Nielsen, 1993), tools and Definitions of quality have an enormous impact
techniques will be developed to support the inclusion on the success of interactive products. Addressing
of non-instrumental needs and emotions. Some tech- human needs as a whole and providing rich experi-
niques have already emerged: measuring emotions ences would enhance the role of interactive prod-
in product development (e.g., Desmet, 2003), gath- ucts in the future.
ering holistic product perceptions (Hassenzahl,
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ences need no inferences. American Psychologist, account, or ordering a book in an online shop.
35, 151-175. Product attributes related to the achievement of
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ian, pragmatic, or functional.
KEY TERMS
Non-Instrumental Needs: Go beyond the mere
Affect: An umbrella term used to refer to mood, achievement of behavioral goals, such as self-ex-
emotion, and other processes, which address related pression or personal growth. Product attributes re-
phenomena. The present article more specifically lated to the fulfillment of non-instrumental needs are
uses the term affective reaction to distinguish an often referred to as hedonic. A more specific use
individuals initial, spontaneous, undifferentiated, and of the term hedonic stresses the products affec-
largely physiologically-driven response to an event, tive quality, for example, its ability to evoke positive
person, or object from the more cognitively differen- affective reactions (mood, emotions, see Affect
tiated emotion. term definition).
272
273
Kaushal Toprani
Drexel University, USA
Natasha Lobo
Drexel University, USA
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Trend detection has been studied by researchers in In this section, we briefly review trend detection and
many fields, such as statistics, economy, finance, its dependence on time and context, topic detection
information science, and computer science and tracking, supported by instances of their impact
(Basseville & Nikiforov, 1993; Chen, 2004; Del in diverse fields, and the emerging trend detection
Negro, 2001). Trend detection studies can be di- especially for text data.
vided into two broad categories. At technical levels,
the focus is on detecting and tracking emerging Trend Detection
trends based on dedicated algorithms; at decision
making and management levels, the focus is on the A trend is typically defined as a continuous change
process in which algorithmically identified temporal of a variable over a period of time, for example,
patterns can be translated into elements of a decision unemployment numbers increase as the economy
making process. enters a cycle of recession. Trend detection, in
Much of the work is concentrated in the first general, and topic detection techniques are groups of
category, primarily focusing on the efficiency and algorithmic tools designated to identify significant
effectiveness from an algorithmic perspective. In changes of quantitative metrics of underlying phe-
contrast, relatively fewer studies in the literature nomena. The goal of detection is to enable users to
have addressed the role of human perceptual and identify the presence of such trends based on a
cognitive system in interpreting and utilizing spectrum of monitored variables. The response time
algorithmically detected trends and changes in their of a detection technique can be measured by the
own working environments. In particular, human time duration of the available input data and the
factors have not been adequately taken into ac- identifiable trend; it is dependent on specific applica-
count; trend detection and tracking, especially in text tion domains. For example, anti-terrorism and na-
document processing and more recent emerging tional security may require highly responsive trend
application areas, has not been studied as integral detection and change detection capabilities, whereas
part of decision-making and related activities. How- geological and astronomical applications require long-
ever, rapidly growing technology, and research in range detection tools. Other applications of this
the field of human-computer interaction has opened technology exist in the fields of business and medi-
vast and, certainly, thought-provoking possibilities cine.
for incorporating usability and heuristic design into Much research has been done in the field of
the areas of trend detection and tracking. information retrieval, automatically grouping (clus-
tering) documents, performing automated text sum-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
marization, and automatically labeling groups of judgment would be Yes. In contrast, the relevance
documents. judgment of the same story and a different event
Policymakers and investigators are, obviously, descriptor U.S. Terrorism Response would be No.
eager to know if there are ways that can reliably Swan and Allan (1999) reported their work on
predict each turn in the economy. Economists have extracting significant time varying features from
developed a wide variety of techniques to detect and text based on this type of data.
monitor changes in economic activities. The concept An interesting observation of news stories is that
of business cycles is defined as fluctuations in the events are often reported in burst. Yang, Pierce, and
aggregate economic activities of a nation. A busi- Carbonell (1998) depicted a daily histogram of story
ness cycle includes a period of expansion, followed counts over time. News stories about the same event
by recessions, contractions, and revivals. Three tend to appear within a very narrow time frame. The
important characteristics are used when identifying gap between two bursts can be used to discriminate
a recession: duration, depth, and diffusion the distinct events.
three Ds. A recession has to be long enough, from a Kleinberg (2002) developed a burst detection
year to 10 years; a recession has to be bad enough, algorithm and applied to the arrivals of e-mail and
involving a substantial decline in output; and a reces- words used in titles of articles. Kleinberg was moti-
sion has to be broad enough, affecting several vated by the need to filter his e-mail. He expected
sectors of the economy. that whenever an important event occurs or is about
to occur, there should be a sharp increase of certain
Topic Detection and Tracking words that characterize the event. He called such
sharp increases bursts. Essentially, Kleinbergs burst
Topic Detection and Tracking (TDT) is a sub-field detection algorithm analyzes the rate of increase of
primarily rooted in information retrieval. TDT aims word frequencies and identifies the most rapidly
to develop and evaluate technologies required to growing words. He tested his algorithm on the full
segment, detect, and track topical information in a text of all the State of the Union addresses since
stream consisting of news stories. TDT has five 1790. The burst detection algorithm identified impor-
major task groups: (1) story segmentation, (2) topic tant events occurring at the time of some of the
detection, (3) topic tracking, (4) first story detection, speeches. For example, depression and recovery
and (5) story link detection. Topic detection focuses were bursty words in 1930-1937, fighting and
on discovering previously unseen topics, whereas Japanese were bursty in 1942-1945, and atomic
topic tracking focuses on monitoring stories known was the buzz word in 1947 and 1959.
to a TDT system. First story detection (FSD) aims
to detect the first appearance of a new story in a time
series of news associated with an event. Roy, Gevry, EMERGING TREND DETECTION
and Pottenger (2002) presented methodologies for (ETD)
trend detection. Kontostathis, Galitsky, Roy,
Pottenger, and Phelps (2003) gave a comprehensive ETD for Text Data
survey of emerging trend detection in textual data
mining in terms of four distinct aspects: (1) input data Unlike financial and statistical data typically found in
and attributes, (2) learning algorithms, (3) visualiza- an economists trend detection portfolio, ETD in
tion, and (4) evaluation. computer science often refers to the detection of
TDT projects typically test their systems on TDT trends in textual data, such as a collection of text
data sets, which contain news stories and event documents and a stream of news feed. ETD takes a
descriptors. The assessment of the performance of large collection of textual data as input and identifies
a TDT algorithm is based on Relevance Judgment, topic areas that are previously unseen or are grow-
which indicates the relevancy between a story and ing in importance with in the corpus (Kontostathis et
an event. Take the event descriptor Oklahoma City al., 2003). This type of data mining can be instrumen-
Bombing as an example. If a matching story is about tal in supporting the discovery of emerging trends
survivors reaction after the bombing, the relevance within an industry and improving the understanding
274
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
of large volumes of information maintained by or- Once the data corpus is scanned, the user should
ganizations (Aldana, 2000). In the past few years, be provided with feedback about the corpus. The 0
many companies have been storing their data elec- user should be provided with information like the
tronically. As the volume of data grows, it will hold number of documents found, number of topics (or
information, which if analyzed in the form of trends trends) found, number of new trends found, and
and patterns, can be valuable to the company, pro- other related information. For example, the system
vided it is appropriately and accurately extracted. By studied by Masao and Kiti (2000), produces an
using ETD, companies can extract the meaningful entity-relationship (ER) graph showing the relation
data and use it to gain a competitive advantage of topics. This not only shows the user what new
(Aldana, 2000). ETD provides a viable way to ana- trends were found, but also shows how they are
lyze the evolution of a field. The problem switches related. ETD systems should also support an adap-
from analyzing huge amounts of data to how to tive search mechanism. Users should have the
analyze huge amounts of data. option of providing keywords to search for emerg-
ing trends in specific fields.
The Role of HCI in ETD
275
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
Figure 1. The growth of the number of articles published on the topic of XML (Kontostathis et al.,
2003)
276
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
are shown along a time line of corresponding exter- Task analysis is a detailed description of an
nal events. A thematic river consists of frequency operators task, in terms of its components, to
streams of terms; the changing width of a stream specify the detailed human activities involved,
over time indicates the changes of term occur- and their functional and temporal relationships
rences. The occurrence of an external event may be (HCI Glossary, 2004). By having users describe
followed by sudden changes of thematic strengths. their process, step-by-step designers can learn much
On the one hand, searching for an abruptly widened about the users behavior. When conducting task
thematic stream is a much more intuitive task to analysis, have the users describe the steps they
detect a new story than text-based TDT systems would follow, the databases and tools they would
that can only report changes in terms of statistics. use, and the decision points in the process (Bartlett
There are many things to keep in mind while & Toms, 2003).
developing an HCI-friendly ETD system. The basic
usability goals can be used as a guideline to produc-
ing a user-friendly ETD system. By striving to make CONCLUSION
a system learnable, efficient, memorable, keep er-
rors under control, and give the user satisfaction Emerging trend detection is a promising field that
from using the system, the foundation for an HCI holds many applications. However, for ETD sys-
friendly system is laid. Table 1 defines each of the tems to reach their full potential, they must be
usability goals and how they can be applied in an effective, easy to learn, easy to understand, and easy
ETD system. to use. A poorly-designed system will shun users
A set of usability heuristics, proposed by Jakob away from this technology. It is important to remem-
Nielson (n.d.), can also pose as a good rule of thumb ber that ETD systems are interactive systems. An
(see Table 2). ETD system, that just takes a data corpus and scans
277
Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
it, is not an effective one. Users must be able to HCI Glossary (2004). Retrieved on August 13,
define and experiment with thresholds, view feed- 2004, from http://www.stack.nl/~cva/index.php
back about the data corpus, and be able to under-
Kleinberg, J. (2002, July 23-26). Bursty and hierar-
stand new trends.
chical structure in streams. In the Proceedings of
the 8th ACM SIGKDD International Conference
on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining,
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Human Factors in the Development of Trend Detection and Tracking Techniques
ment in Information Retrieval (SIGIR98), Paradigm shift is regarded as the key mechanism
Melbourne, Australia (pp. 28-36). New York: ACM that drives science. The core of science is the 0
Press. domination of a paradigm. Paradigm shift is neces-
sary for a scientific revolution, which is how science
advances.
KEY TERMS
Topic Detection and Tracking: A sub-field of
Burst Detection: The identification of sharp information retrieval. The goal is to detect the first
changes in a time series of values. Examples of appearance of text that differs from a body of
bursts include the increasing use of certain words in previously processed text, or to monitor the behaviour
association with given events. of some identified themes over time.
Information Visualization: A field of study Trend: The continuous growth or decline of a
aims to utilize humans perceptual and cognitive variable over a period of time.
abilities to enable and enhance our understanding of
Trend Detection: Using quantitative methods
patterns and trends in complex and abstract infor-
to identify the presence of a trend. A number of
mation. Computer-generated 2- and 3-dimensional
domain-specific criteria may apply to determine
interactive graphical representations are among the
what qualifies as a trend, for example, in terms of
most frequently used forms.
duration, diversity, and intensity. Primary quality
Intellectual Turning Points: Scientific work measures of trend detection include sensitivity and
that has fundamentally changed the subsequence accuracy.
development in its field. Identifying intellectual turn-
Turning Point: A turning point marks the begin-
ing points is one of the potentially beneficial areas of
ning or the end of a trend. For example, the point at
applications of trend detection techniques.
which economy turns from recession to growth.
Paradigm Shift: A widely known model in phi-
losophy of science proposed by Thomas Kuhn.
279
280
Juan Ares
University of A Corua, Spain
Rafael Garca
University of A Corua, Spain
Santiago Rodrguez
University of A Corua, Spain
Andrs Silva
Technical University of Madrid, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
281
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
Concepts Adjectives
A concept can be defined as a mental structure, The adjectives are used to determine the extent of
which, when applied to a problem, clarifies to the the meaning of the noun (adjectival determiners) or
point of solving this problem. Here, this term is used to qualify the noun (adjectival modifiers).
in the sense of anything that is relevant in the problem The adjectival determiners always accompany a
domain and about which something is to be expressed noun and do not have semantic traits that alter the
by the involved individuals. semantics of the noun phrase. Consequently, these
Interpreted in this manner, relationships, actions, elements do not have to be considered in a
and many other elements actually are concepts. conceptualization.
However, here, we only consider the concepts that The adjectival modifiers can be descriptive or
are proper to the problem domain; that is, concept relational. The former refer to a property of the
means anything that is, strictly speaking, proper to the noun that they qualify. These adjectives are classed
problem, which may refer to concrete or abstract, or into different types according to their semantic trait
elementary or compound things. (Miller, 1995): quality, size, type, and so forth. Only
The concepts thus considered are included within the type-related classification can lead to a new
C in the triplet (C, R, F), and bearing in mind HC2 interpretation to be conceptualizedthe relation-
(contraposition of a system of concepts with the real ship of generalization/specialization, which will be
world), a concept subsumes a set of objects that are described next.
specific occurrences of it. Finally, the relational adjectival modifiers allude
to the scope of the noun, and therefore, the above
Properties interpretation is also possible.
282
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
Case Grammar theories do not establish just one c. Defined by the Meaning of the Verb:
verb classification that depends on the semantic They are particular to each domain and 0
nuances and the cases considered. We have used generally differ from one domain to an-
the classification established by Martnez (1998), other. Therefore, a classification cannot
because it places special emphasis on justifications be established as for the previous relation-
based on natural language. Looking at this classifi- ships, where the meaning remains un-
cation, we find that there are the following different changed in any domain.
types of relationships:
Since a CML should be able to be used to
1. Generalization/Specialization: This repre- represent reality as closely as possible and gather
sents the semantics is a in natural language, most of the semantics, it should provide different
indicating the inclusion of a given concept in constructors for the different types of relationships.
another more general one. This relationship This distinction will make it possible to immediately
takes the form of a hierarchy of concepts in assimilate all the underlying semantics for each type.
which what is true for a set is also true for its
subsets. In this respect, remember here HC5 Other Grammatical Categories
(need for set theory) and the importance of
determining whether the sets (concepts) are There are linguistic structures that have not yet been
disjoint and totaldisjoint or overlap and total analyzed and which actually introduce aspects to be
or partial relationship, respectively. conceptualized: adverbs, locutions, and other linguis-
2. Aggregation: This represents the natural lan- tic expressions that are very frequent in problem
guage semantics part of, making it possible to modeling. The conceptual elements that these struc-
form a concept from other concepts of which tures introduce are as follows:
the former is composed. Aggregation is a Re-
lationship that Has the Property of Transitivity. 1. Constraints: No more than, like minimum,
However, it does not always appear to be and so forth.
transitive (e.g., the hands are part of a me- 2. Inferences and Calculations: Calculate,
chanic, and the mechanic is part of a company, if...then..., deduce, and so forth.
but the hands are not part of the company). 3. Sequence of Actions: First, second, after,
With the aim of resolving this paradox, several and so forth.
types of aggregations have been identified.
There are two main types of aggregation, and Constraints
the property of transitivity holds, provided that
the aggregations are of the same type, although A constraint can be defined as a predicate whose
they do not always lead to intransitivity, even if values are true or false for a set of elements.
they are different: Therefore, it can be viewed in the triplet (C,R,F) as
a. Member/Collection: The parts or mem- a function that constrains the possible values of
bers are included in the collection because these elements.
of their spatial proximity or social connec- Constraints are new elements to be conceptual-
tion. The parts of which the whole is ized but which affect the elements already identi-
composed are of the same type, and the fied. Indeed, constraints can be classified according
whole does not change if one is removed. to the element they affectconstraints on proper-
b. Compound/Component: The compo- ties, property values, or relationships. The first af-
nents perform a function or have a rela- fect the actual properties, demanding compulsoriness
tionship with respect to other components or unicity. The second affect property values, re-
or the whole that they form. The parts are stricting their possible values in the occurrences.
of different types, and the whole changes The third restrict the occurrences that can partici-
if a part is removed. pate in a relationship.
283
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
284
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
285
Human-Centered Conceptualization and Natural Language
Hoppenbrouwers, J., van der Vos, B., & Conceptual Model: An abstraction of the prob-
Hoppenbrouwers, S. (1997). NL structures and lem as well as a possible model of a possible concep-
conceptual modelling: Grammalizing for KISS. Data tual solution to the problem.
& Knowledge Engineering, 23(1), 79-92.
Conceptual Modeling: The use of concepts
Jackson, M. (1995). Software requirements and and their relationships to deal with and solve a
specifications. A lexicon of practice, principles problem.
and prejudices. New York: ACM Press.
Conceptual Modeling Language: A language
Jackson, M. (2000). Problem analysis and structure. used to represent conceptual models.
In T. Hoare, M. Broy, & R. Steinbruggen (Eds.),
Human/Problem-Sensitivity: The proximity to
Engineering theories of software construction-
the human-centered/problem-oriented concepts, as
proceedings of NATO summer school (pp. 3-20).
opposed to the computer-centered/software-oriented
Marktoberdorf: IOS Press.
concepts (i.e., computer/software solution-sensitiv-
Martnez, P. (1998). Una propuesta de ity).
estructuracin del conocimiento para el anlisis
Natural Language: A language naturally spo-
de textos: Una aplicacin a la adquisicin de
ken or written by human beings.
esquemas conceptuales de bases de datos [doc-
toral thesis]. Madrid, Spain: Technical University of Non-Syncategorematic Terms: These linguis-
Madrid. tic terms (also known as categorematic terms) are
capable of being employed by themselves as terms
Miller, G.A. (1995). WordNet: A lexical database
as opposed to syncategorematic terms.
for English. Communications of the ACM, 38(11),
39-41. Problem: A situation in which someone wants
something and does not immediately know what
Wand, Y., Monarchi, D., Parsons, J., & Woo, C.
actions to take to get it.
(1995). Theoretical foundations for conceptual mod-
eling in information systems development. Decision Syncategorematic Terms: These linguistic
Support Systems, 15(4), 285-304. terms cannot stand as the subject or the predicate of
a proposition. They must be used in conjunction with
other terms, as they have meaning only in such
KEY TERMS
combination.
Concept: A mental structure derived from ac-
quired information, which, when applied to a prob-
lem, clarifies to the point of solving this problem.
286
287
Volker Roth
OGM Laboratory LLC, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Human-Computer Interaction and Security
Perception of security frequently is very inaccu- sidiary methods and the fact that people often seem
rate. Security mechanisms often are perceived as to switch to the telephone when talking about impor-
holistic tools that provide protection against threats, tant things (Grinter & Palen, 2002) indicates the poor
without any detailed knowledge about the actual perception users have of security technology.
scope. Therefore, specialized tools often are consid- The feeling of futility was reported with respect
ered as insufficient, as they do not offer general to the need for constantly upgrading security mecha-
protection. On the other hand, people might feel nisms in a rather evolutionary struggle (i.e., if some-
protected by a tool that does not address the relevant body really wants to break in, he or she will). As a
issue and thus remain unprotected (e.g., firewall result, personal accountability was not too high, as
protects against e-mail virus). users believed that in a situation where someone
Perception of threats also reveals clear miscon- misused his or her account, personal credibility
ceptions. None of the users asked considered them- would weigh more than computer-generated evi-
selves as really endangered by attacks. As potential dence, in spite of the fact that the fallibility of
victims, other persons in their organization or other passwords is generally agreed.
organizations were identified, such as leading per- The social context has been reported to play an
sonnel, people with important information, or high- important role in day-by-day security, as users are
profile institutions. Only a few of them realized the not permanently vigilant and aware of possible threats
fact that they, even though not being the target, could but rather considered with getting their work done.
be used as a stepping stone for an attack. The Therefore, it is no wonder that users try to delegate
general attitude was that no one could do anything responsibility to technical systems (encryption,
with the information on my computer or with my e- firewalls, etc.), colleagues and friends (the friend as
mails. expert), an organization (they know what they do),
Potential attackers mainly were expected to be or institutions (the bank cares for secure transfers).
hackers or computer kids, with no explicit malevo- Most people have a strong belief in the security of
lent intentions but rather seeking fun. Notorious and their companys infrastructure. Delegation brings
disturbing but not really dangerous offenders, such security out of the focus of the user and results in
as vandals, spammers, and marketers, were per- security unawareness, as security is not a part of the
ceived as a frequent threat, while on the other hand, working procedure anymore.
substantially dangerous attackers such as criminals Whenever no clear guidelines are available, people
were expected mainly in the context of online bank- often base their practice on the judgments of others,
ing. making the system vulnerable to social engineering
The attitude toward security technology was methods (Mitnick, Simon, & Wozniak, 2002). In
rather reserved. Generally, several studies reported some cases, collaboration appears to make it neces-
three major types of attitudes toward security: pri- sary or socially opportune to disclose ones pass-
vacy fundamentalists, privacy pragmatists, and pri- word to others for practical reasons, technical rea-
vacy unconcerned (Ackerman et al., 1999). Users sons, or as a consequence of social behavior, since
experiences played a considerable role in their atti- sharing a secret can be interpreted as a sign of trust.
tude, as experienced users more often considered Such sharing is a significant problem, as it is used in
security as a hindrance and tried to circumvent it in social engineering in order to obtain passwords and
a pragmatic fashion in order to reach their work to gain access to systems.
objectives. Weirich and Sasse (2001) report that Dourish et al. (2003) came to the conclusion that
none of the users absolutely obeyed the prescribed where security research has typically focused on
rules, but all were convinced that they would do the theoretical and technical capabilities and opportuni-
best they could for security. ties, for end users carrying out their work on com-
Additionally, users individual practices are often puter systems, the problems are more prosaic (p.
in disagreement with security technology. People 12). The authors make the following recommenda-
use legal statements in e-mail footers or cryptic e- tions for the improvement of security mechanisms in
mails, not giving explicit information but using con- the system and in the organizational context:
textual cues instead. In conjunction with such sub-
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Human-Computer Interaction and Security
Users should be able to access security settings upon success, his or her authorization to the IT
easily and as an integral part of the actions, not system. 0
in the separated fashion as it is today; therefore, The crucial authentication step generally is car-
security issues should be integrated in the de- ried out based on something the subject knows, has,
velopment of applications (Brostoff & Sasse, or is. By far the most widespread means of authen-
2001; Gerd tom Markotten, 2002). tication is based on what a subject has (e.g., a key).
It is necessary that people can monitor and Keys unlock doors and provide access to cars,
understand the potential consequences of their apartments, and contents of a chest in the attic.
actions (Irvine & Levin, 2000) and that they Keys are genuinely usablefour-year-olds can
understand the security mechanisms employed handle them. In the world of IT, something the
by the organization. subject knows (e.g., a password or a secret per-
Security should be embedded into working prac- sonal identification number [PIN]) is the prominent
tice and organizational arrangement, and visible mechanism.
and accessible in everyday physical and social The exclusiveness of access to an IT system
environment (Ackerman & Cranor, 1999). protected by a password rests on the security of the
Security should be part of the positive values in password against guessing, leaving aside other tech-
an organization. So-called social marketing could nical means by which it may or may not be broken.
be used to establish a security culture in a From an information theoretic standpoint, a uni-
company. formly and randomly chosen sequence of letters
The personal responsibility and the danger of and other symbols principally provides the greatest
personal embarrassment could increase the feel- security. However, such a random sequence of
ing of personal liability. unrelated symbols also is hard to remember, a
The importance of security-aware acting should relation that is rooted in the limitation of humans
be made clear by emphasizing the relevance to cognitive capabilities.
the organizations reputation and financial dan- As a remedy, a variety of strategies were in-
gers. vented to construct passwords that humans can
memorize more easily without substantially sacri-
As has been shown, the design and implementa- ficing the security of a password (e.g., passwords
tion of security mechanisms are closely interlinked to based on mnemonic phrases). For instance, Yan, et
the psychological and sociological aspects of the al. (2000) conducted a study with 400 students on
users attitude and compliance toward the system. the effect of three forms of advice on choosing
Any security system is in danger of becoming ineffi- passwords. They found, for example, that pass-
cient or even obsolete if it fails to provide adequate words based on pass phrases were remembered as
support and motivate users for its proper usage. The easily as naively chosen passwords, while being as
following sections discuss these findings in the con- hard to crack as randomly chosen passwords. In-
text of the main application domains of computer sight into human cognition also has led to the
security. investigation of alternatives such as cognitive pass-
words (Zviran & Haga, 1990), word associations
(Smith, 1987), pass phrases (Spector & Ginzberg,
AUTHENTICATION 1994), images (Dhamija & Perrig, 2000), or pass
faces (Brostoff & Sasse, 2000).
Information technology extends our ability to com- Authentication in public places, as is the case
municate, to store and retrieve information, and to with automatic teller machines (ATM), has turned
process information. With this technology comes the out to be vulnerable to attacks, where criminals
need to control access to its applications for reasons obtain a users PIN by using cameras or other
of privacy and confidentiality, national security, or methods of observation in so-called shoulder-surf-
auditing and billing, to name a few. Access control in ing attacks (Colville, 2003). In order to obscure the
an IT system typically involves the identification of a numbers entered by the user and thus hamper the
subject, his or her subsequent authentication, and, recording of the necessary PIN, several techniques
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have been proposed (Hopper & Blum, 2001; Wilfong, (RFC 2440) and the increasingly complex ITU Rec-
1997). Recently, Roth, et al. (2004) suggested vari- ommendation X.509-based PKIX model (RFC 3280)
ants of cognitive trapdoor games to protect users (Davis, 1996; Ellison, 1996, 1997; Ellison & Schneier,
against shoulder-surfing attacks. In this approach, 2000).
the buttons on a PIN pad are colored either black or In applications such as electronic mail, building
white, and the user has to decide whether the trust in certificates, exchanging keys, and managing
number to be entered is in the black or white group. keys account for the majority of the interactions and
As the colors are changing randomly, the user has to decisions that interfere with the goal-oriented tasks
enter the same number three to four times to com- of a user and that the user has difficulty understand-
plete an input. By blurring the response set with so- ing (Davis, 1996; Gutmann, 2003; Whitten & Tygar,
called shadows, this method can be made resistant 1999). At the same time, the majority of users only
against camera attacks. Even though this approach has limited understanding of the underlying trust
is slightly more complicated than the classical ap- models and concepts (Davis, 1996) and a weak
proach, this technique has proven to be accepted by perception of threats (see previous discussion).
the user in an experimental setting. Consequently, they avoid or improperly operate the
security software (Whitten & Tygar, 1999).
In the safe staging approach, security functions
E-MAIL SECURITY may be grouped into stages of increasing complex-
ity. A user may begin at a low stage and progress to
Before the middle of the 1970s, cryptography was a higher stage once the user understands and mas-
built entirely on symmetric ciphers. This meant that ters the security functions at the lower stages. The
in order for enciphered communication to take place, safe-staging approach was proposed by Whitten &
a secret key needed to be exchanged beforehand Tygar (2003), who also pioneered research on the
over a secure out-of-band channel. One way of usability of mail security by analyzing users perfor-
doing that was to send a trusted courier to the party mances when operating PGP (Whitten & Tygar,
with whom one intended to communicate securely. 1999).
This procedure addressed two important issues: the
secret key exchange and the implicit authentication
of the exchanged keys. Once established, the keys SYSTEM SECURITY
could be used to secure communication against
passive and active attacks until the key was ex- Computer systems progressed from single user sys-
pected to become or became compromised. tems and multi-user batch processing systems to
When asymmetric cryptography (Diffie & multi-user time-sharing systems, which brought the
Hellman, 1976; Rivest, Shamir, & Adleman, 1978) requirement to sharing the system resources and at
was invented in the 1970s, it tremendously simplified the same time to tightly control the resource alloca-
that task of key exchange, and gave birth to the tion as well as the information flow within the
concept of digital signatures. Asymmetric cryptog- system. The principal approach to solving this is to
raphy did not solve the problem of authenticating establish a verified supervisor software also called
keys per se. Although we now can exchange keys the reference monitor (Anderson, 1972), which con-
securely in the clear, how could one be certain that trols all security-relevant aspects in the system.
a key actually belonged to the alleged sender? However, the Internet tremendously accelerated
Toward a solution to this problem, Loren Kohnfelder the production and distribution of software, some of
(1978) invented the public key certificate, which is a which may be of dubious origin. Additionally, the
public key and an identity, signed together in a clever increasing amounts of so-called malware that thrives
way with the private key of a key introducer whom on security flaws and programming errors lead to a
the communicating parties need to trust. This idea situation where the granularity of access control in
gave rise to the notion of a public key infrastructure multi-user resource-sharing systems is no longer
(PKI). Some existing models of public key infra- sufficient to cope with the imminent threats. Rather
structures are the OpenPGP Web of Trust model than separating user domains, applications them-
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Human-Computer Interaction and Security
selves increasingly must be separated, even if they and devices in order to provide an intelligent sur-
run on behalf of the same user. A flaw in a Web rounding for tomorrows citizens. Radio frequency 0
browser should not lead to a potential compromise of identification transmitters (RFID) already have been
other applications and application data such as the discussed with respect to their implications on pri-
users e-mail client or word processor. Despite vacy (Weis, 2004). Certainly, one persons contex-
efforts to provide solutions to such problems tual awareness is another persons lack of privacy
(Goldberg et al., 1996) as well as the availability of (Hudson & Smith, 1996). In the future, the develop-
off-the-shelf environments in different flavors of ment of powerful and usable security concepts for
Unix, fine-grained application separation has not yet applying personal information to the context and vice
been included as a standard feature of a COTS versa is one of the greatest challenges for todays
operating system. security engineers and human-computer interaction
Even if such separation were available, malicious research (Ackerman, Darell, & Weitzner, 2001). To
software may delude the user into believing, for accomplish this task seems crucial for future accep-
example, that a graphical user interface (GUI) com- tance and for chances of such technologies without
ponent of the malware belongs to a different trusted them becoming a privacy Chernobyl (Agre, 1999).
application. One means of achieving this is to mimic
the visual appearance and responses of the genuine
application. One typical example would be a fake CONCLUSION
login screen or window. Assurance that a certain
GUI component actually belongs to a particular The view of the user as the weakest link and
application or the operating system component re- potential security danger finally has turned out to be
quires a trusted path between the user and the an obsolescent model. Security engineers and per-
system. For instance, a secure attention key that haps, more importantly, those people who are re-
cannot be intercepted by the malware may switch to sponsible for IT security have noticed that working
a secure login window. While this functionally is against the user will not do, and instead, they have
available in some COTS operating systems, current decided to work with and for the user. During the
GUIs still provide ample opportunity for disguise, a past years, an increasing number of research has
problem that also is eminent on the Web (Felten, focused on the issue of making security usable,
Balfanz, Dean, & Wallach, 1997). One approach to addressing the traditional fields of authentication,
solving this problem for GUIs is to appropriately communication, and e-mail and system security.
mark windows so that they can be associated with This article has given a brief overview of some of the
their parent application (Yee, 2002). One instance of work done so far. In order to make information
a research prototype windowing system designed technology more secure, the user is the central
with such threats in mind is the EROS Trusted instance. The user must be able to properly use the
Window System (Shapiro, Vanderburgh, Northup, security mechanisms provided. Therefore, under-
& Chizmadia, 2003). standing users needs and identifying the reasons
that technology fails to convince users to employ it
is crucial. The first part of this article summarized
FUTURE TRENDS some work done by Dourish, Weirich, and Sasse that
provided important insights. But much work still has
Mobile computing and the emergence of context- to be done.
aware services progressively are integrating into Future technology will build even more on the
new and powerful services that hold the promise of integration and sharing of heterogeneous sources of
making life easier and safer. Contextual data will information and services. The tendency toward dis-
help the user to configure and select the services the tributed and location-based information infrastruc-
user needs and even might elicit support proactively. tures will lead to new security problems. Feeling
Far beyond that, Ambient Intelligence (IST Advi- safe is an important aspect of acceptance. The
sory Group, 2003) is an emerging vision of dynami- success of tomorrows systems also will depend on
cally communicating and cooperating appliances the users feeling safe while sharing information and
291
Human-Computer Interaction and Security
using services, which has already been shown during Davis, D. (1996). Compliance defects in public key
the first stage of e-commerce. Therefore, making cryptography. Proceedings of the 6 th USENIX
security usable is an important aspect of making Security Symposium.
security safe.
Dhamija, R., & Perrig, A. (2000). Deja vu: A user
study using images for authentication. Proceedings
of the 9th USENIX Security Symposium, Denver,
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Zviran, M., & Haga, W. J. (1990). Cognitive pass- services. This often occurs in the context of PIN
words: The key to easy access control. Computers numbers and banking transactions, where shoulder
& Security, 9, 723-736. surfing occurs together with the stealthy duplication
of credit or banking cards.
KEY TERMS Social Engineering: The technique of exploit-
ing the weakness of users rather than software by
Asymmetric Cryptography: A data encryption convincing users to disclose secrets or passwords by
system that uses two separate but related encryption pretending to be authorized staff, network adminis-
keys. The private key is known only to its owner, trator, or the like.
while the public key is made available in a key
Spoofing: The technique of obtaining or mimick-
repository or as part of a digital certificate. Asym-
ing a fake identity in the network. This can be used
metric cryptography is the basis of digital signature
for pretending to be a trustworthy Web site and for
systems.
motivating users (e.g., entering banking informa-
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): The public tion), pretending to be an authorized instance that
infrastructure that administers, distributes, and cer- requests the users password, or making users ac-
tifies electronic keys and certificates that are used to cept information that is believed to come from a
authenticate identity and encrypt information. Gen- trusted instance.
erally speaking, PKI is a system of digital certifi-
Types of Authentication: Authentication gen-
cates, certification authorities, and registration au-
erally can be based on three types of information: by
thorities that authenticate and verify the validity of
some thing the user has (e.g., bank card, key, etc.),
the parties involved in electronic transactions.
by something the user knows (e.g., password, num-
Shoulder Surfing: The practice of observing ber, etc.), or by something the user is (e.g., biometric
persons while entering secret authentication infor- methods like fingerprints, face recognition, etc.).
mation in order to obtain illegal access to money or
294
295
Anupam Basu
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharapur, India
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication
and health-care disciplines. It aims at reaching an unfamiliar environments (Stanger et al., 1994). Smart
optimum mental, physical, and/or functional level wheelchairs solve some of these requirements. They
(United Nations 1983). In the following, we look at are capable of avoiding obstacles and can operate in
the methodology adopted in this field in order to solve multiple modes, which can be identified as following
the aforementioned problems. a particular strategy of navigation (Levine et al.,
1999).
The problem is quite different in the case of the
AN OVERVIEW OF ASSISTIVE visually disabled population. Visual data are rich and
DEVICES easily interpreted. Therefore, to encode visual data
to any other form is not trivial. Haptic interface
Solving the whole gamut of problems faced by this technology seeks to fill this gap by making digital
community requires the construction of what are information tangible. However, haptic interfaces
called smart houses. Smart houses are used by old are not as rich as visual interfaces in dissemination
people and people with disabilities. An extensive of information. To make these haptic environments
review of the issues concerning smart houses ap- richer and, hence, more useful, methods like speech
pears in Stefanov, et al. (2004). Broadly speaking, output, friction, and texture have been added to
these houses contain a group of equipment that highlight different variations in data, such as color
caters to the different needs of the inhabitants. The (Fritz et al., 1999). Braille was devised in order for
technology installed in these homes should be able to blind people to read and write words. Letters can be
adapt to each persons needs and habits. represented through tactile menus, auditory pat-
However, the construction of this technology is terns, and speech in order to identify them.
not a simple task. Assistive and Augmentative Com- As far as assistance for navigation in physical
munication (AAC) aims to use computers to simplify terrains is considered, visually impaired people can
and quicken the means of interaction between the use dogs and canes to prevent obstacles. However,
disabled community and their able-bodied counter- it is clear that these options are limited in many
parts. The tasks of AAC, therefore, can be seen as senses. For example, these might not help these
facilitating the interaction with the world and the use people in avoiding higher obstacles like tree branches.
of computers. Interaction with the world is facili- In Voth (2004), the author explains the working of a
tated by one of the following methods: low-cost, wearable vision aid that alerts its user of
stationary objects. The technology is based on the
Design of robotic systems for assistance. observation that objects in the foreground reflect
Design of systems that help in indoor naviga- more light than those that are not. The luminance of
tion, such as smart wheelchairs. different objects is tracked over several frames, and
Devices that convert normal speech to alpha- the relative luminance is compared in order to iden-
betic or sign language (Waldron et al., 1995). tify objects that are coming closer. The software
Devices that convert sign language gestures informs the user when the object comes too close
into voice-synthesized speech, computer text, (i.e., at an arms length), and a warning icon is
or electronic signals. displayed onto a mirror in front of the eyes of the
Design of special software-like screen readers user.
and text-to-speech systems for the blind popu- To help these people to use computers more
lation (Burger, 1994). effectively, three of the following types of problems
must be handled:
For physically disabled people, researchers have
designed motorized wheelchairs that are capable of It should be noted that this population might be
traversing uneven terrains and circumventing ob- unable to provide input in the required form.
stacles (Wellman et al., 1995). Robots have been This inability becomes critical when physical or
used to assist users with their mundane tasks. Stud- cognitive challenges seriously inhibit the move-
ies have shown that task priorities of users demand ment of limbs. This entails the design of spe-
a mobile device capable of working in diverse and cial-purpose access mechanisms for such
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Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication
people. This leads to the design of hardware The most difficult problems facing the human-
plug-ins, which can provide an interface be- computer interaction community is to find appropri- 1
tween the subject and the computer. Scanning ate solutions to problems faced by cognitively chal-
emulators have been used to help them to inter- lenged people. For solutions to problems like autism
act with the computer. Instruments like a head- and dyslexia, a detailed model of the brain deficien-
operated joystick that uses infrared LEDs and cies need to be known. Some efforts have been
photo detectors also have been designed (Evans made to solve these problems. The case in which
et al., 2000). rapid speech resulted in problems of comprehen-
Cognitive impairments lead to slow input. To sion was dealt with in Nagarajan et al. (1998).
ensure that the communication runs at a practi- Different speech modulation algorithms have been
cal speed, it is mandatory that we design strat- designed, which have proved to be effective for this
egies to quicken the rate of input. Two strate- population. Attempts have been made to design
gies are used to increase the rate of input. One word processors for dyslexic people (Gregor et al.,
of them is to work with partial input and infer its 2000).
remaining constituents. This works because our The case of autistic people is similar. Generally,
language has many redundant and predictable autistic conversation is considered as disconnected
constituents. Given a model of language, we or unordered. Discourse strategies have been used
can work with truncated and incomplete input. to find out the patterns of problems in such people.
The second strategy, which increases the rate These studies have concentrated on finding the
of the input, is adaptive display techniques. This, typical features of conversation with an autistic
too, depends upon a model of the domain. This patient. These include length and complexity of
model is used to predict the next most likely structure; categories of reference; ellipsis; and
input of the user, and the system adapts itself to phonological, syntactic, and semantic interrelation-
make sure that the user makes less effort to ships. Studies also have shown that autistic people
choose this input. The same philosophy works in have a tendency to turn to earlier topics within a
the case of toolkits like word prediction soft- conversation and turn to favored topics cross-
ware. conversationally. Solutions to the problems faced
Language and cognitive disabilities also lead to by these communities are important research ar-
noise in communication. Therefore, the meth- eas. To diagnose their deficiencies and to use
ods used should be robust and fault-tolerant. models of man-machine dialogue in order to com-
prehend and support the dialogue is a non-trivial and
We now discuss some of the systems that imple- challenging task.
ment the aforementioned ideas. Reactive keyboards Another reason for difficulty in using computers
(Darragh et al., 1990) aim to partially automate and stems from computer naivety, which can lead to
accelerate communication by predicting the next problems in using and dealing with the desktop
word the user is going to type. This requires adaptive metaphor. This can lead to poor understanding of
modeling of the task, based on the previously entered the knowledge of the keys, poor knowledge of the
text or a language model. However, there is evidence way in which applications work, and poor acquisi-
that the cognitive load accrued in searching among tion of the conceptual model for mouse-cursor
the predicted list outweighs the keystroke savings position. Dealing with mouse pointers becomes
(Koester et al., 1994). Prediction of texts also can be even more cumbersome when the vision is imper-
augmented with the help of a semantic network fect. The mouse pointer may get lost in the complex
(Stocky et al., 2004). Signing, finger spelling and lip background or be beyond the desktop boundaries
reading are used for communicating with the deaf. without the user realizing it. The problem reaches
People also have attempted sign language communi- epic proportions when small screens are used.
cation through telephone lines (Manoranjan et al., Mouse pointer magnification and auditory signals
2000). Numerous applications, such as translation of can be used to keep the user aware of the precise
word documents to Braille, have been done location of the pointer. The software also can be
(Blenkhorn et al., 2001). configured to help the user ask for help in cases
297
Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication
298
Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication
of unordered semantically overloaded icons. In par- in performing their day-to-day activities (Ross, 2001).
ticular, they formulated the problem as a constraint Devices that are used for people with progressive 1
satisfaction problem over the case roles of the verb debilitating diseases must have the flexibility to
and discussed different knowledge representation change with users needs. In general, the need for
issues, which must be tackled in order to generate these devices to be adaptive cannot be discounted.
semantically correct iconic sentences. In another These devices should be able to accommodate a
approach for disambiguation, Albacete, et al. (1998) wide range of users preferences and needs.
used conceptual dependency to generate natural Wayfinders and devices helping to navigate an un-
language sentences. The formalism has the strength certain environment are difficult to come by. For
that it can handle considerable ambiguity. New example, it might be difficult for a deaf and blind
concepts are generated from different operations on person to cross a street. Research for creating
different concepts. The strength of the formalism practical, real-time, embedded, intelligent systems
derives from the fact that the authors define primi- that can operate in uncertain and dynamic environ-
tive connectors, which encode rules, which define ments is required.
how differently the operators modify categories. Evaluation and scaling up of iconic environments
The aforementioned systems can support the over- have become pressing needs. Generation of seman-
loading of meanings to a large extent. While the tically correct sentences is the core issue in this
former derives the overloading via use of complex field. Knowledge-based or domain-specific systems
icons, the latter uses operators to derive new con- do not help the cause of creating communication
cepts from existing concepts. These systems do not across languages. We foresee the use of richer
report empirical evaluation of their approaches. reasoning and learning methods in order to move
However, it can be seen as understanding the com- away from the bottleneck of encoding of huge and
position that operators might be difficult for people diverse world knowledge. This will require funda-
suffering from brain impairments and attention span mental research in the semantics of language and
problems. our protocols of society.
To make a universal iconic system, it is important
to consider cultural issues like symbols, colors, func-
tionality, language, orthography, images, appear- CONCLUSION
ance, perception, cognition, and style of thinking. It
has been verified experimentally that Minspeak In this article, we have discussed the issues concern-
icons need to be customized for users of different ing assistive devices. We then expounded the meth-
cultural contexts (Merwe et al., 2004). The design of ods and techniques used by researchers to solve
a culturally universal icon set is an open issue. them. Iconic interfaces play a crucial role in one of
the sectors of rehabilitation. However, their strength
can be exploited only if rich inference methods can
FUTURE TRENDS be designed to disambiguate them. We then com-
pared some of the methods used for this task. We
In the years to come, we will witness the trend to concluded that fundamental research in all areas of
move toward affective and adaptive computing. If natural language and brain deficiencies must be
machines have to take over humans in critical, done to solve these problems satisfactorily.
health-related domains, they must be able to assess
the physiological and emotional state of the user in
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301
Iconic Interfaces for Assistive Communication
difficult because of the huge world knowledge re- Widgets: The way of using a physical input
quired for comprehending and reasoning about natu- device to input a certain value. These are exten-
ral language. sively used and are popular in the case of people with
neuromotor disabilities.
Smart Houses: Houses that are equipped with
self-monitoring assistive devices of many types.
Smart houses are popular with old people. ENDNOTE
User Model: A model induced by machine- 1
This work is supported by grants from Media
learning techniques from the available information
Lab Asia.
and patterns of data from the user. This model is
used by the system to predict future user actions.
302
303
Sarah Woods
University of Hertfordshire, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
304
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
like/dislike of characters, as well as two empathic interacted with FearNot on standard PCs. FearNot
measures (feeling sorry for a character and feeling began with a physical bullying scenario comprised 1
angry with a character). of three episodes and children had the role of an
advisor to help provide the victim character with
coping strategies to try and stop the bullying
THE FEARNOT STUDY behaviour. After the physical scenario, children had
the opportunity to interact with the relational sce-
FearNot was trialed at the Virtually Friends event at nario showing the drama of bullying among four
the University of Hertfordshire, UK, in June 2004. girls. After the interaction children completed the
Three hundred and forty-five children participated in Agent Evaluation Questionnaire (AEQ). This was
the event: 172 male (49.9%) and 173 female (50.1%). designed in order to evaluate childrens perceptions
The sample age range was 8 to 11, mean age of 9.95 and views of FearNot, see Table 1. This question-
(SD: 0.50). The sample comprised of children from a naire is based on the Trailer Questionnaire (Woods,
wide range of primary schools in the South of England. Hall, Sobral, Dautenhahn, & Wolke, 2003) that has
been used extensively with a non-interactive FearNot
Method prototype as is reported in Hall et al. (2004b).
Questions relating to choosing characters were
Two classes from different schools participated each answered by selecting character names (posters of
day in the evaluation event. All children individually the characters were displayed with both a graphic
305
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
45
40
35
30
Percentage
25
20
boys
15
girls
10
5
0
John
Paul
Luke
Frances
Janet
Sarah
Martina
None
Liked most character
John: Victim Paul: Defender Luke: Bully Frances: Victim Janet: Bully
and the name as an aide memoire). Childrens views female bully character in appearance, only 4 (2.5%)
were predominantly measured according to a 5 point liked them the most.
Likert scale. There were no significant differences related to
whom you looked like and disliking characters, with
Results the dislike clearly being based on alternative factors
to appearance. Similar to the results of Courtney,
Gender was a significant factor in the selection of Cohen, Deptula, and Kitzmann (2003), children dis-
which character was most similar in physical ap- liked the bullies (aggressors) the most, followed by
pearance to you, with almost all of the children the victims and then the bystanders. Most children
choosing a same gender character or none. There disliked Luke, the physical bullying protagonist fol-
was a significant association for those children who lowed by Sarah, the relational bully, then the victims.
felt that a same gender character looked like them As in other results (Hall et al., 2004), children paid
and also liked a same gender character: boys (X = scant attention to the bully assistants, and only 5% of
23.534, (8, 108), p = 0.001) girls (X = 24.4, (4, 89), p children disliked Janet the most.
< 0.001), meaning that boys liked male characters A significant association was found between the
that looked like them, and girls liked female charac- character children felt looked the most like them and
ters that resembled them. feeling sorry for characters in the drama. Looking
As can be seen from Figure 3, children liked like any of the female characters (e.g., being fe-
those characters who looked the most similar to male) is more likely to result in feeling sorry for the
them, if the character played a defender, neutral or victims, with over 80% of those who felt that they
victim role. However, where the character was a looked like any of the female characters feeling
bully, children were not as likely to like the character sorry for the victims. If children (mainly boys) felt
that they were similar to in appearance, particularly that Luke (62%) looked the most like them, they
among the girls. Thirty-five percent of boys who expressed the least amount of empathy towards the
looked like Luke liked him the most, although almost characters in the dramas, however, only 67% of
a third of the girls stated that they resembled a those who felt that they looked like John felt sorry for
306
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
Figure 3. Character child looked most similar to in appearance and liked the most
1
the victims, as compared to 87% of those (all fe- when developers seek to evoke empathic interaction
male) who felt they looked like Frances. that they should attempt to create synthetic charac-
A significant association was found between the ters that are similar to the intended users. Interest-
character children felt looked most like them and ingly, our results also highlighted that while looking
feeling anger towards characters in the dramas. like a character may result in you being more inclined
Again this result is related to gender, with signifi- to like them, if they exhibit morals, ethics, and
cantly more girls than boys feeling anger towards the behaviours that are socially unacceptable, such as
characters. However, the results still indicate that bullying, this can have a significant impact on your
appearance similarity could have an impact on the liking of that character. This reflects real-world
evocation of anger. Boys who stated that Luke behaviour, with all reported studies of childrens
looked the most similar to them felt the least amount reactions to aggressive behaviour/bullying support-
of anger towards characters (46%), followed by ing the view that children are more likely to dislike
John (61%) and Paul (78%). For the girls, those who aggressors the most, followed by victims and then
felt they looked most like Sarah the bully were most bystanders (Courtney et al., 2003). Our results
likely to be angry (95.5%) compared to 71% of those supported this view.
who looked most similar to Frances (the victim), Trusting and believing in synthetic characters
suggesting that girls were more likely to be angry if and possible impact on real-life behaviour appears to
the bully were similar to them, whereas boys were be linked to perceived similarity. However, although
less likely to be angry if the bully were similar to perceived similarity may be a major factor in en-
them. For those children who stated that none of the gagement with synthetic characters, there is also
characters looked like them, 66% identified that they considerable evidence from the performing arts that
felt angry, reflecting the higher number of boys than engagement can readily occur with characters very
girls in this group. dissimilar to oneself.
The results indicate that greater levels of empathy This study has highlighted the potential for similarity
are evoked in children if they perceive that they are and empathic interaction; however, further research
similar to the characters. This would suggest that is needed in this area. Future research directions
307
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
include the impact of greater physical similarity on action. Amsterdamn, The Netherlands: John
empathic interaction, with research in virtual hu- Benjamins.
manoids considering more realistic and similar fea-
Bates, J. (1994). The role of emotion in believable
tures and expressions (Fabri, Moore, & Hobbs,
agents. Communications of the ACM, 37(7), 122-
2004). The importance of cultural similarity is also
125.
being investigated (Hayes-Roth, Maldonado, &
Moraes, 2002) with results suggesting the need for Breazeal, C., & Scassellati, B. (1999, October 17-
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this article was on the impact of similarity on evoking
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International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in
Education, Australia (pp. 169-176). Amsterdam, KEY TERMS
The Netherlands: ACM Press. Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: IOS Press. Autonomous Robot: A robot that is capable of
existing independently from human control.
Nangle, D. W., Erdley, C. A., & Gold, J. A. (1996).
A reflection on the popularity construct: The impor- Emergent Narrative: Aims at solving and/or
tance of who likes or dislikes a child. Behaviour providing an answer to the narrative paradox ob-
Therapy, 27, 337-352. served in graphically represented virtual worlds.
Involves participating users in a highly flexible real-
Scheeff, M., Pinto, J. P., Rahardja, K., Snibbe, S., & time environment where authorial activities are
Tow, R. (2002). Experiences with Sparky, a social minimised and the distinction between authoring-
robot. In B. Edmonds (Ed.), Socially intelligent time and presentation-time is substantially removed.
agents: Creating relationships with computers
309
The Importance of Similarity in Empathic Interaction
Empathic Agent: A synthetic character that Uncanny Valley: Feelings of unease, fear, or
evokes an empathic reaction in the user. revulsion created by a robot or robotic device that
appears to be, but is not quite, human-like.
Empathy: An observer reacting emotionally
because he perceived that another is experiencing or Virtual Learning Environment: A set of teach-
about to experience an emotion. ing and learning tools designed to enhance a students
learning experience by including computers and the
Synthetic Character: Computer generated semi-
Internet in the learning process.
autonomous agent corporally embodied using multi-
media and/or robotics.
310
311
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles
and decision making are considered the essential tunity for managerial decision making in a non-
components of a CSBILE (Bakken, 1993; Cox, threatening way (Issacs & Senge, 1994).
1992; Davidsen, 1996; Davidsen & Spector, 1997; In the context of CSBILEs, how well do people
Lane, 1995; Sterman, 1994). perform in dynamic tasks? The literature on DDM
Under this definition of CSBILE, learning goals (Funke, 1995; Hsiao, 2000; Kerstholt & Raaijmakers,
are made explicit to decision makers. A computer- 1997; Qudrat-Ullah, 2002, Sterman, 1989a, 1989b)
simulation model is built to represent adequately the and learning in CSBILEs (Bakken, 1993; Keys &
domain or issue under study with which decision Wolf, 1990; Lane, 1995; Langley & Morecroft)
makers can induce and experience real worldlike provides almost a categorical answer: very poorly.
responses (Lane, 1995). Human intervention refers Very often, poor performance in dynamic tasks is
to active keying in of the decisions by decision attributed to subjects misperceptions of feedback
makers into the computer-simulation model via a (Diehl & Sterman, 1995; Moxnes, 1998; Sterman,
decision-making environment or interface. Human 1989b). The misperception of feedback (MOF) per-
intervention also arises when a decision maker spective concludes that subjects perform poorly
interacts with a fellow decision maker during a group because they ignore time delays and are insensitive
setting session of a CSBILE or when a facilitator to the feedback structure of the task system. The
intervenes either to interact with the simulated sys- paramount question becomes the following: Are
tem or to facilitate the decision makers. people inherently incapable of managing dynamic
tasks? Contrary to Stermans (1989a, 1989b) MOF
hypothesis, an objective scan of real-world decisions
DDM AND CSBILEs would suggest that experts can deal efficiently with
highly complex dynamic systems in real life; for
Business forces, such as intensifying competition, example, maneuvering a ship through restricted
changing operating environments, and enormously waterways (Kerstholt & Raaijmakers, 1997). The
advancing technology, have made organizational expertise of river pilots seems to consist more of
decision making a complex task (Diehl & Sterman, using specific knowledge (e.g., pile moorings, buoys,
1995; Moxnes, 1998; Sterman, 1989b), and all chal- leading lines) that they have acquired over time than
lenge traditional management practices and beliefs. in being able to predict accurately a ships move-
The development of managerial skills to cope with ments (Schraagen, 1994). This example suggests
dynamic decision tasks is ever in high demand. that people are not inherently incapable of better
However, the acquisition of managerial decision- performance in dynamic tasks but that decision
making capability in dynamic tasks has many barri- makers need to acquire the requisite expertise.
ers (Bakken, 1993). On the one hand, the complexity Thus, in the context of CSBILEs, equating learning
of corporate and economic systems does not lend as a progression toward a prototypic expertise
itself well to real-world experimentation. On the (Sternberg, 1995) is a very appropriate measure.
other hand, most of the real-world decisions and Then, the most fundamental research question for
their outcomes hardly are related in both time and DDM research seems to be how to acquire prototypic
space, which compounds the problem of decision expertise in dynamic tasks. A solution to this ques-
making and learning in dynamic tasks. tion effectively would provide a competing hypoth-
However, computer technology, together with esis to MOF hypothesis: people will perform better
the advent of new simulation tools, provides a poten- in dynamic tasks if they acquire the requisite exper-
tial solution to this managerial need. For instance, tise. We term this competing hypothesis as the
CSBILEs are often used as decision support sys- acquisition-of-expertise (AOE) hypothesis. The fol-
tems in order to improve decision making in dynamic lowing section explains how the human-computer
tasks by facilitating user learning (Davidsen & interface (HCI) design may help to acquire prototypic
Spector, 1997; Lane, 1995). CSBILEs allow the expertise in dynamic tasks.
compression of time and space, providing an oppor-
312
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles
313
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles
mance (Issacs & Senge, 1994). Are HCI de- Cox, R. J. (1992). Exploratory learning from com-
sign-based CSBILEs effective in reducing puter-based systems. In S. Dijkstra, H.P.M.
misperceptions of feedback? Krammer, & J. J. G. van Merrienboer (Eds.), In-
Supporting Learning Strategies: Success- structional models in computer-based learning
ful decision makers in dynamic tasks develop environments (pp. 405-419). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
perceptually oriented heuristics (Kirlik, 1995).
Davidsen, P. I. (1996). Educational features of the
To what extent do the HCI design-based
system dynamics approach to modelling and simula-
CSBILEs help dynamic decision makers to
tion. Journal of Structural Learning, 12(4), 269-
develop perceptually oriented decision heuris-
290.
tics?
Davidsen, P. I. (2000). Issues in the design and use
of system-dynamics-based interactive learning en-
CONCLUSION vironments. Simulation & Gaming, 31(2), 170-177.
Davidsen, P. I., & Spector, J. M. (1997). Cognitive
DDM research is highly relevant to the managerial
complexity in system dynamics based learning envi-
practice (Diehl & Sterman, 1995; Kerstholt &
ronments. Proceedings of the International Sys-
Raaijmakers, 1997; Kleinmuntz, 1985). We need
tem Dynamics Conference, Istanbul, Turkey.
better tools and processes to help the managers cope
with the ever-present dynamic tasks. This article Diehl, E., & Sterman, J. D. (1995). Effects of
makes a case for the inclusion of HCI design in any feedback complexity on dynamic decision making.
CSBILE model aimed at improving decision making Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
in dynamic tasks. We believe that the lack of empha- Processes, 62(2), 198-215.
sis on HCI design in a CSBILE resulted, at least in
part, in poor performance in dynamic tasks by people. Edwards, W. (1962). Dynamic decision theory and
Moreover, HCI design methods and techniques can probabilistic information processing. Human Fac-
be used to reduce the difficulties people have in tors, 4, 59-73.
dealing with dynamic tasks. At the same time, we Forrester, J. W. (1961). Industrial dynamics. Cam-
have made the case to reassess the earlier studies on bridge, MA: Productivity Press.
dynamic decision making supporting the MOF hy-
pothesis. Perhaps by focusing more attention on Funke, J. (1995). Experimental research on complex
improved interface design for CSBILEs, we can problem solving. In P. Frensch, & J. Funke (Eds.),
help people make better organizational decisions. Complex problem solving: The European per-
spective (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
REFERENCES Gagn, R. M. (1995). Learning processes and in-
struction. Training Research Journal, 1, 17-28.
Bakken, B. E. (1993). Learning and transfer of
understanding in dynamic decision environments Howie, E., Sy, S., Ford, L., & Vicente, K. J. (2000).
Doctoral thesis. Boston: MIT. Human-computer interface design can reduce
misperceptions of feedback. System Dynamics Re-
Brehmer, B. (1990). Strategies in real-time dynamic view, 16(3), 151-171.
decision making. In R.M. Hogarth (Ed.), Insights in
decision making (pp. 262-279). Chicago: Univer- Hsiao, N. (2000). Exploration of outcome feed-
sity of Chicago Press. back for dynamic decision making [doctoral the-
sis]. Albany: State University of New York at
Carey, J., et al. (2004) The role of human-computer Albany.
interaction in management information systems cur-
ricula: A call to action. Communications of the Issacs, W., & Senge, P. (1994). Overcoming limits
Association for Information Systems, 13, 357- to learning in computer-based learning environments.
379. In J. Morecroft, & J. Sterman (Eds.), Modeling for
314
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles
315
Improving Dynamic Decision Making through HCI Principles
Requisite Expertise: Having an adequate un- Time Delays: Often, the decisions and their
derstanding of the task that helps to manage the task consequences are not closely related in time. For
successfully. instance, the response of gasoline sales to the changes
in price involves time delays. If prices go up, then
Simulated System: A simplified, computer simu-
after a while, sales may drop.
lation-based construction (model) of some real-
world phenomenon (or the problem task).
316
317
Shari Trewin
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
For people with motor impairments, access to, and In a recent research study commissioned by
independent control of, a computer can be an impor- Microsoft, Forrester Research, Inc. (2003) found
tant part of everyday life. However, in order to be of that 25% of all working-age adults in the United
benefit, computer systems must be accessible. States had some form of dexterity difficulty or
Computer use often involves interaction with a impairment and were likely to benefit from acces-
graphical user interface (GUI), typically using a sible technology. This equates to 43.7 million people
keyboard, mouse, and monitor. However, people in the United States, of whom 31.7 million have mild
with motor impairments often have difficulty with dexterity impairments and 12 million have moderate
accurate control of standard input devices (Trewin to severe impairments.
& Pain, 1999). Conditions such as cerebral palsy, If retirees had been included in the data sample,
muscular dystrophy, and spinal injuries can give rise the number of people who would benefit from acces-
to symptoms such as tremor, spasm, restricted range sible technology would be even higher as the preva-
of motion, and reduced strength. These symptoms lence of motor impairments, and thus the need for
may necessitate the use of specialized assistive such assistance, increases noticeably with age
technologies such as eye-gaze pointing or switch (Keates & Clarkson, 2003). As the baby-boomer
input (Alliance for Technology Access, 2000). At generation ages, the proportion of older adults is set
the same time, specialized technologies such as to increase further.
these can be expensive and many people simply The global aging population is growing inexorably
prefer to use standard input devices (Edwards, (Laslett, 1996). By 2020, almost half the adult popu-
1995; Vanderheiden, 1985). Those who continue to lation in the United Kingdom will be over 50, with the
use standard devices may expend considerable time over-80s being the most rapidly growing sector
and effort performing basic actions. (Coleman, 1993). Governments are responding to
The key to developing truly effective means of this demographic change. Antidiscrimination legis-
computer access lies in a user-centered approach lation has been enacted in many countries such as
(Stephanidis, 2001). This article discusses methods the United States with the 1990 Americans with
appropriate for working with people with motor Disabilities Act, and the United Kingdom with the
impairments to obtain information about their wants 1995 Disability Discrimination Act.
and needs, and making that data available to inter- These pieces of legislation often allow users who
face designers in usable formats. are denied access to a service to litigate against the
service provider. They are mechanisms for enforc-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design
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Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design
The most popular approaches to sampling issues needs, and accommodations in study design may be
are to either find users that represent a spread across necessary. 1
the target population, or to find users that sit at the
extremes of that population. The advantage of work- Location
ing with users that represent a spread across the
population is that they ensure that the assessment Many usability tests are carried out in a laboratory.
takes the broadest range of needs into account. The For people with physical impairments, this is not
disadvantage, though, is that there is not much depth always ideal. Individuals may have made many
of coverage of users who may experience difficulties modifications to their home or work environments
in accessing the product. to allow them to work comfortably and accurately,
The advantage of working with the extreme users and this will often be difficult to reproduce in a lab
is that the user-observation sessions will almost session. The user may not be able or willing to bring
certainly discover difficulties and problems with the assistive technologies they use at home. Further-
interaction. However, the disadvantage is that there more, the users impairment may make travel to
is a real danger of discovering that particular users sessions difficult and/or physically draining. When
cannot use the product and little else beyond that. For laboratory sessions are carried out, researchers
example, giving a drawing program with an on- should consider providing the following facilities,
screen toolbox to a user who cannot use a mouse and plan to spend time at the start of each session
yields the obvious difficulty arising from the inability making sure that the user is comfortable.
to choose a drawing tool. However, subsequent
questions about the tools themselves are not possible Table whose height can be easily adjusted
because of the overriding difficulty of choosing them. Moveable and adjustable chair
Of more use is to identify users who are more Cordless keyboard and mouse that can be
likely to be edge cases: those who are on the placed on a users wheelchair tray
borderline of being able to use the product, and who Keyboard whose slope and orientation can be
would commonly be accepted as being able to use the adjusted and then fixed in place on the table
interface (Cooper, 1999). Going back to the example Alternative pointing devices such as a trackball
of someone with a motor impairment attempting to Adjustments to the key-repeat delay, key-
use a drawing program, while someone unable to use repeat rate, mouse gain, double-click speed,
a mouse at all would certainly not be able to use the and any other software accessibility features
drawing tools, someone with a moderate tremor may to users preferred settings
be able to do so. Even more interestingly, that person
might be able to access some tools and not others, and A compromise approach that can work well is to
thus it is possible to begin to infer a wide range of very hold sessions at a center specializing in computer
useful data from such a user. On top of that, if the access for people with disabilities, where such
user cannot use the tools, then it may be inferred that equipment is already available. Users can also be
any user with that level of motor impairment or worse encouraged to bring their own devices when prac-
will not be able to use them, automatically encom- tical (e.g., special keyboard and key guard).
passing the users who cannot control a mouse in the If tests can be carried out at the users own
assessment. location, then a more realistic usability evaluation
can be performed. For users who employ special-
ized assistive technologies such as head pointing or
WORKING WITH USERS eye gaze, it may be useful to schedule time for the
user to explain these technologies to the research-
As with all user studies, the participating users need ers as it may be difficult to understand what is
to be treated with respect and courtesy at all times. happening if the operation of this device is unfamiliar.
When dealing with users with more severe impair- Remote testing is an increasingly popular tech-
ments, it is especially important to be sensitive to their nique in which the user carries out a task from his
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Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design
or her own environment while the researcher is not Users may fatigue more quickly than the re-
physically present. This approach is sometimes nec- searcher expects. The users fatigue level
essary when local users cannot be found. Its effi- should be carefully monitored and the researcher
cacy depends on the kind of evaluation to be per- should be prepared to give frequent breaks, end
formed. Telephone, e-mail, or chat can be used as a a session early, and split tasks over multiple
means of communication, or the task can be entirely sessions if necessary.
self-driven through a Web site or other software. Extra time should be allowed for computer-
Gathering information from users by e-mail has the based activities. Allow 2 to 3 times as long for
advantage that users can take as long as they need someone with a moderate impairment and be
to prepare responses, and can be useful for those prepared for some individuals to spend longer.
whose speech is difficult to understand. The remote For those whose disability has caused a speech
evaluation of products or product prototypes is also impairment in addition to motor impairment
possible, but the quality of the information received (e.g., cerebral palsy), additional time for com-
will often be poorer. For example, if a user takes a munication will be necessary, and the researcher
long time to perform a task, the researcher does not may need to ask the user to repeat statements
know whether this is because they had trouble in multiple times. Users are generally happy to do
deciding what to click on, trouble in clicking on the this in order to be understood. Researchers
icon, or because they were interrupted by a family should also repeat responses back to the user to
member. Detailed recordings of the users input check that they have understood. In some
activities or the use of a camera can be helpful in this cases, the user may choose to type responses
respect. into a document open on the computer.
Some users may have difficulty signing a con-
Methods for Gathering User Data sent form. Some may sign an X or use a stamp
to sign, while others may wish to sign electroni-
The following list represents a summary of typical cally. Be prepared for all of these.
methods used by researchers to elicit user wants and Users may prefer to respond to questionnaires
investigate product usability. verbally or electronically rather than use printed
paper and pen.
Questionnaires: A series of preprepared Some physical disabilities have highly variable
questions asked either in writing or orally symptoms or may cause additional health prob-
Interviews: Either prestructured or free-form lems. Experimenters should expect higher-than-
User Observation: Watching the users per- normal dropout rates, and be careful to confirm
form a task, either using an existing product or sessions near the time in case the participant is
a prototype unable to attend.
Focus Groups: Discussion groups addressing
a specified topic
Contextual Inquiry: Interviewing and ob- PACKAGING THE USER DATA
serving users in situ
Having discussed the issues that HCI researchers
All of the above methods are discussed in detail and practitioners have to consider when aiming to
in many HCI- (human-computer interaction) design design for universal access, it is helpful to look at
textbooks (e.g., Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998; Nielsen ways of packaging the user data in a succinct
& Mack, 1994). As when considering any technique format.
or approach developed originally for the mainstream
market, there are additional considerations that need Presenting User Profiles
to be borne in mind when adapting to designing for
the whole population. There are a number of methods of packaging the
When including people with motor impairments, it user information for designers. For example, short
is useful to plan for the following: videos of target usersperhaps depicting their
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Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design
lifestyles, or using or talking about particular prod- 1988) and estimates of the effect size given (Chin,
uctsprovide designers with greater insights into 2000). 1
the needs and aspirations of users. Such dynamic
illustrations can be effective in inspiring designers to User Models
formulate inclusive solutions. They can also be very
informative to designers who have never seen Another method for packaging quantitative user
assistive technologies in use before. information is a user model. In this context, a user
Such accounts offer immediate means of assess- model is a quantitative description of a users inter-
ing a variety of ways and situations in which a action behaviour that can be used to describe, pre-
product or service will be used or accessed. It can be dict, and/or simulate user performance on specific
a powerful technique if care is taken when building tasks. It has been used to model single-switch letter
up user profiles based on actual user data or amal- scanning and predict communication rates for scan-
gams of individual users constructed to represent the ning, and alternative and augmentative communica-
full range of target users and contexts of use. tion (AAC) devices (Horstmann, 1990; Horstmann
& Levine, 1991). There are critics of the applicabil-
The Application of Statistical Analyses ity of such models to motion-impaired users (Newell,
Arnott, & Waller, 1992; Stephanidis, 1999) who
Statistical analyses are often useful ways to summa- object to the use of generalizations for a population
rize and present quantitative data, but there are with such great individual differences. However,
practical limitations to these techniques when in- models representing a specific individual, or a group
cluding data from people with motor impairments. of relatively similar individuals, can help designers to
This is due to the variable availability of individual understand the effects of their design decisions and
users, the small sample set, and considerable indi- refine their designs for improved usability.
vidual differences. It may be necessary to consider
data gathered from individuals with motor impair- Claims Approach to Requirements
ments separately from other users. Because of the
small number of users available, repeated measures Where quantitative data is not available, another
designs should generally be employed. Obviously, method of packaging the user information is that of
these practical difficulties give rise to missing data claims (Sutcliffe & Carroll, 1999). For example, if an
problems resulting from incomplete conditions, caused on-screen button is hard to press, then a claim could
by the loss of levels and factors from designs, and be made that increasing the size of the button would
make the systematic varying of conditions in pilot make it easier to operate. The claim also identifies
studies difficult. the user and situation for which it applies, recogniz-
In addition, the increased range and skewed ing that there are often conflicting requirements that
variability resulting from the range of motor impair- can lead to design compromises being sought.
ments leads to increased noise and violation of the
assumptions of statistical tests. Where statistical
tests are possible without violation of standard as- FUTURE TRENDS
sumptions, such as normality of distribution or homo-
geneity of variance, they should be carried out. With antidiscrimination legislation being enacted by
However, even if the power of these experiments an increasing number of countries, designers are
was unknown because of the reasons outlined and going to come under increasing pressure to ensure
the small sample size, the effect sizes may still be that all user interfaces, both hardware and software,
large because of the sometimes radically different are as accessible as possible. This means that in the
behaviours that are associated with different func- future, designers will have to work more closely with
tional impairments. For this reason, some statistical users with all kinds of impairments, from vision and
results that do not appear significant should be hearing to motor and cognitive.
analysed in terms of statistical power (1 , the One of the most time-consuming aspects of
probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis; Cohen, working with motor-impaired users is finding and
321
Including Users with Motor Impairments in Design
recruiting them for the inevitable user trials required Beyer, H., & Holtzblatt, K. (1998). Contextual
to ensure that the systems being developed meet design: A customer-centered approach to sys-
their needs. One option that design teams may well tems designs. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
begin to pursue is that of incorporating people with
Chin, D. N. (2000). Empirical evaluation of user
different impairment types into the design team
models and user-adapted systems. Honolulu, HI:
itself. This approach offers the immediate advan-
University of Hawaii, Department of Information
tage that detailed feedback on the effect of design
and Computer Sciences.
choices on a systems accessibility can be deter-
mined rapidly. A potential further step is to train Chisholm, W., Vanderheiden, G., & Jacobs, I. (1999).
those people to actively drive the design process, Web content accessibility guidelines 1.0. W3C.
taking their needs into consideration from the very Retrieved from http://www.w3.org/TR/WAI-
outset. With many companies having to meet em- WEBCONTENT/
ployee quota targets under disability legislation, this
approach should become an increasingly attractive Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for
proposition to many design teams. the social sciences (2 nd ed.). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Coleman, R. (1993). A demographic overview of the
ageing of first world populations. Applied Ergo-
CONCLUSION nomics, 24(1), 5-8.
Including people with motor impairments in the Cooper, A. (1999). The inmates are running the
design and evaluation of computer products is es- asylum. Indianapolis, IN: SAMS Publishing.
sential if those products are to be usable by this Dong, H., Cardoso, C., Cassim, J., Keates, S., &
population. There are some special considerations Clarkson, P. J. (2002). Inclusive design: Reflec-
and techniques for including this population in user tions on design practice (Rep. No. CUED/C-
studies. Researchers may need to expend some EDC/TR118). Cambridge University Engineering
effort locating appropriate users. It is good practice Department.
to perform capability assessment to identify edge-
case individuals who should, in principle, be able to Forrester Research, Inc. (2003). The wide range of
use the product, but may be excluded by specific abilities and its impact on computer technology.
design features. Study materials and methodologies Cambridge, MA: Author.
may need to be modified to meet the needs of users. Horstmann, H. M. (1990). Quantitative modeling in
Laboratories, user environments, and remote testing augmentative communication: A case study. Pro-
can all be used, although testing in the users envi- ceedings of RESNA 90 (pp. 9-10).
ronment is preferred whenever possible. The statis-
tical analysis of user data is possible in specific Horstmann, H. M., & Levine, S. P. (1991). The
circumstances, and significant effects can be found effectiveness of word prediction. Proceedings of
even with small sample sizes, but care must be taken RESNA 91 (pp. 100-102).
to use tests that do not rely on inappropriate assump- Keates, S., & Clarkson, P. J. (2003). Countering
tions. User data can be presented to designers design exclusion. Springer-Verlag.
quantitatively, as statistical summaries or user mod-
els, or qualitatively, as user profiles or claims. Keates, S., Clarkson, P. J., & Robinson, P. (2000).
Investigating the applicability of user models for
motion-impaired users. Proceedings of ACM AS-
REFERENCES SETS 2000 (pp. 129-136).
Laslett, P. (1996). A fresh map of life: The emer-
Alliance for Technology Access. (2000). Computer gence of the third age (2nd ed.). Weidenfeld and
and Web resources for people with disabilities: A Nicolson.
guide to exploring todays assistive technologies
(3 rd ed.). CA: Hunter House Inc.
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Newell, A. F., Arnott, J. L., & Waller, A. (1992). On ity refers to the ability of people with disabilities to
the validity of user modelling in AAC: Comments on access public and private spaces. 1
Horstmann and Levine. Augmentative and Alter-
Accessible Technology: Products, devices, or
native Communication, 8, 89-92.
equipment that can be used, with or without assistive
Nielsen, J., & Mack, R. L. (1994). Usability in- technology, by individuals with disabilities.
spection methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Assistive Technology: Products, devices, or
Stephanidis, C. (1999). Designing for all in the equipment, whether acquired commercially, modi-
information society: Challenges towards universal fied, or customized, that are used to maintain, in-
access in the information age. ERCIM ICST Re- crease, or improve the functional capabilities of
search Report, 21-24. individuals with disabilities.
Stephanidis, C. (2001). User interfaces for all: New Inclusive Design: The design of mainstream
perspectives into human-computer interaction. In C. products and/or services that are accessible to, and
Stephanidis (Ed.), User interfaces for all (pp. 3- usable by, as many people as reasonably possible on
17). Lawrence Erlbaum. a global basis, in a wide variety of situations, and to
the greatest extent possible without the need for
Sutcliffe, A. G., & Carroll, J. M. (1999). Designing
special adaptation or specialized design.
claims for reuse in interactive systems design. In-
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Trewin, S., & Pain, H. (1999). Keyboard and mouse
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at every stage of design and development.
KEY TERMS User Model: A quantitative description of a
users interaction behaviour that can be used to
Accessibility: A characteristic of information describe, predict, and/or simulate user performance
technology that allows it to be used by people with on specific tasks.
different abilities. In more general terms, accessibil-
323
324
David John
Bournemouth University, UK
Anthony C. Boucouvalas
Bournemouth University, UK
emotional feelings fall. The experiment results also sonalities based on their communication style (Lea
indicate that the perceived emotional feelings are not & Spears, 1991). 1
affected by the length of time that users are exposed Multimodal presentations (e.g., animation, voice,
to the expressive images. and movie clips) for Internet communication are
more popular than ever as the processing speed and
bandwidth continues increasing. These new presen-
BACKGROUND tation styles make emotion expression easier to
transmit than before.
Emotion is not a concept that can be easily defined. Will users prefer emotional feelings to be pre-
Izard (1993) describes emotion as a set of motiva- sented pictorially on the computer interfaces? Will
tional processes that influence cognition and action. the expressive images influence the perceived feel-
Other researchers such as Zajonc (1980) argue that ings?
emotion is a particular feeling, a quality of conscious We have carried out a series of experiments to
awareness, and a way of responding. investigate these questions (Xu & Boucouvalas,
A widely accepted fact about emotion is that 2002; Xu, John, & Boucouvalas, in press).
emotion can be classified into different categories Xu and Boucouvalas (2002) demonstrated an
and numerous intensities. One classification method effectiveness experiment. In that experiment, par-
divides emotions into elation, desire, hope, sadness, ticipants were asked to view three interfaces (an
anger, frustration, and so forth (Koolhaas, 2001). interface with an expressive image, voice, and text;
Emotional expressions not only present ones an interface with an expressive image and text; and
internal feelings, but also influence interpersonal an interface with text only). The results show that
feelings. Moffat and Frijda (1994) demonstrated most participants prefer the interface with the ex-
that expressions are a means to influence others. pressive image, voice, and text. A significant num-
Fridlund (1997) found that expressions occur most ber of participants preferred the interface with the
often during pivotal points in social interactions: expressive image, voice, and text much more than
during greetings, social crises, or times of appease- the text-only interface. This means that with the
ment. According to Azar (2000), Thinking of facial expressive images, the effectiveness of the human-
expressions as tools for influencing social interac- computer interface can be considerably improved.
tions provides an opportunity to begin predicting when Xu et al. (in press) presented a perceived-perfor-
certain facial expressions will occur and will allow mance experiment, which demonstrated that emo-
more precise theories about social interactions (p. tion can affect the perceived performance of indi-
45). viduals. In that experiment, participants were asked
The influences of emotions on the public domain to answer questions in an online quiz. A computer
have been examined for many years. Emotion is a agent presented 10 questions (e.g., What percent-
powerful tool for reporters, editors, and politicians. age of people wear contact lenses? and choices A,
The 9/11 New York attack may not have been 15%; B, 30%; C, 20%; D, 50%) to the participants.
experienced by all personally; however, most of us When the participants finished answering the ques-
felt the same fear and pain when we saw the scenes. tions, either the presenting agent himself (self-as-
Strong links between the emotion of news and the sessing) or a new agent checked the participants
importance individuals assign to issues have been answers (other-assessing). No matter what an-
suggested by a number of theories (Evatt, 1997). swers each participant provided, all were told that
Is emotion an important tool online as in daily life? they answered the same 5 out of 10 questions
Recent research argues that there is in fact a high correctly. For the other-assessing scenario, the as-
degree of socioemotional content observed in com- sessing agent presented no emotional expressions
puter-mediated communications (CMC; McCormick positively related to participants answers or emo-
& McCormick, 1992; Rheingold, 1994), even in tional expressions negatively related to participants
organizational and task-oriented settings (Lea & answers. The results from the other-assessing sce-
Spears, 1991). Even first-time users form impres- nario demonstrated that significant differences exist
sions of other communicants dispositions and per- when comparing the positively-related-emotion situ-
325
The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
ation with the negatively-related-emotion situation emotion over the Internet. In summary, three phe-
and the no-emotion situation. The participants in the nomena were observed.
positively-related-emotion situation believed that they
achieved much better performances than the partici- When the intensity of the expressive images
pants in the other situations. increases, the perceived emotional feelings
will increase. This phenomenon means that by
increasing the intensity of the emotion-evok-
FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE ing manner (expressive images), the perceived
EMOTION PRESENTATION feelings will increase even if the accompanied
text remained the same.
Are the influences found in the former experiments When the intensity of the expressive images
permanent or changeable in different situations? Will rises beyond a realistic level, the perceived
other factors affect the influence of emotion expres- feelings will stop increasing and start to de-
sion? Evatt (1997) discovered that the perceived crease. The levels of emotional feelings were
salience of a public-policy issue will increase when predicted to fall as the participants were ex-
news about the issue is presented in a highly emotion- posed to an extremely high intensity of the
evoking manner and decrease when the news about expressive images.
the same issue is presented in a less emotion-evoking After viewing three scenarios, the perceived
manner. This demonstrates that when the intensity of feelings for the third scenario will be higher for
the emotion-evoking manner increases, the salience people who view a scenario accompanied with
the readers perceive will increase. medium-intensity expressive images follow-
Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (1953) suggested that ing two scenarios accompanied without ex-
increasing the intensity of the emotion-evoking con- pressive images than for people who view the
tent might not always elevate salience. At a certain same scenarios each accompanied with me-
intensity level, the effect could start to drop off. dium-intensity expressive images (wear-down
Hughes (1992) and Kinnick, Drugman, and effect).
Cameron (1996) demonstrated a wear-down phe-
nomenon. Participants favourable responses will be The above three phenomena have been ob-
reduced after the emotion-evoking manner is re- served by various researchers (see above discus-
peated over a long period of time. As before, the sion); however, some researchers doubt the exist-
measurement was based on pure text. However, ence of the phenomena, especially the wear-down
Evatt (1997) demonstrated that the wear-down phe- effect. In this article, we developed two experi-
nomenon is not always observed. ments to assess the applicability of the above phe-
It can be seen that the influences of presenting nomena.
textual information in an emotion-evoking manner
will be affected by different factors. However, the
above experiments are purely based on textual mes- THE INTENSITY EXPERIMENT
sages, which mean that the emotion-evoking man-
ners used were pure text. Will the emotions pre- To assess the influences of expressive images with
sented by expressive images produce the same phe- different intensities, a human-like agent was devel-
nomena? oped. The agent presented a story on the screen and
offered facial expressions. To focus on the influ-
ences of expressive facial images, the story itself
EMOTIONAL-INTERFACE DESIGN contained minimal emotional content.
CONSIDERATIONS Sixty students and staff from Bournemouth
University participated in this online experiment.
In response to the previous experiments and back- The experiment included two sessions. First, a
ground knowledge, it is necessary to identify the cartoon human-faced agent presented a story to
possible factors that may influence the perception of each participant. In the second section, participants
326
The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
answered a questionnaire about the emotional feel- significant difference between the ratings of the
ings they perceived. low-intensity condition and the medium condition 1
A between-group experimental design was ap- (F=3.85, p=0.044).
plied for this experiment. In all conditions, the agent We were therefore able to accept the first phe-
presented the same stories to every participant. nomenon that states when the intensity of the emo-
However, in the first condition (low-intensity condi- tionally expressive images increases, the perceived
tion), the agent presented facial images with low emotional feelings will increase as well.
expressive intensity to the participants. In the sec- For the extreme-intensity condition, the mean
ond condition (medium-intensity condition), the agent perceived emotional feeling was 3.7. The t-test
presented facial images with medium expressive showed a marginally significant difference between
intensity. In the third condition, the agent presented the ratings of the medium condition and the high
extreme-expressive-intensity facial images to par- condition (F=4.25, p=0.08). The result indicates that
ticipants (extreme-intensity condition). Typical the second phenomenon is correct in asserting that
screens of all conditions are shown in Figure 1. when the intensity of the emotional-expression im-
After viewing the story presentation session, all ages rises beyond a realistic level, the perceived
participants in the three groups were directed to the feelings will stop increasing and may fall.
same questionnaire. The applied questionnaire was
based on the Personal Involvement Inventory (PII)
that was developed by Zaichkowsky (1986). THE WEAR-DOWN-FACTOR (THIRD
PHENOMENON) EXPERIMENT
INTENSITY TEST RESULTS Will external factors influence the perceived emo-
tional feelings? An experiment was carried out to
The Shapiro-Wilks normality test (Norusis, 1998) test an external factor: wear-down. Wear-down (or
was carried out and the result indicated that the wear-out in different literature) is described by
observations of the emotion-intensity test were nor- Hughes (1992) as a reduction in the participants
mally distributed, and therefore t-tests were carried favourable responses after repeated exposure to a
out to determine whether the ratings of participants message. For example, when an individual first
who viewed the different conditions were signifi- meets an exciting stimulus, the excited feelings will
cantly different. be high. When the stimulus is repeated many times,
For the low-intensity condition, the mean value of the exciting feelings will not continue to rise; instead,
the perceived emotional feeling was 3.22. In the the feelings will be stable or even fall if the stimulus
medium-intensity condition, the mean perceived is endless. The problem with assessing wear-down
emotional feeling was 4.6. The t-test revealed a factors is that it is hard to predict the exact time that
327
The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
Group 1
None-None-
Medium
Group 2
Medium-
Medium-Medium
328
The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
329
The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
keep the display longer to move to the wear-down a full and clear guideline of expressive-image pre-
phase. sentation may be established.
The experiments indicate that emotion intensity has A set of experiments that tested the factors that may
an influence on perceived feelings. It also indicates influence perceived emotional feelings when users
that external factors such as the wear-down effect interact with emotional agents was conducted.
do not influence perception. The influences of emo- The experiment results demonstrated that inter-
tion intensity are consistent. nal factors such as the intensity of expressive im-
Some practical implications can be drawn for the ages do significantly influence the perception of
design of affective computer interactions. emotional feelings. The perceived emotional feel-
ings do increase when the intensity of an expressive
To convey emotional feelings, expressive im- image increases. However, when the intensity of
ages should be provided during human-com- expressive images increases to an unrealistic level,
puter interaction. the perceived emotional feelings will fall. The ex-
Medium-intensity expressive images can periment examined external factors, such as the
achieve the best performance. Both decreas- display time (wear-down effect), and found this
ing the intensity and increasing the intensity to does not produce a significant difference. It thus
an extreme level will show negative influences shows that the wear-down effect does not influence
to the perceived feelings. the perceived emotional feelings significantly.
The perceived emotional feelings may be inde- The research indicates that expressive images do
pendent of factors such as display duration, or influence the perceived emotional feelings, and as
the stable phase is long. This means that the long as the display is valid, the appropriate expres-
expressive images can be shown as soon as sive images can be shown. There is either no de-
appropriate, and there is no need to worry that crease in perceived emotional feelings due to a
the perceived emotional feelings may decrease wear-down effect, or the stable phase of the wear-
with reasonable repeated use. down effect is very long.
Future trends in emotion systems are to create Azar, B. (2000). Whats in a face? Monitor on
emotion-aware systems: systems that are aware of Psychology, 31(1), 44-45.
the social and emotional state of the users in deter-
Boucouvalas, A.C., Xu, Z., & John, D. (2003).
mining the development of the interaction process.
Expressive image generator for an emotion extrac-
The development of systems interacting with and
tion engine. 17th HCI 2003, University of Bath, UK,
supporting the user in his or her tasks must consider
Session 4, Track 2 Emotions and Computers (pp.
important factors (e.g., expression intensity and
267-381).
timing) that may influence the perceived feelings.
This work presents the guidelines for displaying Ekman, P. (1982). Emotion in the human face.
expressive images in a specific context. However, New York: Cambridge University Press.
the result could be applicable to other contexts (e.g.,
emotional agents and human-human interface de- Evatt, D. L. (1997). The influence of emotion-
sign). Further experiments can verify the results in evoking content of news on issue salience. Un-
other contexts and examine other factors (e.g., published doctoral dissertation, University of Texas
personality, application context, colours, etc.) that at Austin.
may influence expressive-image presentation. Then,
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The Influence of Expressive Images for Computer Interaction
Fridlund, A. J. (1997). The new ethology of human Ishizuka (Eds.), Life-like characters, tools, affec-
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Fernandez-Dols (Eds.), The psychology of facial London: Springer.
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Rheingold, H. (1994). The virtual community: Home-
University Press.
steading on the electronic frontier. New York:
Hovland, C., Janis, I., & Kelley, H. (1953). Commu- Harper Perennial.
nication and persuasion: Psychological studies
Xu, Z., & Boucouvalas, A. C. (2002). Text-to-
of opinion change. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer-
emotion engine for real time Internet communica-
sity Press.
tion. International Symposium on Communication
Hughes, G. D. (1992). Real-time response mea- Systems, Networks and DSPs, (pp. 164-168).
sures redefine advertising wearout. Journal of
Xu, Z., John, D., & Boucouvalas, A. C. (in press).
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vation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psy-
Zaichkowsky, J. K. (1986). The emotional side of
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Koolhaas, J. M. (2001). Theories of emotion. Re-
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dierfysio1/coll-koolhaas/emotion/ KEY TERMS
Lea, M., & Spears, R. (1991). Computer-mediated Emotion: An excitement of the feelings caused
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sion-making. International Journal of Man-Ma- some sensible effect on the body.
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McCormick, N. B., & McCormick, J. W. (1992). make readers perceive emotions.
Computer friends and foes: Content of undergradu-
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Norusis, M. J. (1998). SPSS 8.0 guide to data Software Agent: A computer program that car-
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Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Information Interaction Beyond HCI
task. Transparency in HCI means forgetting about cognitive context has evolved to a sociocognitive
the interface. one, as illustrated by the current interest in CSCW, 1
Ubiquitous computing (Weiser & Brown, 1997) itself only part of the new landscape.
shares that same goal of transparency, although with The notion of interface can be reexamined (Carroll,
a focus on having computers embedded everywhere 2003; Shneiderman, 2003). In a very broad definition
within the environment. Here, the attention is not on (Duchastel, 1996), an interface can be considered as
computing itself (even if it is pervasive) but on the locus of interaction between person and environ-
accomplishing a task (i.e., interacting with the envi- ment; more specifically, the information environ-
ronment and more specifically with the information ment within which the person is inserted. In these
present in the environment). general terms, interfaces can be viewed as abstract
A good example of transparency from a more cognitive artifacts that constrain or direct the inter-
familiar domain (Duchastel, 1996) is the steering action between a person and that persons environ-
wheel in a car. The steering wheel is the interface ment. In the end, the task itself is an interface, one
between oneself and the road (I never think about that connects actor to goal through a structured
the steering wheel, but I observe the bends in the process. Even the most archaic software is the
road). The steering wheel disappears, as an ideal concrete embodiment of a task structure. Thus, on
interface should, and all that is left is the road and me the one hand, HCI deals with the person-information
(the task and the person). relation and is concerned with the design of informa-
A second aspect of the new HCI concerns tion products; and on the other hand, it deals with the
interaction modalities and their concrete elements. person-task relation and here is concerned with the
Just as command modalities gave way to the WIMP guidance of process. It is the interplay between
paradigm of contemporary interfaces (Pew, 2003), these two facets (product and process) that creates
the latter will give way to yet more natural interfaces the richness of HCI as an applied field of the social
involving speech and immersive technologies in the sciences.
VR realm (see the following). The driver of this
shift, beyond the developing feasibility of these
technologies, is the HCI goal of adapting to humans IMPLICATIONS FOR HCI
through use of natural environmental settings (i.e.,
another facet of the transparency goal). The day The constant novelty factor that we experience with
when my interface will be an earpiece, lapel button, technology generally and with computing in particu-
and ring (the button for sensory input of various lar sets us up for fully using our intelligence to adapt.
kinds and for projection; the ring as a gestural Not only do the tools (interfaces) change but so do
device) may not be far off. Screens and wraparound the tasks and activities themselves, as witnessed, for
glasses will be specialty devices, and keyboards and instance, by the arrival of Web browsing and many
mice will be endangered species. other Web tasks. In this respect, then, HCI is faced
These evolutions (of process and gear) will make with a losing battle with mounting diversity and
the person see computing as interfacing, with cur- complexity, and can only purport to alleviate some of
rent gear long forgotten and the computer, while the strain involved with these needs for humans to
ubiquitous, nevertheless invisible. The disappearing adapt. What has happened to HCI as the process of
computer will not leave great empty spaces, how- adapting computers to humans? HCI must find ways
ever. There will be agents to interact with (discussed to assist human adaptation with general means, such
later) and novel forms of interaction, discussed here. as only gradually increasing the complexity of an
The new landscapes include application areas artifact, forcing stability in contexts that may prove
such as communication, education, entertainment, otherwise unmanageable, increasing monitoring of
and so forth (Shneiderman, 2003). They all involve the user, and just-in-time learning support. All of
interaction with information but also add to the mix these means are merely illustrative of a style of HCI
the social aspect of interaction, thus creating a new design effort of which we likely will see more and
and more complex cognitive context of action. The more in response to computing complexity.
backdrop for HCI has changed suddenly, and the
333
Information Interaction Beyond HCI
In reality, it is complexity of activity that has computer interactions that will unfold, knowing that
increased, not complexity of computing itself. Cars the agent will take care of them appropriately and
and telephones also have required adaptability for in the users best interest. We witness here a limited
optimum usage recently. But as computing pen- removal of the human (the H) from HCI.
etrates all areas more fully, and as the possibilities for All this is relative, of course. Current stock
more symbolic mediacy increase (e.g., the choices management programs that activate a sale when
on the telephone now), the question to ask is how can given market conditions prevail already operate
HCI help? Are there general principles that can be with a certain level of autonomy, as do process
applied? Perhaps not, for what we are witnessing control programs that monitor and act upon indus-
here is the removal of the C from HCI. As computing trial processes. Autonomy will largely increase,
becomes pervasive, it indeed disappears, as sug- however, as we invest agents with abilities to learn
gested earlier by Weiser and Brown (1997), and it is (i.e., agents that learn a users personal tastes from
replaced by human-task interaction. Attention shifts observation of choices made by the user) and to use
up the scale of abstraction, and designers focus on knowledge appropriately within limited domains.
task structure and context (Kyng & Mathiassen, As we also develop in agents the ability to evolve
1997; Winograd, 1997) more than on operational task adaptation (from the research strand known as
mediators, even though somewhere along the line, artificial life) (Adami & Wilke, 2004), we will be
hard tool design is needed. A more human-focused reaching out to an agent world where growing
HCI (away from the software, more toward the (albeit specialized) autonomy may be the rule. HCI
experience) evolves. will be complemented with AAI (Autonomous Agent
Interaction), for these agents will become partici-
pants in the digital world just as we are, learning
FUTURE TRENDS about one another through their autonomous inter-
actions (Williams, 2004).
Computer agents in the form of software that carries As we populate digital space with agents that
out specialized tasks for a user, such as handling are more autonomous, we create an environment
ones telephoning, or in the form of softbots that seek that takes on a life of its own in the sense that we
out information and prepare transactions, are already create uncertainty and open interaction up to ad-
well with us (Bradshaw, 1997). That their numbers venture in a true social context. Not only will people
and functions will grow seems quite natural, given have to learn how to react to the agents that they
their usefulness in an ever more digitized and net- encounter, the latter also will have to react to people
worked world. and to other autonomous agents (Glass & Grosz,
What will grow out of the agent phenomenon, 2003). The interfacing involved in this novel cogni-
however, has the potential to radically transform the tive context is changing radically from its traditional
context of our interactions, both digital and not, and, meaning, with issues of understanding, trust, initia-
hence, the purview and nature of HCI. The natural tive, and influence coming to the fore. In discussing
evolution of the field of agent technology (Jennings & agents in the future of interfaces, Gentner and
Wooldridge, 1998) leads to the creation, deployment, Nielsen (1996) talk of a shared world in which the
and adaptation of autonomous agents (AAs) (Luck et users environment no longer will be completely
al., 2003; Sycara & Wooldridge, 1998). These agents stable, and the user no longer will be totally in
are expected to operate (i.e., make reasoned deci- control; and they were talking of ones own assistive
sions) on behalf of their owners in the absence of full agents, not those of other people or of autonomous
or constant supervision. What is at play here is the agents. The change occurring in HCI is merely
autonomy of the agent, the degree of decision-mak- reflecting the changing environment at large.
ing control invested in it by the owner, within the Perhaps an easy way to grasp what might be
contextual limits imposed by the owner for the task at involved is to consider avatar interaction in VR
hand and within the natural limits of the software. worlds. Avatars are interfaces to other humans
Seen from another perspective, the computer user involved in a social interaction. Just as with authen-
removes himself or herself to an extent from the tic settings in which they mingle, humans in virtual
334
Information Interaction Beyond HCI
settings must learn something about the others in- that interaction in general terms, II defines it in
volved and learn to compose with them harmoni- symbolic terms. Information constantly gleaned from 1
ously in the accomplishment of their goals. The the environment regulates our actions, which, in turn,
important consideration in this situation is that while are increasingly effected through information. We
the VR world may be artificial and may be experi- enter the age of interaction design (Preece et al.,
enced vicariously in physical terms, in psychological 2002; Winograd, 1997) and environment design
terms, the VR world can be just as genuine as the (Pearce 1997).
real world, as hinted by Turkles (1995) interviews This is particularly evident as we not only design
with digital world inhabitants (e.g., real life is just one interactions with information but also come to inhabit
more window). Interagent communication, just like environments that are pure information (as VR
its interpersonal counterpart, will be improvised and worlds are). The added complexity resulting from
creative, with codes and norms emerging from the the growth in autonomous agents potentially makes
froth of the marketplace (Biocca & Levy, 1995). II all the more challenging, bringing, so to speak, a
The potential for enhancing interaction certainly level of politics into what was hitherto a fairly
exists, particularly within VR worlds that not only individual and somewhat straightforward interac-
reproduce but extend features of our regular world; tion. Agents can be both autonomous cognitive
new risks also appear, for instance, in the form of artifacts and assistive interfaces, depending on their
misrepresentation of agent intentions or outright design specifics.
deception (again, just as can occur in our normal Donald (1991) shows how cognitive inventions
interpersonal context) (Palmer, 1995). have led to cultural transitions in the evolution of the
The point is that the new cognitive context that is human mind and specifically how the invention of
being created by both VR worlds and autonomous external memory devices, in expanding our natural
agents roaming cyberspace, all of which are but biological memories, has fueled the modern age,
software artifacts, changes how we view interacting leading us to digital realms. Autonomous agents lead
with computers. There still will exist the typical us beyond out-of-the-skin memories to out-of-the-
applications for assisting us in accomplishing spe- skin actions via the delegation with which we invest
cific creative tasks (and the associated HCI chal- our assistive agents. The implications of this possi-
lenges), but the greater part of our interfacing with bility are immense, even if only perceived hazily at
digital artifacts more generally will resemble our this moment.
interfacing with others in our social world. In addi- In sum, in the next few decades, HCI will trans-
tion, interfacing specialists will be as concerned with form itself into a much wider and more complex field
the interface between AAs as with the interface based on information interaction. HCI will become a
between them and humans. subset of the new field alongside AAI, dealing with
interaction between autonomous agents. The new
field will parallel the concerns of our own human-
CONCLUSION human interactions and thus involve social concerns
alongside cognitive concerns.
I foresee nothing short of a redefinition of the field,
with classic HCI becoming a subset of a much
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INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Currently, most of the Web is designed from the In todays world, data almost invariably will come
viewpoint of helping people who know what they from a database. A major failing of many of these
want but need help accomplishing it. User goals may systems is that they never focus on the human-
range from buying a new computer to making vaca- computer interaction. Instead, the internal structure
tion plans. Yet, these are simple tasks that can be of the software or database was reflected in both the
accomplished with a linear sequence of events. With interface operation and the output.
information-rich sites, the linear sequence breaks The problem is not lack of content. Information-
down, and a straightforward process to provide rich sites normally have a high information content
users with information in a useful format does not but inefficient design results in low information
exist. transmission. From the psychological standpoint, the
Users come to information-rich sites with com- information is disseminated ineffectively. The infor-
plex problems they want to solve. Reaching a solu- mation is not designed for integration with other
tion requires meeting goals and subgoals by finding information but rather is optimized for its own pre-
the proper information. Complex problems are often sentation. As a result, users must look in multiple
ill-structured; realistically, the complete sequence sources to find the information they need. While
cant even be defined because of users tendencies hypertext links serve to connect multiple sources,
to jump around within the data and to abandon the they often are not adequate. Johnson-Eilola and
sequence at varying points (Klein, 1999). To reach Selber (1996) argue that most hypertexts tend to
the answer, people need the information properly maintain the traditional hierarchical organization of
positioned within the situation context (Albers, 2003; paper documents.
Mirel, 2003a). System support for such problems Mirel (1996, 2003b) examined the difficulties
requires users to be given properly integrated infor- users have with current report design and found that
mation that will assist in problem solving and deci- sites often provide volumes of information but fail to
sion making. effectively answer a users questions. The informa-
Complex problems normally involve high-level tion needed by professionals exists within the corpo-
reasoning and open-ended problem solving. Conse- rate database, but with complex problems, there are
quently, designer expectations of stable require- no ready-made answers that can be pulled out with
ments and the ability to perform an exhaustive task simple information retrieval techniques. Thus, it
analysis fall short of reality (Rouse & Valusek, cannot be expected that relevant information can be
1993). While conventional task analysis works for found by direct means, but it must be inferred.
well-defined domains, it fails for the ill-structured Interestingly (and complicating the design), inferring
domains of information-rich sites (Albers, 2004). results is what experts do best. While all readers
Instead of exhaustive task analysis, the designer need information to be properly integrated, the amount
must shift to an analysis focused on providing a clear of integration and coherence of the information
understanding of the situation from the users point required varies. McNamara and her colleagues
of view and the users goals and information needs. (McNamara, 2001; McNamara & Kintsch, 1996)
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Information Rich Systems and Users Goals and Information Needs
have found that users with a higher topic knowledge shades of gray, then it can be assigned to one and
level perform better with less integrated informa- only one of 256 little bins). The easiest design 1
tion. Following the same idea, Woods and Roth method, one that is much too prevalent, is to ignore
(1998) define the critical question as how knowl- the ambiguity. The system displays the information
edge is activated and utilized in the actual problem- and leaves it up to the user to sort out the ambiguity.
solving environment (p. 420). From the start, designers must accept that informa-
Waern (1989) claims that one reason systems fail tion, since a complex situation cannot be prestructured
lies in the differences in perspective between the and must be designed to allow users to continuously
data generator and the information searcher. Much adapt to it. Consequently, many of the standard
of the research on information structuring attempts considerations of stable requirements, exhaustive
to predefine user needs and, thus, the system breaks task analysis, and ignorance of cognitive interaction
down when users try to go beyond the solution fail to apply and require reconsideration (Rouse &
envisioned by the designers. Basden and Hibberd Valusek, 1993). This breakdown between the
(1996) consider how current audience and task designers and the users thought processes ex-
analysis methods tend to start with an assumption plains why conventional task analysis works for
that all the information needed can be defined in well-defined domains but fails for the ill-structured
advance and then collected into a database. In this domains of information-rich sites (Albers, 2004).
view, the knowledge exists as external to the system Instead, the designer must have a clear understand-
and user. However, for systems that must support ing of the situation from the users point of view, the
complex situations, the methods tend to break down. users goals, and the users information needs.
Spool (2003) found some designs drove people away
by not answering their questions in the users con- Situation
text.
The situation is the current world state that the user
needs to understand. A situation always exists with
DESIGN FOR INFORMATION-RICH the user embedded within it. To understand a situa-
SYSTEMS tion, a user works within the situation by defining
goals and searching for the information required to
Interface and content designers increasingly are achieve the goals. An underlying assumption is that
being called upon to address information needs that the user needs to interact with an information system
go beyond step-by-step instruction and involve com- in order to gain the necessary information and to
municating information for open-ended questions understand the situation. In most cases, after under-
and problems (Mirel, 1998, 2003b). Applying that standing the situation, the user will interact with the
approach to interface design can enhance user situation, resulting in a change that must be reflected
outcomes, as such systems can help to organize in an updated system.
thinking rather than to suggest a course of action
(Eden, 1988). The questions and problems that users Goal
bring to information-rich systems only can be ad-
dressed by providing information specific to a situa- User goals are the high-level view that allows the
tion and presenting it in a way that supports various entire situation to be understood in context. To
users goals and information needs (Albers, 2003). maximize understanding, the information should di-
Addressing users goals and information needs rectly map onto the goal. Goals could be viewed
breaks with the fundamental philosophy of a design from the users viewpoint as plans and from the
created to step a user through a sequence. Complex systems viewpoint as the road map detailing the
situations contain lots of ambiguity and subtle infor- possible routes to follow. Goals can consist of
mation nuances. That fact, if nothing more, forces subgoals, which are solved in a recursive manner.
the human into the process, since computers simply Each goal gets broken into a group of subgoals,
cannot handle ambiguity. From the computers point which may be broken down further, and each subgoal
of view, data are never ambiguous (if it has 256 must be handled before the goal can be considered
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Information Rich Systems and Users Goals and Information Needs
achieved. Goals should be considered from the user- even when the relevant graphs and illustrations
situation viewpoint (what is happening and what does were presented to them (Guthrie, Weber, &
it mean to the user) rather than the system viewpoint Kimmerly, 1993, as cited in van der Meij, Blijleve &
(how can the system display a value for x). The Jensen, 2003). Consider how much more difficult
interface provides a pathway for the user to obtain this can be when a user either does not know or is
the information to achieve the goal. User goals not sure the information exists within the system.
provide the means of categorizing and arranging the Yet, the designers and technical writers jobs are
information needs. to ensure that the user knows that the information
People set goals to guide them through a situation, exists, extracts the proper information, and under-
but all people are not the same. Different people stands its relevance.
shape their goals differently and may set completely A good interface design must define the order in
different goals. Rarely will an information-rich site which the information must be presented, how it
be used by a homogeneous group of people sharing a should be presented, and what makes it important to
common pool of goals. Instead, multiple user groups the situation and to the users goal. It also must
exist, with each group having a different pool of goals define what information is not needed or not rel-
that must be addressed. These fundamental differ- evant, even though at first glance it seems impor-
ences arise from the different goals of the user. In a tant. Since information-rich sites lend themselves to
highly structured environment, the users basic goal a high degree of freedom and a large amount of
is essentially one of efficiently completing the task, unpredictability, understanding how information
while in the unstructured information-rich environ- relates to the goals is imperative to helping users
ment, the user is goal-driven and focused on problem address their situations.
solving and decision making.
Example: Marketing Analysis as a
Information Needs Complex Situation
Information needs are the information required for Managers have access to a huge amount of data
the user to achieve a goal. A major aspect of good that they need to analyze in order to make informed
design is ensuring that the information is provided in decisions. Normally, rather than providing any help
an integrated format that matches the information with interpreting the information, report designers
needs to the user goals. Information needs focus on take the view of just asking what information is
the content that users require to address their goals. desired and ensuring it is contained somewhere
Interestingly and perhaps unfortunately, the content within the system.
often gets short-changed in many design discussions. For example, if a marketing analyst for a coffee
The problem is that content normally is assumed to manufacturer is inquiring into whether a new
already exist, it can be used as is, and thus, it is outside espresso product is likely to succeed in this special-
the scope of the human-computer interaction. While ized market, the analyst needs to view, process, and
the content is situation-specific, it never will just interact with a wide range of multi-scaled data. To
appear out of nowhere in a fully developed form. figure out what it will take to break into and become
Also, as a person interacts with a situation, the competitive in the high-end espresso market, the
information the person wants for any particular goal analyst will examine as many markets, espresso
changes as he or she gets a better grasp of the goal products, and attributes of products as the analyst
and the situation (Albers, 2004). deems relevant to the companys goals, and as
The problem of addressing information needs many as the technical tools and cognitive capacity
extends well beyond having the information available enable the analyst to analyze. Looking at these
and even having it well arranged. As users informa- products, the analyst will move back and forth in
tion needs increase, they find it hard to figure out scale between the big picture and detailed views.
what information they need. One study found that The analyst will assess how espresso has fared
approximately half of the participants failed to ex- over past and current quarters in different channels
tract the proper information for ill-defined problems, of distribution, regions, markets, and stores, and
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Information Rich Systems and Users Goals and Information Needs
impose on the data his or her own knowledge of tasks; effective design must balance the two and let
seasonal effects and unexpected market conditions. each do what they do best. 1
For different brands and products, including varia- Rather than being dominated by a tool mindset,
tions in product by attributes such as size, packaging, we need to ensure that the technology does not
and flavor, the analyst might analyze 20 factors or override the communication aspects. Addressing
more, including dollar sales, volume sales, market designs specific to a users goals means assuming a
share, promotions, percent of households buying, highly dynamic path with information being molded
customer demographics, and segmentation. The to fit each user group and each individual user.
analyst will arrange and rearrange the data to find Rather than focusing on specific tasks that the
trends, correlations, and two-and three-way causal system can perform, the analysis and design should
relationships; the analyst will filter data, bring back focus on the users situation and on the goals to be
part of them, and compare different views. Each achieved. Understanding the users goals, informa-
time, the analyst will get a different perspective on tion needs, and information relationships provides a
the lay of the land in the espresso world. Each path, solid foundation for placing the entire situation in
tangent, and backtracking move will help the analyst context and for solving the users problem.
to clarify the problem, the goal, and ultimately the
strategic and tactical decisions (Mirel, 2003b).
By considering report analysis as a complex CONCLUSION
situation, the report interpretation methods do not
have to be outside of the scope. The information the With a complex situation, the users goal is one of
analyst needs exists. The problem is not a lack of problem solving and decision making, based on the
data but a lack of clear methods and techniques to users goals and information needs. As such, the
connect that data into an integrated presentation that user has no single path to follow to accomplish a task
fits the users goals and information needs. Rather (Albers, 1997). Unlike the clear stopping point of
than simply supplying the analyst with a bunch of well-defined tasks, with complex tasks, the decision-
numbers, the report designers should have per- making process continues until the user quits or feels
formed an analysis to gain a deeper understanding of confident enough to move forward.
how the numbers are used and should have provided Any complex situation contains an overabun-
support to enable the user to perform that analysis in dance of data. As such, with complex situations, the
an efficient manner. user needs clearly structured information that helps
to reveal solutions to the open-ended questions and
provides connections across multiple-task proce-
FUTURE TRENDS dures. Achieving an effective design requires know-
ing what information is required, how to manipulate
Information-rich Web sites will continue to increase the information to extract the required knowledge
as more people expect to gain information via the from it, and how to construct mental models of the
Internet. In general, the information-rich sites focus situation that can be used to handle unanticipated
on complex situations that contain too many factors problems (Brown, 1986).
to be completely analyzed, so it is essentially impos- Properly presented information with the proper
sible to provide a complete set of information or to content effectively addresses the users goals. Us-
fully define the paths through the situation. ers work within a complex situation with a set of
In the near term, an artificial intelligence ap- open-ended goals that the system design must con-
proach will not work; with current or near-term sider from the earliest stages (Belkin, 1980). The
technology, the computer system cannot come close first step in meeting peoples information needs
to understanding the situational context and resolv- requires initially defining their goals and needs. But
ing ambiguity. Rather, the system and interface more than just a list of goals and data, the analysis
design must provide proper support in order for users also reveals the social and cognitive aspects of
to gain a clear understanding of the solutions to their information processing and the information relation-
goals. Computers and people both excel at different ships within the readers mental models. Thus, the
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Information Rich Systems and Users Goals and Information Needs
goal of an HCI designer is to develop a user- Brown, J. (1986). From cognitive to social ergonom-
recognizable structure that maps onto both the users ics and beyond. In D. Norman & S. Draper (Eds.),
mental model of the situation and the situation con- User centered system design: New perspectives
text and bridges between them. The collected goals on human-computer interaction (pp. 457-486).
and information needs create a vision of the users Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
focused on what open-ended questions they want
Eden, C. (1988). Cognitive mapping. European
answered and why (Mirel, 1998). Everything the
Journal of Operational Research, 36, 1-13.
user sees contributes to the acceptance of the
information and its ability to support the needs of Johnson-Eilola, J., & Selber, S. (1996). After auto-
understanding a complex situation. mation: Hypertext and corporate structures. In P.
As Mirel (2003b) states, peoples actual ap- Sullivan, & J. Dautermann. (Eds.), Electronic
proaches to complex tasks and problems ... are literacies in the workplace (pp. 115-141). Urbana,
contextually conditioned, emergent, opportunistic, IL: NCTE.
and contingent. Therefore, complex work cannot be
formalized into formulaic, rule-driven, context-free Klein, G. (1999). Sources of power: How people
procedures (p. 259). The analysis and design must make decisions. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
consider the communication needs in complex situ- McNamara, D. (2001). Reading both high and low
ations and the highly dynamic situational context of coherence texts: Effects of text sequence and prior
information, with a focus on the users goals and knowledge. Canadian Journal of Experimental
information needs as required to support the funda- Psychology, 55, 51-62.
mental user wants and needs.
McNamara, D., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning
from text: Effects of prior knowledge and text
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Analysis and creation of dynamic Web informa- problem-solving software. In M. Albers & B. Mazur
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Basden, A., & Hibberd, P. (1996). User interface sign in software development and documentation
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tional Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45, Rouse, W., & Valusek, J. (1993). Evolutionary
135-155. design of systems to support decision making. In G.
Belkin, N. (1980). Anomalous states of knowledge Klein, J. Orasanu, R. Calderwood, & C. Zsambok
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Spool, J. (2003). 5 things to know about users. ing in a complex situation extends beyond procedural
Retrieved June 17, 2003, from http:// information and requires understanding the dynamic 1
www.uiconf.com/7west/five_things_to_know_ interrelationships of large amounts of information.
article.htm
Information Needs: The information that con-
van der Meij, H., Blijleven, P., & Jansen, L. (2003). tributes to solving a goal. This information should be
What makes up a procedure? In M. Albers & B. properly integrated and focused on the goal.
Mazur (Eds.), Content and complexity: Informa-
Information-Rich Web Site: A Web site de-
tion design in software development and docu-
signed to provide the user with information about a
mentation (pp. 129-186). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
topic, such as a medical site. In general, they contain
Erlbaum Associates.
more information than a user can be expected to
Waern, Y. (1989). Cognitive aspects of computer read and understand.
supported tasks. New York: Wiley.
Situational Context: The details that make the
Woods, D., & Roth. E. (1988). Cognitive engineer- situation unique for the user.
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User Goals: The specific objectives that a user
Factors, 30(4), 415-430.
wants to solve. In most complex situations, goals
form a hierarchy with multiple tiers of subgoals that
KEY TERMS must be addressed as part of solving the primary
goal.
Complex Situation: The current world state
that the user needs to understand. The understand-
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Information Space
David Benyon
Napier University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Information Space
does not take place in a persons head. Cognition izing some aspect of an activity space and then
makes use of things in the worldcognitive artefacts, selecting and structuring some signs in order to make 1
in Hutchins terms. If you think about moving through the conceptualization available to other people. Us-
an urban landscape, you may have a reasonable plan ers of the information artefact engage in activities by
in mind. You have a reasonable representation of the performing various processes on the signs. They
environment in terms of a cognitive map (Tversky, might select items of interest, scan for some general
1993). But you constantly will be using cues and patterns, search for a specific sign, calculate some-
reacting to events. You may plan to cross the road thing, and so forth.
at a particular place, but exactly where and when Both the conceptualization of the activity space
you cross the road depends on the traffic. Plans and and the presentation of the signs are crucial to the
mental models constantly are being reworked to take effectiveness of an information artefact to support
account of ongoing events. Navigation of informa- some activity. Green and Benyon (1996) and Benyon,
tion space seeks to make explicit the ways in which et al. (1999) provide many examples of both paper-
people move among sources of information and based and computer-based information artefacts
manage their activities in the world. and the impact that the structuring and presentation
have on the activities that can be supported with
different conceptualizations of activity spaces and
MAIN FOCUS OF THE ARTICLE different presentations or interfaces on those
conceptualizations. For example, they discuss the
Navigation of information space is a new paradigm different activities that are supported by different
for thinking about HCI, just as direct manipulation reference styles used in academic publications, such
was a new paradigm in the 1980s. Navigation of as the Harvard style (the authors name and date of
information space suggests that people are naviga- publication, as used as in this article) and the Nu-
tors and encourages us to look to approaches from meric style (when a reference is presented in a
physical geography, urban studies, gardening, and numbered list). Another example is the difference
architecture in order to inspire designs. Navigation between a paper train timetable and a talking time-
of information space requires us to explore the table, or the activities that are supported by the
concept of an information space, which, in turn, dictionary facility in a word processor.
requires us to look at something that is not an All information artefacts employ various signs
information space. We conceptualize the situation structured in some fashion and provide functions to
as follows. The activity space is the space of real- manipulate those signs (conceptually and physi-
world activities. The activity space is the space of cally). I can physically manipulate a paper timetable
physical action and physical experiences. In order to by marking it with a pen, which is something I cannot
undertake activities in the activity space, people do with a talking timetable. I can conceptually
need access to information. At one level of descrip- manipulate it by scanning for arrival times, which is
tion, all our multifarious interactions with the expe- something I cannot do with a talking timetable. So,
rienced world are effected through the discovery, every information artefact constrains and defines an
exchange, organization, and manipulation of infor- information space. This may be defined as the signs,
mation. Information spaces are not the province of structure, and functions that enable people to store,
computers. They are central to our everyday expe- retrieve, and transform information. Information
riences and go from something as simple, for ex- artefacts define information spaces, and information
ample, as a sign for a coffee machine, a public spaces include information artefacts. Information
information kiosk, or a conversation with another artefacts also are built on top of one another. Since
person. an information artefact consists of a
Information spaces often are created explicitly to conceptualization of some aspect of the activity
provide certain data and certain functions to facili- space and an interface that provides access to that
tate some activityto help people plan, control, and conceptualization whenever a perceptual display (an
monitor their undertakings. Information system de- interface) is created, it then becomes an object in the
signers create information artefacts by conceptual- activity space. Consequently, it may have its own
345
Information Space
346
Information Space
347
348
Hong Jiang
University of Nebraska, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
agents and presents those to the user in a timely Most ITSs such as AutoTutor (Graesser, Wiemer-
fashion. Hastings, Wiemer-Hastings, Kreuz, & the Tutoring 1
In the following, we first present some back- Research Group, 1999) have not been considered in
ground on the design choice of I-MINDS. Second, the context of a multi-agent system. For example,
we describe the design and implementation of I- one ITS A may store useful information about the
MINDS in greater detail, illustrating with concrete types of questions suitable for a certain type of
examples. We finalize with a discussion of future student based on its own experience. Another ITS B
trends and some conclusions drawn from the current encounters such a student but fails to provide ques-
design. tions that are suitable since it does not know yet how
to handle this type of student. If the two ITSs can
collaborate and share what they know, then B can
BACKGROUND learn from A to provide more suitable questions to
the student. In systems such as AutoTutor, agents
In this section, we briefly describe some virtual do not interact with other agents to exchange their
classrooms, interactive learning environments (ILE), experiences or knowledge bases. I-MINDS is dif-
and intelligent tutoring systems (ITS)listing some ferent in this regard. First, an agent in I-MINDS is
of the features available in these systemsand then capable of machine learning. A teacher agent is able
compare these systems with I-MINDS. The objec- to learn how to rank questions better as it receives
tive of this section is to show that I-MINDS pos- feedback from the environment. A student agent is
sesses most and, in some cases, more advanced able to learn to more effectively form a buddy group
functionalities and features than those found in other for its student. Further, these student agents interact
systems. What sets I-MINDS significantly apart with each other to exchange information and expe-
from these systems is the multi-agent infrastructure rience.
where intelligent agents not only serve their users,
but also interact among themselves to share data and
information. Before moving further, we will provide I-MINDS
some brief definitions of these systems. A virtual
classroom is an environment where the students The I-MINDS project has three primary areas of
receive lectures from an instructor. An ILE is one research: (a) distributed computing (i.e., the infra-
where either the students interact among them- structure and enabling technology), (b) intelligent
selves, or with the instructor, or both to help them agents, and (c) the specific domain application in
learn. An ITS is one where an individual student education and instructional design. Our research on
interacts with a computer system that acts as a tutor distributed computing examines consistency,
for that student. At its current design, I-MINDS is a scalability, and security in resource sharing among
full-fledged virtual classroom with an ILE, and has multiple processes. In our research on intelligent
the infrastructure for further development into a agents, we study interactions between teacher agent
system of intelligent tutors. I-MINDS currently has and student agents, and among student agents. For
a complete suite of similar multimedia support fea- our application in education, we focus on automated
tures, important in virtual classrooms and interactive question ranking by the teacher agent and buddy
learning environments: live video and audio broad- group formation by the student agents.
casts, collaborative sessions, online forums, digital In this section, we will focus our discussions on
archival of lectures and discussions, text overlay on the intelligent agents and the multi-agent system and
blackboard, and other media. The uniqueness of I- briefly on the instructional design. Readers are
MINDS is that the features of its interactive learning referred to Liu, Zhang, Soh, Al-Jaroodi, and Jiang
environment and virtual classroom are supported by (2003) for a discussion on distributed computing in I-
intelligent agents. These agents work individually to MINDS using a Java object-oriented approach, to
serve their users and collaboratively to support Soh, Liu, Zhang, Al-Jaroodi, Jiang, and Vemuri
teaching and learning. (2003) for a discussion on a layered architecture and
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Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
proxy-supported topology to maintain a flexible and words that it contains and whether it is picked by the
scalable design at the system level, and to Zhang, instructor to answer in real-time.
Soh, Jiang, and Liu (2005) for a discussion on the The teacher agent also has a self-learning com-
multi-agent system infrastructure. ponent, which lends intelligence to its interface. In
The most unique and innovative aspect of I- our current design, this component allows the agent
MINDS when applied to education is the usage of to improve its own knowledge bases and its perfor-
agents that work individually behind-the-scenes and mance in evaluating and ranking questions. When a
that collaborate as a multi-agent system. There are new question is asked, the teacher agent first
two types of agents in I-MINDS: teacher agents and evaluates the question and scores it. Then the
student agents. In general, a teacher agent serves an teacher agent inserts the question into a ranked
instructor, and a student agent serves a student. question list (based on the score of the question and
the heuristic rules, to be described later) and dis-
Teacher Agent plays the list to the instructor. The instructor may
choose which questions to answer. Whenever the
In I-MINDS, a teacher agent interacts with the instructor answers a question, he or she effectively
instructor and other student agents. The teacher teaches the teacher agent that the question is
agent ranks questions automatically for the instructor indeed valuable. If the question had been scored
to answer, profiles the students through its interac- and ranked high by the teacher agent, this selection
tion with their respective student agents, and im- reinforces the teacher agents reasoning. This posi-
proves its knowledge bases to better support the tive reinforcement leads to the increased weights
instructor. for the heuristics and keywords that had contrib-
In our current design, the teacher agent evaluates uted to the score and rank of the question, and vice
questions and profiles students. The teacher agent versa.
has a mechanism that scores a question based on the Figure 1 shows a screen snapshot of our teacher
profile of the student who asks the question and the agents interface. The snapshot shows three com-
quality of the question itself. A student who has been ponents. First, the main window displays the lecture
asking good questions will be ranked higher than a materials that could be a whiteboard (captured with
student who has been asking poor questions. A good a Mimios-based technology), a Web page, and any
question is based on the number of weighted key- documents that appear on the computer screen.
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Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
The Mimios-based technology transforms an ordi- rative features that are used by the buddy groups: a
nary whiteboard to a digital one. It comes with a forum and a whiteboard. The forum allows all bud- 1
sensor mounted on the ordinary whiteboard and a dies to ask and answer questions, with each message
stylus that transmits a signal when pressed against being color-coded. Also, the entire forum session is
the whiteboard when a person writes with the stylus. digitally archived, and the student may later review
The sensor receives the signal and displays the the session and annotate it through his or her student
movement of the handwriting on the whiteboard into agent. The whiteboard allows all buddies to write,
the computer. In Figure 1, the lecture material draw, and annotate on a community digital whiteboard.
happens to be a Microsoft PowerPoint slide on The actions on the whiteboard are also tracked and
buffer zones, a topic in Geographic Information recorded by the student agent.
Systems (GIS). Second, the figure has a small Note that the initial formation of a buddy group is
toolbar, shown here at the top-left corner of the based on the profile information queried from the
snapshot. Only an instructor can view and use this teacher agent and preferences indicated by the
toolbar. This toolbar allows the instructor to save student. Then, when a student performs a collabora-
and/or transmit a learning material and change the tive activity (initiating a forum discussion or a
annotation tools (pens, erasers, markers, and col- whiteboard discussion, or asking a question), the
ors). Third, the snapshot shows a question display student agent informs other student agents identified
window at the bottom right corner. Once again, only as buddies within the students buddy group of this
the instructor can view and use this question display. activity. Thus, buddies may answer questions that
The question display summarizes each question, the instructor does not have time to respond to in
ranked based on their scores. The display window class. As the semester moves along, the student
also has several features. For example, an instructor agent ranks the buddies based on their responsive-
may choose to answer or discard a question, may ness and helpfulness. The student agent will drop
view the entire question, and may review the profile buddies who have not been responsive from the
of the student who asked a particular question. buddy group. The student agent also uses heuristics
Alternatively, the instructor may choose to hide the to determine when to invite/remove a buddy and
toolbar and the questions display window so as not which buddy to approach for help. The student
to interfere with her/his lecture materials. agent adjusts its heuristic rules according to the
current classroom environment.
Student Agents Figure 2 shows a screen snapshot of the I-
MINDS student agent, which is divided into four
A student agent supports the student whom it serves, major quadrants. The top-left quadrant is the win-
by interacting with the teacher agent and other dow that displays in real-time the lecture materials
student agents. It obtains student profiles from the delivered from the teacher agent to each student
teacher agent, forms the students buddy group, agent. When the instructor changes a page, for
tracks and records the student activities, and pro- example, the teacher agent will send the new page
vides multimedia support for student collaboration. to the student agent. The student agent duly displays
First, each student agent supports the formation of a it. Further, when the instructor writes on a page, the
buddy group, which is a group of students with teacher agent also transmits the changes to the
complementary characteristics (or profiles) who student agent to display them for the student. The
respond to each other and work together in online top-right quadrant is broken up into two sub-regions.
discussions. A student may choose to form his or her On the top is a real-time video feed from the teacher
own buddy group if he or she knows about the other agent. On the bottom is the digital archival repository
students and wants to include them in his or her of the lecture pages. A student may bring up and
buddy group. However, for students who do not annotate each page. For example, he/she might
have that knowledge,especially for remote students, paste a question onto a page and send it back to the
the student agent will automatically form a buddy instructor as a question with a figure. On the
group for its student. I-MINDS also has two collabo- bottom-left quadrant is the forum. Each message
351
Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
352
Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
to its agent-based approach and real-time capabili- Soh, L.-K., Liu, X., Zhang, X., Al-Jaroodi, J., Jiang,
ties such as real-time in-class instructions with H., & Vemuri, P. (2003, July 14-18). I-MINDS: An 1
instant data gathering and information dissemina- agent-oriented information system for applica-
tion, unified agent and distributed computing archi- tions in education. Proceedings of the
tecture, group learning, and real-time student re- AAMAS2003 AOIS Workshop, Melbourne, Aus-
sponse monitoring. The individual interfaces are tralia (pp. 2-8).
able to provide timely services and relevant informa-
Weiss, G. (Ed.) (1999). Multiagent systems: A
tion to their users with the support provided by the
modern approach to distributed artificial intelli-
intelligent agents working behind-the-scenes. We
gence. MIT Press.
have conducted a pilot study using two groups of
students in actual lectures (Soh, Jiang, & Ansorge, Wooldridge, M., & Jennings, N. R. (1995). Intelli-
2004). One group is supported by I-MINDS in which gent agents: Theory and practice. The Knowledge
the teacher delivered the lectures remotely and the Engineering Review, 10(2), 115-152.
students collaborated and interacted via the virtual
classroom. The pilot study demonstrated some indi- Zhang, X., Soh, L.-K., Jiang, H., & Liu, X. (2005).
cators of the effectiveness and feasibility of I- Using multiagent intelligence to support synchro-
MINDS. Future work includes deploying I-MINDS nous and asynchronous learning. To appear as a
in an actual classroom, incorporating cooperative book chapter in L. Jain, & C. Ghaoui (Eds.), Inno-
learning and instructional design into the agents, and vations in knowledge-based virtual education.
carrying out further studies on student learning. Springer-Verlag.
KEY TERMS
REFERENCES
Agent: A module that is able to sense its envi-
Graesser, A. C., Wiemer-Hastings, K., Wiemer- ronment, receive stimuli from the environment, make
Hastings, P., Kreuz, R., & the Tutoring Research autonomous decisions and actuate the decisions,
Group. (1999). AutoTutor: a simulation of a human which in turn change the environment.
tutor. Journal of Cognitive Systems Research,
1(1), 35-51. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learn-
ing: The process in which multiple learners work
Liu, X., Zhang, X., Soh, L. -K., Al-Jaroodi, J., & together on tasks using computer tools that leads to
Jiang, H. (2003, December 2-5). A distributed, learning of a subject matter by the learners.
multiagent infrastructure for real-time, virtual class-
rooms. Proceedings of the International Confer- Intelligent Agent: An agent that is capable of
ence on Computers in Education (ICCE2003), flexible behaviour: responding to events timely, ex-
Hong Kong, China (pp. 640-647). hibiting goal-directed behaviour and social behaviour,
and conducting machine learning to improve its own
McArthur, D., Lewis, M.W., & Bishay, M. (1993). performance over time.
The roles of artificial intelligence in education: cur-
rent progress and future prospects. Technical Re- Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS): A soft-
port, RAND, Santa Monica, CA, USA, DRU-472- ware system that is capable of interacting with a
NSF. student, providing guidance in the students learning
of a subject matter.
Soh, L.-K., Jiang, H., & Ansorge, C. (2004, March
3-7). Agent-based cooperative learning: a proof-of- Interactive Learning Environment (ILE): A
concept experiment. Proceedings of the 35th Tech- software system that interacts with a learner and
nical Symposium on Computer Science Educa- may immerse the learner in an environment condu-
tion (SIGCSE2004), Norfolk, Virginia (pp. 368- cive to learning; it does not necessarily provide
372). tutoring for the learner.
353
Intelligent Multi-Agent Cooperative Learning System
Machine Learning: The ability of a machine to Virtual Classroom: An online learning space
improve its performance based on previous results. where students and instructors interact.
Multi-Agent System: A group of agents where
agents interact to accomplish tasks, thereby satisfy-
ing goals of the system design.
354
355
Tobias Lauer
Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt Freiburg, Germany
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Time stretching, sometimes also referred to as time While all the studies discussed in the previous sec-
scaling, is a term describing techniques for replaying tion have shown the usefulness of time stretching,
speech signals faster (i.e., time compressed) or the question remains how this functionality is best
slower (i.e., time expanded) while preserving their presented to the user. Probably the most extensive
characteristics, such as pitch and timbre. One ex- and important study of time stretching in relation to
ample for such an approach is the SOLA (synchro- user interfaces is the work done by Barry Arons in
nous overlap and add) algorithm (Roucus & Wilgus, the early and mid 1990s. Based on detailed user
1985), which is often used to avoid cartoon-charac- studies, he introduced the SpeechSkimmer interface
ter-like voices during faster replay. Many studies (Arons, 1994, 1997), which was designed in order to
have been carried out in the past in order to evaluate make speech skimming as easy as scanning printed
the applicability and the usefulness of time stretch- text. To achieve this, the system incorporates time-
ing for different tasks in which users are dealing with stretching as well as content-compression tech-
recorded speech signals. One of the most obvious niques. Its interface allows the modification of speech
applications of time compression is speech skim- replay in two dimensions. By moving a mark verti-
ming, which describes the actions involved in quickly cally, users can slow down replay (by moving the
going through a speech document in order to identify mark down) or make it faster (by moving the mark
the overall topic or to locate some specific informa- upward), thus enabling time-expanded or time-com-
tion. Since people can listen faster than they talk, pressed replay. In the horizontal dimension, content-
time-compressed audio, within reasonable limits, compression techniques are applied. With content
can also make sense for normal listening, especially compression, parts of the speech signal whose con-
in view of He and Gupta (2001), who suggest that the tents have been identified as less relevant or unim-
future bottleneck for consuming multimedia con- portant are removed in order to speed up replay.
tents will not be network bandwidth but peoples Importance is usually estimated based on automatic
limited time. In their study, they found that an upper pause detection or the analysis of the emphasis used
bound for sustainable speedup during continuous by the speaker. With SpeechSkimmer, users can
listening is at about 1.6 to 1.7 times the normal speed. choose between several discrete browsing levels,
This is consistent with other studies such as Galbraith, each of which removes more parts of the speech
Ausman, Liu, and Kirby (2003) or Harrigan (2000), signal that have been identified as less relevant than
indicating preferred speedup ratios between 1.3 and the remaining ones. Both dimensions can be com-
1.8. Amir, Ponceleon, Blanchard, Petkovic, bined, thus enabling time as well as content com-
Srinivasan, and Cohen (2000) found that, depending pression during replay at the same time. In addition,
on the text and speaker, the best speed for compre- SpeechSkimmer offers a modified type of backward
hension can also be slower than normal, especially playing in which small chunks of the signal are
for unknown or difficult contents. replayed in reverse order. It also offers some other
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
features, such as bookmark-based navigation or and forth. For example, one disadvantage of the
jumps to some outstanding positions within the speech usual speed controllers concerns the linear scale.
signal. The possibility to jump back a few seconds The study by Amir et al. (2000) suggests that
and switch back to normal replay has proven to be humans perception of time-stretched audio is pro-
especially useful for search tasks. Parts of these portional to the logarithm of the speedup factor
techniques and interface design approaches have rather than linear in the factor itself. So, an increase
been successfully used in other systems (e.g., from, say, 1.6 to 1.8 times the normal speed is
Schmandt, Kim, Lee, Vallejo, & Ackerman, 2002; perceived as more dramatic than changing the ratio
Stifelman, Arons, & Schmandt, 2001). from 1.2 to 1.4. Thus, the information provided by a
Current media players have started integrating linear slider scale may be irrelevant or even counter-
time stretching into their set of features as well. productive. In any case, explicitly selecting a spe-
Here, faster and slower replay is usually provided in cific speedup factor does not seem to be the most
the interface by either offering some buttons that intuitive procedure for information seeking.
can be used to set replay speed to a fixed, discrete
value, or by offering a slider-like widget to continu-
ously modify replay speed in a specific range. It INTERACTIVE SPEECH SKIMMING
should be noted that if the content-compression part WITH THE ELASTIC AUDIO SLIDER
is removed from the SpeechSkimmer interface, the
one-dimensional modification of replay speed by In addition to a speed controller, common media
moving the corresponding mark vertically basically players generally include an audio-progress bar that
represents the same concept as the slider-like wid- indicates the current position during replay (see
get to continuously change replay speed in common Figure 1b). By dragging the thumb on such a bar,
media players (although a different orientation and users can directly access any random part within the
visualization has been chosen). file. However, audio replay is usually paused or
Figure 1a illustrates an example of a slider-like continued normally while the bars thumb is dragged.
interface, subsequently called a speed controller, The reason why there is no immediate audio feed-
which can be used to adapt speech replay to any back is that the movements of the thumb performed
value between 0.5 and 3.0 times the normal replay by the users are usually too fast (if the thumb is
rate. Using such a slider to select a specific replay moved quickly over larger distances), too slow (if the
speed is very intuitive and useful if one wants to thumb is moved slowly or movement is paused), or
continuously listen to speech with a fixed time- too jerky (if the scrolling direction is changed quickly,
compressed or time-expanded replay rate. How- if the user abruptly speeds up or jerks to a stop, etc.).
ever, this interface design might have limitations in Therefore, it is critical and sometimes impossible to
more interactive scenarios such as information seek- achieve a comprehensible audio feedback, even if
ing, a task that is characterized by frequent speed time-stretching techniques were applied to the signal
changes together with other types of interaction or small snippets are replayed instead of single
such as skipping irrelevant parts or navigating back samples. On the other hand, such a slider-like inter-
Figure 1. An audio player interface with speed controller and audio-progress bar
356
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
Figure 2. FineSlider (a): The scrolling speed depends on the distance between the slider thumb and
mouse pointer, as is shown in the distance-to-speed mapping (b) 1
(a) (b)
SPEED
0
DISTANCE
facein which navigation is based on a modification function (see Figure 2). This distance can be inter-
of the current position within the filecould be very preted as a rubber band, as described above. The
useful, especially in situations where navigation using main advantage of the FineSlider is that it allows a
a speed-controller interface is less intuitive and lacks user to access any position within a document
flexibility. independent of its length, which is not necessarily
Our approach for improved speech skimming is true for regular sliders. Since the slider length
based on the idea of using time stretching in order to represents the size of the document, moving the
combine position-based navigation using the audio- slider thumb one pixel might already result in a large
progress bar with simultaneous audio feedback. It jump in the file. This is because the number of pixels
builds on the concept of elastic interfaces, which was on the slider (and thus the number of positions it can
originally introduced by Masui, Kashiwagi, and Borden access in the document) is limited by the corre-
(1995) for navigating and browsing discrete visual sponding window size and screen resolution, while
data. The basic idea of elastic interfaces is not to drag on the other hand, the document can be arbitrarily
and move objects directly but instead to pull them long. By choosing an appropriate distance-to-speed
along a straight line that connects the mouse pointer mapping for the FineSlider, small distances be-
or cursor with the object (cf Hrst, in press). The tween the slider thumb and the mouse pointer can
speed with which the object follows the cursors be mapped to scrolling speeds that would otherwise
movements depends on the distance between the only be possible with subpixel movements of the
cursor and the object: If this distance is large, the thumb. The FineSlider thus enables access to any
object moves faster, and if it gets smaller, the object random position of the file independent of its actual
slows down. This behavior can be explained with the length.
rubber-band metaphor, in which the direct connec- If applied to a regular audio-progress bar, the
tion between the object and the cursor is interpreted concept of elastic interfaces offers two significant
as a rubber band. Hence, if the cursor is moved away advantages. First, the thumbs movements are no
from the object, the tension on the rubber band gets longer mapped directly to the corresponding posi-
stronger, thus pulling the object faster toward the tions in the document, but are only considered
cursor position. If the object and cursor get closer to indirectly via the distance-to-speed mapping. With
each other, the rubber band loosens and the force regard to speech replay, this can be used to restrict
pulling the object decreases; that is, its movement scrolling speed and thus replay rates to a range in
becomes slower. which audio feedback is still understandable and
One example for an elastic interface is the so- useful, such as 0.5 to 3.0 times the normal replay.
called FineSlider (Masui et al., 1995). Here, the Second, the motion of the thumb is much smoother
distance between the mouse pointer and the slider because it is no longer directly controlled by the
thumb along a regular slider bar is mapped to move- jerky movements of the mouse pointer (or the
ments of the slider thumb using a linear mapping
357
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
users hand), thus resulting in a more reasonable, replay behavior. The rubber-band metaphor still
comprehensible audio feedback. holds for this modification when the default state is
However, transferring the concept of elastic not a pause mode but playback (i.e., slider move-
interfaces from visual to audio data is not straight- ment) at normal speed, which can either be in-
forward. In the visual case (compare Figure 2b), a creased or decreased. The force of the rubber band
still image is considered the basic state while the pulls the slider thumb toward the right or left, thereby
mouse pointer is in the area around the slider thumb. accelerating or braking it, respectively. Increasing
Moving the pointer to the right continuously in- the tension of the rubber band by dragging the mouse
creases the forward replay speed, while moving it to pointer further away from the thumb increases the
the left enables backward playing with an increased force and thus the speed changes. If the band is
replay rate. In contrast to this, there is no still or loosened, the tension of the band and the accelerat-
static state of a speech signal. In addition, strict ing or decelerating force on the slider is reduced.
backward playing of a speech signal makes no sense The visualization of this functionality in the
(unless it is done in a modified way such as realized progress bar is illustrated in Figure 4. As soon as the
in Arons, 1994). Therefore, we propose to adapt the user presses the mouse button anywhere on the
distance-to-speed mapping for audio replay as illus- slider scale, three areas of different color indicate
trated in Figure 3a. Moving the pointer to the left the replay behavior. The purple area around the
enables time-expanded replay until the lower border slider thumb represents normal speed. Green, to the
of 0.5 times the normal replay speed is reached. right of the thumb, indicates accelerated playback
Moving it to the right continuously increases replay (as in Green light: Speed up!), while the red color
speed up to a bound of 3.0 times the normal replay on the left stands for slower replay (as in Red light:
speed. The area around the slider thumb represents Slow down!). A tool tip attached to the mouse
normal replay. pointer displays the current speedup factor. Further
This functionality can be integrated into the au- details on the design decisions and the technical
dio-progress bar in order to create an elastic audio implementation of the interface can be found in
slider in the following way: If a user clicks anywhere Hrst, Lauer, and Gtz (2004b).
on the bars scale to the right of the current position With such an elastic audio slider, users can
of the thumb and subsequently moves the pointer to quickly speed up replay or slow it down, depending
the right, replay speed is increased by the value on the current situation and demand. On the other
resulting from the distance-to-speed mapping illus- hand, a traditional speed-controller design is better
trated in Figure 3a. Moving the pointer to the left suited for situations in which the aim is not to
reduces replay speed accordingly. Placing or mov- interactively modify replay speed but instead to
ing the pointer to the left of the actual position of the continuously listen to a speech recording at a differ-
thumb results in an analogous but time-expanding ent but fixed speed over a longer period. Both cases
Figure 3. Distance-to-speed mapping for the elastic audio slider without a speed controller (a) and
coupled with the speed controller (b; with basic speed set to 1.5)
SPEED SPEED
3.0 3.0
0.5 0.5
DISTANCE DISTANCE
0 0
358
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
Figure 4. Visualization of the elastic audio slider (a), with views for normal (b), time-expanded (c),
and time-compressed replay (d) 1
(a)
are very important applications of time stretching. tion, into the system. Maybe the most challenging
Amir et al. (2000) present a study in which users and exciting opportunity for future research will be
assessments of different replay speeds identified a the combination of the elastic audio-skimming func-
natural speed for each file used in the study that the tionality with the opportunity to skim visual data
participants considered as the optimal speedup ratio. streams at the same time, thus providing real
In addition, they identified unified speedup assess- multimodal data browsing. While we already proved
ments once replay was normalized, that is, after the usefulness of elastic browsing for video data
replay was set to the natural speed of the corre- (Hrst, Gtz, & Lauer, 2004a), combined audiovi-
sponding file. Amir et al.s study only gives initial sual browsing raises a whole range of new questions
evidence that must be confirmed through further regarding issues such as how to handle the different
user testing. Nonetheless, these findings argue for a upper and lower speedup bounds for audio and video,
combination of the speed controller with the elastic whether (and how) to provide audio feedback during
audio-slider functionality. The speed controller can visual skimming in the reverse direction, and how to
be used to select a new basic speed. As a conse- maintain synchronized replay if pause reduction is
quence, the area around the thumb in the audio- used.
progress bar no longer represents the normal replay
rate, but is adapted to the new basic speed. The area
to the left and right of the thumb are adapted CONCLUSION
accordingly, as illustrated in the distance-to-speed
mapping shown in Figure 3b. This modification en- Common interface designs incorporating time-
ables users to select a basic replay speed that is stretched speech replay in current media players are
optimal for the current document as well as for their very useful to set the replay speed to a higher or
personal preferences. Using the elastic audio slider, lower rate. However, they lack the flexibility and
they can subsequently react directly to events in the intuitiveness needed for highly interactive tasks in
speech signal and interactively speed up or slow which continuous changes of the replay speed, such
down audio replay. Hence, interaction becomes as temporary speedups, are needed. For this reason,
more similar to navigation by using regular scroll we introduced the elastic audio slider, a new inter-
bars or sliders and thus is more useful for interactive face design for the interactive manipulation of speech
tasks such as information seeking. replay using time-stretching techniques. The pro-
posed approach enhances the functionality of exist-
ing audio interfaces in a natural and intuitive way. Its
FUTURE TRENDS integration into the audio-progress bar does not
replace any of the typical features and functionalities
Our current work includes integrating additional offered by this widget, and it can be coupled in a
time-compression techniques, such as pause reduc- gaining way with the commonly used tool for time
359
Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
stretching, that is, a speed-controller interface. 9th ACM International Conference on Multime-
Hence, it seamlessly integrates into common user- dia, MM 01 (pp. 382-391).
interface designs. The feasibility and usefulness of
Hrst, W. (in press). Elastic interfaces for visual
the proposed interface design was verified in a
data browsing. In C. Ghaoui (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
qualitative user study presented in Hrst, Lauer, and
human computer interaction. Hershey, PA: Infor-
Gtz (2004a). It proved that the elastic audio slider
mation Science Publishing.
is a very useful tool for quickly speeding up audio
replay (for example, to easily skip a part of minor Hrst, W., Gtz, G., & Lauer, T. (2004). New
interest) as well as to slow down replay temporarily methods for visual information seeking through video
(for example, to listen to a particular part more browsing. Proceedings of the 8 th International
carefully). With the elastic audio slider, users are Conference on Information Visualisation, IV 2004
able to react quickly to events in the audio signal (pp. 450-455).
such as irrelevant passages or important parts and
adapt the speed temporarily to the situation. This Hrst, W., Lauer, T., & Gtz, G. (2004a). An elastic
facilitates highly interactive tasks such as skimming audio slider for interactive speech skimming. Pro-
and search. ceedings of the Third Nordic Conference on
Human-Computer Interaction, NordiCHI 2004,
Tampere, Finland.
REFERENCES Hrst, W., Lauer, T., & Gtz, G. (2004b). Interac-
tive manipulation of replay speed while listening to
Amir, A., Ponceleon, D., Blanchard, B., Petkovic, speech recordings. Proceedings of the 12th ACM
D., Srinivasan, S., & Cohen, G. (2000). Using audio International Conference on Multimedia, MM
time scale modification for video browsing. Pro- 04, New York.
ceedings of the 33 rd Hawaii International Con-
ference on System Sciences, HICCS 2000 (p. Masui, T., Kashiwagi, K., & Borden, G. R., IV.
3046). (1995). Elastic graphical interfaces to precise data
manipulation. Conference Companion on Human
Arons, B. (1994). Interactively skimming recorded Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 95 (pp. 143-
speech. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, MIT, 144).
Cambridge, MA.
Roucus, S., & Wilgus, A. (1985). High quality time-
Arons, B. (1997). SpeechSkimmer: A system for scale modification for speech. Proceedings of the
interactively skimming recorded speech. ACM Trans- IEEE International Conference on Acoustics,
actions on Computer Human Interaction, 4(1), 3- Speech, and Signal Processing, ICASSP 85 (Vol.
38. 2, pp. 493-496).
Galbraith, J., Ausman, B., Liu, Y., & Kirby, J. Schmandt, C., Kim, J., Lee, K., Vallejo, G., &
(2003). The effects of time-compressed (acceler- Ackerman, M. (2002). Mediated voice communica-
ated) instructional video presentations on stu- tion via mobile IP. Proceedings of the 15th Annual
dent recognition, recall and preference. Ana- ACM Symposiums on User Interface Software
heim, CA: Association for Educational Communica- and Technology, UIST 2002 (pp. 141-150).
tions and Technology (AECT).
Stifelman, L., Arons, B., & Schmandt, C. (2001).
Harrigan, K. (2000). The SPECIAL system: Search- The audio notebook: Paper and pen interaction with
ing time-compressed digital video lectures. Journal structured speech. Proceedings of the SIGCHI
of Research on Technology in Education, 33(1), Conference on Human Factors in Computing
77-86. Systems, CHI 01 (pp. 182-189).
He, L., & Gupta, A. (2001). Exploring benefits of
non-linear time compression. Proceedings of the
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Interactive Speech Skimming via Time-Stretched Audio Replay
361
362
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
International Standards for HCI
organisational capability to support user-centred divided into two categories: those containing general
design. principles and recommendations, and those with 1
detailed specifications. They are also grouped ac-
cording to subject matter. All the standards are
DEVELOPMENT OF ISO briefly described in Table 3.
STANDARDS
International standards for HCI are developed under APPROACHES TO HCI STANDARDS
the auspices of the International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO) and the International HCI standards have been developed over the last 20
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ISO and IEC years. One function of standards is to impose consis-
comprise national standards bodies from member tency, and some attempt has been made to do this by
states. The technical work takes place in working ISO/IEC standards for interface components such
groups of experts, nominated by national standards as icons, PDA (personal digital assistant) scripts,
committees. and cursor control. However, in these areas, de
The standards are developed over a period of facto industry standards have been more influential
several years, and in the early stages, the published than ISO, and the ISO standards have not been
documents may change significantly from version to widely adopted.
version until consensus is reached. As the standard The ISO 9241 standards have had more impact
becomes more mature, from the committee-draft (Stewart, 2000b; Stewart & Travis, 2002). Work on
stage onward, formal voting takes place by partici- ergonomic requirements for VDT workstation hard-
pating national member bodies. ware and the environment (ISO 9241, parts 3-9)
The status of ISO and IEC documents is began in 1983, and was soon followed by work on
summarised in the title of the standard, as described guidelines for the software interface and interaction
in Table 1, and Table 2 shows the main stages of (parts 10-17). The approach to software in ISO 9241
developing an international standard. is based on detailed guidance and principles for
design rather than precise interface specifications,
thus permitting design flexibility.
STANDARDS DESCRIBED IN THIS More recently, standards and metrics for soft-
ARTICLE ware quality have been defined by the software-
engineering community.
Table 3 lists the international standards and techni- The essential user-centred design activities needed
cal reports related to HCI that were published or to produce usable products are described in the
under development in 2004. The documents are ergonomic standard ISO 13407. These principles
Example Explanation
ISO 1234 (2004) ISO Standard 1234, published in 2004
ISO 1234-1 (2004) Part 1 of ISO Standard 1234, published in 2004
ISO/IEC 1234 (2004) Joint ISO/IEC Standard 1234, published in 2004
ISO TS 1234 (2004) An ISO technical specification: A normative document that may later be
revised and published as a standard
ISO PAS 1234 (2004) An ISO publicly available specification: A normative document with
less agreement than a TS that may later be revised and published as a
standard
ISO TR 1234 (2004) An ISO technical report: An informative document containing
information of a different kind from that normally published in a
normative standard
ISO xx 1234 (2004) A draft standard of document type xx (see Table 2)
363
International Standards for HCI
364
International Standards for HCI
have been refined and extended in a model of how to identify which aspects are relevant
usability maturity that can be used to assess the in the context of use and describes how to 1
capability of an organisation to carry out user- identify the characteristics that cause vari-
centred design (ISO TR 18529). Burmester and ance within the intended user population.
Machate (2003) and Reed et al. (1999) discuss how Part 2: Test Method (DTS: 2004): This
different types of guidelines can be used to support specifies a test method for measuring the
the user-centred development process. ease of operation of public walk-up-and-
use products and of everyday consumer
STANDARDS products.
6. Common Industry Format
Use in Context and Test Methods ANSI/NCITS 354: Common Industry For-
mat for Usability Test Reports (2001):
1. ISO 9241-11: Guidance on Usability This specifies a format for documenting
(1998): This standard (which is part of the ISO summative usability test reports for use in
9241 series) provides the definition of usability contractual situations, and is expected to
that is used in subsequent related ergonomic become an ISO standard (Bevan, Claridge,
standards. Maguire, & Athousaki, 2002).
Usability: The extent to which a product Draft Common Industry Format for Us-
can be used by specified users to achieve ability Requirements (2004): Specifies a
specified goals with effectiveness, effi- format for documenting summative usabil-
ciency, and satisfaction in a specified con- ity requirements to aid communication early
text of use in development, and is expected to be-
2. ISO/IEC 9126-1: Software Engineering come an ISO standard.
Product QualityPart 1: Quality Model
(2001): This standard describes six categories Software Interface and Interaction
of software quality that are relevant during
product development including quality in use These standards can be used to support user-inter-
(similar to the definition of usability in ISO face development in the following ways.
9241-11), with usability defined more narrowly
as ease of use (Bevan, 1999). To specify details of the appearance and
3. ISO/IEC CD TR 19764: Guidelines on behaviour of the user interface. ISO 14915 and
Methodology, and Reference Criteria for IEC 61997 contain recommendations for mul-
Cultural and Linguistic Adaptability in In- timedia interfaces. More specific guidance can
formation-Technology Products (2003): be found for icons in ISO/IEC 11581, PDAs in
This defines a methodology and a guided check- ISO/IEC 18021, and cursor control in ISO/IEC
list for the evaluation of cultural adaptability in 10741.
software, hardware, and other IT products. To provide detailed guidance on the design of
4. ISO/IEC TR 9126-4: Software Engineer- user interfaces (ISO 9241, parts 12-17).
ingProduct QualityPart 4: Quality-in- To provide criteria for the evaluation of user
Use Metrics (2004): Contains examples of interfaces (ISO/IEC 9126, parts 2 and 3).
metrics for effectiveness, productivity, safety,
and satisfaction. However, the attributes that a product requires
5. ISO 20282: Ease of Operation of Everyday for usability depend on the nature of the user, task,
Products: Ease of operation is concerned with and environment. ISO 9241-11 can be used to help
the usability of the user interface of everyday understand the context in which particular attributes
products. may be required. Usable products can be designed
Part 1: Context of Use and User Charac- by incorporating product features and attributes
teristics (DIS: 2004): This part explains known to benefit users in particular contexts of use.
365
International Standards for HCI
366
International Standards for HCI
367
International Standards for HCI
368
International Standards for HCI
369
International Standards for HCI
Part 307: Analysis and Compliance Test Meth- ISO/IEC AWI 25041: Evaluation Modules
ods (CD: 2004) (ISO/IEC 14598-6)
ISO/IEC AWI 25042: Process for Devel-
Physical Input Devices opers (ISO/IEC 14598-3)
ISO/IEC AWI 25043: Process for
Part 400: Ergonomic Principles (CD: 2004) Acquirers (ISO/IEC 14598-4)
Part 410: Design Criteria for Products (AWI: ISO/IEC AWI 25044: Process for Evalu-
2004) ators (ISO/IEC 14598-5)
Part 411: Laboratory Test and Evaluation Meth- ISO/IEC 25051: Quality Requirements and
ods Testing Instructions for Commercial Off-
Part 420: Ergonomic Selection Procedures the-Shelf (COTS) Software (ISO/IEC
(AWI: 2004) 12119)
Part 421: Workplace Test and Evaluation Meth- ISO/IEC 250nn: Common Industry For-
ods mat (ANSI/NCITS 354)
Part 500: Workplaces
Part 600: Environment
Part 700: Special Application Domains CONCLUSION
Part 710: Control Centre (in seven parts)
The majority of effort in ergonomics standards has
ISO/IEC 25000 Series: Software Product- gone into developing conditional guidelines (Reed et
Quality Requirements and Evaluation al., 1999), following the pioneering work of Smith
(SQuaRE) and Mosier (1986). Parts 12 to 17 of ISO 9241
contain a daunting 82 pages of guidelines. These
The ISO/IEC 25000 series of standards will replace documents provide an authoritative source of refer-
and extend ISO/IEC 9126, ISO/IEC 14598, and the ence, but designers without usability experience
Common Industry Format. have great difficulty applying these types of guide-
lines (de Souza & Bevan, 1990; Thovtrup & Nielsen,
1. ISO/IEC FCD 25000: Guide to SquaRE 1991). Several checklists have been prepared to
(2004) help assess the conformance of software to the main
ISO/IEC AWI 25001: Planning and Man- principles in ISO 9241 (Gediga, Hamborg, & Dntsch,
agement (ISO/IEC 14598-2) 1999; Oppermann & Reiterer, 1997; Prmper, 1999).
ISO/IEC AWI 25010: Quality Model and In the United States, there is continuing tension
Guide (ISO/IEC 9126-1) between producing national standards that meet the
2. ISO/IEC CD 25020: Measurement Refer- needs of the large U.S. market and contributing to
ence Model and Guide (2004) the development of international standards. Having
3. ISO/IEC CD 25021: Measurement Primi- originally participated in the development of ISO
tives (2004) 9241, the HFES decided to put subsequent effort into
ISO/IEC AWI 25022: Measurement of a national version: HFES-100 and HFES-200 (see
Internal Quality (ISO/IEC 9126-3) Reed et al., 1999).
ISO/IEC AWI 25023: Measurement of Standards are more widely accepted in Europe
External Quality (ISO/IEC 9126-2) than in the United States, partly for cultural reasons,
ISO/IEC AWI 25024: Measurement of and partly to achieve harmonisation across Euro-
Quality in Use (ISO/IEC 9126-3) pean Union countries. Many international standards
4. ISO/IEC CD 25030: Quality Requirements (including ISO 9241) have been adopted as Euro-
and Guide (2004) pean standards. The European Union (2004)
ISO/IEC AWI 25040: Quality Evaluation- Suppliers Directive requires that the technical speci-
Process Overview & Guide (ISO/IEC fications used for public procurement must be in the
14598-1) terms of any relevant European standards. Ergo-
370
International Standards for HCI
Gulliksen, J., & Harker, S. (2004). Software acces- Stewart, T., & Travis, D. (2002). Guidelines, stan-
sibility of human-computer interfaces: ISO Techni- dards and style guides. In J. A. Jacko & A. Sears
cal Specification 16071. Universal Access in the (Eds.), The human-computer interaction hand-
Information Society, 3(1), 6-16. book (pp. 991-1005). Mahwah, NJ: L.E.A.
Koyani, S. J., Bailey, R. W., & Nall, J. R. (2003). Thovtrup, H., & Nielsen, J. (1991). Assessing the
Research-based Web design and usability guide- usability of a user interface standard. Proceedings
lines. Retrieved from http://usability.gov/pdfs/ of CHI91 Conference on Human Factors in
guidelines.html Computing Systems (pp. 335-341).
Oppermann, R., & Reiterer, R. (1997). Software
evaluation using the 9241 evaluator. Behaviour and KEY TERMS
Information Technology, 16(4/5), 232-245.
Context of Use: The users, tasks, equipment
Prmper, P. (1999, August 22-26). Human-com-
(hardware, software, and materials), and physical
puter interaction: Ergonomics and user interfaces.
and social environments in which a product is used
In Proceedings of HCI International 99, Munich,
(ISO 9241-11).
Germany (Vol. 1, pp. 1028-1032).
Interaction: Bidirectional information exchange
Reed, P., Holdaway, K., Isensee, S., Buie, E., Fox,
between users and equipment (IEC 61997).
J., Williams, J., et al. (1999). User interface guide-
lines and standards: Progress, issues, and prospects. Prototype: Representation of all or part of a
Interacting with Computers, 12(2), 119-142. product or system that, although limited in some way,
can be used for evaluation (ISO 13407).
Sherwood Jones, B., & Earthy, J. (2003). Human
centred design: Opportunities and resources. Hu- Task: The activities required to achieve a goal
man Systems IAC Gateway, 14(3). Retrieved from (ISO 9241-11).
http://iac.dtic.mil/hsiac/GW-docs/gw_xiv_3.pdf
Usability: The extent to which a product can be
Smith, S. L., & Mosier, J. N. (1986). Guidelines for used by specified users to achieve specified goals
designing user interface software. The MITRE with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a
Corporation. Retrieved from http://hcibib.org/sam/ specified context of use (ISO 9241-11).
Stewart, T. (2000a). Display screen regulations: User: Individual interacting with the system
An employers guide to getting the best out of (ISO 9241-10).
regulations. Retrieved from http://www.system-
concepts.com/articles/updatesonstandards/ User Interface: The control and information-
giving elements of a product, and the sequence of
Stewart, T. (2000b). Ergonomics user interface interactions that enable the user to use it for its
standards: Are they more trouble than they are intended purpose (ISO DIS 20282-1).
worth? Ergonomics, 43(7), 1030-1044.
372
373
Researchers from multiple disciplines (cultural stud- What does current research tell us about the inter-
ies, intercultural studies, linguistics, sociology, edu- play between individuals, cultures, and communica-
cation, human-computer interaction, distance learn- tion online? A significant number of studies has
ing, learning technologies, philosophy, and others) begun to explore online intercultural communica-
have initiated studies to examine virtual intercultural tions between and within selected populations. Some
communication. The interdisciplinarity of the field, have employed quantitative methods to investigate
however, offers distinct challenges: in addition to whether there are specific cultural differences in
embracing different definitions of culture, investiga- attitudes to technology and the use of technologies,
tors lack a common literature or vocabulary. Com- in communication patterns and frequency, and in
municative encounters between groups and indi- communication style or content (for detailed refer-
viduals from different cultures are variously de- ences to these quantitative studies, see Macfadyen,
scribed as cross-cultural, intercultural, multicultural, Roche, & Doff, 2004). Others (and especially those
or even transcultural. Researchers use terms such using qualitative approaches) focus less on the tech-
as the Internet, the World Wide Web, cyberspace, nology and instead seek evidence of cultural influ-
and virtual (learning) environments (VLEs) to de- ences on interpersonal or intragroup processes, dy-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Internet-Mediated Communication at the Cultural Interface
namics, and communications in cyberspace. For examine online communication patterns among and
example, Chase, Macfadyen, Reeder, and Roche between members of specific ethnic or linguistic
(2002) describe nine thematic clusters of apparent groups; only a few attempt to broaden the concept of
cultural mismatches that occurred in communica- culture. Of these, Heaton (1998b) notes, organiza-
tions between culturally diverse individuals in a tional and professional cultures are also vital ele-
Web-based discussion forum: differences in the ments in the mix (pp. 262-263) and defines culture
choices of participation format and frequency, dif- as a dynamic mix of national/geographic, organiza-
ferences in response to the forum culture, different tional and professional or disciplinary variables (p.
levels of comfort with disembodied communication, 263). Others highlight the importance of gender
differing levels of technoliteracy, differences in culture differences in online communications, or
participant expectations, differing patterns of use of note the complicating influences of linguistic culture
academic discourse vs. narrative, and differing atti- and linguistic ability, epistemological type, technical
tudes to time and punctuality. To this list of skill, literacy (Goodfellow, 2004), class, religion, and
discontinuities, Wilson (2001) adds worldview, cul- age (for detailed references, see Macfadyen et al.,
turally specific vocabulary and concepts, linguistic 2004).
characteristics[and] cognition patterns, including
reading behaviour (p. 61). Kim and Bonk (2002) The Problem of Essentialism
report cultural differences in online collaborative
behaviours, and Rahmati (2000) and Thanasankit Even more problematic than the simplistic equating
and Corbitt (2000) describe the different cultural of culture with ethnicity is the persistent and uncriti-
values that selected cultural groups refer to in their cal application of essentialist theories of culture and
approaches to decision making when working online. cultural difference in intercultural communications
Evidence is accumulating, then, that seems to research. These theories tend to characterize cul-
suggest that cultural factors do impact communica- ture as an invariant and uncontested matrix of
tive encounters in cyberspace. What is the most meanings and practices that are inherited by and
effective framework for exploring and explaining shared within a group. They are commonly used
this phenomenon, and what role is played by the either to develop testable hypotheses about the
design of human-computer interfaces? impact of culture on Internet-mediated intercultural
communications, or to interpret data post hoc (or
The Problem of Defining Culture both). In particular, an increasing number of studies
relies unquestioningly upon Hofstedes (1980, 1991)
Perhaps not surprisingly, most intercultural commu- dimensions of (national) culture (Abdat & Pervan,
nication researchers have begun by attempting to 2000; Gunawardena, Nolla, Wilson, Lopez-Islas,
clarify and define what culture is to allow subse- Ramrez-Angel, & Megchun-Alpzar, 2001; Maitland,
quent comparative analyses and examinations of 1998; Marcus & Gould, 2000; Tully, 1998) even
cultural differences in communication practices. though serious questions have been raised about
Given that culture is one of the two or three most Hofstedes methodological assumptions that might
complicated words in the English language (Will- make his subsequent conclusions less reliable
iams, 1983, p. 87), this definitional quest is, unfortu- (McSweeney, 2002). Also referenced frequently are
nately, beset with difficulty. The word itself is now Edward Halls theory (1966) of high- and low-context
used to represent distinct and important concepts in communications (Buragga, 2002; Heaton, 1998a;
different intellectual disciplines and systems of Maitland) and the nationally delineated cultural mod-
thought, and decades of debate between scholars els of Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (2000).
across the disciplines have not yielded a simple or Some researchers (Abdelnour-Nocera, 2002;
uncontested understanding of the concept. Hewling, 2004; Reeder, Macfadyen, Roche, & Chase,
In reality, a majority of existing research and 2004) are now offering critiques of the use of
theory papers published to date that examine culture essentialist cultural theories in intercultural studies.
and communication in online environments implicitly Abdelnour-Nocera discusses, for example, the risks
define culture as ethnic or national culture, and of using ready made cultural models such as
374
Internet-Mediated Communication at the Cultural Interface
Hofstedes, arguing that one may miss qualitative tence, another theoretical perspective that focuses
specific dimensions that dont fit certain pre-estab- on the negotiation of a communicative mode that is 1
lished parameters (p. 516). The uncritical use of satisfactory to all interlocutors. Choi and Danowski
essentialist theories of culture carries with it addi- (2002), meanwhile, base their research on theories
tional and more fundamental problems. First, such of social networks; they discuss their findings with
theories tend to forget that cultures change, and reference to core-periphery theories of network
instead imagine cultures as static, predictable, and communication and to the online power-play nego-
unchanging. Second, the assumption of cultures as tiations of dominant and minority cultures. Alterna-
closed systems of meaning tends to ignore important tively, Gunawardena, Walsh, Reddinger, Gregory,
questions of power and authority: how has one sys- Lake, and Davies (2002) explore the negotiation of
tem of meaning, or discourse, come to dominate? the face online, building on face theory developed
Related to this, essentialist theories can sometimes by theorists such as Ting-Toomey (1988). Yetim
be criticized as positioning individuals as simple (2001) suggests that more attention must be paid to
enculturated players, lacking in agency, and do not the importance of metacommunication as the site of
allow for the possibility of choice, learning, and clarification of meaning. Thorne (2003) offers an-
adaptation in new contexts. Street (1993) reminds us other conceptual framework that draws on an as-
that culture is not a thing but that it is often dressed sessment of discursive orientation, communicative
up in social scientific discourse in order to be de- modality, communicative activity and emergent in-
fined (p. 25). Culture is, rather, an active process of terpersonal dynamics (p. 38) in the analysis of
meaning making: a verb rather than a noun. intercultural engagement online.
A few authors have recently developed new
Social Construction and Negotiation of theoretical perspectives on online intercultural com-
Meaning munication. Benson and Standing (2000) propose a
systems theory of culture that emphasizes culture
Asad (1980) argues that it is the production of as a self-referential system of rules, conventions,
essential meaningsin other words, the production and shared understandings rather than as a set of
of culturein a given society that is the problem to categories. They go on to explain perspectives on
be explained, not the definition of culture itself. In line technology and communication as emergent prop-
with this, a number of recent studies has attempted to erties of culture systems that express core attitudes
examine the negotiation of meaning and the pro- relating to various social contexts. Postmodern
cesses of meaning making employed by different theorists such as Poster (2001) argue that
individuals or groups in cyberspace communications, cyberspace requires a new and different social and
and make use of less- (or non-) essentialist intercul- cultural theory that takes into account the specific
tural and/or communications theory in their research qualities of cyberspace. In cyberspace, he argues,
design and analysis. Reeder et al. (2004), for ex- individuals and groups are unable to position and
ample, prefer a Vygotskyan social-constructivist identify their ethnicity via historically established
stance in which the construction of identity is the relations to physical phenomena such as the body,
starting point in their investigation of online intercul- land, physical environment, and social-political struc-
tural communication. They interpret intercultural tures. Instead, cultural identities in cyberspace,
patterns of online communication in the light of cross- constructed in new and fluid ways, are a temporary
disciplinary theories from sociolinguistics, applied link to a rapidly evolving and creative process of
linguistics, genre and literacy theory, and aboriginal cultural construction.
education. Belz (2003) brings a Hallidayan (1978,
1994) linguistic approach (appraisal theory) to her Understanding Cultural Influences by
evaluation of intercultural e-mail communications Examining the Interface
without making a priori predications based on the
communicators nationalities. In his analysis of an Not surprisingly, this intensive focus on defining the
intercultural e-mail exchange, ODowd (2003) builds culture of online communicators has tended to
upon Byrams (1997) notion of intercultural compe- distract attention from the original question: what is
375
Internet-Mediated Communication at the Cultural Interface
376
Internet-Mediated Communication at the Cultural Interface
meaning in mediated action (MIMA), which builds change that occur in the virtual world of cyberspace.
on the semiotic perspective discussed by Abdelnour- Instead, we may need to look beyond classification 1
Nocera (2002). Rather than attempting to design for systems for individual communicators to the pro-
individual cultures, this approach hopes to help de- cesses that occur at their interface; if we are lucky,
signers understand context, representations, and more information about cultural identity may then
meaning, and allow them to design interfaces that become visible at the edge of our vision. Hewling
are more generally accessible. (2004) makes use of the well-known optical-illusion
One of the few proposed design strategies that image of two mirrored faces in profilewhich can
makes use of situated-action perspectives (see above) also be seen as a central gobletto argue for
and tries to accommodate the great variability in user another way of seeing intercultural encounters in
context, changing user requirements, and fast-paced cyberspace. She suggests that the use of Hofstedean
technology evolution is a scenario-based design ideas of culture can result in a focus on only the
approach proposed by Carroll (2000). Although this faces in the picture, while the more critical field of
design approach does not address Internet-mediated exploration is the mysterious space in between. Is it
intercultural communication issues explicitly, Carroll a goblet? Or, is it another kind of collectively shaped
explains that it is a methodological tradition that space? Bringing Streets (1993) ideas to the worlds
seeks to exploit the complexity and fluidity of of cyberspace, Raybourn, Kings, and Davies (2003)
design by trying to learn more about the structure have suggested that intercultural interaction online
and dynamics of the problem domain rather than involves the construction of a third culture: a pro-
trying to control this complexity (p. 44). cess, not an entity in itself. While this culture (or
As the design and evaluation of interfaces and multiplicity of situational cultures) may be influ-
environments for intercultural communication con- enced by cultures that communicators bring to each
tinue, it will also be important to explore whether exchange, more insight may be gained by investigat-
different communicative technologies may actually ing the evolving processes and tools that individuals
constitute different kinds of cyberculture or mediate invoke and employ to negotiate and represent per-
different kinds of intercultural exchange. In current sonal and group identity, and collective (communica-
literature, studies examining intercultural e-mail ex- tive) construction of meaning. What role does lan-
change predominate, although conclusions and im- guage, literacy, and linguistic competence play?
plications are often extrapolated to all Internet and Does this creative process occur differently in text-
communication technologies. A smaller number of only and media-rich online environments? Answers
studies investigates intercultural communication in to such questions will surely be relevant to HCI
asynchronous forums and discussion boards, in group- practitioners because they will illuminate the need to
conferencing platforms, in newsgroups, and via syn- stop viewing human-computer interfaces as tools for
chronous communications technologies. Even fewer information exchange and will expose the persistent
discuss cultural implications for other human-Internet shortcomings of design approaches that attempt to
interfaces such as Web sites and graphics. As yet, match contextual features with supposedly static
little or no analysis exists of intercultural communi- cultural preferences. These interfaces will more
cation via current cutting-edge communication plat- importantly be viewed as the supporting framework
forms such as Weblogs and wikis (for detailed that may foster or hinder the creative communica-
references, see Macfadyen et al., 2004). tion processes in cyberspace that are the foundation
of successful intercultural communication.
CONCLUSION
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380
381
Juan Ares
University of A Corua, Spain
Rafael Garca
University of A Corua, Spain
Santiago Rodrguez
University of A Corua, Spain
Mara Seoane
University of A Corua, Spain
Sonia Surez
University of A Corua, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
Each of these types of educational methods may detected in already existing systems. The Future
be suitable for a given context, the e-learning sys- Trends section introduces some guidelines that may
tems being the preferred ones in the following conduct the evolution of this discipline in the future.
circumstances: Finally, the Conclusion section presents the conclu-
sion obtained.
1. When looking for a no-attendance-required
educational method.
2. When the pupil, not the teacher, wants to set BACKGROUND
the educational rhythm. This choice might be
based on several reasons, ranging from the Nowadays, there are numerous applications that are
need of adaptation to the availability of a pupil self-named as e-learning tools or systems. Table 1
(i.e., to achieve temporal independence), to the shows the results of the study regarding main iden-
consideration of learning as a more accurate tified applications such as Moodle (http://moodle.org),
approach than teaching, bearing in mind a Ilias (http://www.ilias.uni-koeln.de/ios/index-e.html),
particular application context (Pedreira, 2003). ATutor (http://www.atutor.ca/atutor), WebCT (http:/
3. When the knowledge to be transmitted is to be /www.webct.com), BlackBoard (http://www.
accessible to a high number of pupils. In teach- blackboard.net), and QSTutor (http://www.
ing methods, the teacher is the one who trans- qsmedia.es). Each of these applications has been
mits knowledge and supervises the pupils; there- analyzed from the point of view of the functionality
fore, the quality of the education is influenced to which it gives support. As can be noticed in the
by the number of pupils. Nevertheless, in e- table, these applications are based mainly on docu-
learning the core of the educational process is ment management and provide a wide range of
the relationship between pupil and didactical communication possibilities (especially forum and
material, with the teacher acting as a consult- chat) and agendas.
ant. In this way, a teacher could pay attention Nevertheless, and despite the increasing appear-
to a higher number of pupils without causing ance of e-learning applications, the point of view of
any damage to the quality of the education. this discipline currently is being discussed. This is
due to the fact that, despite the important conceptual
This article is focused both on the study of e- differences that e-learning has with classical teach-
learning systems and on the application procedure ing methods, the developers of that type of applica-
for this new discipline. The Background section is a tion usually operate with the same frame of mind as
brief discussion regarding currently used e-learning with classical methods; that is, an editorial mindset.
systems and their points of view. The Main Focus of In other words, it is common to find the situation in
the Article section suggests a new focus for this type which an e-learning application merely is reduced to
of system in an attempt to solve some shortages a simple digitalization and distribution of the same
382
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
contents used in classical teaching (Martnez, 2003). these modules should be supported by a communi-
In this scenario, pupils read content pages that have cation module. K
been structured in an analogous way to student books
or traditional class notes, using multimedia applica- Pupil Information Module
tions with self-evaluating exercises in order to verify
the assimilation of what previously has been read. This module provides pupils and teacher with infor-
The systems developed in this way, and which mation regarding the former. More specifically, this
should not be considered as e-learning but as e- information should include for every pupil not only
reading (Martnez, 2002), are inappropriate, since his or her personal information (especially contact
technology must not be seen as a purpose in itself but data) together with an academic and/or profes-
as a means that eases the access to education. Then sional profile, but also more dynamic aspects such
again, the docent material that has been elaborated as as current courses and levels achieved, along with
described needs attendance to an explanative lesson; the evolution related to what was expected and a
therefore, it is not enough for pupils to auto-regulate reflection of problems that might have been aroused.
their apprenticeship. All that has been said should
induce a change in the existing orientation of this Teacher Information Module
discipline, paying more attention instead to the elabo-
ration and structuration of docent material. This module makes teacher information available
for pupils. In this way, a given pupil should know not
only how to contact a specific teacher but also the
MAIN FOCUS OF THE ARTICLE topics in which this teacher could help him or her.
383
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
Figure 1. Structure of e-learning systems In order to achieve this type of structure, the first
step is the partition of the course into topics and
CONTENTS MODULE subtopics for the identification of the specific les-
PUPIL sons. This division will generate a subject tree that
INFORMATION
KNOWLEDGE BASE MODULE represents a useful tool for the pupil, so that he or she
may understand the global structure of the course.
The following step should be the description of
those lessons that have been identified. To achieve
LESSONS YELLOW
TEACHER
this, it is proposed that every lesson should be
LEARNED PAGES
INFORMATION preceded by a brief introduction. Having done this, it
MODULE
is suggested to generate a genuine need of learning
into the pupil, aiming for an increased receptiveness
of the contents. Once the lesson has been displayed,
the pupil should be guided with regard to the practi-
COMMUNICATION MODULE cal application of previously acquired theoretical
knowledge. As a final stage, a verification of the
evolution might be performed by means of an evalu-
3. The yellow pages (Davenport & Prusak, 2000) ation of the acquired knowledge.
help the pupil to identify the most suitable Figure 2 shows the proposed ontology for defini-
teacher in order to solve a particular question tion and implementation of the knowledge base,
as well as to distinguish the appropriate re- supported by these components. As can be noticed,
sources (books, class notes, etc.) for digging on some occasions, one or more components might
out a specific topic. not be applicable for a specific lesson. The neces-
sary distinction of the relevant aspects for each case
Communication Module should be performed by the teacher. These compo-
nents are detailed next.
This module, as shown in Figure 1, gives support to
the previous ones. Its main task is giving users Introduction of the Lesson
access to the e-learning system. By this means,
teachers and pupils have access not only to the The aim of this component is to show the pupil a
previous modules but also to communication and global vision of the lesson that is going to start. To
collaboration among the different system users. It is achieve this, not only the purposes of its perfor-
important to point out that this communication should
not be limited to that between a pupil and a teacher, Figure 2. Ontology for the development and
but in some domains, it also could be interesting to implementation of a knowledge base
allow pupils and even teachers to intercommunicate.
Course
Ontology for the Definition of
Knowledge Base 1
1..* * Introduction
Topic
As previously mentioned, the knowledge base acts 1 Generation
like a storage space and a source of specific con- of the need
tents for the pupils to obtain the desired knowledge. *
1 Content
The type of organization of these contents should Lesson developing
1..*
allow significant learning in which pupils should be Consolidation
0..1 Practical
able to assimilate, conceptualize, and apply the ac- Application *
quired knowledge to new environments (Ausubel, Training
*
David, Novak, & Hanesian, 1978; Michael, 2001). Evaluation
384
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
mance should be outlined clearly, but also the con- This level can be divided into two sublevels:
tents have to be described briefly. In addition, it a. Strategic: Specifies what to do and where K
should be made noticeable that lessons are as well as when, in what order, and why to
codependent regarding themselves and/or the rest of do it. This knowledge handles the functional
the basic knowledge. It is also important to specify decomposition of each operation in its con-
clearly what the basic knowledge requirements are stituent steps as well as the order in which
for a successful approach. they have to be undertaken.
b. Tactical: Specifies how to do the tasks and
Generation of the Need under what circumstances they have to be
done. This type of knowledge is associated
The motivation of the pupil constitutes a key aspect with the execution process for each strate-
of learning. A good strategy for achieving this is to gic step of the latest level.
stimulate the pupils understanding of the usefulness 2. Static Knowledge: Conforms the structural
of the knowledge that he or she is going to acquire or declarative domain knowledge and specifies
(Wilkerson & Gijselaers, 1996). This purpose might the elementsconcepts, relations, and proper-
be accomplished by generating need exercises, which tiesthat are handled when carrying out the
consisting of a problem proposal whose method of tasks (i.e., handled by tactical knowledge) and
solving is not known by the learner. the elements that are the basis for the decisions
(i.e., implied in the decisions of strategic knowl-
Content Developing edge).
This is the component where the knowledge in- Therefore, a lesson should give support to the
cluded in the lesson is maintained and transmitted. types of knowledge that have been identified. With
That knowledge may be dynamic or static, both this intention and given the different characteristics
constituting the so-called functional taxonomy of of each of them, they should be described on the
knowledge, which more specifically makes a distinc- basis of different parameters. In this way, Table 2
tion between them (Andrade et al., 2004a): shows in schematic fashion those aspects that should
be kept in mind when describing a knowledge asset,
1. Dynamic Knowledge: Knowledge related to depending on the type of considered knowledge.
the behavior that exists in the domain; that is, This taxonomy has been used by the authors not
functionality, action, processes, and control. only for conceptualization and modeling of problems
385
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
(Andrade et al., 2004b) but also for KM systems dance lessons, making technology not a tool but a
definition and implementation (Andrade et al., 2003). goal in itself. The perception of this situation should
As a result, it has been concluded that the organiza- induce a change when dealing with the development
tion of knowledge, based on this taxonomy, facili- of e-learning systems in terms of fitting the definition
tates its transmission, understanding, and assimila- and structuration of the docent material to the needs
tion. This statement is supported by the fact that that human beings might present. In other words, as
functional taxonomy is consonant with human human computer interaction (HCI) emphasizes, hu-
mindset, and therefore, it is sensitive to people man beings should not be servants of but served by
(Andrade et al., 2004a). technology.
Shown here is a first attempt toward the attain-
Practical Application ment of this objective. A lot of work remains to be
done; therefore, it is predicted that future investiga-
Once the pupil has acquired the required knowledge tions will be focused on a more exhaustive definition
assets, he or she should put them into practice for regarding the way in which docent material should
proper interiorization and assimilation. This task will be elaborated in order to be more easily assimilated
be performed in two phases: consolidation and train- by pupils.
ing.
The consolidation phase intends to reinforce
theory by means of practice. With this aim, a group CONCLUSION
of examples will be made available for the pupil, who
will be guided through his or her resolution by means The present work has catalogued the different exist-
of the rationalization of every decision made. ing educational methods that attend both to who may
During the training phase, the aim is for the pupil lead the process and to whether physical attendance
to apply the resolution method straightforward by of the pupil is required or not. This classification has
the use of a group of exercises increasingly com- allowed, for every method and especially for e-
plex. learning, the identification of their inherent particu-
It should be highlighted that when exercises are lars.
more similar to real circumstances, the results ob- Nonetheless, most of the so-called e-learning
tained will be enhanced; consequently, exercises systems do not properly support the intrinsic charac-
and examples should be as realistic as possible. teristics of these types of systems, since they merely
provide an electronic format for the docent material
Evaluation of classical teaching.
KM techniques have been used with the aim of
The evaluation of the acquired knowledge will pro- providing an answer to this situation. This discipline
vide useful information for both pupils and teachers tries to find the optimal strategies for the represen-
who would be able to verify a pupils evolution tation and transmission of knowledge so that its
regarding what was expected and whether pre- latter comprehension might be facilitated. Following
established levels have been accomplished or not. this, a basic structure for e-learning systems was
Likewise, the evolution would allow the detection of defined using modules and submodules. Similarly,
any learning problem in order to handle it appropri- after the identification of the knowledge base as one
ately. of the key aspects of the mentioned structure, a
specific ontology was described for its definition and
implementation.
FUTURE TRENDS Finally, it should be mentioned that the attainment
of auto-content and auto-explanative docent mate-
As previously mentioned in this article, e-learning rial for an easier acquisition of knowledge could be
discipline has been shown as an inappropriate ap- achieved by the use of the defined ontology.
proach; it is the mere digitalization and publication of
the same docent material commonly used at atten-
386
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
387
Knowledge Management as an E-Learning Tool
388
389
Mehmed Kantardzic
University of Louisville, USA
Sherif Rashad
University of Louisville, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
A birds eye view of a region is referred to as users may be mined to form models about common
survey knowledge. This type of knowledge contains navigational mistakes made by previous users. A
spatial information about the location, orientation, KNAS could be designed to use these models to help
and size of regional features. However, object loca- users avoid backtracking and making loops. Another
tion and interobject distances are encoded in terms example would be to derive models of frequent
of a geocentric (i.e., global) frame of reference as routes taken by previous users. These frequent
opposed to an egocentric (i.e., first-person) frame of routes may defy traditional criteria for route selec-
reference. Landmarks also play a role in survey tion but have hidden advantages. A KNAS could be
knowledge. They provide regional anchors with designed to use these models and recommend these
which to calibrate distances and directions (Darken frequent routes to users (Kantardzic et al., 2004).
& Sibert, 1996; Elvins et al., 2001). The process of designing a KNAS involves three
The quality of spatial knowledge that a user has distinct steps. The first step is recording the naviga-
about a virtual environment determines his or her tional data of users. Selection of the group of users
performance on a wayfinding task. Any navigational that will have their navigational behavior recorded is
assistance provided by a tool is aimed to assist the dependent upon the application. Ideally, this group of
user to gain spatial knowledge about the environ- users should be experienced with the system
ment. Therefore, a key element to the success of (Peterson & Darken, 2000; Peterson, et al., 2000).
any navigational tool is how effective it is in repre- The data that are recorded can include both spatial
senting and providing spatial knowledge that is easy and non-spatial attributes pertaining to the naviga-
to understand and useful from the perspective of the tion of users. Examples of recorded data could
user. include the landmarks and objects visited, routes
In the past, different navigational tools and tech- traversed by users, as well as information on longi-
niques to improve wayfinding have been included in tude, latitude, elevation, and time (Shekhar & Huang,
the design of virtual environments. Maps and grids 2001; Huang et al., 2003).
have been introduced to bring legibility to virtual The second step is the actual mining of data. In
environments and to improve wayfinding perfor- most cases, data will need to be preprocessed before
mance (Darken & Sibert, 1996). Personal agents applying the mining algorithms (Kantardzic, 2003).
have been used that can interact with the user and The data-mining process will result in models that
provide verbal navigational assistance (Dijk et al., will be used by the KNAS.
2003). Due to their popularity, there also has been The third and final step is actual implementation
tremendous focus on the use and design of land- of the KNAS and the corresponding interface. The
marks to aid in wayfinding (Elvins et al., 2001; Steck interface of the KNAS needs to allow the user to
& Mallot, 2000; Vinson, 1999). The achievement of issue navigational queries, and the KNAS must use
previous researchers has been significant, but the the derived data-mining models in order to formulate
area of navigation in virtual environments still re- a reply. Figure 1 depicts the three steps necessary
mains an open research topic. for construction of a KNAS: recording of the navi-
gational data, the data mining process to form mod-
els, and the implementation of the KNAS.
WAYFINDING: THE DATA-MINING To better demonstrate the concepts and ideas
APPROACH behind a KNAS, the construction of a KNAS is
discussed, which is capable of recommending routes
Data mining is the process of discovering previously of travel from one landmark to another landmark. As
unknown patterns, rules, and relationships from data previously discussed, landmarks are an important
(Han & Kamber, 2001). A Knowledgeable Naviga- component in wayfinding and commonly are found in
tional Assistance System (KNAS) is a tool that various virtual environments (Steck & Mallot, 2000;
employs models derived from mining the naviga- Vinson, 1999). Some may argue that relying on
tional records of previous users in order to aid other knowledge extracted from the records of previous
users in successfully completing navigational tasks. users to derive routes is an overhead. After all, there
For example, the navigational records of previous are already tools that can produce route directions
390
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
Navigational Records
Virtual Environment
Data Mining
Models
Database of KNAS Interface
Navigational
Records
Query
Query
Reply
Reply
User
on how to get from one point to another without the may be L1 R1 L2, which means that the user started
data-mining process. An example would be using a at landmark L1 and used road R1 to get to landmark
tool on the Internet to get driving directions from L2.
ones home to a store. However, these tools usually The next step is the discovery of the different
take a traditional approach when producing route routes that previous users have actually taken in
directions where the primary factor of consideration getting from each landmark Li to each landmark Lj,
is distance. Therefore, the recommended route is the for i j, and i and j from 1 to the total number of
shortest possible route. landmarks (i.e., three). Since the routes are stored
In a complex virtual environment, the shortest as sequences of symbols, this can be accomplished
route is not necessarily the preferred route, because by using a modified algorithm for sequence mining
there are often other criteria included in defining an (Soliman, 2004). Figure 3a shows the result of
appropriate route. These other criteria include choos- mining routes from a hypothetical database for the
ing a route based on the amount of scenery, the city in Figure 2. The routes are followed by the
amount of obstacles encountered along the way, the corresponding count of occurrence and support.
educational value associated with the route, and so Figure 3b shows the final model of the most fre-
forth. If additional criteria besides distance are im- quent routes. The KNAS will associate these most
portant for users of a virtual environment, then the frequently used routes as the recommended routes
model derived from the data-mining process will of travel.
reflect this trend (Kantardzic, et al., 2004). The final step is the design of the KNAS that can
Figure 2 introduces a two-dimensional map of a use this model. For this particular KNAS, the user
simple virtual city that will be used to show the interface should allow the user to issue a query such
operations of the proposed KNAS. The virtual city as, What are the directions for traveling from
has three landmarks (L1, L2, L3) and four roads (R1, Landmark 1 to Landmark 3? The reply would be
R2, R3, R4) connecting the landmarks. The first step formulated by examining the final model, as seen in
in designing the KNAS is to record the movements of Figure 3b and translating the sequence into direc-
several experienced users. For the sake of simplicity, tions. For example, a simple reply would recom-
each movement is recorded simply as a sequence of mend, Start at Landmark 1, travel on Road 1, reach
landmarks and roads traversed. A sequence of a user Landmark 2, travel on Road 3, end at Landmark 3.
391
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
Figure 2. A 2-D map of a simple virtual city with three landmarks and four roads
Landmark 1
Road 2
Road 1 Road 4
Landmark 2
Road 3 Landmark 3
Notice that the recommended route is not the short- mining algorithm to find routes, all subsequences
est possible route. Further analysis may reveal that need to be considered. When making the final model
previous users may have preferred this route, since of frequent sequences corresponding to recom-
it is more scenic. mended routes, more rigorous statistical methods
This discussion has been kept simple for demon- such as confidence intervals should be used instead
strative proposes. In reality, the process of con- of simple percentages.
structing a KNAS to recommend routes from one When the final model of frequent sequences is
landmark to another requires much more work built, there is no guarantee that all possible combina-
(Sadeghiam et al., 2005). For example, virtual envi- tions of landmarks will have a frequent sequence
ronments usually do not record the movement of registered in the final model. This is true especially
users as sequences of symbols but rather as three- as the complexity of the environment increases. For
dimensional coordinates. Pattern matching tech- example, a virtual environment with 500 landmarks
niques must be used to translate these coordinates would require the discovery of 124,750 recom-
into sequences. More symbols would have to be mended routes. This is often difficult if the amount
introduced to account for such components as inter- of navigational data is limited and if rigorous statis-
sections and boundaries encountered during naviga- tical methods are used for determining recommended
tion. The sequences must be preprocessed in order routes. Therefore, strategies must be implemented
to eliminate noisy data such as loops that correspond to combine several recommended routes, if the route
to backtracking and disorientation. The sequence needed is not mined explicitly. If this is not possible,
mining algorithm must be efficient to deal with a the KNAS would have to resort to traditional criteria
large amount of data. When applying the sequence to come up with a recommendation.
392
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
Figure 3. Mining the navigational data: (a) The discovered routes; (b) Final model of frequent routes
K
L1 R2 L2 45 22.5%
L1 R1 L2 R3 L3 120 60%
L1 <--> L3 L1 R1 L2 R4 L3 35 17.5%
L1 R2 L2 R3 L3 30 15%
L1 R2 L2 R4 L3 15 7.5%
L2 R4 L3 50 25%
L1 <--> L2 L1 R1 L2
L1 <--> L3 L1 R1 L2 R3 L3
L2 <--> L3 L2 R3 L3
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
CONCLUSION
This research has been funded by the National
A common problem faced by users of virtual envi- Science Foundation (NSF) under grant #0318128.
ronments is a lack of spatial orientation. This is
393
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
394
Knowledgeable Navigation in Virtual Environments
Landmark: A distinctive and memorable object. Survey Knowledge: A type of spatial knowl-
Landmark Knowledge: A type of spatial knowl-
edge dealing with information about location, orien- K
tation, and size of regional features.
edge dealing with information about visual features
of landmarks. Virtual Environment: A 3-D computer-syn-
thesized world in which a user can navigate, interact
Motion: The physical or motoric element of
with objects, and perform tasks.
navigation.
Wayfinding: The cognitive element of naviga-
Navigation: The aggregate of motion and
tion dealing with developing and using a cognitive
wayfinding.
map.
Procedural Knowledge: A type of spatial
knowledge dealing with the navigational actions
required in order to follow a particular route to a
destination.
395
396
Sabine Doff
Ludwig Maximilians Universitt, Mnchen, Germany
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Amid the many published pages of excited hyperbole The multiple meanings of the word language
regarding the potential of the Internet for human both academic and colloquialallow it to signify
communications, one salient feature of current multiple phenomena in different analytical frame-
Internet communication technologies is frequently works, and complicate any simple search for litera-
overlooked: the reality that Internet- and computer- ture on the language of cyberspace. This article
mediated communications, to date, are communica- surveys the breadth of theoretical and empirical
tive environments constructed through language writing on the nature and significance of text, lan-
(mostly text). In cyberspace, written language there- guage, and literacy in Internet- and computer-medi-
fore mediates the human-computer interface as well ated communications, and indicates the different
as the human-human interface. What are the impli- theoretical approaches employed by current re-
cations of the domination of Internet and computer- searchers. In particular, this article emphasizes re-
mediated communications by text? search and theory relevant to conceptions of the
Researchers from diverse disciplinesfrom dis- Internet as a site of international and intercultural
tance educators to linguists to social scientists to communicationsthe so-called global village
postmodern philosophershave begun to investi- and offers some reflection on the importance of
gate this question. They ask: Who speaks online, and research on online language for the field of human-
how? Is online language really text, or is it speech? computer interaction.
How does culture affect the language of cyberspace?
Approaching these questions from their own disci-
plinary perspectives, they variously position PERSPECTIVES ON THE LANGUAGE
cyberlanguage as text, as semiotic system, as OF CYBERSPACE
socio-cultural discourse or even as the medium of
cultural hegemony (domination of one culture over Cyberlanguage as Digital Text
another). These different perspectives necessarily
shape their analytical and methodological approaches Perhaps belying their perception of Internet commu-
to investigating cyberlanguage, underlying decisions nications as primarily written communication (a
to examine, for example, the details of online text, perspective contested by some (Collot & Belmore,
the social contexts of cyberlanguage, and/or the 1996; Malone, 1995) a number of authors have
social and cultural implications of English as Internet focused on the features of digital text (and their
lingua franca. Not surprisingly, investigations of impact on readers) as an approach to investigating
Internet communications cut across a number of cyberspace communications. A particular area of
pre-existing scholarly debates: on the nature and interest has been the development of hypertext,
study of discourse, on the relationships between whose non-linear, non-sequential, non-hierarchical
language, technology and culture, on the meaning and multimodal (employing images, sound, and sym-
and significance of literacy, and on the literacy bols as well as text) nature seemed to place it in stark
demands of new communication technologies. contrast to traditional printed texts. Hypertext has
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Language of Cyberspace
been hailed as a postmodern textual reality (Burbules the linguistic systems elaborated by users in a range
& Callister, 2000; Landow, 1997; Snyder, 1996), of Internet and computer-mediated communication L
making fragmentation and complex-cross-referenc- venues such as email, asynchronous discussion
ing of text possible and easy. Researchers also boards, computer conferencing, and synchronous
argue that hypertext radically changes the nature of chat platforms.
literacy, positioning the author as simply the source, Many papers discuss evolving conventions of
and favouring a new form of open-ended associa- online communications: features, grammar, and lexi-
tive reading and thought (Burbules & Callister, cography. Most compare and contrast communica-
2000; Richards, 2000). One of the first researchers tions in different venues and/or with written or
to focus on hypertext was Kaplan (1995), who spoken language (almost always English). They
described how it would offer readers multiple tra- generally conclude that online communication is an
jectories through the textual domain ( 1). Kaplan intermediate stage between oral and written modali-
suggests that each choice of direction a reader ties, and some studies (Collot & Belmore, 1996)
makes in her encounter with the emerging text, in differentiate further between features of synchro-
effect, produces that text, and points out that while nous (online) and asynchronous (offline) digital com-
some hypertexts are printable, many new forms are munications. A number of papers examine in par-
native only to cyberspace, and have no printable ticular the textual and graphical systems (such as
equivalents. Douglas (2000), on the other hand, emoticons) that users employ within online commu-
discusses ways in which hypertext may offer read- nications to add back some of the contextual fea-
ers less autonomy than paper-based texts, a position tures that are lost in electronic communications (for
supported by Harpold (2000) who argues that digital detailed references see Macfadyen, Roche, & Doff,
texts are empirically fragile and ontologically in- 2004). Burbules (1997) meanwhile highlights the
consistent (p. 129). Tuman (1995) offers a particu- hyperlink as the key feature of digital texts, and
larly strong critique of hypertext, which is, he argues, explores some of the different roles links may play
ideally suited for the storing and accessing of beyond their simple technical role as a shortcut: an
diverse information, [but] not for sustained, critical interpretive symbol for readers, a bearer of the
analysis. authors implicit ideational connections, an indicator
What are the implications of hypertext for hu- of new juxtapositions of ideas.
man-computer interaction? Braga and Busnardo Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) propose that the
(2004) argue that while hypertext media encourage shift to multimodality facilitated by digital texts ne-
multimodal communications, some designers (espe- cessitates a new theory of communication that is not
cially novice designers) are not familiar enough with simply based on language, but also takes into ac-
this type of communication because their own liter- count semiotic domains and the multiplicity of semiotic
ate practices tend to be anchored in verbal language resources made available by digital media. While
and print-based text. Construction of effective such resources are significant features of online
hypertext, they argue, calls for new and different interfaces, we caution against simplistic extrapola-
approaches to organization of information and seg- tion to interface design models that over-privilege
mentation, a recognition of the challenges of screen- signs and symbols as mediators of meaning in Internet-
reading and navigation, and an understanding of the and computer-mediated interactions, and also against
evolving conventions of different electronic con- overly simple attempt to identify sets of culturally-
texts (Snyder, 1998) in which electronically liter- specific signs and symbols for user groups based on
ate and novice users may have different expecta- essentialist notions of culture. (This phenomenon
tions. and its associated problems are discussed more
extensively in Macfadyen, 2006).
Cyberlanguage as Semiotic System
New Literacies?
A significant proportion of current studies of online
language report on semiotics: the detailed and some- In a milieu where the interface is overwhelmingly
times mechanistic featuressigns and symbolsof dominated by text, it might seem self-evident that
397
The Language of Cyberspace
literacy be a key factor in determining the success according to Thurstun (2000) comprise entirely
of human-computer and human-human interaction. new skills and habits of thought (p. 75). Gibbs
But what kind of literacy is required for Internet (2000) extends this to suggest that new forms of
and computer-mediated communications? Tradition- communication are actually constructing new forms
ally, researchers concerned with literacy have de- of thinking, perceiving and recording (p. 23).
fined it as the ability to read, write, and communicate, Kramarae (1999) discusses the new visual lit-
usually in a print-text-based environment. In the last eracy (p. 51) required of Internet communicators,
decade, however, researchers in the field of New while Abdullah (1998) focuses on the differences in
Literacy Studies (NLS) have challenged this per- style and tone between electronic discourse and
spective, and have initiated a focus on literacies as traditional academic prose.
social practices, moving away from individual and On the other hand, writers such as Richards
cognitive-based models of literacy (Lea, 2004). A (2000) argue that dominant hypermedia models of
social practice model of literacy recognizes that electronic literacy are too limited, and rely too
language does not simply represent some kind of heavily on postmodern theories of representation
objective truth, but actually constitutes meaning in a and poststructuralist models which characterize
given context. Writing and reading, it is argued, are writing and speaking as separate communication
key ways in which people negotiate meaning in systems. Burbules (1997) similarly counters sug-
particular contexts (Street, 1984). gestions that the reading (hyper-reading) prac-
Bringing NLS perspectives to the world of Internet tices required for hypertexts represent a postmodern
and computer-mediated communication, some writ- break with old literacy traditions, reminding us that
ers are now countering simplistic operational no- there must be some continuity between this emer-
tions of electronic literacy that have tended to focus gent practice and other, related practices with
solely on performance with the linguistic systems, which we are familiarit is reading, after all ( 3).
procedures, tools and techniques involved in making He continues by emphasizing the importance of the
or interpreting [digital] texts (Goodfellow, 2004). contexts and social relations in which reading takes
Instead, they highlight discussions of the equal impor- place and agrees that significant differences in
tance of cultural and critical aspects of literacy those contexts and relations mean a change in
for online communications (Lankshear, Snyder, & [reading] practice ( 2)though he characterizes
Green, 2000), where the cultural dimension implies this change more as evolution than revolution.
the ability to use operational skills in authentic social Further highlighting the connections between
contexts and allow participation in social discourses, language, literacy, and socio-cultural context,
and the critical dimension refers to an even more Warschauer (1999) points to the inutility of such
sophisticated level of interaction with electronic dis- simple binary models of old vs. new literacies,
courses, including the ability to evaluate, critique, and arguing that the roots of mainstream literacy lie in
redesign them. the mastery of processes that are deemed valuable
Theoretical perspectives on visual literacy, digi- in particular societies, cultures and contexts (p. 1).
tal literacy, electronic literacy, and computer For this reason, he suggests, there will be no one
literacy have proliferated, with important contribu- electronic literacy, just as there is no one print
tions made by authors such as Warschauer (1999), literacy, and indeed, a number of studies point to the
Street (1984), Jones, Turner, and Street (1999), Snyder growing diversity of literacies, new and hybrid. For
(1998) and Richards (2000). Hewling (2002) offers a example, Cranny-Francis (2000) argues that users
detailed review of debates in this field. Next, a need a complex of literaciesold and newto
sampling of recent papers demonstrates that argu- critically negotiate Internet communication. Dudfield
ments tend to be polarized, positing electronic literacies (1999) agrees that students are increasingly engag-
either as continuous with existing human communi- ing in what she calls hybrid forms of literate
cation practices, or radically new and postmodern. behaviour ( 1), while Schlickau (2003) specifi-
One group of research papers concentrates on the cally examines prerequisite literacies that learners
new skills required of users for communicative need in order to make effective use of hypertext
success in the online arenas of the Internet which, learning resources. In a more applied study, Will-
398
The Language of Cyberspace
iams and Meredith (1996) attempt to track develop- cation and interaction in cyberspace, while Gibbs
ment of electronic literacy in new Internet users. and Krause (2000) and Duncker (2002) investigate L
Together, these studies highlight current thinking the range of metaphors in use in the virtual world,
on which sets of skills users may need in order to and their cultural roots. Collot and Belmore (1996)
communicate effectively online. A further level of investigate elements such as informativity, narrativity,
debate centres, however, on theoretical claims that and elaboration; Condon and Cech (1996) examine
different kinds of technologies may demand differ- decision-making schemata, and interactional func-
ent kinds of literacya position that Lea (2004) tions such as metalanguage and repetition; and
and others critique as excessively deterministic. Crystal (2001) examines novel genres of Internet
Murray (2000) similarly explores claims of techno- communications.
logically induced socio-cultural paradigm shifts in Internet language is also shaped by the relation-
greater detail, arguing that technology does not ships and identities of the communicators. For ex-
impose new literacy practices and communities, but ample, Voiskounskys (1998) reports on ways in
merely facilitates social and cultural changes which culturally determined factors (status, position,
including changes in literacy practicesthat have rank) impact holding the floor and turn-taking rules
already begun. (p. 100) in Internet communications, and Paolillo
(1999) describes a highly structured relationship
Cyberspace Contexts, Identities, and between participants social positions and the lin-
Discourses guistic variants they use in Internet Relay Chat.
Other papers analyze crucial issues like the effects
Research from other disciplines have meanwhile of emotion management, gender, and social factors
begun to amass evidence of the great diversity of on hostile types of communication within electronic
social and cultural contexts that influence and con- chat room settings (Bellamy & Hanewicz, 1999) or
stitute Internet-mediated discourses, lending weight compare the male-female schematic organization of
to theoretical perspectives that emphasize the im- electronic messages posted on academic mailing
portance of social and cultural contexts of literacy lists (Herring, 1996). De Oliveira (2003) assesses
and communicative practices. Galvin (1995) samples politeness violations in a Portuguese discussion
and explores what he calls the discourse of list, concluding that in this context male communica-
technoculture, and attempts to locate it in various tors assert their traditional gender roles as adjudi-
social and political contexts. Gibbs (2000) considers cators of politeness ( 1). Conversely,
a range of influences that have shaped Internet style Panyametheekul and Herring (2003) conclude from
and content, and the social implications of the phe- a study of gender and turn allocation in a Web-based
nomenon of cyberlanguage. Kinnalys (1997) didac- Thai chat-room that Thai women are relatively
tic essay on netiquette is included here as an empowered in this context. Liu (2002) considers
example of the ways in which the rules of Internet task-oriented and social-emotional-oriented aspects
culture (including language and behaviour) are nor- of computer-mediated communication, while Derys
malized, maintained, and manifested via specific 1994 anthology includes essays examining the com-
communicative practices. Wang and Hong (1996) munications of different cyberspace subcultures
examine the phenomenon of flaming in online com- (hackers, technopagans) and the nature and function
munications and argue that this behaviour serves to of cyberspace. A final group of contributions to the
reinforce cyberculture norms, as well as to encour- study of the language of cyberspace consider the
age clear written communication. In the world of implications of English-language domination of
online education, Conrad (2002) reports on a code of cyberspace and cyberculture (for extensive refer-
etiquette that learners valued and constructed; these ences, see Macfadyen et al., 2004). It is increasingly
communally constructed nice behaviours contrib- evident then, that the communicative contexts and
uted to group harmony and community, she argues. socio-cultural configurations of online and networked
Jacobson (1996) investigates the structure of con- communications are many and various, and deny
texts and the dynamics of contextualizing communi- simple generalization and classification.
399
The Language of Cyberspace
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moving away from individual and cognitive-based
KEY TERMS models. This model of literacy recognizes that lan-
guage does not simply represent some kind of objec-
Cyberculture: As a social space in which hu- tive truth, but actually constitutes meaning in a given
man beings interact and communicate, cyberspace context; literacy, therefore, represents an individuals
can be assumed to possess an evolving culture or set ability to communicate effectively within a given
of cultures (cybercultures) that may encompass socio-cultural context.
beliefs, practices, attitudes, modes of thought, Postmodern: Theoretical approaches charac-
behaviours, and values. terized as postmodern, conversely, have abandoned
Cyberlanguage: The collection of communica- the belief that rational and universal social theories
tive practices employed by communicators in are desirable or exist. Postmodern theories also
cyberspace, and guided by norms of cyberculture(s). challenge foundational modernist assumptions such
as the idea of progress, or freedom.
Cyberspace: While the Internet refers more
explicitly to the technological infrastructure of net- Semiotics: The study of signs and symbols, both
worked computers that make worldwide digital com- visual and linguistic, and their function in communi-
munications possible, cyberspace is understood as cation.
403
404
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Mobile Clinical Learning Tools Using Networked Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
tions on using cellular network technology in these experiences with multimedia, including text, audio,
areas, whereas this is currently restricted in acute digital images, or video input. Once the data have M
hospital settings in British Columbia and many other been recorded in the e-portfolio, they can be syn-
parts of the world. chronized wirelessly (using the built-in GSM/GPRS
or Bluetooth connectivity) with a Web-based portfo-
lio. The data then can be reviewed and edited by the
THE PDA INTERFACE DESIGN student or by clinical tutors.
The other icons represent the following applica-
The main interface to the clinical tools was based on tions:
a clinical e-tools folder on the Pocket PC containing
icon-based shortcuts to a number of specific appli- The synch portfolio icon initiates synchroniza-
cations (Figure 1). tion of the content of the students e-portfolio
The clinical e-portfolio tool represented the ma- on the PDA with that of a remote server.
jor focus for the project, allowing the student to The University of British Columbia (UBC)
access clinical placement information; log clinical library icon presents a shortcut to a Pocket
hours; achieve clinical competencies; record portfo- Internet Explorer Web access to the UBC
lio entries in the form of text, pictures, or video clips; library bibliographic health care database search
and record audio memos. This provides the user with (CINAHL, Medline, etc.).
a very adaptable interface, allowing them to choose The Pocket Explorer icon presents a shortcut
how they input data. For example, a text-based entry to Pocket Internet Explorer for mobile Web
describing a clinical procedure may be accompanied access.
by a picture or audio memo. The e-mail icon presents a shortcut to the
The e-portfolio tool also incorporates a reflective Pocket PC mobile e-mail application.
practice wizard promoting the students to work
through the stages of the Gibbs reflective cycle The other icons on the screen (Diagnosaurus,
(Gibbs, 1988) when recording their experiences. ePocrates, etc.) represent third-party clinical soft-
This wizard also allows students to record their ware that was purchased and loaded onto the PDAs
in order to support the students learning in the clinical
area (e.g. a drug reference guide).
Figure 1. Screenshot of the clinical e-tools folder
FUTURE TRENDS
405
Mobile Clinical Learning Tools Using Networked Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
and PDA technologies and the uptake of MMS and development: A reflective practice model. Zero to
use of audio and video data entry on mobile devices Three, 20(1), 3-9.
(deHerra, 2003).
deHerra, C. (2003). What is in the future of
In the long term, multimedia mobile learning tools
Windows mobile pocket PCs. Retrieved August
will encourage a more structured process of profes-
12, 2004, from http://www.cewindows.net/commen-
sional reflection among students in supervised clini-
tary/future-wm.htm
cal practice (Conway, 1994; Copa et al., 1999; Palmer
et al., 1994; Reid, 1993; Sobral, 2000). When unex- Fischer, S., Stewart, T.E., Mehta, S., Wax, R., &
pected learning opportunities arise, students will be Lapinsky, S.E. (2003). Handheld computing in medi-
able to quickly review online materials in a variety of cine. Journal of the American Medical
formats and prepare for their experience, record Informatics Association, 10(2), 139-149.
notes, record audio memos or images during their
practice, and review materials following their expe- Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing. A guide to
rience. teaching and learning methods. Oxford: Oxford
An expansion in the use of such mobile clinical Polytechnic.
learning tools is envisaged, and there is considerable GSM World. (2002). GSM technology: GPRS plat-
scope for the widespread application of such tools form? Retrieved June 24, 2004, from http://
into areas where students are engaged in work-based www.gsmworld.com/technology/sms/intro.shtml
learning. We are likely to see the integration of these
technologies into mainstream educational practice in Hochschuler, S.H. (2001). Handheld computers
a wide variety of learning environments outside of the can give practitioners an edge. Orthopedics To-
classroom. day, 21(6), 56.
Johns, C. (1995). The value of reflective practice
for nursing. J. Clinical Nurs, 4, 23-60.
CONCLUSION
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning.
The value of these new tools to students in clinical Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
practice remains to be demonstrated, as the evalua- Landers, M.G. (2000). The theory-practice gap in
tion stage of the project has yet to be completed. The nursing: The role of the nurse teacher. Journal of
project also has highlighted the necessity of address- Advanced Nursing, 32(6), 1550-1556.
ing some of the weaknesses of current PDA design,
such as the small display screen and the need for Microsoft. (2004). Windows mobile based pocket
more built-in data security. However, initial feedback PCs. Retrieved August 10, 2004, from http://
appears promising, and the interface design appears www.microsoft.com/windowsmobile/pocketpc/ppc/
to promote reflective learning in practice and engage default.mspx
students in the process of knowledge translation. Palmer, A., Buns, S., & Bulman, C. (1994). Reflec-
tive practice in nursing: The growth of the pro-
fessional practitioner. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
REFERENCES
Reid, B. (1993). But were doing it already:
Chasin, M.S. (2001). Computers: How a palm-top Exploring a response to the concept of reflective
computer can help you at the point of care. Family practice in order to improve its facilitation. Nurse
Practice Management, 8(6), 50-51. Ed Today, 13, 305-309.
Conway, J. (1994). Profiling and nursing practice. Sobral, D.T. (2000). An appraisal of medical stu-
British Journal of Nursing, 3(18), 941-946. dent reflection-in-learning. Medical Education,
34, 182-187.
Copa, A., Lucinski, L., Olsen, E., & Wollenberg, K.
(1999). Promoting professional and organizational
406
Mobile Clinical Learning Tools Using Networked Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
407
408
Emanuele Bardone
University of Pavia, Italy
Michele Bocchiola
LUISS University, Italy
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Moral Mediators in HCI
brought about. According to Magnani (2003), be- procedures. Web-based tools like PICOLA promote
cause of this behavior, we may call this kind of participation by allowing all interested citizens to be M
device a moral mediator. involved in a democratic process of discussion. It
Various kinds of moral mediators have been enables citizens to take part in democratic meetings
described that range from the role played by arti- wherever one may be. For instance, with PICOLA
facts to the moral aspects that are delegated to we do not need any actual location because it is
natural objects and human collectives. In order to possible to conceive virtual spaces where persons
grasp the role of moral mediators, let us consider can discuss following the same rules.
Magnanis example of endangered species.5 When Every Web site has to face the problem of
we consider animals as subjects requiring protection trustworthiness. In a physical environment, people
for their own existence, we are using them to depict have access to a great deal of information about
new moral features of living objects previously others: how people are, dress, or speak, and so on.
unseen. In this case, endangered species can be- This may provide additional information, which is
come a mediator that unearths and uncovers a new difficult to obtain in a virtual environment. The need
moral perspective expanding the notion of moral for trust is more urgent especially when people have
worth and dignity we can also attribute to human to share common policies or deliberations.
beings.6 PICOLA requires each user to create a profile
for receiving additional information, as listed in
Figure 1. As well as a user name and password, the
AN EXAMPLE OF MORAL MEDIATOR: user must insert the area where he or she lives, the
THE PICOLA PROJECT issue he or she would like to discuss, and the role he
or she wants to play: moderator, observer, or delib-
This section will provide an exemplification of the erator. This tool also allows users to add a picture to
moral mediation previously illustrated. In the follow- their profiles. Moreover, each user can employ so-
ing, we shall give a general description of a Web- called emoticons in order to display current feelings.
based tool named PICOLA (Public Informed Citizen All these features work like moral mediators
On-Line Assembly).7 The PICOLA project, devel- because they mediate the relation among users so
oped at Carnegie Mellons Institute for the Study of they can get acquainted with each other. Being
Information and Technology (InSITeS) and at the acquainted with each other is one of the most
Center for the Advancement of Applied Ethics important conditions to enhance cooperation and to
(CAAE), aims at implementing an online environ- generate trust. Indeed, people are more inclined to
ment for community consultation and problem solv- reciprocate and to be engaged in cooperative behav-
ing using video, audio, and textual communication. ior if they know to some extent the people they are
The appeal of deliberative democracy is mainly interacting with. This diminishes prejudices and
based on two ingredients: first, the idea of a free and people are less afraid of the possible negative out-
equal discussion, and second, the consensus achieved comes. In this sense, sharing user profiles could be
by the force of the best argument (Fishkin & Laslett, viewed as a generator of social capital and trust
2003; Habermas, 1994, 1998). PICOLA can be (Putnam, 2000).
considered a moral mediator because it implements Each issue to be discussed during a session is
those two ideas into a Web-based tool for enhancing introduced by an overview that provides general
deliberative democracy. Indeed, everyone has equal information (see Figure 2 on the issue of national
rights to speak and to be listened to, equal time for security). Text is integrated with audio and video
maintaining her or his position, equal weight in a poll, performances. The moral mediation mainly occurs
and so on. Besides this, it allows the formation of for two reasons. First, people are sufficiently in-
groups of discussion for assessing and deliberating formed to facilitate sharing a starting point and
about different issues. Within an actual framework, giving up prejudices that may have arisen due to a
these two requirements are rarely matched. Even if lack of information. Second, the fact that different
everyone has the possibility to vote and be voted on, perspectives are presented helps users to weigh and
few persons can actually play a role in deliberative consider the various opinions available. Moreover,
the multimedia environment provides video and au-
409
Moral Mediators in HCI
dio information so that the user may access additional speakers. Each participant is represented with a
resources. For instance, watching a video involves profile showing his or her data, an emoticon, and a
not only cold reasons, but also emotions that medi- picture. Everyone has basically two minutes for
ate the users response to a particular issue.8 maintaining a position and then has to vote at the end
The discussion group is realized by a Web-based of the discussion (see Figure 3).
tool, which provides the possibility to visualize all the Computers can afford civic engagements (Davis,
discussants sitting at a round table. The discussion is Elin, & Reeher, 2002). Creating a public online
led by a moderator who has to establish the order of community is not just a way for allowing interaction
410
Moral Mediators in HCI
among people: It can improve the overall assessment her intrinsic value and dignity. But how could a
of public interest policies, giving people more infor- computer be intrinsically moral? Through the con-
mation, generating a public base for discussion, and cept of moral mediator, we have suggested that
implementing participation in the democratic life of nonhuman things can be morally useful in creating
a country. This is possible and welcome if we new moral devices about how to behave (the cell-
assume that the computer is, or should be, a very phone example or certain kinds of interaction with
low-cost technology so that a larger amount of computer programs). Hence, their features afford a
persons can exploit such a service. moral use. The concept of affordance, first intro-
duced by Gibson (1979), might help to clarify this
point about which features transform an object or
FUTURE TRENDS artifact into a moral mediator.
411
Moral Mediators in HCI
inform citizens about a given issue, and to develop Magnani, L. (2005). Knowledge as a duty. Cam-
considered beliefs. bridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Nagle, J. C. (1998). Endangered species wannabees.
Seton Hall Law Review, 29, 235-255.
REFERENCES
Norman, D. (1993). Things that make us smart.
Davis, S., Elin, L., & Reeher, G. (2002). Click on Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
democracy: The Internets power to change po-
Norman, D. (2004). Emotional design: Why we
litical apathy into civic action. Cambridge, MA:
love or hate everyday things. New York: Basic
Westview Press.
Books.
Dryzek, J. (2000). Discursive democracy in a re-
Picard, R. W., & Klein, J. (2002). Computers that
flexive modernity. In J. Dryzek (Ed.), Deliberative
recognise and respond to user emotion: Theoretical
democracy and beyond (pp. 162-175). Oxford,
and practical implications. Interacting with Com-
UK: Oxford University Press.
puters, 14(2), 141-169.
Ermann, M. D., & Shauf, M. S. (2002). Computers,
Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone. New York:
ethics, and society. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Simon & Schuster.
Press.
Tractinsky, N., Katz, A. S., & Ikar, D. (2000). What
Estlund, D. (Ed.). (2002). Democracy. Oxford:
is beautiful is usable. Interacting with Computers,
Blackwell.
13, 127-145.
Fishkin, J. S., & Laslett, P. (Eds.). (2003). Debating
deliberative democracy. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Gibson, J. (1979). The ecological approach to KEY TERMS
visual perception. New York: Lea.
Habermas, J. (1994). Justification and applica- Civic Engagement: Describes the level of citi-
tion: Remarks on discourse ethics. Cambridge, zens participation in all those activities that concern
MA: The MIT Press. with fostering democratic values and public virtues
such as trustworthiness, freedom of speech, and
Habermas, J. (1998). The inclusion of the other: honesty.
Studies in political theory. Cambridge, MA: The
MIT Press. Deliberative Democracy: Based on a deci-
sion-making consensus-oriented process, where
Johnson, D. G. (2000). Computer ethics. Englewood parties can freely participate. The outcome of which
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. is the result of reasoned and argumentative discus-
sions. This model aims to achieve an impartial
Kirkman, R. (2002). Through the looking glass:
solution for political problems.
Environmentalism and the problem of freedom. The
Journal of Value Inquiry, 36(1), 27-41. Morality: The complex system of principles
given by cultural, traditional, and religious concep-
Magnani, L. (2001). Abduction, reason, and sci-
tions and beliefs, which human-beings employ for
ence: Processes of discovery and explanation.
judging things as right or wrong.
New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Moral Agency: The capacity to express moral
Magnani, L. (2003). Creative abduction as active
judgements and to abide by them.
shaping of knowledge: Epistemic and ethical media-
tors. Proceedings of the Symposium on Artificial Moral Mediators: External resources (arti-
Intelligence and Creativity in Arts and Science, facts, tools, etc.) can be defined as moral mediators,
AISB03 Convention on Cognition in Machines when they actively shape the moral task ones
and Animals, Wales, UK.
412
Moral Mediators in HCI
2
facing through uncovering valuable information that For more information about the relation be-
otherwise would remain unearthed and unattainable. tween computers and ethics, see Ermann and M
Shauf (2002) and Johnson (2000).
Online Community: A system of Internet users 3
The idea of moral mediators is derived from the
sharing interests and interacting frequently in the
analysis of the so-called epistemic mediators
same areas, such as forums and chat Web sites.
Magnani (2001) introduced in a previous book.
PICOLA Project: The PICOLA Project (Pub- 4
Even if a tool or software can provide support
lic Informed Citizen On-Line Assembly) is an initia- or help, it may also contribute to create new
tive spearheaded by Carnegie Mellon University to ethical concerns. One of the most well-known
develop and implement through on-line tools, a vir- problems related to the Web, and to the Inter-
tual agora for public consultation regarding public net in general, is the one concerning privacy.
policy issues. For further information on this issue, see
Magnani (in press). For more information, visit
Social Capital: Refers to connections among the Electronic Privacy Information Center
individualssocial networks and the norms of reci- (EPIC) at http://www.epic.org/.
procity and trustworthiness that arise from them 5
For further details about this issue, see Kirkman
(Putnam, 2002, p. 19). (2002) and Nagle (1998).
6
More details are in Magnani (2005, chs. 1 and
6).
7
Further information about the PICOLA project
ENDNOTES can be found at http://communityconnections.
heinz.cmu.edu/picola/index.html.
1
Although Norman (2004) did not investigate 8
On the role of emotions, see Norman (2004),
the moral dimension of HCI (human-computer Picard and Klein (2002), and Tractinsky, Katz,
interaction), he has recently explored its emo- and Ikar (2000).
tional dimension.
413
414
Kunda and Brooks (1999) state that software sys- Basic Physiological Needs (Survival): At
tems do not exist in isolation ... human, social and this level, the individual is fighting for survival
organizational considerations affect software pro- against an adverse environment, trying to avert
cesses and the introduction of software technology. hunger, thirst, cold, and inconvenient and de-
The key to successful software development is still tracting physical work environments.
the individual software engineer (Eason et al., Security (Physical, Economic ...): On this
level, the individual is concerned with the sta-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
Figure 1. Maslows hierachy of needs the component obeys a specific component model.
This component model defines how the component M
can be integrated with other components, the con-
ventions about the calling procedure, and so forth.
The internal structure, code, procedures, and so
forth are not divulgedit is a black box.
Systematic, institutionalized CBD needs a change
in the attitude of software engineers, different work
organization, and a different organization of the
whole enterprise (Allen, 2001).
bility of his or her future and the safety of the
environment. Worries include job security, loss Component-Based Development and
of knowledge, loss of income, health, and so Software Engineers Needs
forth.
Social Environment: This category includes The acceptance of a new technology often meets
the need to have friends, belong to a group, and with strong opposition caused by psychological mo-
to give and receive love. tives, which can be traced to Maslows Hierarchy of
Recognition: Individuals strive to receive ap- Needs.
propriate recognition and appreciation at work
and to be recognized as having a valuable Basic Physiological Needs
opinion.
Self-Fulfillment: This level is considered the This level does not have any strong relevance;
highest stage attainable in the development of software engineering is a desk-bound, safe, non-
a person, drawing satisfaction from the realiza- endangering activity. We have to recognize, how-
tion of ones own contribution to a goal and ever, that very often software engineers have to
ones fullfillment of their full potential as a struggle with adverse infrastructure (floor space,
human being. noise, etc.) (deMarco, 1985).
415
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
He emphasized the need for a different view assumptions of classical development meth-
and for new approaches and tools. Program- ods (e.g., the waterfall model).
ming in the large needs a systems view, making Uncertainty About Functionality of Com-
much of long-learned patterns of work obsolete, ponents: By definition, the internal structure
even counter-productive. of a component is not revealed (Bachmann et
Changed Job Profile: The necessity of inte- al., 2000). Consequently, the developer has to
grating existing components requires a different rely on the description and claims provided by
mindset than one implementing some program the component provider (Crnkovic & Larsson,
from scratch (Vitharana, 2003). Does the soft- 2002; Vitharana, 2003).
ware engineer have the ability or qualifications
to fulfill the new profile of an integrator? Lack of Confidence
Loss of Knowledge and Guru Status: In
traditional development, considerable domain Distrust in Component Quality: Quality
know-how and low-level development know- problems experienced in the past have created
how rests in the heads of seasoned developers a climate of distrust with respect to other
having developed software for many years. The developers software products. This feeling
use of components encapsulates and hides both of distrust becomes stronger with respect to
implementation details and domain know-how. components, because their internals are not
In addition, system development methods disclosed (Heineman. 2000; Vitharana, 2003).
change. Much of the accumulated experience This situation becomes worse for so-called
and know-how previously valuable to the em- software of unknown provenance (SOUP)
ploying institution becomes irrelevant. (Schoitsch, 2003). The current interest in open
De-Skilling: In addition, certain de-skilling takes source programs is an indicator of a move-
place at the lower level of software develop- ment in the opposite direction.
ment (Kraft, 1977). The need for increased Questions About Usability: Besides the
skills with respect to performing high-level com- issue of quality, problems with portability and
position activities often is not recognized and interoperability of components, as often expe-
appreciated by the individuals. rienced with COTS, also reduce the confi-
dence in using components (Vecellio & Tho-
Loss of Low-Level Flexibility mas, 2001).
Loss of Control of System: Engineers usu-
Pre-Conceived Expectations: Components ally like to understand fully the behavior of the
often do not provide exactly what the original designed system (the why) and exercise con-
requirements specified. A developer then is trol over the systems behavior (the how). In
challenged to find a compromise between the CBD, due to the black-box character of the
user requirements and the available compo- components, understanding and control can be
nentsa job profile dramatically different from achieved only to a limited extent, leaving a
developing bespoke software (Vitharana, 2003). vague feeling of uncertainty.
Engineers also have to live with good enough
quality (Bach, 1997; ISO/IEC, 2004), as pro- Effort for Reuse vs. New Development
vided by the components and often are not able
to achieve best quality. This is often difficult to Uncertainty Concerning the Outcome of
accept emotionally. the Selection Process: Successful CBD
Revision of Requirements: Mismatches be- depends to a considerable extent on the prob-
tween stated requirements and available com- ability and effectiveness of finding a compo-
ponents make it necessary to revise and adapt nent with (more or less) predefined properties
requirements (Vitharana, 2003). Requirements (Vitharana, 2003). Occasionally, this search
are no longer set in stone, in contrast to the will not be successful, causing a delay in the
416
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
417
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
ing and incorporating a component will be less development and often are seen as a limit to
attractive than writing it anew. creativity.
Accounting for Lost Search Effort: There is
no guarantee that even after an extensive (and
time-consuming) search an appropriate com- FUTURE TRENDS
ponent can be found (Vitharana, 2003). In this
case, management must accept these occa- The fact that the software industry needs a large
sional losses so as not to discourage searching step forward with respect to productivity, quality,
for components (Fichman & Kemerer, 2001). and time-to-market will increase the reuse of soft-
ware artifacts and, as a consequence, will encour-
Self-Fulfillment age the use of component-based development meth-
ods. Understanding the basic state of emotion of
Not Invented Here: The ability to design software developers will support efforts to over-
wonderful systems is a strong motivator for come developers reluctance to accept this method-
software engineers. This feeling goes beyond ology by emphasizing challenges and opportunities
recognition of peersone knows it oneself. provided by the new methods, re-evaluating the
This makes it difficult for developers to accept importance and visibility of certain tasks, changing
other peoples work (Campell, 2001; Disterer, job profiles, and changing the reward and recogni-
2000) in the form of components. tion structure.
No More Gold Plating: The feeling of self- The consequence might be that software design-
fulfillment often cannot live with the knowl- ers wholeheartedly accept component-based meth-
edge that a system still should or must be odologies not only as an economic necessity but also
improved, leading to endless effort in gold as a means of achieving the status of a great
plating a system before delivery (or even there- designer, as postulated by Brooks (1986). In turn,
after). Externally acquired components cannot this could lead to a new level of professionalism in
be modified (i.e., gold plated) because of the software development and would allow component-
inaccessibility of their code. based development methods to be utilized fully in the
No Creative Challenge: Gluing together com- field of software engineering.
ponents provided by somebody else does not
fulfill many engineers attempt for novelty and,
thus, is not considered to be a creative chal- CONCLUSION
lenge. The highly creative process of finding
the best-fitting component, restructuring the Soft factors like motivation and psychological as-
system, and perhaps modifying the require- pects often play a strong role even in a technical,
ments for using existing components often is seemingly rational field like software engineering.
not appreciated. We have discussed and identified key soft factors
No More Lone Artists: Software engineers that often account for the slow uptake of compo-
aspire to become a Beethoven or a Michelangelo nent-based software development methods and re-
and not the directors of a museum arranging a late them to the framework of Maslows Hierarchy
high-class exhibition. Someone remarked that of Needs. The users of software components were
many system features are not needed by the the focus of this discussion. There are some indica-
users but are just a monument of their designers tions that for providers of components, a different
intellectual capability. Assembling components emotional situation exists (Chroust & Hoyer, 2004).
utilizes only someone elses achievement. Recognition of the different levels of resistance
Lack of Freedom: The limited choice of and their psychological background will, among other
available components, the limitations of a com- aspects, allow approaching the problems in a psy-
ponent model, the need to obey predefined chologically appropriate form. The need of the soft-
interfaces, and so forth restrict the freedom of ware industry to come to terms with its problems of
quality, cost, and timeliness makes this a necessity.
418
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
419
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
Heineman, G.T., et al. (2000). Component-based (Ed.), Cybernetics and systems 2004. Vienna,
software engineering and the issue of trust. Pro- Austria: Austrian Soc. for Cybernetic Studies.
ceedings of the 22nd International Conference on
Thomas, S., Hurley, S., & Barnes, D. (1996). Look-
Software Engineering. Limerick, Holland.
ing for the human factors in software quality man-
ISO/IEC. (2004). ISO 25000: Software and sys- agement. Proceedings of the 1996 International
tems engineering: Software product quality re- Conference on Software Engineering: Educa-
quirements and evaluation (SQuaRE)Guide to tion and Practice (SE:EP 96). Otago, New
SQuaRE [technical report]. International Organiza- Zealand.
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Vecellio, G., & Thomas, W.M. (2001). Issues in the
Jones, C. (1995). Why is technology transfer so assurance of component based software. Retrieved
hard? IEEE Computer, 28(6), 86-87. July, 2001, from http://www.mitre.org/pubs/edge per-
spectives/ march 01/vecellio.html
Kock, N. (1999). A case of academic plagiarism.
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ponent-based software development. Comm. ACM,
Kraft, P. (1977). Programmers and managers.
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Heidelberg, Germandy: Springer.
Voas, J. (1998). Certifying off-the-shelf software
Kumar, K., & Bjoern-Andersen, N. (1990). A cross-
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ACM, 33(5), 528-538. Wasmund, M. (1995). The spin-off illusion: Reuse is
not a by-product. Proceedings of the 1995 Sympo-
Kunda, D., & Brooks, L. (1999). Human, social
sium on Software Reusability, Seattle, Washing-
and organisational influences on component-
ton.
based software engineering. ICSE99 Workshop
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Woodman, M., Benedictsson, O., Lefever, B., &
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resistance to software reuse. Proceedings of the and process quality. Proceedings of the 4th ICSE
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KEY TERMS
McConnell, S. (2000). Quantifying soft factors.
IEEE Software, 17(6), 9-11.
Commercial Off the Shelf (COTS): Software
Riemenschneider, C., Hardgrave, B.C., & Davis, F. products that an organization acquires from a third
(2002). Explaining software developer acceptance party with no access to the source code and for
of methodologies: A comparison of five theoretical which there are multiple customers using identical
models. IEEE Trans. on Software Engineering, copies of the component.
28(12), 1135.
Component-Based Development (CBD): In
Schoitsch, E. (2003). Dependable embedded sys- contrast to classical development (waterfall-pro-
temsVision und roadmap. In G. Fiedler, & D. cess and similar process models), CBD is concerned
Donhoffer (Eds.), Mikroelektronik 2003, Wien (p. with the rapid assembly of systems from compo-
33). Vienna, Austria: VE Schriftenreihe. nents (Bachmann et al., 2000) where:
Sonntag, M., & Chroust, G. (2004). Legal protection components and frameworks have certified
of component metadata and APIs. In R. Trappl properties; and
420
Motivation in Component-Based Software Development
these certified properties provide the basis for Soft Factors: This concept comprises an ill-
predicting the properties of systems built from defined group of factors that are related to people, M
components. organizations, and environments like motivation,
morale, organizational culture, power, politics, feel-
Component Model: A component model speci-
ings, perceptions of environment, and so forth.
fies the standards and conventions imposed on de-
velopers of components. This includes admissible Software Component: A (software) compo-
ways of describing the functionality and other at- nent is (Bachmann et al., 2000):
tributes of a component, admissible communication
an opaque implementation of functionality
between components (protocols), and so forth.
subject to third-party composition
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs: Maslows in conformance with a component model
Hierarchy of Needs (Boeree, 1998; Maslow, 1943;
Software Engineering: (1) The application of a
McConnell, 2000) is used as a structuring means for
systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to de-
the various factors. It defines five levels of need:
velopment, operation, and maintenance of software;
self-fulfillment that is, the application of engineering to software and
recognition (2) the study of approaches as in (1) (Abran, Moore,
social environment (community) Bourque, Dupuis & Tripp, 2004).
basic physiological needs (survival)
security (physical, economic ...)
421
422
Natalia Juristo
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Spain
Ana M. Moreno
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
strations, and evaluations. When users are men- tion with the role of developer. The first activity in
tioned, they play a passive role in the few activities the usability process is 6.9.1, Process implementa- O
in which they may participate. The IEEE standard tion, which should specify how the human-centered
1074 only mentions usability in connection with UI activities fit into the whole system life cycle process,
requirements and risk management. Neither of the and should select usability methods and techniques.
two standards addresses any of the activities needed This amendment to the ISO/IEC 12207 standard
to manage the usability of the software product. highlights the importance of integrating usability
techniques and activities into the software develop-
Recent Changes Regarding Usability ment process.
Awareness The fact that an international standard considers
usability activities as part of the software develop-
There has been a noticeable shift in the attention ment process is a clear indication that HCI and
paid to usability in the SE field in recent years, since usability are coming onto the SE agenda, and that
important overlapping areas have been identified in integrating HCI practices into the SE processes is a
the SWEBOK (Guide to the Software Engineering problem that the software development community
Body of Knowledge) (IEEE Software Engineering needs to solve quite promptly.
Coordinating Committee, 2001), for example, which
is an effort to gather what is considered commonly
accepted knowledge in the SE field. The SWEBOK BACKGROUND
requirements engineering knowledge area includes
some techniques that are not identified by the au- This section details existing integration proposals.
thors as belonging to HCI, but they are indeed We will only consider works that are easily acces-
standard HCI techniques: interviews, scenarios, sible for software practitioners, that is, mainly books,
prototyping, and user observation. Additionally, good since average software practitioners do not usually
communication between system users and system consider conference proceedings and research jour-
developers is identified as one of the fundamental nals as an information source.
tenets of good SE. Communication with users is a Only a few of the numerous HCI methods give
traditional concern in HCI, so this is an overlapping indications about how to integrate the usability ac-
area between HCI and SE. Usability is mentioned as tivities with the other activities in the overall soft-
part of the quality attributes and highlighted in the ware development process. Of these works, some
case of high dependability systems. It is also men- just offer some hints on the integration issue
tioned with regard to the software testing knowledge (Constantine & Lockwood, 1999; Costabile, 2001;
area. The work by Rubin (1994) is listed as part of Hix & Hartson, 1993), while others are more de-
the reference material for usability testing. tailed (Lim & Long, 1994; Mayhew, 1999).
The approval of Amendment 1 to standard ISO/ Hix and Hartson (1993) describe the communi-
IEC 12207 (ISO/IEC, 2002), which includes a new cation paths that should be set up between usability
process called Usability Process, by the ISO in 2002 activities (user interaction design) and software
represented a big change regarding the relevance of design. They strictly separate the development of
usability issues in the SE field. With the release of the UI from the development of the rest of the
this amendment, the ISO recognized the importance software system, with two activities that connect the
of managing the usability of the software product two parts: systems analysis and testing/evaluation.
throughout the life cycle. The main concepts in a The systems analysis group feeds requirements to
human-centered process, as described in the ISO both the problem domain design group and the user
13407 standard (1999), are addressed in the newly interaction design group. It is a simplistic approach
created usability process. The approach taken is to to HCI-SE integration, but the authors acknowledge
define in the usability process the activities to be that research is needed to better understand and
carried out by the role of usability specialist. Some support the real communication needs of this com-
activities are the sole responsibility of the usability plex process (p. 112).
specialist, while others are to be applied in associa-
423
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
Constantine and Lockwood (1999) offer some This approach to the process follows a waterfall life
advice for integrating usability and UI design into the cycle mindset: an initial Analysis phase, followed by
product development cycle, acknowledging that there a Design/Test/Development phase, and finally an
is no one single way of approaching this introduction. Installation phase. The Analysis stage is only re-
Therefore, they leave the issue of integration to be turned to if not all functionality is addressed, and this
solved on a case-by-case basis. They state that is, therefore, not a truly iterative approach to soft-
good strategies for integrating usability into the life ware development. Nevertheless, it is one of the
cycle fit new practices and old practices together, more complete HCI processes from the SE point of
modifying present practices to incorporate usability view. Although Mayhew claims that the method is
into analysis and design processes, while also tailor- aimed at the development of the UI only, the
ing usage-centered design to the organization and its activities included in this life cycle embrace an
practices (p. 529). important part of requirements-related activities
Costabile (2001) proposes a way of modifying the (like, for example, contextual task analysis). Links
software life cycle to include usability. The basis with the OOSE (object-oriented software engi-
chosen for such modifications is the waterfall life neering) method (Jacobson, Christerson, Jonsson,
cycle. The choice of the waterfall life cycle as a & vergaard, 1993) and with rapid prototyping
standard software life cycle is an important draw- methods are identified, but the author acknowl-
back of Costabiles proposal, as it goes against the edges that the integration of usability engineering
user-centered aim of evaluating usability from the with SE must be tailored and that the overlap
very beginning and iterating to a satisfactory solution. between usability and SE activities is not com-
In the waterfall life cycle, paths that go back are pletely clear. Accordingly, Mayhew presents UI
defined for error correction, not for completely chang- development as an activity that is quite independent
ing the approach if it proves to be wrong, since it is from the development of the rest of the system.
based on frozen requirements (Larman, 2001). Glass
(2003) acknowledges that requirements frequently
changed as product development goes under way PENDING ISSUES FOR
[...]. The experts knew that waterfall was an INTEGRATION
unachievable ideal (p. 66).
MUSE (Lim & Long, 1994) is a method for Having studied the existing integration proposals
designing the UI, and the work by Lim and Long and considering the most widespread perception of
includes its detailed integration with the JSD (Jack- usability issues among developers, we can identify
son System Development) method. The authors state four main obstacles that need to be overcome in
that MUSE, as a structured method, emphasizes a order to successfully integrate HCI practices into
design analysis and documentation phase prior to the the overall software development process: UI de-
specification of a first-best-guess solution. There- sign vs. interaction design, integration with require-
fore, MUSE follows a waterfall approach, not a truly ments engineering, iterative development, and user-
iterative approach. Regarding its integration with centered focus throughout the development pro-
other processes, JSD is presented in this work as a cess.
method that is mainly used for the development of
real-time systems. Real-time systems account for a UI Design vs. Interaction Design
very small part of interactive systems, so the integra-
tion of MUSE with JSD is not very useful from a One of the biggest obstacles for HCI-SE integration
generic point of view. Additionally, structured design is the existing terminology breach and the disparity
techniques like structured diagrams or semantic nets in the concepts handled. These differences are
make it difficult to adapt to processes based on other especially noticeable in the denomination of what
approaches, in particular to object-oriented develop- can be considered the main HCI area of expertise:
ment. UI design. As it is understood in the HCI field, UI
Mayhew (1999) proposes the Usability Engineer- design represents a wider concept than in SE termi-
ing Life cycle for the development of usable UIs. nology.
424
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
SE refers by UI design to just the design of the The underlying hypothesis is that the issues with
concrete visual elements that will form the UI and its which each process deals are not directly related, O
response behavior (in visual terms). It does not that is, some coordination between the two pro-
include any activity related to requirements engi- cesses is needed, but they may be basically carried
neering. On top of this, there is a widely-accepted out separately.
principle in SE stating that the part of the system that Nevertheless, looking at the key tasks for final
manages the visual elements of the UI should be product usability, like user and task analysis, user
separated from the business logic (the internal part observation in their usual environment, needs analy-
of the system). The strict application of this principle sis and the development of a product concept that
results in a UI design that is not directly related to the can better support such needs, we find that they are
design of the internal system processes. On the all activities that, to a lesser or greater extent, have
graphical side, UI design is produced by graphic been traditionally carried out within the framework
designers, whose work is governed by aesthetic of requirements engineering, a SE subdiscipline.
principles. It is this conception of UI design that HCI can provide a user-centered perspective to
makes SE regard it as part of a related discipline, not assure that these activities are performed in the
as one of the core activities that matter most for any software process with positive results regarding the
software development project. usability of the final software product, emphasizing
On the other hand, HCI literature uses the term this perspective throughout the development pro-
to represent a broader set of activities. Most HCI cess. In short, there is a big enough overlap between
methods label themselves as methods for the design the two disciplines to call for a tight integration of
of the UI (Hix & Hartson, 1993; Lim & Long, 1994; activities and techniques from each discipline.
Mayhew, 1999), while including activities that are Some HCI authors, like Mayhew (1999), defend
outside the scope of UI design in SE terms (like user that requirements-related activities should be per-
and task analysis). formed by HCI experts instead of software engi-
With the aim of a successful integration, we neers and that the rest of the development process
suggest the use of a different term for what HCI should build upon the HCI experts work. This
considers UI design in order to raise SE receptive- approach may be valid in organizations where us-
ness to the integration efforts. Specifically, we ability is the main (or only) quality attribute to be
propose the term interaction design, meaning the aimed for and where a usability department is one of
coordination of information exchange between the the leading departments in the organization. For
user and the system (Ferre, Juristo, Windl, & other organizations that are not so committed to
Constantine, 2001). Software engineers may then usability, it is not worth their while to completely
understand that usability is not just related to the abandon their way of performing requirements en-
visible part of the UI, since activities that study the gineering (a recognized cornerstone of any software
best suited system conception, user needs and ex- development project in SE) when the only gain is an
pectations and the way tasks should be performed improvement in just one quality attribute (usability)
need to be undertaken to perform interaction design. of the resulting product. We take the view that HCI
All these additional issues belong to the require- experts may work together with software engineers,
ments engineering subfield of SE, as detailed in the and the user-centered flavor of HCI techniques
next subsection. may greatly enrich requirements engineering tech-
niques, but the complete substitution of SE for HCI
Integration with Requirements practices in this area is not acceptable from a SE
Engineering point of view. Additionally, the big overlap between
HCI and SE regarding the requirements-related
Some integration proposals considered in the previ- issues makes the approach of undertaking two sepa-
ous section are based on two development pro- rate processes (HCI and SE) communicating through
cesses carried out in parallel: the interaction design specific channels ineffective, because performing
process (following an HCI method) and the process SE activities without a user-centered focus could
that develops the rest of the system (a SE process). invalidate the results from a usability point of view.
425
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
426
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
application most contributes to the usability of the engineering and knowledge engineering (pp. 179-
final software product. Software developers may 192). Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. O
then manage usability activities and techniques along
Ferre, X., Juristo, N., Windl, H., & Constantine, L.
with SE ones. The only requirement for the existing
(2001, January/February). Usability basics for soft-
development process would be that it should be truly
ware developers. IEEE Software, 18(1), 22-29.
iterative, since a waterfall approach would make
any introduction of usability techniques almost irrel- Glass, R. L. (2003). Facts and fallacies of soft-
evant. ware engineering. Boston: Addison-Wesley.
Hix, D., & Hartson, H. R. (1993). Developing user
interfaces: Ensuring usability through product
CONCLUSION
and process. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
HCI and SE take different but complementary views IEEE. (1997). IEEE Std 1074-1997. IEEE Stan-
of software development. Both have been applied dard 1074 for Developing Software Life Cycle
separately in most projects to the date, but overlap- Processes. New York: IEEE.
ping areas between both disciplines have been iden-
tified and the software development field is claiming IEEE Software Engineering Coordinating Commit-
a tighter integration of HCI aspects into SE develop- tee. (2001, May). Guide to the software engineer-
ment processes. ing body of knowledgeTrial Version 1.00. Los
Existing integration proposals suffer important Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society.
shortcomings, such as not being truly iterative or ISO. (1999). ISO 13407. Human-centred design
advocating a separate HCI process. There is a processes for interactive systems. Geneva, Swit-
terminology breach between SE and HCI, apparent zerland: ISO.
in the denomination of HCIs main concern, UI
design, which could be expressed as interaction ISO/IEC. (1995). International Standard: Infor-
design to assure better communication with soft- mation Technology. Software Life Cycle Pro-
ware engineers. Additionally, it is crucial for usabil- cesses, ISO/IEC Standard 12207:1995. Geneva,
ity to be present throughout the whole development Switzerland: ISO/IEC.
process in order to maintain a proper user-centered ISO/IEC. (2002). ISO/IEC International Stan-
focus. dard: Information Technology. Software Life
A usability roadmap expressed using SE termi- Cycle Processes. Amendment 1. ISO/IEC
nology and concepts may help software developers 12207:1995/Amd. 1:2002. Geneva, Switzerland:
to overcome these obstacles and to perform a suc- ISO/IEC.
cessful integration of HCI aspects into the software
development process. Jacobson, I., Christerson, M., Jonsson, P., &
vergaard, G. (1993). Object-oriented software
engineering. A use-case driven approach (Re-
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Wesley.
Boehm, B. (1978). Characteristics of software Larman, C. (2001). UML and patterns: An intro-
quality. New York: North Holland Publishing Co. duction to object-oriented analysis and design
Constantine, L. L., & Lockwood, L. A. D. (1999). and the unified process (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle
Software for use: A practical guide to the models River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR.
and methods of usage-centered design. Reading, Lim, K. Y., & Long, J. (1994). The MUSE method
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Costabile, M. F. (2001). Usability in the software life bridge University Press.
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427
Obstacles for the Integration of HCI Practices into Software Engineering Development Processes
428
429
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
On Not Designing Tools
moment is such that any experience of computers They are the noticed artifacts in our lives, and as
that throws into relief the nature of the computer such are positioned to accrue the personal meaning
itself is critical in nature. In challenging pragmatism, that underlies truly authentic experience. This ap-
the critical position raises questions about the need proach takes the concept of phenomenological dis-
for socially grounded performative meaning making appearance and shifts the focus from the transpar-
and about how truth is often seen to be embodied and ent interface to that of the visible object. The differ-
presented by the technological reasoning of the ence lies in the location of breakdown and in its
machine. In practical terms, pragmatism in interac- recasting as an essentially positive part of experi-
tion design is characterized by an emphasis on the ence. Winograd and Flores (1986) point out that
transparent interface, as championed by Winograd meaning arises out of how we talk about the world,
& Flores (1986) in the early visions for ubiquitous emerging in recurrent patterns of breakdown and
computing (Weiser, 1991) and by cognitive psy- the potential for discourse about grounding (p. 68);
chologist Donald Norman (1999); the critical nature in the design of transparent, seamless experiences,
of the artwork for HCI lies in its re-physicalization of breakdown is something to be prepared against
technology. This physicality, or obstinacy, is depen- rather than encouraged. The authors apply
dent on the users awareness of the interface in Heideggers readiness-to-hand to the design of sys-
interaction, which platonic design seeks to minimize tems that support problem solving in the face of
if not erase. inevitable and undesirable breakdown situations.
This article presents a case for an alternative appli-
Phenomenology: Disappearance and cation of an understanding of the same phenomeno-
Obstinacy logical concepts towards the production of visible,
objection-able artifacts. The following section intro-
The notion of the tool is challenged by awareness; duces art as process and product, defined by objec-
tools by definition disappear (Baudrillard, 1968; tion-ability, and examines the human need for art in
Heidegger, 1962). The phenomenologically invisible light of this quality.
interface was described first by Winograd and Flores
(1986) in their seminal book, Understanding Com-
puters and Cognition, further elucidated by Steve ART
Weiser (1991) in his visions for the paradigm of
ubiquitous computing, and finally popularized by Philosophical Importance of Art
Donald Normans (1999) The Disappearing Com-
puter. These texts take as a starting point a phenom- Art objects are those that are created expressly to
enological view of action in the world; that is, as soon spark cognition through a combination of order and
as tools become conspicuous, to use a Heideggerian disorder, through continuity and discontinuity
term, they are no longer available for the specific (Pepperell, 2002). New languages are formed in
task in mind (or ready-to-hand), instead becoming expressing aspects of being in new ways. The
obstinate and obtrusive (present-at-hand). As long artifact acts as a medium for expression (even if the
as we approach a tool with the goal of using it for a intent of the artist is to erase authorship); but it is in
specific task, such obstinacy will remain negative, the gap for open subjective reading, in the active
but there does exist a different class of artifact articulation of pre-linguistic apprehension, that mean-
where it becomes interesting, positive, and even ing is co-created (Eldridge, 2003). Thus, to conceive
necessary for the existence of the artifact in the first of a meaningful digital product is to intentionally
place. Objection-able might be an alternative to invert the paradigm of the invisible computer. If we
Heideggers terminology, embodying the idea of a are designing products to become meaningful ob-
thing regaining its materiality, that existence that is jects, then in order to trigger that articulation, we
dependent on performative human perception. must introduce discontinuity, even Heideggerian
Baudrillard (19698) talks about objects as being non- breakdown, opening up the space for the inter-
tools, about their being ready for appreciation, part subjective co-production of meaning (Baudrillard,
of a value system created through appreciation. 1968; Eco, 1989; Greenhalgh, 2002; Heidegger, 1962;
430
On Not Designing Tools
Ihde, 2002; Pepperell, 2002). In the use of denotative surveillance continue to engage artists using these
symbolism, this space is increasingly closed to the media as well as hardware, coding, and output as O
reader. Even in more contextual design practice expressive materials in their own right. Steve Manns
where connotative meaning is taken into account, the work with wearable systems stems from his days as
end goal remains one of seamlessness in context. It a photographer and interests in issues of surveil-
should be useful instead to approach the design lancehis wearable computing devices give power
process as an attempt to build coherent new vocabu- back to the user in their ability to survey for them-
laries with computational materials in the manner of selves. Major communities of practice at the inter-
artists. This challenges the notion of design patterns sections of art and technology can be found cen-
in particular, which limit subjective reading; artists, in tered on organizations such as SIGGRAPH (since
contrast, embark on an obsessive, intense search the mid-1960s), festivals such as Ars Electronica
(Greenhalgh, 2002, p. 7), working through the sub- (since 1979), and MITs journal, Leonardo (since
ject matter of their emotions in order to objectify 1968). The human-computer interaction commu-
subjective impulses (Eldridge, 2003, p. 70). The goal nity, in contrast, has been served by its special
of the artwork is not transparency but reflection, and interest group, SIGCHI, since a relatively recent
Bolter and Gromala (2003) show us how digital arts 1982. It is only recently that a few HCI researchers
practice illustrates this. In their reflection, digital and practitioners have begun to approach arts prac-
artworks become material in interaction, questioning tices and outcomes as rigorously as those method-
the very technologies they depend upon for their ologies adopted from the social sciences. Anthony
existence. It is proposed that we now seek to comple- Dunnes (1999) concept of the post-optimal object
ment the current paradigms of computing through the led him to explore methods for the design and
conscious use of computational materials to create dissemination of genotypes, artifacts intended not
new expressions, new objects, that are not efficient as prototypical models for production but as props
feature-rich tools but that instead may play a differ- for critical debate; Dunnes work with Fiona Raby
ent, rich social role for human beings. went on to place more or less functioning artifacts
in volunteers households (Dunne & Raby, 2002),
MeAoW (MEDIA ART while his work with William Gaver and Elena Pacenti
OR WHATEVER) resulted in the influential Cultural Probes, a col-
lection of arts-based methods designed to inform
The Center for Advanced Technology at New York the designers in the project in a far less directional
University initiated a lecture series named The CATs way than user-centered design methodologies have
MeAoW to facilitate artists engagement with tech- been used to doing (Gaver et al., 1999).
nologies and technologists (Mitchell et al., 2003, p.
156); the title was chosen intentionally to reflect the
lack of consensus on terminology pervading the field. FUTURE TRENDS
Artists always have been involved and often instru-
mental in the development of technology, using it Arts-based methods of evaluation and production
toward their own expressive ends and asking differ- are increasing in importance for human-computer
ent sorts of questions through it to those of the interaction, which, in turn, indicates a rethinking of
scientists. The myriad uses of the computer in art the end goals of interaction and computational
reflect its plasticity, creating various interconnected product design to take account of the critical. In
fields of artistic endeavor, including graphics, video, order to deal with theses changes, HCI is having to
music, interactive art, and practice making use of add new transdisciplinary methodologies to comple-
immersive technology, embedded and wearable sys- ment its more comfortable user-centered ap-
tems, and tangible computing (see, for example, the proaches. Noting the temptation for practitioners in
work of Thecla Schiphorst and Susan Kozel on the HCI to bend the cultural probes to more quantitative
Whisper project, and Hiroshi Ishii and the work of the ends, Gaver (2004) has renamed the approach
Tangible computing group at MITs Media Lab). probology in an effort to restate its initial aims and
Issues of temporality, perception, authorship, and to reiterate the importance of asking the right type
431
On Not Designing Tools
of questions through it. John Haworths (2003) Arts Art is presented as a model for this process and its
and Humanities Research Board-funded project, product, requiring, in turn, an inversion of the pri-
Creativity and Embodied Mind in Digital Fine Art macy of disappearance over materiality. Drawing
(2002-2003), produced critical products for the pub- attention to the object itself means introducing disor-
lic realm and was based on an innovative interlock- der and breakdown necessary for dialogue and the
ing of methods, including creative practice and socially based co-creation of meaning. It is sug-
reflection, literature and gallery research, inter- gested that an answer may lie in other design disci-
views with artists, seminar-workshops, and an inter- plines beyond product design and within the explor-
active website, emphasizing the importance of atory processes of art.
both pre-reflexive and reflexive thought in guiding
action (pp. 1-3) (Candy et al., 2002). Mitchell, et al.
(2003) extrapolate the broadening range of qualita- REFERENCES
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Art: A coherent system or articulate form of
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Breakdown: A term used by German philoso-
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A. F. Monk, & P. C. Wright (Eds.), Funology, from smooth interaction, or coping, in a situation. It is in
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433
On Not Designing Tools
Expression: The utterance through any lan- Pragmatism: The thoroughly practical view of
guage system of prelinguistic emotion or under- praxis in which theory is not separate from action but
standing toward the creation of consensual meaning a component of useful action in its application to a
between people. certain situation. In HCI, this takes into account the
hermeneutic nature of product or system develop-
Invisible Computer: A computer or computer
ment and appropriation.
interface that disappears cognitively either through
user expertise or by direct mapping of the relation- Sustainable Consumption: A recent move-
ship between interface elements, and the actions ment in product design and consumer research on
afforded by them. Other current terms are trans- the need for a change in our patterns of consump-
parency and seamlessness and their antonyms, tion. The work cited here focuses particularly on the
reflection and seamfulness. meaningfulness of the products and services we
consume as integral to this shift in attitude.
Meaning Making: The constant goal of hu-
mans is to understand the world we find ourselves in. Tool: An artifact used to achieve specific, pre-
Meaning is arrived at continuously through social determined goals. Defined by HCI and certain
interactions with other individuals. branches of philosophy by its disappearance in use.
434
435
Online Learning O
John F. Clayton
Waikato Institute of Technology, New Zealand
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Online Learning
number of different forms of online instruction, entry in learning environment research (Fisher &
including sharing information on a Web site, commu- Fraser, 1990; Fraser et al., 1992; Fraser & Walberg,
nicating one-to-one or one-to-many via e-mail, deliv- 1995). Instruments are carefully designed and ask
ering library resources via the Internet (e.g., elec- students to select an appropriate response from a
tronic databases), or submitting assignments elec- range of options. For example, the Science Labora-
tronically (e.g., e-mail attachments, message board tory Environment Inventory (SLEI) begins by pro-
postings) (Dalziel, 2003; Ho & Tabata, 2001; Rata viding students with directions on how to complete
Skudder et al., 2003; Zhu & McKnight, 2001). the questionnaire. They are informed that the form
However, the range of possibilities highlighted by is designed to gauge opinion and that there is no right
these educationalists does not fully identify, explain, or wrong answers. Students are asked to think about
or describe the interactions, the teaching, or the a statement and draw a circle around a numbered
learning that occurs within these environments. For response. The range of responses is from 1 to 5, and
best practice guidelines to be created for e-environ- the meaning of each response is explained carefully;
ments, the common features and activities of the for example, 1 is that the practice takes place almost
Internet or computer-connected courses affecting never, while 5 indicates the practice occurs very
all students, regardless of Web tools used or how often (Fraser & Fisher, 1994; Fraser & Tobin,
information is structured and stored, need to be 1998). Data are analyzed by obtaining a total score
identified and described. for a specific scale. This scoring is often completed
manually. Advancements in computer technologies
have made it possible to explore the disposal of
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS paper-and-pencil instruments and manual data en-
try. Increasingly, traditional instruments are being
In researching and evaluating the success or failure replaced by electronic versions delivered through
of time spent in educational settings, researchers the Internet (Maor, 2000; Joiner et al., 2002; Walker,
could use a number of quantitative measures, such 2002).
as grades allocated or total number of credits earned,
participation rate in activities, graduation rate, stan-
dardized test scores, proficiency in subjects, and FUTURE TRENDS
other valued learning outcomes (Dean, 1998; Fraser
& Fisher, 1994). However, these measures are Setting the Scene
somewhat limited and cannot provide a full picture of
the education process (Fraser, 1998, 2001). There Three connected computer- or WWW-based edu-
are other measures that can be used that are just as cational activities on the weather were described in
effective; for example, student and teacher impres- section one. The first scenario illustrated how the
sions of the environment in which they operate are information storage and retrieval functions of the
vital. The investigation in and of learning environ- WWW could be used to expand available student
ments has its roots nourished by the Lewinian for- resources. In this scenario, students could be super-
mula, B=f(P,E). This formula identifies that behav- vised directly and assisted in their tasks by a teacher
ior (B) is considered to be a function of (f), the responsible for a dedicated computer suite estab-
person (P), and the environment (E). It recognizes lished at the school. The second scenario demon-
that both the environment and its interaction with strated how the communication features of con-
personal characteristics of the individual are potent nected computers could be used to provide authentic
determinants of human behavior (Fraser, 1998). examples to enrich student understanding. In this
scenario, students could work independently of the
teacher, who was present, however, to offer guid-
PERCEPTUAL MEASURES ance and support. The third scenario described how
Web-based educational management platforms could
In the past, it has been common to use pencil and be used to provide educational opportunities for
paper forms with the administrator supervising data isolated pockets of students. In this scenario, stu-
436
Online Learning
dents are completely independent, and they rely on These two examplestutor-student and stu-
the information and communication technologies pro- dent-computer relationshipsdemonstrate how it O
vided by their tutor for guidance and support. may be possible to identify and describe common
On the surface, it would appear that the online features of connected computer and online activi-
learning environments created in each of the three ties. It then can be argued that if it is possible to
scenarios are distinct and that no common interac- identify and describe these relationships, it is also
tions or relationships can be identified for investiga- possible to investigate and explore them. It logically
tion. For example, tutor-student interactions appear follows that if we can investigate and explore
to be different. In the first scenario, students are relationships, it is also possible to create best prac-
guided by the continual physical presence of a tutor tice guidelines for institutions and individuals to
mentoring progress. In the second scenario, the tutor, follow, thereby raising the standard of educational
on occasion, is physically present, offering guidance activities for all participants.
and support. In the third scenario, there is no physical
relationship established, and the tutors interactions Investigation of Relationships in
with students are virtual. Also, the physical environ- Online Learning
ment created in each scenario appears to be distinct.
For example, in the first scenario, all students are As noted, when reviewing educational activities in
located physically in a dedicated laboratory. In the the online environment, we can immediately raise
second scenario, the computer is located in an exist- various questions about the nature of teacher-
ing teaching space, possibly in a strategic place close student and student-computer interactions. These
to the teachers desk. The environment in the third two features have been expanded by Morihara
scenario is dependent on the physical layout of the (2001) to include student-student interaction, stu-
individual students home. dent-media interaction (an expansion to include
It could be argued, given these differences, that it other components rather than simply text) and the
would not be possible to investigate each environ- outcomes of the learning that take place in the
ment created using a single instrument. However, is environment created. Haynes (2002) has refined
this really the case? In each of the scenarios de- these relationships and identified four relationships
scribed, it is assumed that students have a functional within online environments that are outlined as
knowledge of computer operations. For example, follows:
there is the assumption that students will be able to:
1. student interface relationship
know if the computer is turned on or turned off 2. student-tutor relationships
use a keyboard and computer mouse 3. student-student relationships
view information presented on a visual display 4. student-content relationships
unit and;
select and/or use appropriate software applica- These four broad areas appear to identify the
tions. crucial relationships and interactions that occur
within online environments. However, they do not
A more complex example focuses on our under- help in clarifying how the student as an individual
standing of the process of learning. As mentioned in reacts to and reflects on his or her experiences in
each of the examples, the students engage with the this environment.
computer, and the tutor facilitates this engagement. The importance of creating time for and encour-
It can be argued that there is in online environments aging self-reflection of the learning process is well-
a tutor-student relationship. We then can ask these documented by constructivists (Gilbert, 1993;
questions: How do these relationships function? Are Gunstone, 1994; Hewson, 1996; Posner et al., 1982),
the students satisfied or frustrated by the relation- and it would appear to be crucial to investigate if,
ships created? Does the tutor feel the relationships when, and how this reflection occurs. Therefore,
created are beneficial? there appear to be five broad areas of online learn-
ing interaction outlined as follows:
437
Online Learning
1. Student-Media Interaction: How are stu- dent-Interface Interaction, and Student Reflection
dents engaged with digitally stored information, Activities. This article also argued that if relation-
and how do they relate to the information ships and interactions can be identified and de-
presented? scribed, it is logical to assume that they can be
2. Student-Student Relationships: How, why, explored and investigated. These investigations ulti-
and when dp students communicate with each mately should lead to the creation of best-practice
other, and what is the nature of this communi- guidelines for online learning. These guidelines then
cation? could be used by educational institutions and indi-
3. Student-Tutor Relationships: How, why, viduals to raise the standard of online educational
and when do students communicate with their activities.
tutor, and what is the nature of this communica-
tion?
4. Student-Interface Interaction: What are the REFERENCES
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KEY TERMS
Hewson, P. (1996). Teaching for conceptual change.
In D. Treagust, D. Duit, & B. Fraser (Eds.), Im- Internet: An internet (note the small i) is any set
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439
Online Learning
Learning Environment: A term used to de- Online Learning: The use by students of con-
scribe the interactions that occur among individuals nected (online) computers to participate in educa-
and groups and the setting within which they tional activities (learning).
operate.
Perceptual Measure: An instrument used to
Learning Management System: A broad term investigate identified relationships in learning envi-
used to describe a wide range of systems that ronments.
organize and provide access to e-learning environ-
World Wide Web: A virtual space of electronic
ments for students, tutors, and administrators.
information storage.
440
441
Joaquim A. Jorge
Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Claude Ghaoui
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
actions, smart, ambient, and collaborative technolo- instructional design and multimodal feasible choices
gies are some current issues that are driving new are taken into account to structure, organize, and
interaction paradigms (Dix, Finlay, Abowd, & Beale, present learning content and related tasks (Clark &
1998; Oviatt, 1999). New skills and methods to Mayer, 2003). This way, contextual and work-
perform work-related tasks at operational and stra- relatedness of content is ensured.
tegic levels within organizational dynamics, plus Usability and accessibility, as quality attributes of
societal attitudes, individual lifestyles, priorities, pref- system performance, address the acceptance and
erences, physical and cognitive capabilities and lo- usage of a system by the intended users. Learning
cations require more innovative approaches to de- outcomes, namely performance and satisfaction af-
signing user experiences. In addition, technical and ter being analyzed, would drive initiatives for im-
users feedback coming from different evaluation provement or new developments at operational and
sources require workable methods and tools to cap- strategic levels. These issues are further described
ture and analyse quantitative and qualitative data in in the next sections.
a systematic, consistent, integrated, and useful way.
This situation makes e-learning evaluation process a Evaluating People-Related Issues
complex one (Garrett, 2004; Janvier & Ghaoui,
2004; Preece et al., 2002; Rosson & Carroll, 2002). From a people standpoint, learning styles are identi-
Moreover, interpretation of an evaluation outcome fied by researchers, among the multiple individual
requires an additional set of skills. Figure 1 shows traits that influence learning process, as a key com-
three main aspects to consider when evaluation e- ponent to design and evaluate effective and satisfac-
learning experiences: (1) people-related issues (learn- tory instructional methodologies and education-ori-
ing preferences), (2) instruction-related issues (in- ented technologies. Reviewed literature on learning
struction design), and (3) system-related issues (us- styles and individual differences (Atkins, Moore,
ability and accessibility). Sharpe, & Hobbs, 2000; Bajraktarevic, Hall, &
Organizational context and individual learning Fullick, 2003; Bernardes & ODonoghue, 2003;
preferences aim at improving people-task fit. This Leuthold, 1999; McLaughlin, 1999; Sadler-Smith &
means that peoples skills and related learning objec- Riding, 2000; Storey, Phillips, Maczewski, & Wang,
tives are defined by: (a) their preferred ways of 2002; Shih & Gamon, 2001) show that most research
learning, and (b) the tasks individuals have to per- findings are not conclusive and often contradictory
form within the scope of their organizational roles regarding the impact of learning styles on outcomes
and specifics contexts. Principles and practices of of e-learning (McLaughlin, 1999; Shih & Gamon,
Development
team
Learning preferences
Instructional design
Learning content and tasks
Usability
Accessibility
Learners outcomes
442
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
2001). Still, many researchers agree that learning learning, context, and other actors involved, namely
styles: (a) are a relevant factor to the learning peers, instructors, and support staff. O
experience, and (b) influence learning behaviors likely Upon this perspective, quality of the interactivity
affecting the degree to which individuals will engage within an e-learning environment is defined by: (a)
in particular types of learning (Sadler-Smith & Riding, the adequacy of learning content to individual learn-
2000). However, the measurement of learning styles ing preferences and the quality of service of tech-
is complex and time-consuming, because they are nical conditions, and (b) the quality of relationships
assessed by using questionnaire or psychometric with humans involved in the learning experience.
test. Consequently, its usage raises individuals con- The former depend on the available choices for
cerns about data privacy and protection. To motivate specific user groups based upon their preferences
a workable approach, we focus our theoretical frame- and technical conditions. The latter depends on
work on learning preferences, which is defined as an three specific roles: Instructors, Social Science
observable individual trait that shows what tasks or practitioners, and Administrative/Helpdesk staff.
objects people favor over others of the same kind What each of these roles should involve to ensure
(McLaughlin, 1999). Hence, learning preferences, in quality of interactivity? Table 1 summarizes our
our approach, would support the designing of ad- view on the main responsibilities of these three
equate learning content. roles.
Learning preferences are revealed through choices
or actions, and can be validated by using ethno- Evaluating Instruction-Related
graphic techniques, self-reporting, or log analysis. Aspects
This kind of systematic observation helps also per-
ceive learning and cognitive strategies in context. A second relevant aspect in this theoretical frame-
This way, they can input a gradually evolving intelli- work is instruction and design (methodology, con-
gent e-learning system. This knowledge on users tent, and related tasks). This aspect raises key
actions and patterns, based on observations and issues related to allocation of organizational re-
inquiries of users, would help development teams to sources to learning content creation and updating in
understand the patterns of their favoring when com- terms of: (a) matching pedagogically learning con-
pleting learning tasks and to interact with related tents and related tasks to suit diverse learning
material across different modalities, media, type of needs, preferences, objectives, increasingly evolv-
443
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
ing education-oriented technology, and business strat- on the organizational context and its level of acces-
egies; and (b) generating structuring, organizing, and sibility. Usability is defined as the extent to which a
presenting subject matter or task knowledge within system can be used to achieve defined goals by
task executions scope. Interactivity with learning intended users in an effective, efficient, and satis-
content depends on these two issues. Table 2 shows factory manner in a specified context of use (Dix et
some instruction-related items to evaluate. al., 1998). Usability evaluation has been mainly
based on prototyping, heuristic evaluations, observ-
Evaluating System-Related Aspects ing users, and user testing by using different types of
methods and tools with a strong quantitative orienta-
We assume the role of an e-learning system as an tion. Web-based applications have brought the need
intermediary agent between instructors and learn- to cost-effectively evaluate usability among distrib-
ers. As an intermediary agent, an e-learning system uted applications and by geographically disperse and
should be designed not only to be effective, efficient, diverse users. Thus, automated usability evaluation
but also affective and social. Effectiveness is con- tools are a promise to achieve cost-effectively us-
cerned with learning objectives, methods, and us- ability goals (Ivory & Hearst, 2002).
ability goals. Efficiency is concerned with measur- Regarding social aspect of People-System inter-
ing the usage of resources to achieve defined objec- action, gerfalk and Cronholm (2001) stated that
tives. Affectivity measures users feelings and sat- actability: (a) is an information systems ability
isfaction during e-learning experiences (Dix et al., to perform actions, and to permit, promote and
1998; Rosson & Carroll, 2002). Sociality is per- facilitate the performance of actions by users,
ceived as part of a working group (Preece et al., both through the system and based on informa-
2002; Reeves & Nass, 1996). If any of these at- tion from the system, in some business context;
tributes are missing, e-learners would not be able to (b) is a quality metric; (c) focuses on the social
engage in the experience and profit from its out- context of interaction within business context; (d) is
comes. Also, quality of the interaction is affected by of a more qualitative nature; and (e) its definition
the quality of service supplied by the system and reinforces the role of information systems as com-
related technological and physical infrastructure. munication actors and the need of pre-existing us-
Regarding quality of service, our e-learning evalu- ers knowledge and skills in IT and business tasks.
ation framework addresses the technological and The potential implication of this definition is that
physical specificities of the experience, such as actable information systems are usable systems that
system performance, downloading times, traffic make explicit the business actions that they can
flows, access profiling, backups, learning facilities support within a specific organizational context.
and equipments, among others. Table 3 shows some Potential complementarities between usability and
items of what to evaluate. actability are still to be shown. This is still being
To holistically evaluate, we do not only evaluate researched (gerfalk & Cronholm, 2001), and to our
usability, but also the social implication of interaction knowledge, there is no reliable and valid measuring
444
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
instrument yet. Nevertheless, this is a promising grated evaluation would cover efficiency, efficacy,
area to increase the success rate of information satisfaction, and accessibility, in addition to con-
system implementation (Xia & Lee, 2004). How- formance to social norms, legislation, ethical, and
ever, its importance as a complement to the quanti- current business practices. Integrated feedback on
tative orientation of usability testing is clear if as- these key five issues would make users and devel-
suming that interactions take place within specific opment teams, (working in a participatory-based
social contexts (communities, groups of people, fami- methodology) fully aware about, and responsible for,
lies, or organizations). Within any groups context, the impact of pre-defined rules on organizational
conformance to social rules is required from each of climate and dynamic. In addition, this kind of feed-
the groups members and strongly affects individual back would indicate areas for improving flexibility in
and surrounding social dynamics. design but in a controlled way, namely, giving more
Regarding accessibility, it means that any poten- options closely focused on users capabilities and
tial users can access contents regardless of their their task needs. Table 4 shows some items of what
cognitive and physical capabilities (Chilsolm, to evaluate regarding usability and accessibility.
Vanderheiden, & Jacobs, 2001). Feasible goals in
making accessibility a reality is a trade-off between
flexibility in design, personalization to specific needs, MAIN FOCUS OF THE EVALUATION
usage of assistive technology (Arion & Tutuianu, FRAMEWORK FOR E-LEARNING
2003; Sloan, Gibson, Milne, & Gregor, 2003), and
organizational readiness to create and sustain ac- Main issues associated with three aspects are: (a) e-
cessibility as a strategic issue. learning personalization mainly in terms of individual
Assuming that an extended version of the defini- learning preferences taking other relevant back-
tion of usability includes actability, thus this inte- ground variables as control variables (e.g., goals,
What to evaluate.
How well is the system easy to learn and used across user groups in their
respective context?
To what extent, do users perceive the system to contribute easily to their
interaction with: (a) Content, (b) Peers, (c) Instructors, (d) Support staff?
To what extent, is organizational dynamics affected by the use of the
system? In what user group is the influence most significant?
Is the system accessible to potential users regardless of its cognitive and
physical capabilities?
How well do learning results justify investment in achieving usability and
accessibility goals in terms of learning outcomes across users groups?
Can the identified communication patterns reinforce dynamically
organizational values and expected performance level and behaviors?
445
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
learning priorities, type of learning need, background, tion tools and ethnographic techniques within devel-
previous IT experience, etc.) , (b) Coordinating, opment cycle could be cost-effective in improving
Monitoring, and Controlling the learning process and gradually the intelligence of e-learning systems.
e-learning strategy, (c) Degree of participation of Namely, this would help e-learning systems to adapt
users in designing experience, and (d) Integrating to: (a) the dynamic development of users compe-
quantitative and qualitative feedback on effective- tence and formation of habits, expectations, involve-
ness, efficiency, accessibility, satisfaction, and con- ment; and (b) observed choices and actions. This
formance to social contexts rules to improve human could foster a gradual alignment between, on one
computer interaction and its outcomes. Table 5 hand, learning outcomes and technology with indi-
shows these issues summarizing investment areas vidual expectations, learning preferences and, on the
and some examples of organizational programs to other hand, optimizing allocated organizational re-
help implementing and ensuring e-learning effec- sources within e-learning environments.
tiveness. This considers two basic scenarios created To do so, the development team should have
by geographical locations of users participating in an additional set of skills and tasks. Based on reviewed
e-learning experience. literature (gerfalk & Cronholm, 2001; Bernardes
It is worth noting two points. First, that IT expe- & ODonoghue, 2003; Clark & Mayer, 2003; Preece
rience or basic skills can be acquired not necessarily et al., 2002; Rosenberg, 2001; Rosson & Carroll,
within organizational settings. Exposure at this level 2002; Sloan et al., 2003) and insights from multi-
should be an orchestrated effort in society and, at a disciplinary practitioners, Table 6 summarizes some
political level, to ensure competitiveness. When main tasks and suggested techniques or tools re-
business context does not sustain that, specific orga- quired from teams member.
nizational interventions should be in place to ensure
engagement and habit formation, such as orientation
and coaching programs. Second, coordination and FUTURE TRENDS
monitoring of efforts is key to ensure consistent
methods across different participating geographical Flexible design (rooted in universal principles and
locations. dedicated design) appears to be continuing orienta-
Given the increasing users diversity in knowl- tion for designing interfaces during coming years. In
edge, skill levels, needs, and contexts, we believe this sense, development teams should be prepared to
that applying automated or semi-automated evalua- approach flexibility in design based upon tested,
Context-specific aspects
1. Organization Orientation programs
446
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
Table 6. Development-team members main tasks and suggested evaluation techniques or tools
O
Development Main tasks Suggested technique(s) or
team main tool(s)
roles
1. System (a) Contextual task and user modelling Observing users during
Developer (b) Linking business words and actions People-System
within the e-learning system interaction
( c) Defining interaction metaphor and Field studies
scenarios for the different users groups Focus groups
considering their geographical location Surveys and
and time convenience questionnaires
(c) Effective, satisfactory and enjoyable Structured interviews
user experience to speed up learning Prototyping
curves
Heuristic evaluation
(d) Matching learning content with
Usability testing
peoples learning preferences, learning
tasks, modalities, media and assistive Pluralistic evaluation
technology, if needed Content analysis
(e) Ensuring proper flow of information Statistical analysis
among users groups Log analysis
(f) Monitoring acceptance and usage
levels
(g) Administering user profiles
2. Information (a) Structuring work-related knowledge Technical reports
architect structures in terms of business language, Statistical techniques
(b) Matching peoples learning Content analysis
preferences and presentation of Log analysis
information Prototyping
(c) Matching modality to structured Heuristics evaluation
content
Usability testing
3. Content (a) Generating and distributing content Statistical techniques
manager cost-effective Log analysis
Social Network Analysis
Structured interviews
Brainstorming
4. Training- (a) Identification of key skills gaps and Model-based evaluation
process needs, and Descriptive statistics
manager (b) Learning cost-effectiveness Surveys
(c) Supporting expected business Focus groups
behaviours and performance levels Structured interviews
(d) Efficacy of intervention programs Questionnaires
(e) Improving procedural justice in
distributing content to proper target
(f) Monitoring learning efficacy and
productivity levels, and development of
required IT skills
447
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
Table 6. Development-team members main tasks and suggested evaluation techniques or tools (cont.)
simplified, and valid evaluation models. Further de- oping that content requires specific physical condi-
velopments may include the following: tions that cannot exist any where any time. Thus
First, flexibility demands the definition of a more current and emergent habits across generations of
affective- and socially-oriented heuristics, which people should be explored in terms of convenience
would require smart tools and techniques to improve and learning effectiveness.
the quality of the interaction across learning prefer-
ences.
Second, flexibility may benefit from having user CONCLUSION
representatives as part of a development team.
Research work should identity what conditions and We discussed a holistic framework to evaluate e-
stages of such involvement could be both more cost- learning experiences taking into account people,
effective and ensure better success for e-learning. technology, and instructional aspects. Learning pref-
These results could guide human computer interac- erences, usability, including social and affective
tion curricula changes to perhaps disseminate prac- aspects involved into the human computer interac-
tices among other related professions. Third, the tion (Bernardes & ODonoghue, 2003; Laudon &
increased use of portable equipments are facilitating Laudon, 2002; McLaughlin, 1999; Picard, 1997;
virtual classroom environment, where people, in any Preece et al., 2002; Rentroia-Bonito & Jorge, 2003;
place at any time, can participate. Research should Rosson & Carroll, 2002) and accessibility (Chilsolm,
explore the effectiveness and convenience of differ- et al., 2001) were identified as a set of key issues to
ent modalities during the learning processs cycle evaluate e-learning experiences. The expected re-
and stages. For instance, it may be efficient to sults of our integrated evaluation approach would
consult any information of interest when research- allow development-team members to achieve a bet-
ing a new topic of interest by using a portable device ter understanding of how the identified issues affect
assistant (PDA) from anywhere. However, devel-
448
An Overview of an Evaluation Framework for E-Learning
learning outcomes to identify future improvements Austin, Texas, April 30-May 4, 1989 (pp. 227-233).
and developments. Retrieved April 2004, from http://portal.acm.org/ O
results.cfm?coll=GUIDE&CFID=5
8548886&CFTOKEN=52867714
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KEY TERMS
Preece, J., Rogers, Y., & Sharp, H. (2002). Inter-
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important factors that shaped and become charac-
Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equa-
teristics of organizational dynamics such as culture,
tion: How people treat computers, television,
business strategies, organization of work, manage-
and new media like real people and places. New
ment practices, current technology, workforce com-
York: Cambridge University Press.
petency level, working processes, among others.
Rentroia-Bonito, M. A., & Jorge, J. (2003). An
E-Learning Development Team: The set of
integrated courseware usability evaluation method.
multi-disciplinary professionals required to develop
Proceedings of 7 th Knowledge-Based Intelligent
and evaluate an integrated e-learning evaluation.
Information and Engineering Systems Interna-
Each team should include designers, developers,
tional Conference, Part II, Oxford, UK (pp. 208-
instructors, process managers, social-science staff
214). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
professionals (e.g., psychology, sociology, human
Rosenberg, M. (2001). e-Learning strategies for resources practitioners, and managers, among oth-
delivering knowledge in the digital age. Ohio: ers), and Helpdesk staff and eventually user repre-
McGraw-Hill. sentatives of target population.
Rosson, M. B., & Carroll, J. M. (2002). Usability E-Learning Evaluation Framework: Com-
engineering. Scenario-based development of prises an integrated feedback based on people,
human-computer interaction. California: Morgan system, and context-specifics aspects.
Kaufmann Publishers.
Individual Styles (Learning and Cognitive
Sadler-Smith, E., & Riding, R. (2000). The implica- Styles): Relate to implicit main individual modes of
tions of cognitive style for management education & acquiring information, organizing, and processing
development: Some evidence from the UK. Re- information in memory. They are assessed by using
trieved April 2004, from http://www.elsinnet.org.uk/ questionnaire or psychometric test.
abstracts/aom/sad-aom.htm
Learning Preferences: Individual favoring of
Shih, C., & Gamon, J. (2001). Web-based learning: one teaching method over another, which can be
Relationships among student motivation, attitude, consistently observed through individual choices or
learning styles and achievement. Journal of Agri- actions.
cultural Education, 42(4), 12-20.
People Aspects: In this evaluation framework,
Sloan, D., Gibson, L., Milne, S., & Gregor, P. (2003). basically covers background, individual learning pref-
Ensuring optimal accessibility of online learning erences, goals, and priorities.
resources. In C. Ghaoui (Ed.), Usability evalua-
System Aspects: Cover the technological and
tion of online learning programs (pp. 371-386).
physical specificities of the e-learning experience at
Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.
server and data layers and the usability and acces-
Storey, M. A., Phillips B., Maczewski, M., & Wang, sibility issues of the presentation layer of the e-
M. (2002). Evaluating the usability of Web-based learning system.
learning tools. Educational Technology and Soci-
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/ifets.ieee.org/periodical/Vol_3_2002/ storey.html
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An Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications
but their integration results in a complete message. ness can result from the integration of redundant,
Complementarity allows for increased flexibility and complementary, or disambiguating inputs. A good
efficiency, because a user can select the modality of example is that of visual speech recognition, where
communication that is the most appropriate for a audio signals and visual signals are combined to
given type of information. increase the accuracy of speech recognition. Natu-
Mutual disambiguation occurs when the integra- ralness results from the fact that the types of modali-
tion of ambiguous messages results in the resolution ties implemented are close to the ones used in
of the ambiguity. Let us imagine a user pointing at human-human communication (i.e., speech, ges-
two overlapped figures on a screen, a circle and a tures, facial expressions, etc.).
square, while saying the square. The gesture is
ambiguous because of the overlap of the figures, and Software Architectures
the speech also may be ambiguous if there is more
than one square visible on the screen. However, the In order to enable modality combinations in the user
integration of these two signals yields a perfectly interface, adapted software architectures are needed.
unambiguous message. There are two fundamental types of multimodal
Support describes the role taken by one modality software architectures, depending on the types of
to enhance another modality that is said to be modalities. In feature level architectures, the inte-
dominant; for example, speech often is accompanied gration of modalities is performed during the recog-
by hand gestures that simply support the speech nition process, whereas in semantic level architec-
production and help to smooth the communication tures, each modality is processed or recognized
process. independently of the others (Figure 1).
Finally, modulation occurs when a message that Feature-level architectures generally are consid-
is conveyed by one modality alters the content of a ered appropriate for tightly related and synchronized
message conveyed by another modality. A persons modalities, such as speech and lip movements
facial expression, for example, can greatly alter the (Duchnowski et al., 1994). In this type of architec-
meaning of the words he or she pronounces. ture, connectionist models can be used for process-
ing modalities because of their good performance as
User Benefits pattern classifiers and because they easily can inte-
grate heterogeneous features. However, a truly
It is widely recognized that multimodal interfaces, multimodal connectionist approach is dependent on
when carefully designed and implemented, have the the availability of multimodal training data, and such
potential to greatly improve human-computer inter- data currently is not available.
action, because they can be more intuitive, natural, When the interdependency between modalities
efficient, and robust. implies complementarity or disambiguation (e.g.,
Flexibility is obtained when users can use the speech and gesture inputs), information typically is
modality of their choice, which presupposes that the integrated into semantic-level architectures (Nigay
different modalities are equivalent (i.e., they can et al., 1995). In this type of architecture, the main
convey the same information). Increased robust- approach for modality integration is based on the use
Semantic-Based
Feature-Based
452
An Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications
of data structures called frames. Frames are used to processors). There is a general lack of appropriate
represent meaning and knowledge and to merge tools to guide the design and implementation of O
information that results from different modality multimodal interfaces.
streams. Bourguet (2003a, 2003b) has proposed a simple
framework, based on the finite state machine for-
malism, for describing multimodal interaction de-
MAIN ISSUES IN MULTIMODAL signs and for combining sets of user inputs of
INTERACTION different modalities. The proposed framework can
help designers in reasoning about synchronization
Designing Multimodal Interaction patterns problems and testing interaction robust-
ness.
Recent developments in recognition-based interac-
tion technologies (e.g., speech and gesture recogni- Uncertainty in Multimodal Interfaces
tion) have opened a myriad of new possibilities for
the design and implementation of multimodal inter- Natural modalities of interaction, such as speech
faces. However, designing systems that take advan- and gestures, typically rely on recognition-based
tage of these new interaction techniques are difficult. technologies that are inherently error prone. Speech
Our lack of understanding of how different modes of recognition systems, for example, are sensitive to
interaction can be combined best into the user inter- vocabulary size, quality of audio signal, and variabil-
face often leads to interface designs with poor usabil- ity of voice parameters (Halverson, 1999). Signal
ity. Most studies to understand natural integration of and noise separation also remains a major challenge
communication modes are found in the experimental in speech recognition technology, as current sys-
psychology research literature, but they tend to quali- tems are extremely sensitive to background noise
tatively describe human-to-human communication and to the presence of more than one speaker. In
modes. Very few attempts have been made so far to addition, slight changes in voice quality (due, for
qualitatively or quantitatively describe multimodal example, to the speaker having a cold) can signifi-
human-computer interaction (Bourguet, 1998; Nigay, cantly affect the performance of a recognizer, even
1995; Oviatt, 1997). Much more work is still needed after the user has trained it.
in this area. Several possible user strategies to prevent or
correct recognition errors have been uncovered.
Implementing Multimodality Oviatt (2000) shows that in order to avoid recogni-
tion errors, users tend to spontaneously select the
Developers still face major technical challenges for input mode they recognize as being the most robust
the implementation of multimodality, as indeed, the for a certain type of content (modality selection
multimodal dimension of a user interface raises nu- strategy). When recognition errors occurr, Suhm
merous challenges that are not present in more (2001) suggests that users be willing to repeat their
traditional interfaces (Bourguet, 2004). These chal- input at least once, after which they will tend to
lenges include the need to process inputs from differ- switch to another modality (modality switching strat-
ent and heterogeneous streams; the coordination and egy). Finally, Oviat (2000) reports cases of linguis-
integration of several communication channels (input tic adaptation, where users choose to reformulate
modalities) that operate in parallel (modality fusion); their speech in the belief that it can influence error
the partition of information sets across several output resolutiona word may be substituted for another,
modalities for the generation of efficient multimodal or a simpler syntactic structure may be chosen.
presentations (modality fission); dealing with uncer- Overall, much more research is still needed to
tainty and recognition errors; and implementing dis- increase the robustness of recognition-based mo-
tributed interfaces over networks (e.g., when speech dalities.
and gesture recognition are performed on different
453
An Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications
454
An Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications
455
An Overview of Multimodal Interaction Techniques and Applications
the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Modality Fusion: Integration of several modal-
Speech, and Signal Processing. Atlanta, Georgia. ity inputs in the multimodal architecture to recon-
struct a users command.
KEY TERMS Mutual Disambiguation: The phenomenon in
which an input signal in one modality allows recov-
Active Modality: Modality voluntarily and con- ery from recognition error or ambiguity in a second
sciously used by users to issue a command to the signal in a different modality is called mutual disam-
computer; for example, a voice command or a pen biguation of input modes.
gesture.
Passive Modality: Information that is captured
Feature-Level Architecture: In this type of automatically by the multimodal interface; for ex-
architecture, modality fusion operates at a low level ample, to track a users location via a microphone, a
of modality processing. The recognition process in camera, or data sensors.
one modality can influence the recognition process
Semantic-Level Architecture: In semantic
in another modality. Feature-level architectures gen-
level architectures, modalities are integrated at higher
erally are considered appropriate for tightly related
levels of processing. Speech and gestures, for ex-
and synchronized modalities, such as speech and lip
ample, are recognized in parallel and independently.
movements.
The results are stored in meaning representations
Haptic Output: Devices that produce a tactile that then are fused by the multimodal integration
or force output. Nearly all devices with tactile output component.
have been developed for graphical or robotic appli-
Visual Speech Recognition: Computer vision
cations.
techniques are used to extract information about the
Modality Fission: The partition of information lips shape. This information is compared with infor-
sets across several modality outputs for the genera- mation extracted from the speech acoustic signal to
tion of efficient multimodal presentations. determine the most probable speech recognition
output.
456
457
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support
Table 1. User-interface design constraints for PDA devices (Paelke, Reimann, & Rosenbach, 2003)
Limited resolution Typical resolution of a PDA is low (240*320 pixels). This impacts the
visibility of content, objects and images.
Small display size The small screen size of a PDA limits the number of objects and the
amount of text on a screen page. This limitation impacts design layout
in terms of font size, white space, links, text, images, and graphics,
among others.
Navigational structure Navigation is impacted by the increased number of screen pages
required to accommodate text and objects that on a desktop or laptop
would fit on one screen page. Design choices include a long page with
a flat navigation hierarchy versus the design of multiple short pages
with a deeper navigational hierarchy.
Limited use of color A PDA uses a gray scale or a color palette limited to several thousand
color choices (compared to millions of color choices for desktop
applications). Readability and comprehension may be impacted when
color is used to relay information or color combinations are
insufficient in contrast.
Limited processing power Limited processing power impacts the quality of graphical displays
and imaging. It also restricts the use of interactive real-time
animation.
Mouse is replaced with A PDA does not use a mouse, which has become a standard peripheral
stylus pen in a desktop environment. As a result, there is a learning curve
associated with the use of a stylus pen, which replaces mouse
functionality.
Small keyboard size The PDA keyboard size and layout impacts data entry. As a result, it
is more difficult for users to entered lengthy and complex medical data
in a real-time environment.
ing data onto these devices without user interven- straints). The user interface of a PDA is modeled
tion. Enterprise servers are also capable of pulling after a desktop environment with little consideration
data from a localized (PDA) database such that for physical and environmental differences (Sacher
centralized data sources are readily updated. & Loudon, 2002). Yet, these differences are signifi-
A PDA synchronizes with laptops and desktop cant in terms of usability given the small screen and
computers, making data sharing transparent. This is keyboard sizes and limited screen resources in terms
made possible by a user interface and functionality of memory and power reduction (Brewster, 2002).
that are compatible in terms of computing capabili- There has been important research on PDA
ties and input and output devices (Myers, 2001). usability, primarily in the effective use of its limited
Compatibility is a major issue in telemedicine given screen area. Early research focused primarily on the
that medical and patient data gathered or stored on display of contextual information in order to mini-
a PDA is typically sent to a centralized data source. mize waste of the screen space while maximizing
Nomadic use of PDAs mandates this type of data content (Kamba, Elson, Harpold, Stamper, &
integration whether it is real-time or batched data Sukariya as cited in Buchanan, Farrant, Jones,
when wireless connectivity is temporarily inacces- Thimbleby, Marsden, & Pazzani, 2001). More re-
sible (Huston & Huston, 2000). In addition, cent efforts are taking into account not only screen
telemedicine data sharing is typically asymmetric in size, but navigation, download time, scrolling, and
that the enterprise server transmits a larger volume input mechanisms (Kaikkonen & Roto, 2003).
of medical data to the PDA. In turn, the PDA
transmits only a small volume of patient data to the
server (Murthy & Krishnamurthy, 2004). PDA USABILITY AND TELEMEDICINE
Though PDAs hold great promise in promoting
healthcare in remote regions, the usability of these An important finding of usability research associ-
devices continues to be an issue. There are physical ated with mobile technology is the need for usability
constraints that typically do not apply to a laptop or testing beyond a simulated environment. Waterson,
desktop computer (Table 1 describes these con- Landay, and Matthews (2002), in their study of the
458
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support
usability of a PDA, found that usability testing should Figure 1. PDA used to gather data about a
include both content and device design. Chittaro and diabetic patients foot health P
Dal Cin (2002) studied the navigational structures of
mobile user interfaces. Their research also identified
the need for actual devices to be used in usability
testing. Real-world constraints would take into ac-
count screen-size and page-design issues, date entry
using a built-in keypad, wireless accessibility, data
transmission speeds, visual glare, background noise,
and battery power, among others.
Our initial findings also reflected the need for
usability testing in the telemedical environment in
which technology is used. We initiated research on
the use of PDAs for monitoring diabetic patients
living in remote regions of the United States (Becker,
Sugumaran, & Pannu, 2004). Figure 1 illustrates one
of our user-interface designs for the Viewsonic
PocketPC. This screen shows part of a foot form
completed by a healthcare provider during a home
visit. The data entered by the user is stored in a local
database that can be transmitted wirelessly to an
enterprise server.
The PocketPC is used in this research because of
its low cost and its support of relational database environment. For rapid diagnosis and treatment of
technology. It has a built-in digital camera, which is casualties, multimedia data formats may prove criti-
important because of the physical distance between cal. In our work, images are being used to replace
a patient and a healthcare facility. Images of foot textual descriptions that would consume valuable
sores are taken during a home visit and stored in the screen space. Figure 1 illustrates this concept of
local database residing on the PDA. These images using color codes to represent physical areas of the
become part of the patients history when transmit- foot. As such, foot problems can be reported for
ted to the enterprise server. Later, the images can be each area by clicking on the list appearing on the
viewed by a clinician for the timely diagnosis and right side of the screen. Audio capabilities are also
treatment of the sores. being explored in providing helpful information that
Our research has shown the technical feasibility otherwise would be text based. Both of these mul-
of using PDA technology to gather data in the field timedia capabilities are in the design phase and will
during a home visit. However, more research is be tested in future field studies.
needed to address usability issues uncovered during
the use of the PDA during simulated home visits. A
significant finding in the use of PDA technology is FUTURE TRENDS
that usability is tightly integrated with the technologi-
cal challenges associated with it. One such challenge Table 2 identifies research opportunities associated
is the heavy reliance on battery power when PDAs with the use of PDAs in telemedicine. Much of
are deployed in the field. When the battery no longer what has been done in this area has focused on
holds a charge, critically stored relational data may tracking patient histories. However, there are sig-
be irretrievable due to pull technology used to trans- nificant opportunities for real-time data retrieval
mit data from a local source to a central one. and transmission using PDA technology. Clinicians
As part of this research, the usability of multime- could use a PDA, for example, to send prescriptions
dia data formats is being studied to to pharmacies, receive lab reports, and review
improve information access in a nomadic medical data for the diagnosis and treatment of
459
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support
Diagnosis and Mobile decision support software would allow for data entry of patient
Treatment symptoms with output providing a diagnosis and treatment plan.
Patient Tracking Synchronizing a PDA with a hospitals centralized data source would allow
vital signs and other information to be gathered in real-time at the point of
care. A clinician would have the capability of obtaining lab reports and test
results once they have been entered into the system.
Prescriptions A PDA would be used by a clinician to send a patient prescription to a
pharmacy. This would minimize human error associated with interpreting
handwritten prescriptions. It would also provide a centralized tracking system
in order to identify drug interactions when multiple prescriptions for a patient
are filled.
Medical Information Clinicians would have access to information on medical research, drug
treatments, treatment protocols, and other supporting materials. According to
Wachter (2003), a leading clinical PDA technology vendor has converted
more than 260 medical texts into PDA formats thus supporting this effort.
Dictation PDAs support multimedia data including audio, images, and text. As such,
clinicians would have an opportunity to record multimedia patient data
directly linked to patient history data in a centralized source.
Charge Capture Data entry into a PDA that is transmitted to a centralized source would
provide the means for efficient billing of medical charges to a patient.
patients. These devices could also be used to mini- localized data. Research is also needed on ensuring
mize human error associated with more traditional localized data remains private and is accessible only
mechanisms of recording patient data. by authorized personnel.
There are infrastructure challenges associated
with the use of telemedicine in terms of technology
acceptance and utilization. Chau and Hu (2004) CONCLUSION
point out that although telemedicine is experiencing
rapid growth, there are organizational issues pertain- The exponential growth of wireless and PDA tech-
ing to technology and management. It is critical that nologies has brought unprecedented opportunities in
organizational support is available throughout the providing managed healthcare. For the military and
implementation stages of telemedicine. Past experi- others working in nomadic environments, PDA tech-
ence in the use of ICT with no infrastructural support nology offers the capability for rapid diagnosis and
resulted in failure. The effective management of treatment of casualties. Regardless of location,
telemedicine systems and supporting technologies is healthcare personnel could be provided with real-
needed to address barriers to ICT acceptance by time access to reference materials, patient lab re-
healthcare personnel and patients. As such, there ports, and patient history data.
are research opportunities in the organizational ac- Though there is great promise in the use of PDAs
ceptance and use of PDAs in a telemedical environ- for providing telemedical services, there is research
ment. needed in the usability of these devices. Multimedia
Security, safety, and social concerns have also data formats offer alternative interfaces to access-
been identified by Tarasewich (2003) as research ing data, and research is needed to assess their
challenges in the use of mobile technology. Though impact on ease of use and understandability. In
encryption and other security technologies can readily addition, technological constraints need to be studied
be used during the transmission of data, there re- in terms of their impact on device usability. Memory,
mains the issue of security associated with lost or data storage, transmission speeds, and battery life
stolen PDAs. Given the memory, data storage, and need to be considered as part of usability testing to
other technological constraints of a PDA, research assess the impact on rapid medical diagnosis and
is needed on developing security mechanisms for treatment.
460
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support
There is a major challenge of moving from tradi- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
tional medical services and resources to an environ- (IEEE). (1990). IEEE standard computer dictio- P
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constraints. However, widespread acceptance of
Institute of Medicine. (1996). Telemedicine: A guide
PDA technology in a telemedical environment will
to assessing telecommunications in health care.
only become achievable through the design of usable
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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Kaikkonen, A., & Roto, V. (2003). Navigating in a
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461
PDA Usability for Telemedicine Support
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KEY TERMS applications and protocols (http://
www.wapforum.org).
Compatibility: The ability to transmit data from
one source to another without losses or modifications
to the data or additional programming requirements. ENDNOTES
Interoperability: The ability of two or more
* This article is based on work supported by the
systems or components to exchange information and
National Science Foundation under Grant No.
to use the information that has been exchanged
0443599. Any opinions, findings, and conclu-
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
sions or recommendations expressed in this
[IEEE], 1990).
content are those of the author(s) and do not
Peripheral Devices: Hardware devices, sepa- necessarily reflect the views of the National
rate from the computers central processing unit Science Foundation.
1
(CPU), which add communication or other capabili- PocketPCs, Palm Pilots, and other handheld
ties to the computer. devices are referred to as PDAs in this article.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): A personal
digital assistant is a handheld device that integrates
computing, telephone, Internet, and networking tech-
nologies.
462
463
Thomas Ottman
Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt Freiburg, Germany
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Through a transducer device and the movements If we attempt to recognize the digital pen as the only
effected from a digital pen, we have a pen-based sole input modal for digital screens, for both interfac-
interface that captures digital ink. This information ing and archival modes purported within the same
can be relayed on to domain-specific application writing domain, we then require the conceptualization
software that interpret the pen input as appropriate of a true perceptual user interface (PUI) model.
computer actions or archive them as ink documents, Turk and Robertson (2000) discuss the main idea of
notes, or messages for later retrieval and exchanges having an alternative (graphical user) interface
through telecommunications means. through the PUI paradigm as a nonhassled and
Pen-based interfaces have rapidly advanced natural way of communicating with the background
since the commercial popularity of personal digital operating system. It is subjective, and it concerns
assistants (PDAs) not only because they are con- finding out and (to a certain extent) anticipating what
veniently portable, but more so for their easy-to- users expect from their application environment.
use freehand input modal that appeals to a wide There are several reasons to utilize the PUI as an
range of users. Research efforts aimed at the latter interactive model for the digital screen. Amongst
reason led to modern products such as the personal some of the more prominent ones are the following:
tablet PCs (personal computers; Microsoft Corpo-
ration, 2003), corporate wall-sized interactive To reintroduce the natural concept of commu-
boards (SMART Technologies, 2003), and the com- nication between users and their devices
munal tabletop displays (Shen, Everitt, & Ryall, To present an intelligent interface that is able to
2003). react accordingly (as dictated by the objective
Classical interaction methodologies adopted for of the application program) to any input ink
the desktop, which essentially utilize the conven- strokes
tional pull-down menu systems by means of a To redesign the GUI exclusively for perceptual
keyboard and a mouse, may no longer seem appro- conceptions
priate; screens are getting bigger, the interactivity
dimension is increasing, and users tend to insist on Modern and networked interactive digital screens
a one-to-one relation with the hardware whenever utilize the electronic pens digital ink as a convenient
the pen is used (Anderson, Anderson, Simon, way of interfacing with specially developed applica-
Wolfman, VanDeGrift, & Yasuhara, 2004; Chong tion programs, and go on to offer the visual commu-
& Sakauchi, 2000). So, instead of combining the nication of opinions for multiple users. This is as a
keyboard, mouse, and pen inputs to conform to the result of taking advantage of the pen-based environ-
classical interaction methodologies for these mod- ment. For example, we want to reproduce the simple,
ern products, our ultimate goal is then to do away customary blackboard and still be able to include all
with the conventional GUIs (graphical user inter- other functionalities that an e-board can offer. But
faces) and concentrate on perceptual starting points by minimizing the number of static menus and but-
in the design space for pen-based user interfaces tons (to accommodate new perceptual designs in
(Turk & Robertson, 2000). accordance to the PUI standards), the resultant
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
clean slate becomes the only perceptual input system commands from an input sequence of prede-
available to users to relate to the background sys- termined mouse moves (Rubine, 1991). Moyle and
tems. Here, we see two distinct domains merged into Cockburn (2003) built simple gestures for the con-
one: the domain to receive handwritings (or draw- ventional mouse to browse Web pages quickly, as
ings) as the symbolic representation of information users would with the digital pen. As gesturing with the
(termed technically as traces), and the domain to pen gained increasing popularity over the years, Long,
react to user commands issued through pull-down Landay, Rowe, and Michiels (2000) described an
menus and command buttons. exhaustive computational model for predicting the
Based purely on the input ink traces, we must be similarity of perceived gestures in order to create better
able to decipher users intentions in order to cor- and more comfortable user-based gesture designs.
rectly classify which of the two domains it is likely to For reasons of practicality and application suit-
be in: either as primitive symbolic traces, or some ability, but not necessarily for the simplicity of
sort of system command. Often, these two domains implementation, well-developed tool kits such as
overlap and pose the problem of ambiguousness, a SATIN (Hong & Landay, 2000) and TEDDY
gray area that cannot be simply classified by means (Igarashi, Matsuoka, & Tanaka, 1999) combine the
of straightforward algorithms. For instance, the back- pen input modality for two modes: sketching and
ground system may interpret a circle drawn in a gesturing. The automatic classification of ink inputs
clockwise direction over some preexisting ink traces directed for either mode do not usually include too
as a select command when in fact the user had many gestures, and these tools normally place heavier
simply intended to leave the circle as a primitive ink cognition loads on the sketching mode. We agree
trace to emphasize the importance of his or her that incorporating a pen-based command gesture
previously written points. Fortunately, this problem recognition engine, as a further evaluation of the
can be solved if the program can anticipate the input traces and as an alternative to issuing system
intentions of its users (Wooldridge, 2002); however, commands for addressing this scenario, is indeed
this method necessitates the constant tracking of the one of the most practical ways to solve the new
perceptual environment and would require a more paradigm problem.
stringent and somewhat parallel structural construct
in order to run efficiently (Mohamed, 2004b;
Mohamed, Belenkaia, & Ottman, 2004). ISSUES ON REPRESENTING
There are currently many works by authors that DIGITAL INK TRACES
describe vividly the interpretations of these traces
exclusively in either domain as well as in combina- A trace refers to a trail of digital ink data made
tion of the two. In the trace-only domain, Aref, between a successive pair of pen-down and pen-up
Barbara, and Lopresti (1996) and Lopresti, Tomkins, events representing a sequence of contiguous ink
and Zhous (1996) collective research in dealing points: the X and Y coordinates of the pens position.
with a concentrated area of deciphering digital inks Sometimes, we may find it advantageous to also
as hand-drawn sketches and handwritings, and then include time stamps for each pair of the sampled
performing pictorial queries on them, is the result of coordinates if the sampling property of the trans-
their effective categorization of ink as a first-class ducer device is not constant. A sequence of traces
data type in multimedia databases. Others like accumulates to meaningful graphics, forming what
Bargeron and Moscovich (2003) and Gtze, we (humans) perceive as characters, words, draw-
Schlechtweg, and Strothotte (2002) analyze users ings, or commands.
rough annotations and open-ended ink markings on In its simplest form, we define a trace as a set of
formal documents and then provide methods for (xi, yi, ti) tuples, deducing them directly from each
resetting these traces in a more orderly, cross- complete pair of pen-down and pen-up events. Each
referenced manner. On the opposite perspective, trace must be considered unique and should be
we see pilot works on pen gestures, which began identifiable by its trace ID (identification). Figure 1
even before the introduction of styluses for digital depicts the object-oriented relations a trace has with
screens. They are purported on ideas of generating its predecessors, which can fundamentally be de-
464
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
Normalised Trace
scribed as that of a shape interface (following the after an ink trace is scribed. This is illustrated in
Java OOP conventions). Figure 2. For a set of contiguous ink components Sj
A trace also consists of rendering information = {c0, c1, c2, , cn} in a freehand sentence made up
such as pen color, brush style, the bounding box, of n traces, we note that the lag time for the ith
center of gravity, and so forth for matters of visual component is exactly the same as the lead time of
interfacings. These are represented inside the con- the (i+1)th component; that is, lag(ci) = lead (ci+1).
text information of a trace. Traces with similar Consequently, the timings that separate one set of
context information can later be assembled (or clas- ink components apart from another are the first lead
sified) together as trace groups. A normalised trace, time lead (c0) and the last lag time lag(cn) in Sj.
on the other hand, is a filtered trace with removed These times are significantly longer than their in-
noise and rationalized contents. It is used entirely in between neighbors c1 to cn-1.
comparing techniques during the process of identify- Most people write rather fast, such that the time
ing and classifying pen gestures.On the temporal intervals between intermediate ink components in
front, the timing associated when writing in free hand one word are very short. If we observe a complete
can be categorized as follows: freehand sentence made up of a group of freehand
words, we can categorize each ink component
the duration of the trace, within those words into one of the following four
its lead time, and groups.
its lag time.
Beginnings: Ink components found at the
Lead time refers to the time taken before an ink start of a freehand word
trace is scribed, and lag time refers to the time taken
Figure 2. Splitting up freehand writing into ink components on the time line
465
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
Endings: Ink components found at the end of Figure 3. Relationship between a gesture and a
a freehand word trace with n features
In-Betweens: Ink components found in the
middle of a freehand word
Stand-Alones: Disjointed ink components
466
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
Figure 5. PUI model serving a sketching envi- efficiently executed. A Decision agent is added
ronment made up of a transducer and the digital between the two domain-specific agents and the P
pen foreground application for an added strength of
decision making when drawing up percepts from the
frontline agents.
It is not very often that we see people gesturing
to a control system in the middle of writing a
sentence or drawing a diagram. So we can antici-
pate, rather convincingly based on the lead and lag
times obtained, that the latest ink component might
be an instance of a trace rather than a gesture.
Our analyses (Mohamed, 2004a) on handling the
lead and lag times of the beginnings, endings, in-
betweens, and stand-alones of the ink components
led to the following findings. Based on key statistical
concepts in the context of determining the best
solution for our problem definition, we establish the
alternative hypothesis H1 and its nullifying opposite
H0 as stated below.
467
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
an ink component being a trace, are the areas for the gesture commands, we can expect a better percep-
rejection of the alternative hypothesis H1, while the tual environment for more interactive pen-based
lighter region is the area for acceptance of H1. digital-screen interfaces.
Figure 6 is made to correspond directly as a lookup
table; one can use the input parameter cg (tlead, tlag)
and retrieve from the table an output probability of CONCLUSION
whether any ink components should be considered
as symbolic traces given its lead and lag times (i.e., The advent of pen-based input devices has clearly
P (Trace | cg (tlead, tlag))) with an attached H 1 (strong revealed a need for new interaction models that are
acceptance) or H 0 (strong rejection). different from the classical desktop paradigm. In-
Two examples are given in Figure 6. The first, stead of the keyboard and mouse, the electronic
with an input parameter of c1 (1377, 1281), gets a pens digital ink is utilized for a commodious way to
probability value of P = 7.38x10-08 and is recom- visually communicate ideas within the vicinity of the
mended for rejection. This means that the likelihood digital screen. By developing a true perceptual user
of the ink component c1 being a symbolic trace is interface for interaction with these screens, by
very slim, and further tests should be made to check means of only having the digital pen as the sole input
if we could indeed upgrade it to a command gesture. modal, we achieve a robust architecture made up of
The second, with an input parameter of c2 (309, semiautonomous agents that are able to correctly
1011), receives P = 0.1164 and is recommended for anticipate users intentions on an invisible graphical
acceptance. This is a clear-cut case that the ink user interface, treating the inputs convincingly as
component c2 should definitely be considered as a either written traces or gesture commands.
symbolic trace.
REFERENCES
FUTURE TRENDS
Anderson, R., Anderson, R., Simon, B., Wolfman, S.
The lead and lag times resulting from freehand A., VanDeGrift, T., & Yasuhara, K. (2004). Expe-
writings on digital boards are part of the ongoing riences with a tablet PC based lecture presentation
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running foreground applications tailored for the PUI Aref, W. G., Barbar, D., & Lopresti, D. (1996). Ink
paradigm. We believe that the temporal methods as a first-class datatype in multimedia databases.
highlighted are statistically strong for influencing Multimedia Database Systems: Issues and Re-
future decisions down the communication chains search Directions (pp. 113-141). New York:
within the PUI model. As we expect to branch out Springer-Verlag.
from currently working with single-stroke gestures Bargeron, D., & Moscovich, T. (2003). Reflowing
to incorporating multistroke gestures in our (interac- digital ink annotations. Proceedings of the Confer-
tive) PUI model, it is essential that we observe the ence on Human Factors in Computing Systems
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their geometric properties. Most of the literature
reviewed so far point toward the further segmenta- Chong, N. S. T., & Sakauchi, M. (2000). Back to the
tion of ink components into their primitive forms of basics: A first class chalkboard and more. Proceed-
lines and arcs for symbol recognition on a 2-D (two- ings of the 2000 ACM Symposium on Applied
dimensional) surface. Computing (pp. 131-136).
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on-screen from the sketches made out by the primi- The intelligent pen: Toward a uniform treatment of
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toolkit for informal ink-based applications. Pro- pretation of pen gestures with competent agents.
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Igarashi, T., Matsuoka, S., & Tanaka, H. (1999). Moyle, M., & Cockburn, A. (2003). The design and
TEDDY: A sketching interface for 3D freeform evaluation of a flick gesture for back and for-
design. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Confer- ward in Web browsers. Proceedings of the Fourth
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Long, J. A. C., Landay, J. A., Rowe, L. A., & Rubine, D. (1991). Specifying gestures by example.
Michiels, J. (2000). Visual similarity of pen gestures. Proceedings of the 18 th Annual Conference on
Proceedings of the CHI 2000 Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques
Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 360- (pp. 329-337).
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Russell, G., Chee, Y.-M., Seni, G., Yaeger, L.,
Lopresti, D., Tomkins, A., & Zhou, J. (1996). Algo- Tremblay, C., Franke, K., et al. (2004). Ink markup
rithms for matching hand-drawn sketches. Pro- language. W3C Working Draft. Retrieved from
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Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition (pp. 233-
Shen, C., Everitt, K., & Ryall, K. (2003). UbiTable:
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SMART Technologies. (2003). SMART Boards
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Turk, M., & Robertson, G. (2000). Perceptual user
Lugwigs-Universitt Freiburg, Institut fr Informatik.
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Mohamed, K. A. (2004a, February). Restructuring ACM, 43(3), 32-34.
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Wooldridge, M. J. (2002). An introduction to
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Freiburg, Institut fr Informatik.
Mohamed, K. A. (2004b, November). Increasing
the accuracy of anticipation with lead-lag timing KEY TERMS
analysis of digital freehand writings for the percep-
tual environment. Proceedings of the Interna- Features: Information that can be gathered to
tional Conference of Computational Methods in describe a raw trace such as angles between sampled
Sciences and Engineering 2004 (pp. 387-390). points, lengths, and the speed of the sketched trace.
Mohamed, K. A., Belenkaia, L., & Ottmann, T. Gestures: Refers in our case to digital-pen
(2004 June). Post-processing InkML for random- gestures, which are movements of the hands while
access navigation of voluminous handwritten ink writing onto digital screens that are interpreted as
documents. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Inter- system commands.
469
Pen-Based Digital Screen Interaction
GUI (Graphical User Interface): Specifically Interface Agents: Semiautonomous agents that
involves pull-down menus for keyboard and mouse assist users with, or partially automate, their tasks.
inputs.
PUI (Perceptual User Interface): An invisible
InkML: An XML (extensible markup language) graphical user interface that engages perceptual
data format for representing digital-ink data. starting points.
Interactive Session: A period of communica- Temporal Sphere of Influence: Tracking ac-
tion for the exchange of ideas by an assembly of tions while within a specified time domain.
people for a common purpose.
Trace: The resultant digital-ink representation
Interactivity Dimension: The number of users made by movements of the hand using a digital pen
that a single transducer, display system, or applica- on a digital screen.
tion software can support (by means of complete
W3C (World Wide Web Consortium): An
hardware or software simulations) during one par-
international consortium of companies involved with
ticular interactive session.
the Internet and the Web.
470
471
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace
theoretical arguments regarding identity in cyberspace This latter author, and others, point out that
revolve around questions of human agency: the regardless of theoretical standpoint, virtuality poses
degree to which individuals shape, or are shaped by a real and practical challenge to identity construc-
the structures and constraints of the virtual world. tion, and a number of recent studies have attempted
Holmes (1998) argues, human agency has radically to examine tools and strategies that individuals em-
changed in spatial, temporal and technological exist- ploy as they select or construct identity or personae
ence (p. 7); the emergence of cybercultures and online (Burbules, 2000; Jones, 1997; Smith & Kollock,
virtual environments means, he suggests, that previ- 1998). Rutter and Smith (1998) offer a case study of
ous perspectives on individuality as constituted by identity creation in an online setting, examining
cognitive and social psychology may be less mean- elements such as addressivity (who talks to whom)
ingful, especially as they do not consider aspects of and self-disclosure, and how these elements contrib-
space and time in the consideration of community ute to sociability and community. Jordan (1999)
and behaviour. Building on Holmes rethinking of examines elements of progressive identity construc-
social relations, other contributors to his edited col- tion: online names, online bios and self-descriptions.
lection Virtual Politics: Identity and Community Interestingly, a number of authors focus explic-
in Cyberspace suggest that alterations in the nature itly on the notion of virtual ethnicity: how individu-
of identity and agency, the relation of self to other, als represent cultural identity or membership in
and the structure of community and political repre- cyberspace. Foremost among these is Poster (1998,
sentation by new technologies have resulted in a loss 2001) who theorizes about the fate of ethnicity in an
of political identity and agency for the individual. age of virtual presence (p. 151). He asks whether
Jones (1997) similarly questions whether public unity ethnicity requires bodiesinscribed as they are with
and rational discourse can occur in a space rituals, customs, traditions, and hierarchiesfor true
(cyberspace) that is populated by multiple identities representation. Wong (2000) meanwhile reports on
and random juxtapositions of distant communica- ways that disembodied individuals use language in
tors. Fernanda Zambrano (1998) characterizes indi- the process of cultural identity formation on the
viduals in virtual society as technological termi- Internet, and similarly, Reeder et al. (2004) attempt
nals for whom state and nation are irrelevant but to analyze and record cultural differences in self-
actually sees disembodiment and deterritorialization presentation in an online setting. In a related discus-
of the individual as a strength, offering the possibility sion, contributors to the collection edited by Smith
for productive insertion in the world beyond tradi- and Kollock (1998) offer counter-arguments to the
tional geographically-bound notions of citizenship. suggestion that as a site of disembodied identity,
Offering decidedly more postmodern perspectives, cyberspace may eliminate consideration of racial
Turkle (1995) suggests that a model of fragmented identity; instead, they suggest that cyberindividuals
(decentred) selves may be more useful for under- may simply develop new nonvisual criteria for people
standing virtual identity, using theoretical perspec- to judge (or misjudge) the races of others.
tives on identity from psychology, sociology, psycho- Online identities may therefore be multiple, fluid,
analysis, philosophy, aesthetics, artificial intelligence, manipulated and/or may have little to do with the
and virtuality, and Poster (2001) proposed a new real selves of the persons behind them (Fernanda
vision of fluid online identity that functions simply as Zambrano, 1998; Jones, 1997; Jordan, 1999;
a temporary and ever-changing link to the evolving Rheingold, 2000; Wong, 2000). Is identity decep-
cultures and communities of cyberspace. Others tion a special problem on the Internet? Some theo-
(see, for example, Miah, 2000; Orvell, 1998) are, rists believe so. Jones (1997) examines in detail the
however, less willing to accept virtual identity as a way that assumed identities can lead to virtual
postmodern break with traditional notions of identity, crime, while Jordan suggests that identity fluidity
and instead argue that virtual reality is simply a can lead to harassment and deception in cyberspace.
further sophistication of virtualness that has always Lvy (2001), on the other hand, argues that decep-
reflected the human, embodied experience (Miah, tion is no more likely in cyberspace than via any
2000, p. 211). other medium, and even suggests that the cultures of
472
The Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace
virtual communities actively discourage the irre- spun (p. 194) is most useful when considering the
sponsibility of anonymity. construction of shared meaning in a community P
where language is the main expressive and inter-
Virtual Community, Virtual Culture, and pretative resource.
Deterritorialization Virtual communities share a number of other
common internal features, including: use and devel-
Are all communitiesonline and offlinevirtual to opment of specific language (Abdelnour-Nocera,
some degree? In his classic text Imagined Commu- 2002b); style, group purpose, and participant
nities, Anderson (1991) argues that most national characteristics (Baym, 1998); privacy, property,
and ethnic communities are imagined because mem- protection, and privilege (Jones, 1998); forms of
bers will never know most of their fellow-members, communication (Jordan, 1999); customary laws (e.g.,
meet them, or even hear them, yet in the minds of reciprocity), social morality, freedom of speech,
each lives the image of their communion (p. 5). opposition to censorship, frequent conflicts, flaming
Ribeiro (1995) extends Andersons model to argue as punishment for rule-breaking, formation of
that cyberculture, computer English and electronic strong affinities and friendships (Lvy, 2001); unique
capitalism are necessary internal characteristics of forms of immediacy, asynchronicity, and anonymity
a developing virtual transnational community. (Michaelson, 1996); and internal structure and dy-
Burbules (2000) nevertheless cautions us to remem- namics (Smith & Kollock, 1998).
ber that imagined communities are also real, and Strikingly absent from most discussions of the
undertakes a careful analysis of the notion of com- creation and nature of online communities is much
munity that ultimately situates virtual communities as mention of the role of the language of communica-
actual. tion, and most contributions apparently assume that
In the same way that virtual identities are disem- English is the language of cyberspace. If, as Adam,
bodied, virtual communities are (usually) Van Zyl Slabbert, and Moodley (1998) argue, lan-
deterritorializeda feature highlighted by a number guage policy goes beyond issues of communication
of writers (Blanco, 1999; Sudweeks, 1998). Interest- to questions of collective identity (p. 107), we
ingly, Poster (2001) draws parallels between online might expect to see more careful examination of the
virtual communities and other ethnicities that have choice of language that different users and commu-
survived in the absence of a grounded space nities make, and how this contributes to the sense of
such as Jewishness. community online. Only very recently in a special
What, then, are the defining features of virtual issue of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Com-
communities? A number of theorists posit that virtual munication have research reports on the multilin-
communities can best be described as a constantly gual internet and discussions of online language
evolving collective intelligence or collective con- and community begun to appear (see Danet &
sciousness that has been actualized by Internet Herring [2003] and references therein).
technologies (Abdelnour-Nocera, 2002b; Guedon,
1997; Lvy, 2001a; Poster, 2001; Sudweeks, 1998). The Promises of Cybertechnology for
More common, however, are theoretical discus- Identity and Community: Hopes
sions of the construction of a group cultureand of and Fears
shared identity and meaningas a feature of virtual
community (Abdelnour-Nocera, 2002a; Baym, 1998; Papers assembled in the recent edited collection of
Blanco, 1999; Lvy, 2001; Porter, 1997; Walz, 2000). Stald and Tufte (2002) present a diverse selection
Essays contained in the collection edited by Shields of developing engagements of cultural groups in
(1996) examine the socio-cultural complexities of what is characterized as the global metropolis of
virtual reality and questions of identity, belonging and the Internet. Contributing authors report on media
consciousness in virtual worlds. Abdelnour-Nocera use by young Danes, by rural black African males
(1998) suggests that Geertzs (1973) idea of culture in a South African university, by South Asian fami-
as a web of meaning that he (man) himself has lies in London, by women in Indian communities, by
473
The Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace
Iranian immigrants in London, and by young immi- ties of their producers? (p. 317). This author does
grant Danes. In particular, these contributions focus not, however, explicitly view technologically-driven
on the ways that these minority groups and commu- cultural change as a cause for concern, but rather
nities understand themselves vis--vis a majority develops a theoretical argument relating
culture, and the different ways that these groups microeconomic engagement of handicraft produc-
utilize Internet technologies in the construction of ers with mass markets to ongoing negotiation of
complex identities. In Canada, Hampton and Wellman individual and cultural identity.)
(2003) document an increase in social contact, and On the other hand, optimists look to the potential
increased discussion of and mobilization around of online community as a uniting force. Sy (2000)
local issues in a networked suburban community. describes how new Filipino virtual communities rep-
Does technology limit virtual identity and virtual resent a form of cultural resistance to Western
community? Reeder et al. (2004) point to ways that hegemonic encroachment. Bickel (2003) reports
(culturally biased) technological design of the spaces how the Internet has allowed the voices of otherwise
of virtual encounters implicitly shapes the nature of silenced Afghan women to be heard, and the new
the communications that occur there. Poster (1998) leadership identities for women that this has brought
examines the technological barriers to portrayal of about. Michaelson (1996) agrees that for some,
ethnicity in different online settings, and Rheingold virtual communities offer opportunities for greater
(2000) discusses how technology affects our social participation in public life. Lvy (2001a) is enthusi-
constructs. Blanco (1999) similarly argues that vir- astic about the nonhierarchical and free nature of
tual communities are rooted in the sociotechnological deterritorialized human relationships, and Rheingold
configuration that the Internet provides (p. 193) but (2000) offers a number of examples of positive
suggests that sociocultural innovations are in fact social actions and developments that have emerged
allowing a reciprocal alteration of technology de- from the establishment of virtual communities.
sign.
In addition to the worry that Internet technologies
may change the nature of social interactions, a FUTURE TRENDS
number of contributors raise other fears. Blanco
(1999) worries that communication is becoming an Perhaps more significant for future research direc-
end in itself instead of a tool for political, social and tions are perspectives that highlight the real live
cultural action (p. 193). Jones (1998) also con- complexities of technological implications for iden-
cludes that efforts to recapture lost community tity and community. A number of authors, for ex-
online are only partly successful, and that ample, caution against the notion of simple substi-
cybercommunities bring with them new and distinc- tution of virtual relationships for physical relation-
tive difficulties, and Miah (2000) similarly argues ships, and undertake a comparison of real and
that the claimed emancipatory functions of virtual communities and relationships (Burbules,
cyberspace are over-stated and counter-balanced 2000; Davis, 1997; Lvy, 2001; Miah, 2000; Porter,
by the challenges to identity construction. Michaelson 1997; Smith & Kollock, 1998). Importantly, Hamp-
(1997) worries that participation in online groups ton and colleagues (Hampton, 2002; Hampton, &
has the potential to diminish commitment to local Wellman, 2003) have very recently undertaken criti-
communities (p. 57), and also that the technological cal and ambitious empirical studies of networked
and cultural resources required for such new forms communities, in an attempt to test some of the
of community may contribute to new forms of strati- optimistic and pessimistic predictions offered by
fication. Poster (2001) reports on angst about theorists. Future work by these and other investiga-
cyberspace as a destructive mass market that can tors should illuminate in finer detail the differential
potentially remove ownership of culture from ethnic uses, impacts and benefits of ICTs for diverse
groups. (Interestingly, LaFargue (2002) pursues this communities and populations over time, as ICTs
same question, asking does the commodification of cease to be new and become increasingly woven
a cultural product, such as an exotic handicraft, into the fabric of human societies.
safeguard social conventions within the communi-
474
The Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace
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KEY TERMS
Rutter, J., & Smith, G. (1998, August 1-3).
Addressivity and sociability in Celtic Men. In C.
Culture: Multiple definitions exist, including es-
Ess, & F. Sudweeks (Eds.), Proceedings, Cultural
sentialist models that focus on shared patterns of
Attitudes Towards Communication and Technol-
learned values, beliefs, and behaviours, and social
ogy 1998, London, August 1-3 (pp. 196-201). Sydney,
constructivist views that emphasize culture as a
Australia: University of Sydney. Retrieved from
shared system of problem-solving or of making
http://www.it.murdoch.edu.au/catac/catac98/pdf/
collective meaning. Key to the understanding of
16_rutter.pdf
online cultureswhere communication is as yet
Shields, R. (Ed.). (1996). Cultures of Internet: dominated by textmay be definitions of culture
Virtual spaces, real histories, and living bodies. that emphasize the intimate and reciprocal relation-
London: Sage Publications. ship between culture and language.
Smith, M. A., & Kollock, P. (Eds.). (1998). Commu- Cyberculture: As a social space in which hu-
nities in cyberspace. New York: Routledge. man beings interact and communicate, cyberspace
can be assumed to possess an evolving culture or set
Stald, G., & Tufte, T. (Eds.). (2002). Global en-
of cultures (cybercultures) that may encompass
counters: Media and cultural transformation.
beliefs, practices, attitudes, modes of thought,
Luton, UK: University of Luton Press.
behaviours and values.
Sudweeks, F. (1998, August 1-3). Cybersocialism:
Deterritorialized: Separated from or existing
Group consciousness in culturally diverse collabora-
without physical land or territory.
tions. In C. Ess, & F. Sudweeks (Eds.), Proceed-
ings, Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication Disembodied: Separated from or existing with-
and Technology, 1998 (pp. 127-128). Sydney, out the body.
Australia: University of Sydney. Retrieved from
Modern: In the social sciences, modern re-
http://www.it.murdoch.edu.au/catac/catac98/pdf/
fers to the political, cultural, and economic forms
09_sudweeks.pdf
(and their philosophical and social underpinnings)
Sy, P. A. (2000, July 12-15) Barangays of IT. In F. that characterize contemporary Western and, argu-
Sudweeks, & C. Ess (Eds.). Proceedings, Cultural ably, industrialized society. In particular, modernist
Attitudes Towards Technology and Communica- cultural theories have sought to develop rational and
477
The Prospects for Identity and Community in Cyberspace
478
479
Ioanna Malagardi
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Question Answering (QA) is one of the branches of This system was implemented in the Lincoln Labo-
Artificial Intelligence (AI) that involves the process- ratory and was the first QA system reported in the
ing of human language by computer. QA systems literature according to the references cited in the
accept questions in natural language and generate first book with a collection of AI papers (Feigenbaum
answers often in natural language. The answers are & Feldman, 1963). The inputs were questions in
derived from databases, text collections, and knowl- English about games played by baseball teams. The
edge bases. The main aim of QA systems is to system transformed the sentences to a form that
generate a short answer to a question rather than a permitted search of a systematically organized
list of possibly relevant documents. As it becomes memory store for the answers. Both the data and the
more and more difficult to find answers on the World dictionary were list structures, and questions were
Wide Web (WWW) using standard search engines, limited to a single clause.
the technology of QA systems will become increas-
ingly important. A series of systems that can answer The FACT RETRIEVAL System
questions from various data or knowledge sources
are briefly described. These systems provide a The system was implemented using the COMIT
friendly interface to the user of information systems compiler-interpreter system as programming lan-
that is particularly important for users who are not guage. A translation algorithm was incorporated into
computer experts. The line of development of ideas the input routines. This algorithm generated the
starts with procedural semantics and leads to inter- translation of all information sentences and all ques-
faces that support researchers for the discovery of tion sentences into their logical equivalents.
parameter values of causal models of systems under
scientific study. QA systems historically developed The DELFI System
roughly during the 1960-1970 decade (Simmons,
1970). A few of the QA systems that were imple- The DELFI system answers natural language ques-
mented during this decade are: tions about the space relations between a set of
objects. These are questions with unlimited nesting
The BASEBALL system (Green et al., 1961) of relative clauses that were automatically trans-
The FACT RETRIEVAL System (Cooper, lated into retrieval procedures consisting of general-
1964) purpose procedural components that retrieved infor-
The DELFI systems (Kontos & Kossidas, 1971; mation from the database that contained data about
Kontos & Papakontantinou, 1970) the properties of the objects and their space rela-
tions. The system was a QA system based on
procedural semantics. The following is an example
of a question put to the DELFI system:
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
Figure 1. The objects of the DELFI I example If flight F1 flies to city C1, and flight F2 departs
application database from city C1, then F2 follows F1.
If flight F1 follows flight F2, and the time of
1 departure of F1 is at least two hours later than
2 the time of arrival of F2, then F1 connects with
3 F2.
If flight F1 connects with flight F2, and F2
4
departs from city C1, and F1 flies to city C2,
then C2 is reachable from C1.
480
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
481
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
(1999). The system described had as its ultimate aim system is a model-based QA system that may sup-
the creation of flexible information extraction tools port researchers for the discovery of parameter
capable of accepting natural language questions and values of procedural models of systems by answer-
generating answers that contained information ei- ing what if questions (Kontos et al., 2002). The
ther directly extracted from the text or extracted concept of what if questions are considered here to
after applying deductive inference. The domains involve the computation data of describing the be-
examined were oceanography, medical physiology, havior of a simulated model of a system.
and ancient Greek law (Kontos & Malagardi, 1999). The knowledge discovery process relies on the
The system consisted of two main subsystems. The search for causal chains, which in turn relies on the
first subsystem achieved the extraction of knowl- search for sentences containing appropriate natural
edge from individual sentences, which was similar to language phrases. In order to speed up the whole
traditional information extraction from texts (Cowie knowledge acquisition process, the search algorithm
& Lehnert, 1996; Grishman, 1997), while the second described in Kontos and Malagardi (2001) was used
subsystem was based on a reasoning process that for finding the appropriate sentences for chaining.
combines knowledge extracted by the first sub- The increase in speed results because the repeated
system for answering questions without the use of a sentence search is made a function of the number of
template representation. words in the connecting phrases. This number is
usually smaller than the number of sentences of the
text that may be arbitrarily large.
QUESTION ANSWERING FOR The general architecture of the AROMA system
MODEL DISCOVERY is shown in Figure 3 and consists of three sub-
systems; namely, the Knowledge Extraction Sub-
The AROMA System system, the Causal Reasoning Subsystem, and the
Simulation Subsystem. All of these subsystems have
A modern development in the area of QA that points been implemented by our group and tested with a
to the future is our implementation of the AROMA few biomedical examples. The subsystems of the
(ARISTA Oriented Model Adaptation) system. This AROMA system are briefly described next.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
TEXTS ANSWERS
QUESTIONS
Q/A EXPERIMENTAL
SENTENCES DATA ANALYSIS
PRE PROCESSOR
BEHAVIOUR
PARAMETERS
WORD
DATA
SYSTEM
SHALLOW CAUSAL MODEL TEST
SIMULATOR
PARSER PARTIAL REASONER DATA
TEXTS
ADJUSTMENTS
LEXICON
PREREQUISITE USER
KNOWLEDGE BASE
QUESTIONS
482
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
483
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
scribed. These systems provide a friendly interface Kontos, J. (1992). ARISTA: Knowledge engineer-
to the user of information systems that is particularly ing with scientific texts. Information and Software
important for users that are not computer experts. Technology, 34(9), 611-616.
The line of development of systems starts with
Kontos, J. (2004). Cognitive science: The new
procedural semantics systems and leads to inter-
science of the mind [in Greek]. Athens, Greece:
faces that support researchers for the discovery of
Gutenbeng.
model parameter values of simulated systems. If
these efforts for more sophisticated human-com- Kontos, J., Elmaoglou, A., & Malagardi, I. (2002).
puter interfaces succeed, then a revolution may take ARISTA causal knowledge discovery from texts.
place in the way research and development are Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
conducted in many scientific fields. This revolution on Discovery Science DS 2002, Luebeck, Ger-
will make computer systems even more useful for many.
research and development.
Kontos, J., & Kossidas, A. (1971). On the question-
answering system DELFI and its application. Pro-
ceedings of the Symposium on Artificial Intelli-
REFERENCES
gence, Rome, Italy.
Cooper, W.S. (1964). Fact retrieval and deductive Kontos, J., & Malagardi, I. (1999). Information
questionAnswering information retrieval systems. extraction and knowledge acquisition from texts
Journal of the ACM, 11(2), 117-137. using bilingual question-answering. Journal of In-
telligent and Robotic Systems, 26(2), 103-122.
Cowie, J., & Lehnert, W. (1996). Information ex-
traction. Communications of the ACM, 39(1), 80- Kontos, J., & Malagardi, I. (2001). A search algo-
91. rithm for knowledge acquisition from texts. Pro-
ceedings of the 5th Hellenic European Research
Diekema, A.R. (2003). What do you mean? Finding
on Computer Mathematics & Its Applications
answers to complex questions. Proceedings of the
Conference, Athens, Greece.
2003 AAAI Spring Symposium. Palo Alto, Califor-
nia. Kontos, J., Malagardi, I., & Peros, J. (2003). The
AROMA system for intelligent text mining. HERMIS
Doan-Nguyen, H., & Kosseim, L. (2004). Improving
International Journal of Computers Mathemat-
the precision of a closed-domain question answering
ics and Its Applications, 4, 163-173.
system with semantic information. Proceedings of
Researche d Information Assistee Ordinateur Kontos, J., & Papakonstantinou, G. (1970). A ques-
(RIAO-2004), Avignon, France. tion-answering system using program generation.
Proceedings of the ACM International Comput-
Feigenbaum, E.A., & Feldman, J. (1963). Comput-
ing Symposium, Bonn, Germany.
ers and thought. New York: McGraw Hill.
Kosseim, L., Plamondon, L., & Guillemette, L.J.
Green, B.F., et al. (1961). BASEBALL: An auto-
(2003). Answer formulation for question-answer-
matic question answerer. Proceedings of the West-
ing. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Conference of
ern Joint Computer Conference 19, (pp. 219-224).
the Canadian Society for Computational Studies
Grishman R. (1997). Information extraction: Tech- of Intelligence, Halifax, Canada.
niques and challenges. In M.T. Pazienza (Ed.),
Maybury, M.T. (2003). Toward a question answer-
Information extraction (pp. 10-27). Berlin Heidel-
ing roadmap. Proceedings of the AAAI Spring
berg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Symposium. Palo Alto, California.
Harabagiu, S.M., Maiorano, S.J., & Pasca, M.A.
Nyberg, E., et al. (2002). The JAVELIN question-
(2003). Open-domain textual question answering
answering system at TREC 2002. Proceedings of
techniques. Natural Language Engineering, 9(3),
the 11th Text Retrieval Conference. Gaithersburg,
231-267.
Maryland.
484
Question Answering from Procedural Semantics to Model Discovery
485
486
F. J. Garca
University of Salamanca, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
ences associated with the use and consumption of fidelity policies. Also, one should avoid perva-
products and services: attitudes, lifestyles, sense of sive recommendation or cross-sell, which the 4
ownership, satisfaction, pleasure inside groups, en- user could see as obtrusive and abusive meth-
tertainment, and so forth. ods. This will consolidate the success of the
Therefore, the fundamental goal today in EC is virtual shop.
that of providing the virtual shops with all of the Confidence and Evaluation: Recommender
capabilities of physical trade, thus becoming a natu- Systems work with relevant information about
ral extension of the traditional processes of buying the user. A significant part of this phase of
and selling. One must provide these applications approximation to the user is related to the
with dynamism, social and adaptive capacities in safety in the transactions and the privacy of the
order to emulate traditional trade. The recommender information that the user hands over to the
system can supply the user with information related company. Besides, post-sale service is critical
to the particular kind of shopping technique he or she in virtual shops, both in the more straightfor-
is using. The most important phases that support the ward sense (an item is not acceptable) and in
users decision can be resumed as follows: the sense of confirming the results of a given
recommendation. This reinforces the confi-
Requirement of Identification: It permits dence of the user in the site and integrates them
the entry of every user into the system in an in a natural way in the sales protocol. Confi-
individual way, thus making it possible for the dence on a recommendation system relies on
recommender to make use of a customized three fundamental premises (Hayes, Massa,
behaviour. Avesani, & Cunningham, 2002). Confidence in
Product Brokering: The user, thus properly the recommender, assuming that it has suffi-
identified, interacts with the site in search of cient information on our tastes and needs, also
certain products and/or services; the searching accepts that the recommender has knowledge
process is facilitated by recommender sys- on other possible alternatives.
tems, which relieves the user from information
overload and helps each concrete user to lo- There exists a large number of recommenders
cate the desired product. over the Internet. These systems have succeeded in
Merchant Brokering: This type of buying domains as diverse as movies, news articles, Web
mechanism comes into play when users want pages, or wines; especially well-known examples
to acquire a certain product already known to are the ones that we find in Amazon.com or
them; at this moment, they look for the best BarnesAndNoble.com.
offer for this precise item. The recommender
systems make use of a comparison process,
carry out the extraction of necessary informa- MAIN ISSUES IN RECOMMENDATION
tion from different virtual shops, and work
towards the goals established by the buyer The users interaction with the recommender sys-
(best price, best condition, etc.). tem can be seen as two different but related pro-
Negotiation: This aspect reflects the custom- cesses. There is a first stage in which the system
ized interaction between the buyer and the site builds a knowledge base about the user (Input Stage
in the process of pre-acquisition, as well as the we could say) and then a second stage in which a
maintenance of these relations in post-sale recommendation is made, at the same time taking
process. This process is performed in the trans- notice of the users preferences (Output Stage).
action between the user and the site, and it Normally, systems offer a set of possible products
depends on the purchasing needs of the user that try, perhaps without previous knowledge about
and on the sales policy of the site. The user the particular user, to extract some sort of first-
must perceive negotiation as a transparent approximation ratings. When the user makes further
process. In order to benefit and activate the visits, both the data extracted from a first contact
relationship with the site, one must facilitate and the information garnered from any purchases
487
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
made will be of use when a recommendation is User actions at the user interface, such as
produced. By analyzing this information by means of requiring some kind of information, scrolling or
different techniques (which we explain later), the drilling down group hierarchies, and so forth, are
systems are able to create profiles that are later to be translated into user preferences for different parts
used for recommendations. of the result, and fed back into the system to
The second phase is the output stage, in which the prioritize further processing.
user gets a number of recommendations. This is a The following table contains the kinds of data
complex phase, and one must take into account the that one can hope to extract from the user in the
fact that the user gets information about a given different phases of interaction with the system.
product, the ease with which the customer gets new A recommender system may take input for users
recommendations, the actual set of new recommen- implicitly or explicitly, or as a combination of both.
dations produces, and so forth. Table 1 summarizes many of the attributes used for
Let us now describe the real-world data that are building a customized recommendation. This infor-
extracted from the user and their importance from mation, attending to the complex elaboration of the
the point of view of usability. data extracted about users in the domain, can be
divided into three categories:
User Data
Explicit: Expressed by the user directly (e.g.,
The information about both user and domain defines registration data as name, job, address and any
the context in recommendation; it establishes how other question and direct answer attributes)
the various concepts can be extracted from a list of Implicit: Captured by user interactivity with
attributes that are produced by the interaction of the the system (e.g., purchase history, naviga-
user with the system. These attributes must carefully tional history).
be chosen for the sake of brevity, and also because Synthetic: Added by contextual techniques
they are the essential and effective information em- mixing explicit and implicit ones. The principle
ployed as a user model in the specialized EC domain. behind the elaboration of these data is that
Kind of
Information extracted from Yields
data
Name
Gender
Age
Personal data
Explicit
Job
Income
Address
Users level of expertise
Specific queries Users areas of interest
Related interests
Number of visits
Time spent in each visit/page
Navigational aspects
Sequence of URLs visited
Implicit
Search process
Number of articles
Amount payed
Purchases Date of purchase
Preferences for particular services
Gender
Trust between users
Synthetics
488
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
consumers attach values to all of the attributes technique suffers mainly from a problem of
of a service. The total value of a service is a sparsity due to the need for a large volume of 4
function of the values of its components (e.g., users in relation to the volume of items offered
parameters adding time-delay aspects in the (critical mass) for providing appropriate sug-
model, semantic content traits in the items, gestions.
etc.). The choice of the user and the recom- Content-based-filtering systems, which ex-
mendation is a function of the absence or tract the information for suggestions basing
incorporation of specific characteristics of the themselves on items the user has purchased in
domain. These characteristics are taken into the past: These kinds of systems use super-
account using information regarding the con- vised machine learning to induce a classifier to
tent of items, mainly of semantic content, in discriminate between interesting or uninterest-
order to infer the reasons behind a users ing products for the user due to her purchase
preferences. Recommendations suitable to a history. Classifiers may be implemented using
user will be context-dependent. The context of many different techniques from artificial intel-
a users search often has a significant bearing ligence, such as neural networks, Bayesian
on what should be recommended. networks, inducted rules, decision trees, etc.
The user model is represented by the classifier
Techniques Used for Recommendation that allows the system to ponder the like or
dislike for the item. This information identifies
Several different approaches have been considered the more weighted items that will be recom-
for automated recommendation systems (Konstant, mended to the user. Some content-based sys-
2004; Sarwar, Karypis, Konstan, & Riedl, 2000). tems also use item-to-item correlation in order
These can be classified into three major categories: to identify association rules between items,
those based on user-to-user matching and referred implementing the co-purchase item or cross-
to as collaborative filtering, those based on item sell. As an example, one could mention (Mooney
content information, and hybrid methods referred to & Roy, 2000) Syskill & Webert (Pazzani,
as knowledge-based systems. Muramatsu, & Billsus, 1996), where a decision
tree is used for classifying Web documents
Collaborative-social-filtering systems, attending some content domain on a binary
which build the recommendation by aggrega- scale (hot and cold) or the well-known recom-
tion of consumers preferences: These kinds of mendation mechanism for the second or third
systems try to find a match to other users, item in Amazon. This technique suffers mainly
basing themselves on similarity in either behav- from the problem of over-specialization; the
ioral or social patterns. The statistical analysis consumer is driven to the same kind of items he
of data or data mining and knowledge discov- has already purchased. Another important prob-
ery in databases (KDD) techniques (monitor- lem comes also for recommending new articles
ing the behavior of the user over the system, in the store, as no consumers have bought this
ratings over the products, purchase history, item before; hence, the system cant identify
etc.) build the recommendation by analogies this new item in any purchase history, and it
with many other users (Breese, Heckerman, & cannot be recommended till at least one user
Kadie, 1998). Similarity between users is com- buys this new article.
puted mainly using the so-called user-to-user Knowledge-based systems could be under-
correlation. This technique finds a set of near- stood as a hybrid extended between collabora-
est neighbors for each user in order to identify tive-filtering and content-based systems. It
similar likes and dislikes. Some collaborative builds the knowledge about users linked also
filtering systems are Ringo (Shardanand & with the products knowledge. This information
Maes, 1995) or GroupLens (Konstant, Miller, is used to find out which product meets the
Maltz, Herlocker, Gordon, & Riedl, 1997). This users requirements. The cross-relationships
489
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
between products and clients produce infer- or experimental evaluations by system users. This
ences that build the knowledge in the EC en- could only be achieved by a cooperation of usability
gine. Several papers (Balabanovic & Shoham, experts, real users, and technology providers.
1997; Paulson & Tzanavari, 2003; Shafer, Usability in recommender systems can be mea-
Konstan, & Riedl, 2001) show the benefits of sured by objective and subjective variables. Objec-
these systems. tive measures include the task completion time, the
number of queries, or the error rate. Subjective
Usability in Recommender Systems measures include all other measures, such as users
feedback or level of confidence in recommenda-
User satisfaction with a recommender system is tions, and the transparency level which the user
only partly determined by the accuracy of the algo- perceives in recommendations (Sinha & Swearingen,
rithm behind it. The design of a recommender sys- 2002).
tem is that of a user-centered tool, where personal-
ization appears as one of the aspects of major weight
in the capacities that the user perceives when inter- FUTURE TRENDS
acting with the virtual shop. The development of a
recommender system is the sum of several complex Significant research effort is being invested in build-
tasks, and usability questions arise. For this purpose, ing support tools to ensure that the right information
some standard questionnaires were created. IBM is delivered to the right people at the right time. A
(Lewis, 1995) has suggested some of these: the positive understanding of the needs and expecta-
Post-Study Systems Usability Questionnaire tions of customers is the core of any development.
(PSSUQ), the Computer System Usability Ques- There is no universally best method for all users in all
tionnaire (CSUQ), or the After-Scenario Question- situations, and so flexibility and customization will
naire (ASQ). Other examples were developed as continue to always be the engine of the development
the Questionnaire for User Interface Satisfaction in recommender systems. The future in recommender
(QUIS) (Chin, Diehl, & Norman, 1988), the System systems in EC will be governed mainly by three
Usability Scales (SUS1), developed in 1996 and fundamental aspects: the need for supporting more
whose questions all address different aspects of the complex and heterogeneous dialog models, the need
users reaction to the Web site as a whole or the for attending internationalization and the standard-
Web site analysis. Finally, one could also mention ization, and also the support in the nascent of a
Measurement Inventory (WAMMI2), developed in ubiquitous electronic commerce environment.
1999. Different players in the EC place operate with
Nowadays, there is a growing number of studies these contents. The problem increases with dialog
that examine the interaction design for recommender models, all the more so between tools and automa-
systems in order to develop general design guide- tion in the purchase or attending the analogical
lines (Hayes et al., 2002; Swearingen & Sinha, 2001) reasoning of human beings. Recommenders have to
and to test usability. Their aim is to find the factors be sufficiently flexible to accomplish any ways of
which mostly influence the usage of the purchase. One of the key components for develop-
recommender systems. They consider such aspects ing an electronic commerce environment will be
as design and layout, functionality, or ease of use interoperability that could support an expertise de-
(Zins, Bauernfeind, Del Missier, Venturini, & gree in anything that e-market offers and a hetero-
Rumetshofer, 2004a, 2004b). geneous environment; this will also require the use of
The evaluation procedures that recommender international standards based on open systems.
systems must satisfy to obtain a level of usability are The EC market needs an international descrip-
complex to carry out due to the various aspects to be tive classification, as an open and interoperable
measured. Some of the evaluation procedures apply standard that can be used for all the players in the
techniques that comprise several other steps well interchange. The goal is to produce an appropriate
known (Nielsen & Mack, 1994), such as concepts mechanism to increase the efficiency of the man-
tests, cognitive walkthrough, heuristic evaluations, agement in the EC site as well as the personalization
490
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
491
Recommender Systems in E-Commerce
ACM Transactions on Information Systems ing word of mouth. Proceedings of ACM CHI95
(TOIS), 22(1), 1-4. Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems, Denver, Colorado (pp. 210-217). ACM
Konstant, J., Miller, B., Maltz, D., Herlocker, J.,
Press.
Gordon, L., & Riedl, J. (1997). Grouplens: Applying
collaborative filtering to Usenet news. Communica- Shimazu, H. (2002). ExpertClerk: A conversational
tions of the ACM, 40(3), 77-87. case-based reasoning tool for developing salesclerk
agents in e-commerce Webshops. Artificial Intelli-
Lewis, J. R. (1995). IBM Computer usability satis-
gence Review, 18(3-4), 223-244.
faction questionnaires: psychometric evaluation and
instructions for use. International Journal of Hu- Sinha, R., & Swearingen, K. (2002, April 20-25).The
man Computer Interaction, 7(1), 57-58. role of transparency in recommender systems. Pro-
ceedings of Conference on Human Factors in
Mooney, R. J., & Roy, L. (2000, June 2-7). Content-
Computing Systems, CHI02, Minneapolis, Minne-
based book recommending using learning for text
sota (pp. 830-831). New York: ACM Press.
categorization. Proceedings of the V ACM Con-
ference on Digital Libraries, San Antonio, Texas Spiekermann, S., & Paraschiv, C. (2002). Motivat-
(pp. 195-204). New York: ACM Press. ing humanagent interaction: Transferring insights
from behavioral marketing to interface design. Elec-
Nielsen, J., & Mack, R. L. (Eds.). (1994). Usability
tronic Commerce Research, 2, 255-285.
inspection methods. New York: John Wiley &
Sons. Swearingen, K., & Sinha, R. (2001, September 13).
Beyond algorithms: An HCI perspective on
Paulson, P., & Tzanavari, A. (2003). Combining
recommender systems. In Proceedings of the ACM
collaborative and content-based filtering using con-
SIGIR 2001 Workshop on Recommender Systems,
ceptual graphs. In J. Lawry, J. Shanahan, & A.
New Orleans, Louisiana.
Ralescu (Eds.), Modeling with words. Lecture
Notes in Artificial Intelligence Series (pp. 168- Zins, A., Bauernfeind, U., Del Missier, F., Venturini,
185). Springer-Verlag. A., & Rumetshofer, H. (2004a, January). An experi-
mental usability test for different destination
Pazzani, M., Muramatsu, J., & Billsus, D. (1996,
recommender systems. Proceedings of ENTER
August 4-8). Syskill & Webert: Identifying interest-
2004, Cairo, Egypt.
ing Web sites. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth
National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Zins, A., Bauernfeind, U., Del Missier, F., Venturini,
Portland, Oregon (pp. 54-46). Menlo Park, CA: A., & Rumetshofer, H. (2004b, January 26-28).
AAAI Press. Prototype testing for a destination recommender
system: Steps, procedures and implications. In A.J.
Sarwar, B., Karypis, G., Konstan, J., & Riedl, J.
Frew (Ed.) Proceedings of ENTER 2004, Cairo,
(2000, October 17-20). Analysis of recommendation
Egypt (pp. 249-258). New York: Springer Verlag.
algorithms for e-commerce. ACM Conference on
Electronic Commerce, Minneapolis, Minnesota
(pp.158-167). ACM Press. KEY TERMS
Schiffman, L., & Kanuk, L. (1997). Consumer
Collaborative-Social-Filtering Recommender
behavior (6 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Systems: Technique based on the correlation be-
Hall International.
tween users interest. This technique creates inter-
Shafer, J., Konstan, J. A., & Riedl, J. (2001). E- est groups between users, based on the selection of
commerce recommendation applications. Data Min- the same.
ing and Knowledge Discovery, 5(1/2), 115-153.
Content-Based-Filtering Recommender Sys-
Shardanand, U., & Maes, P. (1995, May 7-11). tems: Technique based on the correlation between
Social information filtering: Algorithm for automat- item contents by statistical studies about different
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493
494
Claude Ghaoui
Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
that the ideal architecture contains a curriculum senses (touch, sight, taste, hearing, and smell) and
model, a tutor (pedagogical) model, and a learner initially passes into the subconscious sensual memory 4
model: This last is central to an ITS. from their sensual memory to short-term memory
To move forward, e-learning requires a combina- and then, usually via rehearsal to long-term memory.
tion of both; however, Murray (1999), in common All input into short-term memory is filtered, inter-
with many other researchers, believes that ITS are preted, and assessed against previously input, be-
too complex for the untrained user and that: liefs, and concepts using perceptual constancy, per-
ceptual organization, perceptual selectivity, and per-
we should expect users to have a reasonable ceptual readiness. Cue recognition allows for memory
degree of training in how to use them, on the to pick out the key points that link to further memory
order of database programming, CAD-CAM recall and practice a skill using cognitive, psycho-
authoring, 3-D modelling, or spreadsheet macro motor and perceptual skills (Cotton, 1995).
scripting. Stored instances (single items of memory) do not
necessarily represent actuality due to the fact that
In e-learning, the development has taken two they have already been distorted by the subjects
routes: that of the DLT and that of the ITS. With own interpretation of the facts as perceived by their
both, there is no effort to pre-determine the students inner voice, eye, ear, nose, and taste. Initially,
psyche before the system is used, and thus the basic instances are stored in short-term memory where
problem of HI replication in HCI has not been the first and last inputs of a stream of instances are
instigated at the inception of an e-learning session. easier to recall: These can then be transferred to
long-term memory by rehearsal. Different individu-
als use their preferred inner sense to aid perception.
MAIN ISSUES IN For learning to be effective, new instances are
HUMAN INTERACTION associated with existing instances. The use of the
working memory constantly improves and refines
In this section, we discuss communication prefer- long-term memory; indeed, practical day-dream-
ence, personality types, neurolinguistic program- ing is a form of forward planning that can improve
ming, NLP language patterns, and subliminal text retention (Cotton, 1995).
messaging. Iconic sensory input is the most important for
remembering and learning. Cotton (1995) showed
Communication Preference (CP) that using an A4 sheet divided into sections with
questions and answers aided storinglinking this
Each person has a preference in the way he or she with sound, further increased retention in long-term
communicates with others; they also have prefer- memory. Research shows a link between good
ences in the way to learn or pass on information to recall and good recognition, and that memory is
someone else: This is called communication prefer- seldom completely lost: It only requires specific cues
ence. Learning is introduced by one of the five to connect linked instances and bring them to the
Memory Rehearsal
Transfer to
Input Long Term
Sensory Memory
Memory
Transfer to
For review
Forgotten
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Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
level of conscious thought. Here associations, self- hide their true primary personality type: The un-
testing, sectional learning, rhyme rules, mnemonics, wary tutor can use inappropriate communication
spelling associations, memory systems, networks of techniques with resulting frustration (Janvier &
memory patterns (both linear and lateral) are used to Ghaoui, 2003b; Wilson et al., 2002).
develop cue recognition (Catania, 1992; Cotton, 1995).
Borchert, Jensen, and Yates (1999) report that Neurolinguistic Programming
the visually (V) oriented students prefer to receive
information, via their eyes, in charts, graphs, flow The name neurolinguistic programming (NLP)
charts, and symbolic representation, the aural (A) comes from the disciplines that influenced the early
orientated indicates a preference for hearing infor- development of its field, beginning as an exploration
mation, and the kinaesthetic (K) orientated student of the relationship between neurology, linguis-
prefers learning by doing either learning by simu- tics, and observable patterns (programs) of
lated or real-world experience and practice. behaviour. Combining these disciplines, NLP can
be defined as:
Personality Types
The reception, via our nervous system, of
Different personality types require different commu- instances received and processed by the five
nication treatment. Extroverts (E) and introverts (I) senses (iconic, echoic, haptic, gustatory, and
can be viewed as one couplet, slow (S) and quick (Q) olfactory), the resultant use of language and
decision makers as another couplet. All personality nonverbal communication system through which
types can be plotted somewhere on the resultant EI/ neural representation are coded, ordered, and
SQ scale. given meaning using our ability to organize our
communication and neurological systems to
ES types prefer the company of others, are achieve specific desired goals and results,
slow to make decisions, they take their time, and
sometimes will not make a final commitment. Or more succinctly, The Study of the Structure
They can be categorized as arty. of Subjective Experience and what can be calcu-
IS types prefer their own company, are slow to lated from it (Janvier & Ghaoui, 2002b; Pasztor,
make decisions, they take their time, and some- 1998b; Sadowski & Stanney, 1999; Slater, Usoh, &
times will not make a final commitment; they Steed, 1994).
are very precise. They are often categorized John Grinder, a professor at UC Santa Cruz
as analytical. and Richard Bandler, a graduate student, devel-
EQ types prefer the company of others, are oped NLP in the mid-70s. They were interested in
fast to make decisions, and often make a com- how people influence one another, in the possibility
mitment before thinking it through. They are of being able to duplicate the behavior, and thus the
often categorized as salesmen. way people could be influenced. They carried out
IQ types prefer their own company, are fast to their early research in the University of Califor-
make decisions, and often make a commitment nia at Santa Cruz where they incorporated tech-
before thinking it through. They are often cat- nology from linguistics and information science,
egorized as businessmen. (Fuller, Norby, knowledge from behavioural psychology and gen-
Pearce, & Strand, 2000; Janvier & Ghaoui, eral systems theory developing their theories on
2003b; Myers & Myers, 1995) effective communication. As most people use the
term today, NLP is a set of models of how commu-
Research has shown that when a student joins nication impacts and is impacted by subjective
higher education, his or her primary personality type experience. Its more a collection of tools than any
and thus learning style has been established (Wilson, overarching theory. Much of early NLP was based
Dugan, & Buckle, 2002). By this time, the introvert on the work of Virginia Satir, a family therapist;
has usually learned to use their auxiliary or, maybe, Fritz Perls, founder of Gestalt therapy; Gregory
even their tertiary Jungian Function and, thus, tend to Bateson, anthropologist; and Milton Erickson, hyp-
496
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
notist. - Stever Robbins, NLP Trainer (Bandler & are there (e.g., the imposition of fast changing still
Grinder, 1981). images on the retina create the effect of motion). 4
Johnson and Jones (1999) affirm, participants
NLP Language Patterns in text based chats rooms enjoy their anonymity
and their ability to control the interaction pre-
Craft (2001) explores relationships between NLP cisely by careful use of text and that the nature of
and established learning theory and draws a distinc- such interactions may well change dramatically if
tion between models, strategies, and theories. Craft the participants could observe each other and their
argues that, while NLP has begun to make an impact mind state (Pasztor, 1997, 1998b; Sadowski &
in education, it still remains a set of strategies rather Stanney, 1999).
than a theory or model. NLP research has shown
that this set of strategies results in increased memory
retention and recall, for example: AN INTUITIVE INTERACTIVE
Pasztor (1998a) quotes the example of a student MODEL TO SUPPORT E-LEARNING
with a visual NLP style whose tutorial learning
strategy was based on listen, self-talk and sport- In this section, we discuss a model called WISDeM
learning strategy was listen, picture, self-talk. The and its evaluation, the results, and the statistical
former did not achieve memory store/recall while comparison of these results.
the latter did. She also reports that rapport with a
partner is the key to effective communication and WISDeM
that incorporating NLP in intelligent agents will
allow customization of the personal assistant to the WISDeM (Web intuitive/interactive student e-learn-
particular habits and interests of the user thus mak- ing model) has further been developed into an intui-
ing the user more comfortable with the system. tive tool to support e-learning; it has combined these
Introducing the correct sub-modality (visual, au- HI factors: CP, personality types, learning styles
ditory, kinaesthetic) will enable the subject to more (LS), NPL language patterns, motivational factors,
easily store and recall instances in/from memory. It novice|expert factor, and subliminal text messaging.
is argued that inviting a subject to see invokes
iconic, to hear invokes auditory and to feel LS research has shown that there are more
invokes kinaesthetic recall (Pasztor, 1997). facets to learning than a simple communication
preference; Keefe (1987) defines LS as,
Subliminal Text Messaging
the set of cognitive, emotional, characteristic
A subliminal text message is one that is below the and physiological factors that serve as relatively
threshold of conscious perception and relates to stable indicators of how a learner perceives,
iconic memory (the persisting effects of visual interacts with, and responds to the learning
stimuli). After-effects of visual stimuli are called environment
icons. Iconic memory deals with their time courses
after the event. Subliminal images and text (instance Knowing your LS and matching it with the cor-
input that the conscious mind does not observe but rect teaching strategies can result in more effective
the subconscious does) can have a powerful effect learning and greater academic achievement (Hoover
on memory and cognitive memory. Unconscious & Connor, 2001).
words are pouring into awareness where con- Fuller et al. (2000) in their research posed the
scious thought is experienced, which could from question, Does personality type and preferred
then on be spoken [the lips] and/or written down teaching style influence the comfort level for
(Gustavsson, 1994). The time course of iconic providing online instruction?; their answer was
memory is measured over fractions of seconds, but, Yes. They outlined the teaching styles prefer-
in this time, the subject retains images that no longer ences for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicators
497
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
498
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
units is equally likely to be the sample selected Communication Preference is reported gener-
(Thompson, 1992)). This provided the probability ally as:
that any student can participate without any prefer-
ence, and, therefore, the sample was more likely to V = 60% A = 30% K = 10%.
reflect the whole rather than if any other sampling
method had been used (Clarke & Cooke, 1978; The evaluation groups averages were:
Thompson, 1992; Yates, Moore, & Starnes, 2002).
The evaluation required two tests, control and V = 67.01% A = 27.84% K = 5.15%.
interactive: Thus, the statistical analysis was re-
quired to compare two means. The importance of These compare quite well with previously re-
the sample selection is paramount: Stronger results ported research (Brown, 2001; Catania, 1992; Cot-
are obtained where each group is matched. Thus, the ton, 1995; Janvier & Ghaoui, 2003b). As the group
subjects were selected from students in one particu- shows a stronger tendency to visualization, this
lar module; this ensured that there was a match in should reflect in memory retention data being stron-
year, course, age group (20s), but not sex (the ger for this group than for the average due to the fact
random selection of students reflected the class that the lecture content is based mainly on a visual
spread of 84.13% male and 15.87% female). An- presentation and auditory delivery styles. Hence,
other factor considered was the fact that the sample comparative results in the future could well be
sizes would be unequal: The test was run in two skewed where the group balance was more kinaes-
sections requiring circa two hours in total. Risk thetic.
factor analysis suggested that some students would Completion time varied from 10 minutes to 30
complete only one part of the evaluation: Thus, Two- minutes with the majority being very close to the
Sample T-test was used. group average of 15 minutes. The figures squared
well with the fact that decision style affects the
CPLS Evaluation Results speed of completion of a task: Judgemental types
tend to complete tasks faster than Perceptual: Per-
The CPLS evaluation had 97 responders (86 male, ceptive types take longer with a task being more
11 female). Their % communication preferences curious than decisive and have the tendency to lose
were: interest and not complete the task (see p. 76 in
Myers & Myers, 1995).
Visual 67.01 Auditory 27.84 Kinaesthetic 5.15 The totals of each type containing the J-type
[ESFJ-ESTJ-ENSJ-ENTJ-ISFJ-ISTJ-INSJ-INTJ]
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Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
as compared with the P-type [ESFP-ESTJ-ENSP- below 0.01, the degree of probability requires more
ENTJ-ISFP-ISTJ-INSP-INTP] was: sampling to harden: More research results need to
be gathered and assessed to enable this section of
Judgement 71.13% Perceptual 28.87% the results analysis to be viewed as proof of the
hypothesis, at this time, the results, provided a strong
Personality Types provided a split between ex- indication that the hypothesis is true.
troverts (59.79%) and introverts (40.21%).
Each type was rated from 0 to 5. The average Comparing the Gains Made
rating for the dominant type, from a possible rating of by Students
3 to 5 presented as an average rating number, were:
The Two-Sample T-test Interactive and Control
Interpersonal Communication E 3.55 I 3.49 students Gain used a confidence level of 95% and
Information Processing S 3.97 N 3.23 a pooled StDev of 7.50. The results gave a P-Value
Information Evaluation T 3.49 F 3.62 of 0.005. This P-Value indicates that Ha is valid, in
Decision Style J 4.38 P 3.48 particular well below 0.01. This indicates that the
degree of probability is very strong demonstrating
Evaluation Results probable improvement in memory retention and re-
call: The results of the analysis provide a strong
The interactive group (IG) completed the interactive indication that the hypothesis is true.
topic learning, then the interactive topic testing, and
then the control topic testing sections; whereas, the
control group (CG) completed the control topic CONCLUSION
learning, then the control topic testing, and then the
interactive topic testing sections. This ensured that The evaluation results indicated that the model imple-
a set of comparative results were available. Due to mented:
the fact that the students were completing topic
testing twice, it was anticipated that there would be Is likely to make a significant improvement to
an improvement in marks: There was for both with student learning and remembering.
the IGs gaining more than the CGs. Produced more rehearsal from students than
The intuitive section had 50 students log into the the control system and improved their marks.
system of which 33 answered questions: Supported a general belief in the system, that it
did indeed assist knowledge retention. This in
33 completed the Interactive Group [IG] Multi- itself is an important factor for the students
choice Q&A, psyche.
27 completed the Control Group [CG] Multi- As compared with the control system, the
choice Q&A, interactive system held interest longer and was
27 completed both types. more capable of interacting at the students
own level than the control system.
The average time taken for the evaluation/exer-
cise was 94 minutes: varying from 50 min. to 140 min. The evaluation indicates that it does in fact aid
memory retention and recall and, thus, remember-
Comparing the Marks for Both Sets of ing and learning, that the use of NLP language
Students patterns can affect the way students recall in-
stances. It also indicates that CP and LS used in
The Two-Sample T-test for Interactive and Con- HCI and established before the student starts
trol Student Marks used a confidence level of 95% using an e-learning system is an important message
with a pooled StDev of 19.8. It produced a P-Value to take forward.
of 0.036. This P-Value indicates that Ha is valid;
however, due to the fact that the P-Value is not
500
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
501
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
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Canada: Haskayne School of Business, University
Myers, I. B., & Myers, P. B. (1995). Gifts differ-
of Calgary.
ing: Understanding personality type. Palo Alto,
CA: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
502
Replicating Human Interaction to Support E-Learning
503
504
A. J. Berlanga
University of Salamanca, Spain
J. Garca
University of Salamanca, Spain
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
tic, adaptive, and collaborative issues; some of them Related to the semantic characteristics, a similar
are presented in the actual version, some are in proposal can be found in HYLOS (Hypermedia 5
working prototypes, and others will appear in future Learning Object System) (Feustel & Schmidt, 2001).
versions. This system is devoted to creating ELearning Ob-
First, it is important to say that HyCo inherits jects (ELOs) instead of HTML pages. In this case,
properties from the two main trends in hypermedia they complete the contents with its metadata to
systems: closed and open hypermedia systems. The compound an ELO. The used metadata are a subset
former ones store both content and hypermedia of the LOM (Learning Object Metadata) (IEEE,
structures internally (monolithic systems) or in a 2003) instead of the IMS Metadata (IMS, 2003c)
database. External application or information cannot used in HyCo.
participate easily or be included in the hypertext
system. These systems produce self-contained
hypermedia systems, but they do not support hetero- HyCo AUTHORING TOOL
geneity and particularly do not support hypertext
distributed over multiple heterogeneous managers, HyCo is a powerful authoring tool for educational
while the open hypermedia systems have the ability purposes, which means that an author can create
to integrate distributed information and the property hypermedia educational resources with it. But the
to store their content outside the hyperbase, espe- same tool also could be used to access created
cially keeping linking information separate from contents in a read-only mode by a student or reader.
documents and allowing for more powerful link HyCo is a multiplatform toolit does not force
structures. the use of one concrete platform. The idea is that if
HyCo presents a reader mode, in which the we want teachers to use it, they should work in the
hypertext can be navigated within the tool in a self- context in which they feel good. The actual version
contained way like in classic authoring systems such of HyCo works in the wider range of operating
as IRIS Intermedia (Yankelovich, Haan, Meyrowitz, systems; for this reason, Java 2 Standard Edition
& Drucker, 1988) or Storyspace (Bernstein, 1991, technology (Sun, 2004) was chosen as a develop-
2002). These two systems are significant represen- ment base.
tatives of the so-called closed hypermedia systems, The main goal of the authoring tool is the creation
which store both content and hypermedia structures of educational contents while trying to achieve an
internally (monolithic systems) or in a database. In independence of the final publication format. There
addition, HyCo has voice synthesis capabilities in exists a clear separation between the contents and
order to make more accessible the developed hypertext its presentation. In this way, the educator writes the
system. The differentiation of the author and reader contents once and reuses them every time he or she
roles in the same authoring tool differs from other needs them. In order to achieve this goal, HyCo tool
systems, which only present authoring capabilities uses an internal XML-based format (Bray et al.,
as MS FrontPage (http://www.microsoft.com/ 2004) to store the educational contents of the pro-
frontpage). duced electronic books. Precisely, the HyCo XML-
About the use of external vs. internals links, based format allows the introduction of LTSs in this
HyCo follows a compromise between these ap- authoring tool; specifically, HyCo supports IMS
proaches by storing links internally but representing specifications (IMS, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c) and EML
them externally. Links are stored inside the educa- (Educational Modeling Language) (Koper, 2001).
tional resource; in this way, users do not have Separating the content and the presentation forces
separate link files that could cause wrong opening offers authors a way to generate an independent
operations. But HyCo links are represented sepa- result of the authoring tool. In this way, HyCo has an
rately and compactly rather than being spread im- output gallery that supports HTML, PDF, TXT,
plicitly throughout the system. This idea is based on RTF, SVG, and PS output formats.
the link system of Storyspace v2 (Bernstein, 2002) HyCos user interface has two main facilities
and Chimera (Anderson, Taylor, & Whitehead, 2000) that improve its usability. First, this authoring tool
instead of the embedded link model of HTML. has an internationalized interface that actually sup-
505
A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
ports two languagesSpanish and English. Its inter- ing/displaying area. The Web metaphor is sup-
face also allows voice synthesis, which permits the ported by two buttons that allow creating or modi-
generation of an artificial voice that reads the con- fying the links. The main interface is completed
tents to the user. This capability is very interesting in with a toolbox area, which allows inserting, erasing,
order to make presentations and also to facilitate or renaming the entries of the structure, and with an
access to the educational contents to handicapped information area at the lower-right corner, where
people (e.g., blind people). the characteristics of the selected link (e.g., type of
However, more precisely, the HyCo authoring link, name, description) are displayed, as shown in
tool comprises three main components: an editor for Figure 1.
linear educational resources, which provides an in-
dexed tree structure; an editor for composite seman- Editor for Composite Semantic
tic learning objects by inserting values for the appro- Learning Objects
priate metadata elements; and retrieval and manage-
ment facilities for multimedia information of the An SLO is a learning resource that is wrapped with
learning resources. a set of metadata and can be used in the instructional
design process. In HyCo, every SLO should be
Editor for Educational Resources compliant with IMS Metadata (IMS, 2003c). Then,
every section of every educational resource or e-
This editor is based on the content index metaphor book created in HyCo can be converted to an SLO.
that reproduces a hierarchical structure that guides To do this, HyCo executes a two-step process,
us in our creative process. The following step is to where the first step is an automatic process and the
associate contents with each index entry, an index second step is a manual process. In the automatic
that may vary as the contents take shape, by insert-
ing, eliminating, or changing entries. Each index entry
gives rise to a thematic unit, or lexia, that can contain Figure 1. HyCo main interface
text, multimedia material, and links with other units or
documents.
This indexed or tree structure facilitates the
authoring of the hypertext, but having only an index
as a navigation tool is not acceptable in order to
create real pedagogical hypermedia resources where
the student may construct his or her own knowledge.
The hyperdocuments should be designed in such a
way to encourage the readers to see the same text in
as many useful contexts as possible. This means
placing texts within the contexts of other texts,
including different views of the same text (Jones &
Spiro, 1992).
For this reason, HyCo allows associating links to
the multimedia elements that compose an index entry
(i.e., a hypertext node). In this way, the hypertext can
be followed by its index-structure, but when a node is
selected, the reader may choose navigating by an
existing link. Thus, HyCo documents combine both
content index and Web-like structures.
The content index metaphor is supported directly
in the user interface, which is frame-structured. The
left part of the screen shows links to every part of the
hypertext structure, and the main frame is the writ-
506
A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
process, HyCo sets all the IMS metadata elements allow the user to find the right element in the
that can be inferred from other data or that are liable collection. The gallery metaphor was initially thought 5
to have default values. to manage the multimedia elements, but the success
Once this process is over, HyCo executes the of this metaphor for users of HyCo has prompted the
manual process, where it presents to the user the extension of this concept in order to manage other
elements that cannot be generated automatically properties of the document, specifically the styles
and/or that require reexamination, modification, or and the output formats. As an example of the gallery
addition (see Figure 2). metaphor, Figure 3 shows the sound gallery inter-
When the two-step process is finished, an XML face.
file is generated for each new SLO (each one of
them corresponds to each educational resource,
section, or subsection) and stored in an IMS metadata FUTURE TRENDS
SLO repository.
The educational hypermedia systems have evolved
Retrieval and Management Facilities for clearly and unstoppably toward the Web. The needed
Multimedia Information authoring tools for creating them are now more
mature; the notions of reusability and interoperability
All the elements that the user has to manage and link of semantic learning objects are presented in the
to the text are organized in information repositories most important e-learning management systems, but
that are so-called galleries. These galleries present there are many weak points, too. The definition of
very intuitive interfaces to manage the concrete educational standards, as IMS, is an important ad-
elements, images, or videos, for example. These vancement for the real reusability and interoperability
galleries have thumbnails and descriptions of the of learning components, but these standards should
elements but also offer simple search engines that be more present in the authoring process. Another
507
A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
important improvement area is the pedagogical model The success of the HyCo authoring process has
that authoring tools should support; it is compulsory been proved with three educational Web-based sys-
that the learning components creation process will tems. Two of them are drafts devoted to testing the
be guided by correct pedagogical guides. Adaptivity authoring toolone about computer history and the
is other important key in success of the educational other about software engineering. But the third one
hypermedia systems; in order to achieve a personal- is a complete electronic book in hypermedia format
ized learning process, the author must have the about cardiovascular surgery that consists of 14
adequate resources to define the rules that will guide chapters, more than 500 sections, and over 1,000
the individualized learning. Finally, collaborative and images. This book is successfully used in lectures of
cooperative authoring capabilities are interesting in this subject at the University of Salamanca. Re-
all creational processes, and the case of the educa- cently, we have made an SUS (System Usability
tional hypermedia systems is not an exception. Scale) (Brooke, 1996) usability test with the HyCo
The HyCo authoring tool presents characteris- authoring tool. The obtained results were 83.495
tics related to the semantic and pedagogical topics over 100 with a population of 14 users that are not
introduced previously. The actual research and de- related to the HyCo development team.
velopment efforts are directed to the adaptive and
collaborative facilities.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
509
A Semantic Learning Objects Authoring Tool
Learning Technology Standards or Specifi- among elements in a known domain are translated to
cations (LTS): Agreements about the characteris- a non-familiar domain.
tics that a learning element should have in order to be
Semantic Learning Object: A learning re-
compatible, interchangeable, and interoperable into
source that is wrapped with a set of standardized
other learning systems. The use of standards en-
metadata and can be used in the instructional design
sures instructional technologies interoperability and
process.
their learning objects for universities and corpora-
tions around the globe. Examples of LTS are IMS, Semantic Web: A Web that includes documents
EML (Educational Modeling Language), and LTSC or portions of documents describing explicit relation-
IEEE LOM (Learning Technology Standard Com- ships among things and containing semantic infor-
mittee of the IEEELearning Object Metadata). mation intended for automatic processing by our
machines.
Metadata: Information about data or other in-
formation. Voice Synthesis: The process that allows the
transformation of the text to sound.
Metaphor: An understandable mental image of
real objects. The knowledge and the relationships
510
511
Sense of Presence 5
Corina Sas
Lancaster University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Sense of Presence
together with an imperceptible shifting of focus tion in the task, usually perceived more narrowly
of consciousness to the proximal stimulus located through only some of its characteristics (Fontaine,
in that other world. 1992). With respect to the results, since presence is
not an optimal experience, it does not necessarily
Any attempt to conceptualize a construct also lead to pleasant and fulfilling experience. However,
should consider its discriminant validity by contrast- it is possible that during flow, someone will experi-
ing it with other close concepts in the field. Further- ence a strong sense of presence, but the latter also
more, three other constructstelepresence, immer- can occur outside the flow (Heeter, 2003).
sion, and floware introduced, and their relation- Despite the diversity characterizing the defini-
ships with presence are outlined briefly. tions proposed for capturing the presence construct,
The term of telepresence was coined by Marvin there seems to be a common ground shared by
Minsky (1980), emphasizes the meaning of media- researchers in the presence field, which refers to
tion, and denotes a sense of being physically present presence determinants.
at a remote world. Draper, et al. (1998) defined it as
the perception of presence within a remote environ-
ment. This concept precedes and is closely related to PRESENCE DETERMINANTS
the presence construct. Despite often being taken as
synonyms, there is, however, a subtle difference Several presence theories have been developed in
between presence and telepresence, rooted in the the attempt to extend the understanding of presence.
proximity to the site where one perceives, acts, and Draper (1998) identified a first group consisting of
ultimately experiences presence. psychological models of presence and a second one
Another distinction often mentioned in presence consisting of technological models of presence. The
literature is that between presence and immersion. first class of theories includes telepresence as flow
Immersion is usually associated with technological experience developed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990),
factors referring to the extent to which computer behavioral cybernetics theory (Smith & Smith, 1985),
generated worlds are extensive (able to accommo- and a structured attentional resource model for
date a large set of sensory systems), surrounding teleoperation (Schloerb & Sheridan, 1995). The
(able to provide information from any virtual direc- second class of theories groups different models,
tion), inclusive (able to shut out all information from such as those elaborated by Sheridan (1992), Steuer
the physical world), vivid (able to provide rich infor- (1992), Schloerb (1995), Zeltzer (1992), Witmer and
mation content, resolution, and display quality), and Singer (1998), and Slater and Usoh (1993).
matching (able to accurately reproduce the body The factors affecting presence can be grouped
movements previously tracked) (Slater et al., 1995, into technological factors that consider the system
1996). In contrast, presence relates more to user and its characteristics, and human factors referring
characteristics, whose impact is unfortunately less to users cognitive and personality aspects (Lombard
explored. & Ditton, 1997; Lessiter et al., 2000).
The last useful distinction is the one between
presence and flow, defined as a state of optimal Technological Factors
experience that occurs when people attempt tasks
that challenge their skills (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). A large amount of work has been carried out in the
Flow assumes a match between the task difficulty area of technological factors affecting presence.
and ones abilities, highly focused attention that Lombard and Ditton (1997) provided a detailed
leads to enjoyment, feeling of control, and an altered account of this. Some of these factors are visual
perception of time. From this, several distinctions display characteristics such as image quality; image
emerge with respect to both the experience itself size; viewing distance; visual angle; motion; color;
and its results. The experience in the case of flow, dimensionality; camera techniques; and aural pre-
as opposed to presence, always requires intense sentation characteristics such as frequency range,
concentration and focus of attention, a sense of dynamic range, signal to noise ratio, and high quality
control, and usually an intense and active participa- audio. As stimuli for other senses, Lombard and
512
Sense of Presence
Ditton (1997) referred to olfactory output, body move- ence means. In addition, presence is a state or a
ment, tactile stimuli, and force feedback. transient psychological condition that is context- 5
Media and user characteristics often were men- dependent and that, accordingly, could vary within
tioned as having a particular impact on the level of the same individual during an experiment.
sense of presence experienced by the users. How- Therefore, participants could encounter difficul-
ever, there is little empirical research supporting this ties in assessing their level of presence after the
(Lessiter et al., 2000). task has been completed and the experiment has
ended. Even more difficult is measuring presence
Human Factors during the experiment. This involves asking some-
body to be permanently aware of each change
Psotka and Davison (1993) considered two catego- occurring in his or her level of presence. Such a
ries of factors determinant of immersion, such as requirement adds itself to those involved in the
susceptibility to immersion and quality of immersion. execution of the task, therefore inducing cognitive
The first set refers to user characteristics with an overload. This either could prevent the subjects
emphasis on cognitive aspects such as imagination, from experiencing presence or could affect the task
vivid imagery, concentration, attention, and self-con- performance. Either case impacts on the measure-
trol, while the second set is concerned primarily with ment validity.
technological factors like affordances of VR, dis- Another difficulty in measuring presence is re-
tractions from the real world, and physiological ef- lated to the complexity and multi-dimensionality of
fects. this construct (Lombard, 2003), which is reflected
Kaber, Draper, and Usher (2002) summarized in the different definitions and theories trying to
user characteristics that seem to impact presence explain presence. In addition, presence research
experienced within VEs. Broadly categorized in seems to be an interdisciplinary field that benefits
immersive tendencies and attention, these factors from inputs from various disciplines, such as psy-
are suggestibility of immersion, tendency to day- chology, philosophy, computer science, media stud-
dream, becoming lost in novels, concentration, and ies or drama studies to enumerate the most impor-
robustness to distracting events. tant ones. These multiple perspectives provide valu-
Other personality factors impacting on presence able insights into understanding presence, but at the
are empathy, absorption, creative imagination, per- same time they come at a cost. A fully articulated
sonality, cognitive style, and willingness to be trans- and accepted theory of presence requires a com-
ported in the VE (Heeter, 1992; Lombard & Ditton, mon understanding of presence.
1997; Sas & OHare, 2001, 2003; Sas et al., 2003). Lombard (2003) identified two general ap-
Conceptualizing presence is the initial stage of proaches to measuring presence: subjective mea-
understanding this construct. It has been followed by surements and objective measurements. Subjective
the attempts of measuring presence. Different meth- measurements usually consist of self-rating ques-
ods and measurement instruments have been pro- tionnaires that require participants to evaluate the
posed for offering quantitative indicators of the de- experienced level of presence. The main advantage
gree of presence that one can experience. of the subjective measurements consists of their
accessibility. They also come at a low cost, and
very important, appear to be valid and reliable
MEASURING PRESENCE measures (Lombard, 2003; Prothero et al., 1995).
Such questionnaires have been developed by
Despite its significance, measuring presence raises Lessiter et al. (2000), Lombard (2000), Schubert
significant challenges, primarily related to the nature (1999), Witmer (1998), and Slater et al. (2000).
of presence. Presence is a psychological phenom- Limitations of this approach are related mainly
enon, subjectively experienced inside the inner world to the inner and versatile nature of presence and to
of ones consciousness. Therefore, capturing and the level of introspection that participants are as-
analyzing it requires a certain degree of introspec- sumed to be able to achieve. Such types of informa-
tion, together with ones understanding of what pres-
513
Sense of Presence
tion could be elicited post-experiment or during the The first one views it as a mediated relationship.
experiment. In other words, presence and task performance
In order to overcome some of the limitations could be related, in fact, to a third extraneous
related to subjective measures of presence, another variable or set of variables (Slater et al., 1996;
approach started to emerge. At the core of objective Stanney et al., 1998) that impacts both presence and
measurements lies the hypothesis that, while users task performance. These extraneous variables were
experience presence, a series of physiological and considered to be related to the technological aspects
behavioral modifications occurred in their bodies. of VEs, such as improved VEs (Stanney et al., 1998)
The particular physiological modifications that were or immersion (Slater et al., 1996).
considered to reflect presence were skin conduc- The second and probably most important expla-
tance, blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, nation of this dependency between presence and
respiration, eye movement, posture, and so forth task performance argues for a causal relationship
(Lombard, 2003). (Sadowski & Stanney, 2002). This perspective has
These measures involve the recording of such fueled most of the research in the field. However,
modifications in real time and present the consider- the issue of causal relationship presents a twofold
able advantage of being unobtrusive. They also can problem. First, it is a challenge to design an experi-
be carried out without requiring subjects involve- ment for highlighting the causal relationship, and this
ments in these measurements. The objective mea- relationship, if it exists, would seem to be highly task-
surements have their own limitations, such as high dependent (Slater et al., 1996; Stanney, 1995).
cost and difficulties in administrating them. How- The significance of the content being delivered
ever, their main drawback concerns the limited through any mediated experience has been related to
evidences of the fact that physiological modifica- the nature of activity or tasks in which the user
tions correlate with presence (Prothero et al., 1995). participates, which, in turn, seems to impact pres-
Another aspect of major interest regarding pres- ence (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). Heeter (1992)
ence is its relationship to task performance. The distinguished between two potential groups of tasks
significance of this relationship justifies the efforts that could impact on presence differently and are
invested in defining and measuring presence. At the related to two fundamental types of activity: learning
same time, this issue has generated serious theoreti- and playing. Particularly in the case of tasks involv-
cal treatments and empirical investigations. ing a ludic component, the sense of presence is likely
correlated with enjoyment, which, in turn, is likely
correlated with task performance (Barfield et al.,
PRESENCE AND 1995). Tasks or activities that involve ambiguous
TASK PERFORMANCE verbal and nonverbal social cues and sensitive per-
sonal information better exploits the mediums po-
The existence of a relationship between presence tential to offer presence than do simple nonpersonal
and task performance is arguable and has given rise tasks (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). Correlations be-
to a long-standing debate in the presence research tween performance improvement and presence ap-
area. More empirical studies are required in order to pear to be positive. However, they are usually weak,
refute or support this dependency. Theoretical work since less than 10% of variance in the performance
and empirical studies have highlighted two possible seems to account for perceived presence (Snow,
research positions. The first position states that 1996).
presence is merely an epiphenomenon (Ellis, 1996; Despite this limitation, the causal relationship of
Welch et al., 1996), and consequently, its impact presence and task performance has increased face
upon task performance is limited. According to this validity based on the perceptual and cognitive psy-
position, the role of presence consists only of chology of skills transfer (Stanney et al., 1998). In
affectively coloring the users experience. The sec- this light, an additional benefit of understanding this
ond position argues that presence impacts on the relationship consists of the transfer of skills from the
performance of tasks carried out within the VEs. VE to the real world. Slater et al. (1996) considered
There are two perspectives on this position. presence merely as a facilitator whose main contri-
514
Sense of Presence
bution consists of enabling the user to perform which, in turn, can contribute to increased satisfac-
naturally in a way similar to the real world or, in other tion. The latter two aspects (performance and satis- 5
words, inducing ones natural reactions. faction) suggest the impact that presence may have
on the perceived usability of a system.
FUTURE TRENDS
REFERENCES
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KEY TERMS
Smith, T., & Smith, K. (1985). Cybernetic factors in
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[doctoral thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and task performance and the quality of interaction with
State University, Blacksburg, VA. any artifact.
Stanney, K. (1995). Realizing the full potential of Immersion: A quality of a system, usually com-
virtual reality: Human factors issues that could stand puter-generated world consisting of a set of techno-
in the way. Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality logical factors that enable users to experience the
Annual International Symposium. virtual world vividly and exclusively.
Stanney, K., et al. (1998). Aftereffects and sense of Presence: A psychological phenomenon en-
presence in virtual environments: Formulation of a abling the mental state of being there in either
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Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: Dimen- (i.e., experts, novices).
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Welch, R., Blackmon, T., Liu, A., Mellers, B., & being mentally present at a technologically mediated
Stark, L. (1996). The effects of pictorial realism, remote world.
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Site Maps for Hypertext
Site Maps for Staying Oriented and Site Maps for Learning
Finding Information 5
While the ability of site maps to orient users is fairly
When working in a large hypertext, it is not uncom- clear, their effectiveness as learning tools is less
mon for users to find themselves lost or disoriented. certain. Specifically, the research on learning out-
When this happens, users are pulled away from their comes using site maps paints a picture of a tool that,
primary task, whether that be searching for a spe- at first glance, appears unpredictable. Some studies
cific piece of information or learning the global conclude that there is no educational benefit of using
content. This experience commonly is referred to as site maps. For example, Wenger, and Payne (1994)
being lost in hyperspace. The danger posed by that found that learners using site maps increased the
cognitive state is that users become so focused on amount of a hypertext they visited but observed no
finding their way through the system that they are accompanying increase in learning outcomes. Oth-
unable to achieve their intended goals. Site maps ers, such as Neiderhauser, Reynolds, Salmen, and
keep users oriented by providing them with a view of Skolmoski (2000) initially found some effect of site
the system contents as a whole. The effect is similar maps on learning, only to determine through regres-
to the familiar you-are-here maps often available at sion analyses that the impact was minimal. Like-
museums or large shopping malls. It is well accepted wise, Nilsson, and Mayer (2002) have shown that
that site maps are effective for remedying the the effect of a map can be contingent on user
experience of getting lost and allowing users to find characteristics such as spatial ability.
more quickly and more easily their way and return to Other studies, however, have found more signifi-
their primary goals (Hammond & Allinson, 1989; cant educational benefit from site map use but that
Monesson, 2002). Indeed, in a review of studies benefit only has been observed for domain novices
exploring the effectiveness of educational hypertext, (Potelle & Rouet, 2003; Puntambekar, Stylianou, &
Chen and Rada (1996) conclude that site maps Hbscher, 2003). For example, Potelle, and Rouet
appear to be necessary for users dealing with large (2003) provided novice and more advanced learners
and complex information structures and to be useful with a hypertext accompanied by one of three site
to resolve the problems of disorientation and high maps, either a hierarchy, a graphical network repre-
cognitive overhead (p. 149). The more accurately senting the systems nodes and links, or an alphabeti-
the site map represents the hypertext structure and cal index. No differences in the advanced learners
content, the more useful it will be in orienting lost performances were detected among site map condi-
explorers. tions. The novices, however, performed best on
Site maps also serve a similar purpose to a learning posttests when they used the hierarchical
traditional table of contents in that they inform users map. The authors concluded that the novices ben-
about the topics represented on the site. Another efited from the clear structure and transparent orga-
purpose of site maps results as a consequence of nization of the site map. It may be the case that the
those already described here. Specifically, once site maps structure allowed the novices to create a
users are aware of where they are and what infor- similarly organized mental model for the material
mation is contained in the hypertext, a site map can that enhanced their understanding. Since domain
help users to find their way to a desired location on experts are understood to possess well organized
the site. That is, they can enable users in planning a knowledge structures (Chase & Simon, 1973; Chi &
best route to a given page. Indeed, site maps have Koeske, 1983; West & Pines, 1985), it is under-
been shown to alter learners search performances standable that the more advanced learners did not
and browsing behaviors (Chou, Lin, & Sun, 2000; benefit from the hierarchical site map. These learn-
McDonald & Stevenson, 1999; Monesson, 2002; ers were less likely to require the outside organizer.
Puntambekar, Stylianou, & Hbscher, 2003). Shapiro (1998) also found that prior knowledge is
a mediating factor in determining whether users
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Site Maps for Hypertext
benefit from site maps. She presented learners with ing outcomes. As the World Wide Web becomes
a hypertext about animals and their ecosystems. more commonplace in the everyday functioning of
While the hypertext was identical between condi- the classroom, site maps should prove to be impor-
tions, subjects were assigned to hierarchical site map tant components of educational sites.
conditions that represented the system as structured A great deal of research on site maps is required
either by ecosystems or by animal families. All before their utility will be fully understood and can
subjects were pretested for their knowledge of the be capitalized on. Once the relationship among site
topic to ensure that they had moderate to high knowl- maps structures, features of the hypertext they
edge of animal families but poor knowledge of how represent, and user characteristics is understood,
ecosystems function. All subjects performed equiva- designers will be ready to equip hypertexts with
lently on the animal families posttest, regardless of adaptive site map modules. With adaptive modules,
which site map they used. Those who used the site maps can be generated automatically and con-
ecosystems site map, however, outperformed their figured to best meet the needs of any given user. To
counterparts on the ecosystems posttest questions. take advantage of adaptive site maps, educators or
As in Potelle and Rouet (2003), then, these results users themselves may be able to enter information
indicate that site maps benefit learners primarily about users knowledge states, their goals, and
when they lack sufficient prior knowledge about a other relevant information. The system then will
topic. generate a site map tailored for that specific con-
Prior knowledge is not the only variable that text. It even may be possible to enter in a learning
determines the educational effectiveness of site maps. goal and have the system generate a site map that
Their compatibility with learners goals is also impor- illustrates a path through the system tailored to that
tant. This point is demonstrated in a series of studies goal. Much as drivers are able to call up a recom-
by Dee-Lucas and Larkin (1995). When subjects in mended route using services such as
their first study were given no specific learning goal, www.MapQuest.com, learners may one day be
all learned equivalently regardless of whether they able to call up recommended routes through large
read a hypertext equipped with a hierarchical site databases (i.e., the U.S. Library of Congress) to
map or an alphabetical index (a third control group gain an understanding of a topic or domain.
read the same information as traditional text but
performed less well than both hypertext groups).
When subjects in a second experiment were given CONCLUSION
the explicit goal of summarizing the hypertexts in-
formation, those exposed to the hierarchical site map Site maps are useful for keeping users oriented in a
outperformed the other subject groups. The act of hypertext, informing them about the nature of the
summarizing a hypertext requires that one under- sites content and helping them to determine how to
stand the relationships between ideas and the content find their way to a desired page or topic. Site maps
of each page. Because hierarchies define relation- have not been found to enhance learning outcomes
ships between topics, it is understandable that the for users already knowledgeable in a domain, al-
ability to summarize would be enhanced by exposure though that question is somewhat understudied. Site
to a hierarchical site map. In sum, when the site maps have been found to enhance learning for
maps structure matched the learners goal, the domain novices. Their effectiveness for this group,
learning goal was better achieved. however, also is contingent on how well the struc-
ture of the site map coheres with a users learning
goals. Much more research is needed, however, to
FUTURE TRENDS understand fully how to capitalize best on site maps
for educational purposes. Specifically, much re-
At the present time, there is good reason to use site mains to be learned about the factors mediating
maps for the purpose of staying oriented and, in the their ability to enhance learning.
case of beginning learners, for promoting good learn-
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Site Maps for Hypertext
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522
523
David John
Bournemouth University, UK
Anthony C. Boucouvalas
Bournemouth University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
Figure 1. The 2-D interface environment. A typical screen of the 2-D interface
is shown in Figure 1. 5
The design idea of the 3-D interface emerged
from real-time 3-D games, and the interface is
converted from a 3-D maze. The interface is di-
vided into different spaces by walls and users can
move around with the aid of cursors. The 3-D
interface displays at a glance within a position panel
the current relative positions of all users. To engage
in conversation with others, a user needs to walk
close enough to another user. When a conversation
starts, textual messages will be shown both within
a message box outside of the 3-D space and in a
dialog bubble within the environment. To represent
each user, facial images are displayed. However,
2-D vs. 3-D INTERFACES users have a choice to use cartoon images to
represent themselves. Automatic facial-expression
One 2-D and one 3-D prototype interface were display is achieved in the 3-D interface by integrat-
developed. The 2-D and 3-D interfaces only apply ing a text-to-emotion engine. A users text input is
commonly available techniques to satisfy the univer- sent to the emotion-extraction engine to examine
sality requirements for interface and experiment emotion information that is embedded. The 3-D
assessment. interface receives the output from the emotion-
The 2-D interface is designed as a relatively extraction engine and displays corresponding ex-
simple environment. Similar to chatting environments pression images. Further discussion about emotion-
over the Internet, the 2-D interface is based on extraction engines can be found in Boucouvalas,
textual message transmission. However, the users Xu, and John (2003), Xu and Boucouvalas (2002),
image can be displayed as well. After logging onto and Xu, John, and Boucouvalas (2003, in press).
the 2-D interface, a user can easily find others logged A typical screen of the 3-D interface is shown in
onto the server and get an overview of the whole Figure 2.
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
Figure 3. User-viewing component showing the of view and the position-guide component of
movement of a user the 3-D interface.
Sense of 3-D Depth of Space: Space depth is
a widely presented feature in both 3-D games
and in real life. However, most 2-D interfaces
cannot provide the same feelings.An example
of the sense of depth can be found in Figure 3,
which shows the use of perspective.
Exploration of Space: For 2-D interfaces, the
whole interface is presented to users. Users
know at the beginning who is in the environ-
ment, whom they are talking to, and what
functions the interface provides. For 3-D inter-
faces, users need to explore the space to meet
others or to access the assistant functions
provided by the system (e.g., buy something
SOCIAL FEELINGS DISCUSSIONS from a virtual shop). A position panel can only
provide some aspects of the overall location
In this section, we describe the possible different and limited user information.
social feelings perceived by users. A total of eight Eye Contact: Eye contact is also very impor-
different senses are discussed here. tant. It is impolite to turn our backs to people
talking to us. For the 2-D text-based interface,
Movement Senses: Similar to most chatting users cannot move their positions, and the
environments, every user in the 2-D chat pro- images representing them are fixed. Thus, no
totype is in a fixed position. In contrast, the 3- virtual eye contact can be established. The 3-
D interface provides some aspects of move- D interface provides the possibility of making
ment. Users not only move around the space, virtual eye contact as users move around the 3-
but also have a specific field of view and can D interface. Figure 4 demonstrates the viewing
look for the spatial guidelines from the position- component of the 3-D interface, which shows
guide panel. a direct glance and side-glance.
Geographic Senses: Unlike 2-D chatting in- Communication Efficiency: In the 2-D text-
terfaces, a 3-D interface allows for various based system, a users input sentences can be
complex geographic entities such as a city or viewed by everyone. However, when a large
something as simple as a tree. Users may number of users are exchanging messages
perceive geographic-movement phenomena in quickly, it is difficult to follow the messages of
the virtual movement. Figure 3 shows the field a particular user. For 2-D chatting interfaces,
(a) (b)
Direct glance Side glance
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
communication will not be efficient for a large Movement Plus Talk: In the 2-D text-based
number of people gathering in the same room. system, a users position is fixed. For the 3-D
With the speech bubbles, users in a 3-D system system, movement is a fundamental element. It
can identify others chatting messages rela- is quite possible that some users may chat while
tively easily. Users can concentrate on one moving.
users speech by moving and changing the eye
angles. Figure 5 demonstrates a busy chat
environment with a 2-D interface and a chat DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
environment with a 3-D interface.
Social-Attraction Feeling: When some people Social feelings are important factors for Internet
gather together to discuss something, we may communication interfaces, and they may vary in
assume that interesting events or urgent situa- different environments. First, our article focuses on
tions occurred. The social-attraction feeling answering the question, What kinds of social feel-
still applies to computer communication. For 2- ings may be perceived in different environments? A
D interfaces, users can judge the number of 2-D interface and a 3-D interface will be compared
users discussing a topic only by scrolling the in order to answer this question.
text. For 3-D interfaces, users can find this Second, both activity styles and individuals so-
information visually by glancing for a cluster of ciability styles influence interface preferences and
gathered users from the position panel and the have different requirements on social-presence feel-
viewing component. Figure 5b demonstrated ings. Which one is more important: the activity style
this feeling in a 3-D interface. or sociabilityin other words, the activity or the
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
human? We expect that when an individual has a There are two types of activities considered.
particular aim, for example, solving a crucial prob-
lem or finding friends to talk to, then the activity style 1. Business oriented (e.g., solving a technical
will dominate the preference of interface instead of problem, etc.)
the individuals sociability style. 2. Social oriented (e.g., having a tea-break chat,
The following phenomena are observed in Internet etc.)
communications.
1. The activity style will strongly influence the THE EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE
preference of social presence.
2. Human sociability will strongly influence the A total of 50 students and staff from Bournemouth
overall preference of social presence. University participated in the experiments. The gen-
3. An individuals sociability style will not strongly der of each participant is recorded and a question-
influence the preference of individual inter- naire assessing the sociability of each participant
faces when the activity is chosen, hence the was shown. The questionnaire was developed by
activity style is the dominant power for the Bellamy and Hanewicz (1999) and contains seven
interface preference. items with five scale points ranging from agree to
disagree in order to measure the sociability of the
The following experiments will present a detailed participants.
discussion about the phenomena. Participants then viewed the two interfaces (2-D
and 3-D). After viewing them, participants were
shown a list of 12 activities that can be performed in
SOCIABILITY AND both environments. The participants were instructed
ACTIVITY STYLE EXPERIMENT to select the style of interface that was best suited
for specific activities.
There are two main aims of this experiment. The 12 activities can be divided into two styles:
business oriented and social oriented. Six of them
1. To examine the preference of participants for belong to the business-oriented group and the other
different interface styles when performing dif- six are classified into the social-oriented group. The
ferent types of activities. activities are shown in Table 2.
2. To assess the effect that an individuals socia-
bility undertakes on the satisfaction rating of
each style of interface. EXPERIMENT RESULTS
Two styles of interfaces are presented to participants. According to the activity style, we classify the
results into two categories. The results of the busi-
1. A 2-D interface that is a less sociable environ- ness-oriented activities are shown in Figure 6, and
ment (Users are split into different rooms. Figure 7 presents the results of the social-oriented
Each room lists the current users online. Users activities.
formally request connections before joining The charts show that more participants chose the
conversations.) 2-D interfaces for the business-oriented activities,
2. A 3-D interface that is a more sociable envi- and the 3-D interfaces were chosen for most social-
ronment (All users explore the same 3-D space. oriented activities.
All users are free to explore, approach other Table 3 lists the summary of dependent variables
users, and engage them with conversation.) (23).
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
Activity Style vs. the Choice of Interfaces: repeated the t-tests. The results show that
Correlation tests were carried out to compare there is a marginally significant difference be-
the correspondence between the choice of tween the ratings of the sociable and less
interface and the activity style. The test result sociable participants (p = 0.06) for the means
is 0.597, which is significant at p = 0.01. The of the 12 choices. The results show that of the
results demonstrate that there is a significant overall level, sociability has a significant influ-
relationship between activity style and the pref- ence on the preference of interface style. On
erence of interface. When users need to carry average, low-sociability persons prefer simple
out a business-oriented activity, for example, and clean interfaces, and high-sociability per-
finding an emergency telephone number, most sons prefer complex and realistic interfaces.
people will prefer a simple interface that pre- However, for specific activities, human socia-
sents a low level of social feelings. When users bility has very limited influence on interface-
want to spend their spare time, for example, style preference. The influence of an individuals
playing an online game, the preferred interface sociability is much weaker than the influence of
is a relative complex and vivid multichannel the activity style. This analysis provides an-
environment. The practical hint for interface other design criterion for online communica-
design is if the purpose of the online communi- tion. Designers should pay more consideration
cation is to provide technical help or technical to the activity that may be carried out on the
discussions for the users, a simple, straightfor- Web. However, if a series of online communi-
ward, and uncluttered environment will be pre- cation interfaces will be presented to a specific
ferred by users. If the purpose of the online user, human sociability should be considered
communication is to relax and to enjoy the and designers should adopt sociability into the
online lifestyle, a vivid video- or audio-assisted design consideration.
environment will suit most online surfers. Gender vs. the Choice of Interface: Are
Sociability vs. Choice of Interface: The there any differences in interface preference
correlation test does not find any significant between genders? Will a female prefer a vivid
link between the individuals sociability and online environment more than a male will? To
interface preference. The results of the t-test answer this question, a t-test and correlation
show that the distribution of the preference test were carried out. The result shows that
ratings of highly sociable participants were not there is one marginally significant difference (p
significantly different from the less sociable = 0.075) between the ratings of males and
participants for the 12 activities. However, a females that is found for Business 2, and one
marginally significant difference was found in significant difference (p = 0.04) that is found
a t-test between the two groups of the partici- for Social 3. However, there is no significant
pants for Business 1 and Social 2, in which p = correlation that supports these effects. This
0.08 and p = 0.09, correspondingly. To further analysis indicates that gender has a very lim-
explore the function of human sociability, we ited amount of influence on the preference of
calculated the means of the 12 choices and interface.
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Social Factors and Interface Design Guidelines
Revisiting the Phenomena: It is now time to The individuals sociability may also influence his
reexamine the phenomena. It can be seen that or her preference of social presence. However, a 5
the activity style has a strong influence on the significantly different preference is only revealed at
preference of the interface and the corre- the overall level, not for most individual activities.
sponding social-presence feelings. Overall, the This indicates that an individuals sociability does
sociability style of individuals strongly influ- impact his or her preference of social presence.
ences the preferences of social feelings, but However, when dealing with specific activities, the
not at the individual activity level. The three influence of the activity style is much stronger than
phenomena were observed in the experiment. the individuals sociability.
Gender does influence the social preference in
some specific activities. However, no significant
FUTURE TRENDS preference difference can be found for the majority
of activities and the overall level. This means the
Adaptivity is an extremely important interface de- impact of gender needs further investigation.
sign criteria. To create adaptive systems, human As high social presence may be linked with a
factors (e.g., emotion, cognition, and personality) vivid or multichannel (e.g., video, audio, or anima-
need to be considered carefully. To attract the tion) communication interface and a simple or text-
targeted audience, the system should analyse the dominated interface may present low social pres-
potential users customs and hobbies. As the pur- ence, the experiment results also provide guidelines
pose of a software system varies, the purpose may for HCI design.
influence the preference of the interface. This ar-
ticle shows some general design guidelines and
presents experiments to demonstrate the guidelines REFERENCES
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532
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Social-Technical Systems 5
Brian Whitworth
New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA
INTRODUCTION work, is virtual, but the people involved are real. One
can be as upset by an e-mail as by a letter. Online
System Levels and physical communities have a different architec-
tural base, but the social level is still people commu-
Computer systems have long been seen as more nicating with people. This suggests computer-medi-
than just mechanical systems (Boulding, 1956). They ated communities operate by the same principles as
seem to be systems in a general sense (Churchman, physical communities; that is, virtual society is still a
1979), with system elements, like a boundary, com- society, and friendships cross seamlessly from face-
mon to other systems (Whitworth & Zaic, 2003). A to-face to e-mail interaction.
computer system of chips and circuits is also a Table 1 suggests four computer system levels,
software system of information exchanges. Today, matching the idea of an information system as
the system is also the human-computer combination hardware, software, people, and business processes
(Alter, 1999); for example, a plane is mechanical, its (Alter, 2001). Social-technical systems arise when
computer controls are informational, but the plane cognitive and social interaction is mediated by infor-
plus pilot is also a system: a human-computer sys- mation technology rather than the natural world.
tem. Human-computer interaction (HCI) sees com-
puters as more than just technology (hardware and
software). Computing has reinvented itself each BACKGROUND
decade or so, from hardware in the 1950s and 1960s,
to commercial information processors in the 1970s, The Social-Technical Gap
to personal computers in the 1980s, to computers as
communication tools in the 1990s. At each stage, The levels of Table 1 are not different systems, but
system performance increased. This decade seems overlapping views of the same system. Higher levels
to be that of social computing, in which software depend on lower levels, so lower level failure implies
serves not just people but society, and systems like failure at all levels above it; for example, if the
e-mail, chat rooms, and bulletin boards have a social hardware fails, the software does too as does the
level. Human-factors research has expanded from user interface. Higher levels are more efficient
computer usability (individual), to computer-medi- ways of operating the system as well as observing it.
ated communication (largely dyads), to virtual com- For example, social systems can generate enormous
munities (social groups). The infrastructure is tech- productivity. For this to occur, system design must
nology, but the overall system is personal and social, recognize higher system-level needs. For example,
with all that implies. Do social systems mediated by usability drops when software design contradicts
technology differ from those mediated by the natural users cognitive needs.
world? The means of interaction, a computer net-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Social-Technical Systems
In physical society, architecture normally fits 2001). While nonzero sum is an unpleasant term,
social norms; for example, you may not legally enter Wrights argument that increasing the shared social
my house, and I can physically lock you out. In pie is the key to social prosperity is strong. The logic
cyberspace, the architecture of interaction is the that society can benefit everyone seems simple, yet
computer code that makes cyberspace as it is communities have taken thousands of years to sta-
(Lessig, 2000). If this architecture ignores social bilize nonzero-sum benefits. Obviously, there is some
requirements, there is a social-technical gap be- resistance to social synergy.
tween what computers do and what society wants If social interactions are classified by the ex-
(Figure 1). This seems a major problem facing social pected outcome for the self and others (Table 2),
software today (Ackerman, 2000). Value-centered situations where individuals gain at others expense
computing counters this gap by making software are antisocial. Most illegal acts, like stealing, fall into
more social (Preece, 2000). this category. The equilibrium of antisocial interac-
tion is that all parties defect when nonzero-sum gains
Antisocial Interaction are lost. Antisocial acts destabilize the nonzero-sum
gains of society, so to prosper, society must reduce
Social evolution involves specialization and coopera- antisocial acts. This applies equally to online society.
tion on a larger and larger scale (Diamond, 1998). Users see an Internet filled with pop-up ads, spam,
Villages became towns, then cities and metropolitan pornography, viruses, phishing, spoofs, spyware,
centers. The roving bands of 40,000 years ago browser hijacks, scams, and identity theft. These
formed tribes, chiefdoms, nation states, and can be forgiven by seeing the Internet as an uncivi-
megastates like Europe and the United States. Driv- lized place, a stone-age culture built on space-age
ing this evolution are the larger synergies that larger technology, inhabited by the hunter-gatherers of
societies allow. The Internet offers the largest soci- the information age (Meyrowitz, 1985, p. 315). This
ety of allglobal humanityand potentially enor- is the dark side of the Internet, a worldwide
mous synergies. To realize this social potential, tangled web for the unwary (Power, 2000), a
software designers may need to recognize how superhighway of misinformation, a social dystopia
societies generate nonzero-sum gains (Wright, beyond laws where antisocial acts reign.
Cognitive/Social System
Software System
Support
Hardware Social-Technical
System Support Gap
Other(s)? Minor
Gain Loss
Self ? Effect
Gain Synergy Opportunity Antisocial
Minor Effect Service Null Malice
Loss Sacrifice Suicide Conflict
534
Social-Technical Systems
Users are naturally wary of such a society; that is, concept of fairness seems to reconcile the conflict
they do not trust it. Trust has been defined as between private benefit and public good. 5
expecting that anothers action will be beneficial
rather than detrimental (Creed & Miles, 1996). An-
tisocial acts, by definition, do not create trust. Lack LEGITIMATE INTERACTION:
of trust reduces interaction, especially if there is a A SOCIAL REQUIREMENT
less risky alternative. For example, while electronic
commerce is a billion-dollar industry, it has consis- The fact that social systems of law and justice are
tently performed below expectations, though in online primarily about reducing unfairness in society (Rawls,
trade sellers reduce costs and buyers gain choice at 2001) is necessary because in society, one persons
a lower price. E-commerce benefits both customers failure can cause anothers loss, and one persons
and companies, so why is it not the majority of trade? contribution can be anothers gain, for example, in
Every day millions of customers who want to buy software piracy. One way to reduce antisocial acts
things browse thousands of Web sites for products is to make people accountable for the effects of
and services, yet the majority purchase from brick- their acts not just on themselves but also on others.
and-mortar, not online, sources (Salam, Rao, & Pegels, Without such accountability, perceptions of unfair-
2003). If online society does not prevent antisocial ness arise, for example, when people take benefits
acts, users will not trust it, and if they do not trust it, others earned, or pay no price for harming others.
they will use it less. Unfairness is not just the unequal distribution of
In the tragedy of the commons, acts that benefit outcomes, but the failure to distribute outcomes
individuals harm the social group, whose loss affects according to action contributions. Studies suggest
the individuals in it (Poundstone, 1992). If farmers people react strongly to unfairness, tend to avoid
graze a common grass area, a valuable common unfair situations (Adams, 1965), and even prefer
resource is destroyed (from overgrazing), yet if one fairness to personal benefit (Lind & Tyler, 1988).
farmer does not graze, another will. The tragedy This natural justice perception seems to underlie
occurs if individual economics drives the group to our ability to form positive societies. Progress in
destroy a useful common resource. Most animal legitimate rights seems to correlate with social
species are barely able to cross this individual-gain wealth, as does social corruption with community
barrier to social synergy. Only insect colonies com- poverty (Eigen, 2003). Perhaps people in fair soci-
pare to humans in size, but each community is one eties contribute more work, ideas, and research
genetic family, allowing selection for cooperative because others do not steal it, or self-regulate more,
behavior (Ridley, 1996). Humanity has created social which reduces security costs. Either way, account-
benefits without genetic selection. How did we cross ability (or justice) seems a requirement for social
the zero-sum barrier? The answer seems to be our prosperity.
ability to develop social systems. The social goal has been defined as legitimate
If the commons farmers form a village, it makes interaction that is fair to individuals and beneficial to
no sense for the village to destroy its own resource. the social group (Whitworth & deMoor, 2003).
If the village social system, of norms, rules, and Legitimacy is a complex social concept. Fairness
sanctions, can stop individuals from overgrazing, the alone does not define it as conflict can also be fair.
village keeps its commons and the benefits thereof. If A duel is a fair fight, but duels are still outlawed as
only the village chief grazes the commons, there is an being against society. Legitimate interaction in-
inherent instability between individual and commu- cludes public-good benefits as well as individual
nity gain. However, if the commons is shared, say by fairness. In sociology, the term legitimate applies to
a grazing roster, both village and members benefit. governments that are justified to their people, not
As society has evolved, bigger communities have coerced (Barker, 1990). It can mean having the
produced more but also shared more. Social systems sanction of law, but legitimacy is more than legality.
that spread social benefits fairly seem to stabilize Mill (1859/1995, p. 1) talks of the limits of power
nonzero-sum benefits better than those in which that can be legitimately exercised by society over
societys benefits accrue only to a few. The social the individual. Jefferson wrote, the mass of
535
Social-Technical Systems
mankind has not been born with saddles on their really want a cyber society built on the model of
backs, nor a favored few booted and spurred, ready medieval fortresses?
to ride them legitimately (Somerville & Santoni, A third way to legitimate interaction is through
1963, p. 246). Fukuyama (1992) argues that legiti- revenge: to repay actions in kind, or cheat the
mate communities prosper, while those that ignore it cheaters (Boyd, 1992). In Axelrods (1984) prisoners
do so at their peril. These statements have no dilemma tournament, the most successful program
meaning if legitimacy and legality are the same, as was TIT-FOR-TAT, which began cooperating, then
then no law-setting government could act illegiti- copied whatever the other did. If people who are
mately. cheated today will take revenge tomorrow, cheating
The social requirement of legitimacy comple- may not be worth it, but do we want cyber society
ments that of security. Security ensures a system is run under a vigilante justice system?
used as intended, while legitimacy defines that in- A fourth way for society to support legitimate
tent. Whether a user is who he or she says (authen- interaction is by norms and laws. If laws oppose
tication) is a security issue. What rights he or she antisocial acts, why not apply laws online? This
should have (authority) is a legitimacy issue. In approach is popular, but old means may fail in new
generating trust and business, no amount of security system environments (Whitworth & deMoor, 2003).
can compensate for a lack of legitimacy. Dictator- Laws assume a physical-world architecture so may
ships have powerful security forces, but their citi- not easily transfer to virtual worlds that work differ-
zens distrust them, reducing social synergy. In pros- ently from the physical world (Burk, 2001). Legal
perous modern societies, security is directed by processes may suffice for physical change, but
legitimacy, and legitimacy depends on security. while laws can take years to pass, the Internet can
change in a month. New cases, like cookies, can
Online Legitimacy arise faster than laws can be formed, like weeds
growing faster than they are culled. Also, the pro-
Physical society uses various means to prevent grammers who define cyberspace can bypass any
antisocial acts from destabilizing social benefits, law. The Internet, once thought innately ungovern-
including the following. able, could easily become a system of perfect regu-
lation and control (Lessig, 1999) as once software is
1. Ethics: Supports right acts by religion or custom written, issues of law may have already been de-
2. Barriers: Fences, doors, or locks to prevent cided. Finally, laws are limited by jurisdiction, as
unfair acts attempts to legislate telemarketers illustrate. U.S.
3. Revenge: Individuals pay back those that law applies to U.S. soil, but cyberspace does not
cheat exist inside America. The many laws of many na-
4. Norms: Community laws, sanctions, and police tions do not apply to a global Internet. For these
reasons, the long arm of the law struggles to reach
All have also been tried in cyberspace, with into cyberspace. The case is still out, but many are
varying degrees of success. pessimistic. Traditional law seems too physical, too
Arguably the best means to legitimate interaction slow, too impotent, and too restricted for the chal-
is to have moral, ethical people, who choose not to lenge of a global information society.
cheat. But while most agree altruism is good and
selfishness bad, we often do not practice what we
preach (Ridley, 1996). Will online society make FUTURE TRENDS
people more ethical than physical society?
Barriers, like a locked door, can prevent unfair- That the social needs of online society are not yet
ness, but any barrier raised can be overcome. Online met suggests two things. First, Internet growth may
security is a continual battle between those who be just beginning, and second, meeting social needs
create and those who cross barriers. Also, barriers is the way to achieve that growth. Perhaps we are
can reduce as well as increase fairness. Do we only seeing the start of a major human social evolu-
536
Social-Technical Systems
tion. We may be no more able to envisage a global social vacuum may condemn us to relearn the social
information society than people in the middle ages lessons of physical history in cyberspace. 5
could conceive todays global trade system. The In physical society, it was the push for distributed
differences are not just technical, like ships and ownership that created social rights; the original
airplanes, but also social, differences in how we pursuers of rights were British elite seeking property
interact. Traders today send millions of dollars to rights from their King: It was the protection of
foreigners they have never seen for goods they have property that gave birth, historically, to political
not touched to arrive at unknown times. Past traders rights (Mandelbaum, 2002, p. 271). Over time, the
would have seen that as mere folly, but todays right to own was extended to all citizens, as giving
market economy has social as well as technical todays freedoms proved profitable. Ownership as a
support: concept can be applied online. Twenty years ago,
issues of Who owns the material entered in a group
To participate in a market economy, to be willing communication space? (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993, p.
to ship goods to distant destinations and to invest 505) were raised. If information objects can be
in projects that will come to fruition or pay owned, a social property-rights framework can be
dividends only in the future, requires confidence, applied to information systems (Rose, 2001).
the confidence that ownership is secure and Analysing who owns what can translate social state-
payment dependableknowing that if the other ments into IS specifications and vice versa (Whitworth
reneges, the state will step in (Mandelbaum, & deMoor, 2003; Figure 2).
2002, p. 272) Future social-software designers may face ques-
tions of what should be done, not what can be done.
Social benefits require the influence of social There seems no reason why software should not
entities, like the state. Individual parties in an inter- support what society believes. If society believes
action are biased to their own benefit. Only a people should be free, our Hotmail avatars should
community can embody legitimate rules above indi- belong to us. If society gives a right not to commu-
viduals, yet these must be manifested as well as nicate (Warren & Brandeis, 1890), we should be
conceived. The concept of the state assumes physi- able to refuse spam (Whitworth & Whitworth, 2004).
cal boundaries that do not exist in cyberspace. For If society supports privacy, we should be able to
online society to flourish, the gap between social remove personal data from online lists. If society
right and software might must be closed, but stretch- gives creators rights to the fruits of their labors
ing physical law into cyberspace is problematic (Locke, 1963), we should be able to sign and own
(Samuelson, 2003). Physical laws operate after the electronic items. If society believes in democracy,
fact for practical reasons: To punish unfairness, it online bulletin boards should be able to elect their
must first occur. Yet in cyberspace, we write the leaders. Such suggestions do not mean the mechani-
code that defines all interaction. It is as if we could zation of online interaction: Social rights do not work
write the laws of physics in the physical world. that way. Society grants people privacy, but does not
Hence, a new possibility arises. Why not focus on force them to be private. Likewise, owning a bulle-
the solution (legitimacy) rather than the problem tin-board item means you may delete it, not that you
(unfairness)? Why let antisocial acts like spam must delete it. Software support for social rights
develop, then try ineffectually to punish them when would allocate rights to act, not automate right acts,
we can design for social fairness in the first place? giving choice to people to not to program code.
When societies move from punishing unfairness to
encouraging legitimacy, it is a major advance, from
the laws of Moses or Hammurabai to visionary
Figure 2. Social-requirements analysis
statements of social opportunity like the French
Declaration of Human Rights or the United States
Social Information
constitution. Cyberspace is a chance to apply sev- Analysis Logic
Requirement
eral thousand years of social learning to the global
electronic village; designing social software in a
537
Social-Technical Systems
Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In Diamond, J. (1998). Guns, germs and steel. Lon-
L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental don: Vintage.
social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 267-299). New Eigen, P. (2003). Transparency international cor-
York: Academic Press. ruption perceptions index 2003 [Speech]. Lon-
Alberts, B., Bray, D., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, don: Foreign Press Association. Retrieved from
K., & Watson, J.D. (1994). Molecular biology of http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2003/
the cell. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. cpi2003.pe_statement_en.html
Alter, S. (1999). A general, yet useful theory of Fukuyama, F. (1992). The end of history and the
information systems. Communications of the AIS, 1, last man. New York: Avon Books Inc.
13-60. Goodwin, N. C. (1987, March). Functionality and
Alter, S. (2001). Which life cycle: Work system, usability. Communications of the ACM, 229-233.
information system, or software? Communications Hiltz, S. R., & Turoff, M. (1993). The network
of the AIS, 7(17), 1-52. nation: Human communication via computer (Rev.
ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
538
Social-Technical Systems
Lessig, L. (1999). Code and other laws of Samuelson, P. (2003). Unsolicited communications
cyberspace. New York: Basic Books. as trespass. Communications of the ACM, 46(10), 5
15-20.
Lessig, L. (2000). Cyberspaces constitution. Lec-
ture given at the American Academy, Berlin, Sanders, M. S., & McCormick, E. J. (1993). Human
Germany. Retrieved from http://cyber.law.harvard. factors in engineering and design. New York:
edu/works/lessig/AmAcd1.pdf McGraw-Hill.
Lind, E. A., & Tyler, T. R. (1988). The social Somerville, J., & Santoni, R. E. (1963). Social and
psychology of procedural justice. New York: political philosophy: Readings from Plato to
Plenum Press. Ghandi. New York: Anchor Books.
Locke, J. (1963). An essay concerning the true Warren, S. D., & Brandeis, L. D. (1890). The right
original extent and end of civil government. In J. to privacy. Harvard Law Review, 4(5), 193-220.
Somerville & R. E. Santoni (Eds.), Social and
Whitworth, B., & deMoor, A. (2003). Legitimate by
political philosophy: Readings from Plato to
design: Towards trusted virtual community environ-
Ghandi (chap. 5, section 27, pp. 169-204). New
ments. Behaviour & Information Technology,
York: Anchor Books.
22(1), 31-51.
Mandelbaum, M. (2002). The ideas that conquered
Whitworth, B., & Whitworth, E. (2004, October).
the world. New York: Public Affairs.
Reducing spam by closing the social-technical gap.
Meyrowitz, J. (1985). No sense of place: The IEEE Computer, 38-45.
impact of electronic media on social behavior.
Whitworth, B., & Zaic, M. (2003). The WOSP
New York: Oxford University Press.
model: Balanced information system design and
Mill, J. S. (1955). On liberty. Chicago: The Great evaluation. Communications of the Association
Books Foundation. (Reprinted from 1859) for Information Systems, 12, 258-282.
Poundstone, W. (1992). Prisoners dilemma. New Wright, R. (2001). Nonzero: The logic of human
York: Doubleday, Anchor. destiny. New York: Vintage Books.
Power, R. (2000). Tangled web: Tales of digital
crime from the shadows of cyberspace. India- KEY TERMS
napolis, IN: QUE Corporation.
Avatar: An information object that represents a
Preece, J. (2000). Online communities: Designing
person in cyberspace, whether a Hotmail text ID or
usability, supporting sociability. Chichester, UK:
a graphical multimedia image in an online multiplayer
John Wiley & Sons.
game.
Rawls, J. (2001). Justice as fairness. Cambridge,
Information System: A general system that
MA: Harvard University Press.
may include hardware, software, people, and busi-
Ridley, M. (1996). The origins of virtue: Human ness or community structures and processes (Alter,
instincts and the evolution of cooperation. New 1999, 2001), vs. a social-technical system, which
York: Penguin. must include all four levels.
Rose, E. (2001, March). Balancing Internet market- Nonzero Sum: In zero-sum interaction, one
ing needs with consumer concerns: A property rights party gains at anothers expense so the parties
framework. Computers and Society, 17-21. compete. Negative acts that harm others but benefit
the actor give an equilibrium point at which every-
Salam, A. F., Rao, H. R., & Pegels, C. C. (2003).
one defects and everyone loses (Poundstone, 1992).
Consumer-perceived risk in e-commerce transac-
In contrast, in nonzero-sum interaction, parties co-
tions. CACM, 46(12), 325-331.
539
Social-Technical Systems
operate to increase the shared resource pie, so they structure of organs, muscle effectors, and sense
gain more than they could have working alone: It is receptors. Computer systems have the same ele-
a win-win situation. The synergistic benefits of ments: a physical-case boundary, an internal archi-
society seem based on nonzero-sum gains (Wright, tecture, printer and screen effectors, and keyboard
2001). and mouse receptors. These elements apply at dif-
ferent levels; for example, software systems have
Social System: Physical society is not just me-
memory boundaries, internal program structures,
chanics nor is it just information, as without people
specialized input analysers, and specialized output
information has no meaning. Yet it is also more than
driver units.
people. Countries with people of similar nature and
abilities, like North and South Korea, or East and System Environment: In a changing world,
West Germany, performed differently as societies. changes outside a system may cause changes within
As people come and go, we say the society contin- it, and changes within may cause changes without.
ues. Jewish individuals of 2,000 years ago have died A systems environment is that part of a world that
just as the Romans of that time, yet we say the Jews can change the system or be affected by it. What
survived while the Romans did not. What survived succeeds in the system-environment interaction de-
was not buildings, information, or people, but a pends on the environment. In Darwinian evolution,
manner of interaction: their social system. A social the environment defines system performance. Three
system is a general form of human interaction that things seem relevant: opportunities, threats, and the
persists despite changes in individuals, communica- rates by which these change. In an opportunistic
tions, or architecture (Whitworth & deMoor, 2003) environment, right action can give great benefit. In
based on persistent common cognitions regarding a risky environment, wrong action can give great
ethics, social structures, roles, and norms. loss. In a dynamic environment, risk and opportunity
change quickly, giving turbulence (sudden risk) or
System: A system must exist within a world and
luck (sudden opportunity). An environment can be of
cannot exist if its world is undefined: No world
any combination, for example, opportunistic, risky,
means no system. Existence is a property a system
and dynamic.
derives from the world around it. The nature of a
system is the nature of the world that contains it; for System Levels: Is the physical world the only
example, a physical world, a world of ideas, and a real world? Are physical systems the only possible
social world may contain physical systems, idea systems? The term information system suggests
systems, and social systems, respectively. A system otherwise. Philosophers propose idea systems in
that exists still needs an identity to define what is a logical worlds. Sociologists propose social systems.
system and what is not a system. A system indistin- Psychologists propose cognitive mental models.
guishable from its world is not a system; for example, Software designers propose data entity relationship
a crystal of sugar that dissolves in water still has models quite apart from hardware. Software cannot
existence as sugar, but is no longer a separate exist without a hardware system of chips and cir-
macroscopic system. The point separating system cuits, but the software world of data records and
from nonsystem is the system boundary. Existence files is not equivalent to the hardware world. It is a
and identity seem two basic requirements of any different system level. Initially, computer problems
system. were mainly hardware problems, like overheating.
Solving these led to software problems, like infinite
System Elements: An advanced system has a
loops. Informational requirements began to drive
boundary, an internal structure, environment effec-
chip development, for example, network and data-
tors, and receptors (Whitworth & Zaic, 2003). Simple
base protocol needs. HCI added cognitive require-
biological systems (cells) formed a cell-wall bound-
ments to the mix. Usability demands are now part of
ary and organelles for internal cell functions (Alberts
engineering-requirements analysis (Sanders &
et al., 1994). Simple cells like Giardia developed
McCormick, 1993) because Web sites fail if people
flagella to effect movement, and protozoa developed
reject them (Goodwin, 1987). Finally, a computer-
light-sensitive receptors. We ourselves, though more
mediated community can also be seen as a social
complex, still have a boundary (skin), an internal
540
Social-Technical Systems
541
542
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
Mike Sharples
University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
Figure 1. Overview of the flow and main products of the design process
5
It is important to note that the process is not a Outcomes: Each stage has outcomes that
simple sequence but involves a dialogue between the must be documented, and these are used to
stages. Earlier decisions and outcomes may need to inform and validate the system design.
be revised in order to take account of later findings. Measures: Each design decision must be
When the system is deployed, it will enable and validated by reference to outcomes from one
support new activities, requiring another cycle of of the stages.
analysis, revision of the Task Model, and further
opportunities for design. The general sequence for socio-cognitive engi-
The elements of socio-cognitive engineering are neering is as follows:
as follows:
1. Form a project team.
Project: The diagram shows the process of 2. Produce General Requirements for the project.
design, implementation, and deployment for a 3. Decide which methods and tools will be used
single project. for each stage of the project.
Actors: Different types of people may be 4. Decide how the process and outcomes will be
involved in or affected by the design and de- documented.
ployment, including (depending on the scale of 5. Decide how the project will be evaluated.
the project) design, marketing and technical 6. Carry out each stage of the project, ensuring
support teams, direct users of the system, and that the requirements match the design.
other people affected by it (e.g., administrative 7. Carry out a continuous process of documenta-
staff). tion and evaluation.
Roles: The actors take on roles (e.g., team
leader), which may change during the project. The process starts by specifying the General
Stage: Each box represents one stage of the Requirements for the system to be designed. These
project. provide broad yet precise initial requirements and
Methods: Each stage can be carried out by constraints for the proposed system in language that
one or more methods of analysis and design, designers and customers can understand. They are
which need to be specified before starting the used to guide the design and to provide a reference
stage. for validation of the system. The requirements nor-
Tools: Each method has associated tools (for mally should indicate:
activity analysis, software specification, sys-
tems design, and evaluation) in order to carry The scope of the project;
out the method. The main actors involved in designing, deploy-
ing, using, and maintaining the system;
543
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
The market need and business case; and existing organizational structures and schedules,
General attributes and constraints of the pro- levels 2 and 3 providing an analysis of situated
posed system (i.e., whether it aims to support practices and interactions of those for whom the
individual or collaborative working). technology is intended, and level 4 offering a syn-
thesis of the findings in terms of designs for new
The requirements will be extended and made socio-technical systems. The four levels give an
more precise as the project progresses. overview of activity, leading to a more detailed
This leads to two parallel studies: a theory-based investigation of particular problem areas, with each
study of the underlying cognitive processes and so- level illuminating the situated practices and also
cial activities, and an investigation into how everyday providing a set of issues to be addressed for the next
activities are performed in their normal contexts. The level. These piece together into a composite picture
Theory of Use involves an analysis of relevant of how people interact with technology in their
literature from cognitive psychology, social sciences, everyday lives, the limitations of existing practices,
and business management to form a rich picture of and ways in which they could be improved by new
the human knowledge and activity. It is essential that technology.
this should offer a clear guide to system design. Thus, The outcomes of these two studies are synthe-
it must be relevant to the intended use of the system sized into a Task Model. This is a synthesis of
and extend the requirements in a form that can be theory and practice related to how people perform
interpreted by software designers and engineers. relevant activities with their existing technologies.
The aim of carrying out Field Studies is to It is the least intuitive aspect of socio-cognitive
uncover how people interact with current technology engineering; it is tempting to reduce it to a set of
in their normal contexts. The role of the fieldworker bullet-point issues, yet it provides a foundation for
is both to interpret activity and to assist technology the systems design. It could indicate:
design and organizational change. This addresses the
widely recognized problem of ethnographic ap- The main actors and their activity systems;
proaches that, while they can provide an understand- How the actors employ tools and resources to
ing of current work practices, are not intended to mediate their interaction and to externalize
explore the consequences of socio-technical change. cognition;
Table 1 shows a multi-level structure for field How the actors represent knowledge to them-
studies, with level 1 consisting of a survey of the selves and to others;
544
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
The methods and techniques that the actors The relationship between the Task Model and
employ, including differences in approach and Design Concept provides the bridge to a cycle of 5
strategy; iterative design that includes:
The contexts in which the activities occur;
The implicit conventions and constraints that Generating a space of possible system designs,
influence the activity; and systematically exploring design option and jus-
The actors conceptions of their work, includ- tifying design decisions;
ing sources of difficulty and breakdown in Specifying the functional and non-functional
activity and their attitudes toward the introduc- aspects of the system;
tion of new technology. Implementing the system; and
Deploying and maintaining the system.
The Design Concept needs to be developed in
relation to the Task Model. It should indicate how the Although these stages are based on a conven-
activities identified by the Task Model could be tional process of interactive systems design (see
transformed or enhanced with the new technology. Preece, Rogers, & Sharp [2002] for an overview),
It should: they give equal emphasis to cognitive and organiza-
tional factors as well as to task and software speci-
Indicate how limitations from the Task Model fications. The stages shown in Figure 1 are an aid to
will be addressed by new technology; project planning but are not sufficiently detailed to
Outline a system image (Norman, 1986) for the show all the design activities. Nor does the figure
new technology; make clear that to construct a successful integrated
Show the look and feel of the proposed technol- system requires the designers to integrate software
ogy; engineering with design for human cognition, social
Indicate the contexts of use of the enhanced interaction, and organizational management. The
activity and technology; and building-block diagram in Table 2 gives a more
Propose any further requirements that have detailed picture of the systems design process.
been produced as a result of constructing the The four pillars indicate the main processes of
Design Concept. software, task, knowledge, and organizational engi-
neering. Each brick in the diagram shows one
The Design Concept should result in a set of outcome of a design stage, but it is not necessary to
detailed design requirements and options that can be build systematically from the bottom up. A design
explored through the design space. team may work on one pillar (e.g., knowledge engi-
545
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
546
Socio-Cognitive Engineering
547
548
Alan Dix
Lancaster University, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Software Engineering and HCI
The traditional systems approaches have the Traditional engineering techniques cannot be
following phases: successfully applied to software development, 5
causing the software depression (software cri-
Planning: this involves identifying business sis). Mullet (1999) summarizes the software
value, analysing feasibility, developing a work crisis by noting that software development is
plan, staffing the project, and controlling and seen as a craft rather than an engineering
directing the project. discipline. The approach to education taken by
Analysis: this involves information gathering most higher education institutions encourages
(requirements gathering), process modeling that craft mentality; lack of professionalism
and data modeling. within the SE world (e.g., the failure of treating
Design: this step is comprised of physical an operating systems crash as seriously as a
design, architecture design, interface design, civil engineer would treat the collapse of a
database and file design, and program design. bridge); the high acceptance of fault tolerance
Implementation: this step requires both con- by software engineers (e.g., if the operating
struction and installation. system crashes; reboot hopefully with minimal
damage); the mismatch between hardware and
There are various OO methodologies. Although software developments. Hardware and soft-
diverse in approach, most OO development method- ware developments are both taking place at a
ologies follow a defined system development life rapid pace but independently of each other.
cycle. The various phases are intrinsically equiva- Both hardware and software developments
lent for all of the approaches, typically proceeding as have a maturation time to be compatible with
follows: each other, but by that time everything has
changed. The final problem for software engi-
OO Analysis Phase (determining what the neers is the constant shifting of the goalposts.
product is going to do) and extracting the Customers initially think they want one thing
objects (requirements gathering), OO de- but frequently change their requirements.
sign phase, OO programming phase (imple-
mented in appropriate OO programming lan- Notwithstanding these pitfalls, Pressman (2000b)
guage), integration phase, maintenance argues that SE principles always work. It is never
phase and retirement (Schach, 2002). inappropriate to stress the principles of solid problem
solving, good design, thorough testing, control of
One phase of the SE life cycle that is common to change, and emphasis on quality.
both the traditional development approach and the The Web is an intricate and complex combination
OO approach is requirements gathering. Require- of technologies (both hardware and software) that
ments gathering is the process of eliciting the are at different levels of maturity. Engineering Web-
overall requirements of the product from the cus- based EC software, therefore, has its own unique
tomer (user). These requirements encompass infor- challenges. In essence, the network becomes a
mation and control need, product function and be- massive computer that provides an almost unlimited
havior, overall product performance, design and software resource that can be accessed by anyone
interface constraints, and other special needs. The with a modem (Pressman, 2000a). We illustrate
requirements-gathering phase has the following pro- these intricacies in Figure 1, which is a representa-
cess: requirements elicitation; requirements analysis tion of a home computer that is attached to the
and negotiation; requirements specification; system Internet. It depicts the underlying operating system
modeling; requirements validation; and requirements (the base platform), the method of connection to the
management (Pressman, 2000a). Internet (dial up, the technology that supports Web
Despite the concerted efforts to develop a suc- activities), browser, an example of a Web communi-
cessful process for developing software, Schach cation language (HTML), and additional technology
(2002) identifies the following pitfalls: that may be required to be Web active.
549
Software Engineering and HCI
Figure 1. EC Web application platform (adapted from Hurst & Gellady, 2000)
A d d - o n cookies,
Add-ons: s : c o o kplug-ins,
i e s , p l Java,
u g - i nJava
s,
J a v a , J a v a s c r ip t ( a l l o f
script
w h i c(all
h hofa which
v e t h have
e i r otheir
w n owne r rerror
o r
messages,
m e s s a g eliable
s , l i atob appear
l e t o aatp anyp e atime),
r at
a n yfamiliar
the t i m e )DNS
, t h error,
e f a madi lbanners,
i a r D Netc. S
e rr o r, a d b a n n e r s , e t c .
H T M L : l i n k s , g r a p h i c s , fr a m e s , fo rm s ,
HTML: links, graphics,
t a b lframes,
e s , e t cforms,
. tables, etc.
Browser: B rbookmarks,
o w s e r : bhistory
o o k m file,
a r k Back/Forward/Home/Reload
s , h i s t o r y f i le ,
B a c k / F o r w a r d / H o m e /R e l o a d b u t t o n s , e t c .
buttons, etc.
T C P / I P : r u n n in g d i a l- u p n e t w o r k t o c a l l t h e I S P , r e t r y i n g i f
TCP/IP: running dial-up network n e c e stos acall
r y ,the
e tISP,
c . retrying if necessary, etc.
O pOperating
e r a t i n g System:
S y s t e opening
m : o p eand
n i nclosing
g a n dof cwindows,
l o s i n g menus,
o f w i dialog
n d o wboxes,
s , m eclicking
n u s , dStart
i a l o g tob shut
ox es,
c l i c k i n g S t a r t t o s h u t d o w n t h e c o m p u t e r , e t c .
down the computer, etc.
All the aspects of Figure 1 will support EC soft- work, communicate, and interact (Preece et al.,
ware in some way or another. An SE defect in any of 2002).
these five layers would create a problem. For ex- As stated earlier, it is the users experience that
ample, if the operating system is poorly engineered, affects their activities on the Web. The advocates
the technology that sits on this platform will give of HCI are intent on discovering the key to success-
piecemeal functionality at best. The problem is fur- ful user experiences and so the concept of usability
ther complicated by piecemeal patch solutions. is intensively investigated in HCI. The ISO 9241-11
These piecemeal solutions can severely affect the standard (1999) defines usability as the following:
usability of the Web, for example by giving cryptic the extent to which a product can be used by a
error messages, installing add-ons that affect some specified set of users, to achieve specified goals
unknown setting that the users do not understand, or (tasks) with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfac-
installing add-ons that require a particular bit of tion in a specified context of use.
hardware or software to be present.
Human-computer interaction is concerned with the Several researchers have produced sets of generic
way in which computers can be used to support usability principles, which can be used in improving
human beings engaged in particular activities. HCI software (e.g., Mayhew, 1999; Preece et al., 1994;
thus involves the specification, design, implementa- Shneiderman, 1998, 2000). Some of these usability
tion, and evaluation of interactive software systems principles are: learnability, visibility, consistency
in the context of the users task and work (Preece, and standards, flexibility, robustness, responsive-
Rogers, & Sharp, 2002; Preece, Rogers, Sharp, ness, feedback, constraints, mappings, affordances,
Benyon, Holland, & Carey, 1994; Shneiderman, 1998). stability, simplicity, help, and documentation. Un-
An aspect related to HCI is interaction design. fortunately, the definitions of such design and us-
Interaction design is the process of designing interac- ability principles are mostly too broad or general,
tive products to support people in their everyday and and, in some cases, very vague. Some of these
work lives. In particular, it is about creating user principles have been adapted for EC (see for ex-
experiences that enhance and extend the way people ample Badre, 2002). It has been shown repeatedly
550
Software Engineering and HCI
551
Software Engineering and HCI
552
553
Spam 5
Sara de Freitas
Birbeck College, University of London, UK
Mark Levene
Birbeck College, University of London, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Spam
cialists in the field in order to provide the most up-to- slowing down the movement of electronic traffic
date information, including interviews with Enrique over local and wide area networks (Salem interview,
Salem, CEO of Brightmail; Mikko Hyponnen of F- 2004; Goodman & Rounthwaite, 2004).
Secure; and Steve Linford of the Spamhaus Project. The scale of the problem has become particularly
However, while the broader issues of spamming concerning in recent months; unsolicited e-mailor
have been discussed in the general literature re- spamcurrently accounts for 65% of all e-mail
viewed, in the area of human-computer interaction, received in July 2004 (Brightmail, 2004; Enrique
there has been a paucity of discussion, although this Salem, CEO of Brightmail, interview 2004). Of the
may change with the wider take-up of mobile de- 70 million e-mails that Brightmail filtered in Septem-
vices with their context awareness. Notable articles ber 2003 alone, 54% was unsolicited, and that per-
that have touched on related issues in the human- centage is increasing year after year (see Graph 1).
computer interaction field have included those that But although there are a number of different ways to
have considered issues of privacy (Ackerman et al., filter unwanted e-mail, which may lead to a signifi-
2001) and usability in particular difficulties with cant reduction of spam in the short term, many
using computer technology (Kiesler et al., 2000). experts in the field are concerned that spam will
However, this is not to say that spamming does not never be completely eradicated (Hypnnen, F-Se-
play a role in reversing the convenience that many cure interview, 2004; Linford, Spamhaus interview,
experience when using e-mail on their desktop, 2004).
laptop, or mobile device, and it is often the most
vulnerable that are affected adversely by spamming
practice. CRITICAL ISSUES OF SPAM
The mass appeal and use of electronic mail over
the Internet has brought with it the practice of So who are the spammers? The spammers can be
spamming or sending unsolicited bulk e-mail adver- identified in three main groups: (1) legitimate com-
tising services. This has become an established mercial direct marketers, who want to make com-
aspect of direct marketing, whereby marketers can mercial gain from sending bulk e-mails about prod-
reach many millions of people around the world with ucts and services; (2) criminal groups, including
the touch of a button. However, this form of direct fraudsters, who are using spam to legitimise their
marketing or spamming, as it has come to be called, activities and to defraud others (Gleick, 2003; Levy,
has become an increasing problem for many, wast- 2004; Linford interview, 2004); and (3) disaffected
ing peoples time as they delete unwanted e-mail and individualscrackerswho want to disrupt Inter-
net services and who, in many cases, may have
Graph 1. The escalation of spam worldwide, inside information about how the systems are struc-
2001 to July 2004 (Source: Brightmail) tured. The criminal group is potentially the most
dangerous, and while spam is not an illegal activity,
this practice is set to spread to the criminal fraternity
70 in China, Russia, and South America. This trend is
60
becoming more widespread with the ease of obtain-
ing spam kits over the Internet, which allows the
50 potential spammer to set up quickly (Thomson, 2003).
Percentage
40
Increasingly, illegitimate spammers, fraudsters,
and crackers are joining forces to introduce fraud
30 schemes such as the 419 scam and phishing (sending
20
e-mails as if they came from trusted organisations)
to convince unsuspecting victims to reveal sensitive
10 personal information; in particular, to gain information
0
about users credit card information or to gain access
2001 2002 2003 2004 details of online transaction services (Levy, 2004).
Year
554
Spam
555
Spam
Protocol change To provide a method of tracking Will help to identify Will not prevent spam as
the source of an e-mail spammers and add spam such
addresses to block lists
Economic solutions Impose a fee for sending e-mail Will deter spammers from Will be difficult and costly
sending large volumes of to implement a worldwide
junk e-mail standard for collecting the
fee
Computational Impose an indirect payment in It is a viable alternative to A protocol involving
solutions the form of a machine the economic solution, cryptographic techniques
computation prior to sending e- without needing the will need to be put in place
mail infrastructure to collect a fee and software developed to
implement the method
E-mail aliasing Set up e-mail aliases for Will reduce spam through This method involves an
different groups of people with an authentication process extension to current e-mail
different acceptance criteria servers and the management
of e-mail aliases
Sender warranted Use of a special header to No need for additional Will probably not deter
e-mail certify the e-mail as valid software or e-mail protocol spammers if widely adopted,
and wide licensing of the
technology will be
problematic
Collaborative Communities collaborate to Possible eradication of large Still vulnerable to random
filtering fight spam using a collaborative volumes of spam through changes in spam e-mail, and
tool that is an add-on to e-mail collaborative reporting of there are problems with
software spam scalability of this method
Rule-based solutions These filters maintain a It is easy to install and It needs a lot of tuning and
collection of patterns to be effective in blocking a large should be combined with
matched against incoming percentage of spam, and in other methods to filter out a
spam, as in SpamAssassin the case of SpamAssassin, it larger volume of spam
is free
Statistical solutions Often deployed as a post-receipt It is very effective and also Most effective when used
spam filter using Bayesian text adaptive, so it is hard to fool with other pre-receipt filter
classification to tag e-mail as systems
spam or ham
Legislative solutions National and global legislation Prosecution of individual Problems of enforcement,
to enforce anti-spam laws spammers not least due to crossing of
different jurisdictional
boundaries
The increase in the technical sophistication of to the eradication of all Internet-based fraud and
spammers also is evidenced by the use of so-called illegitimate activity, it seems unlikely that spam will
reputation attacks, where spammers use a worm to completely disappear. It is more likely that the
launch a denial of service attack against anti- practice will continue to evolve and transmute to
spamming organisations. One such example was the adapt to new vulnerabilities in the systems and to
Mimail attacks (Levy, 2004) that specifically tar- exploit users who are not fully aware of how they
geted anti-spam organisations seeking to block out can be exploited through impersonations of familiar
spam. Clearly, spamming is becoming more refined Web sites and services. With the current force
and will evolve to adapt to any perceived weak- behind the anti-spam movement gaining momentum,
nesses in network security. we can expect to see less spam in the future, but only
with preventative measures such as those described
in this article being put in place. In the near future
CONCLUSION however, the cat-and-mouse game among spammers
and anti-spammers is set to continue. In particular,
This article has highlighted the scale and depth of the the new routes for spammers clearly lie in reaching
spamming problem, and while many are committed users through mobile devices, which need to become
556
Spam
better protected by virus and spam software, if these help at home. Human-Computer Interaction, 15,
cyber crimes are to be controlled and ameliorated. 323-351. 5
Krim, J. (2004, May 21). Senate hears mixed re-
views of anti-spam law. Washington Post. Re-
REFERENCES
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www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A43622-
Ackerman, M., Darrell, T., & Weitzner, D.J. (2001).
2004May20.html
Privacy in context. Human-Computer Interaction,
16, 167-176. Levy, E. (2004). Criminals become tech savvy.
IEEE Security and Privacy, 2(2), 65-68.
Androutsopoulos, I., Koutsias, J., Chandrinos, K.V.,
& Spyopoulos, C.D. (2000). An experimental com- Linford, S. (personal communication, January 9,
parison of nave Bayesian and keyword-based anti- 2004)
spam filtering with personal e-meal messages. Pro-
Nettleton, E. (2003). Electronic marketing and the
ceedings of the 23rd Annual International ACM
new anti-spam regulations. The Journal of Data-
SIGIR Conference on Research and Develop-
base Marketing and Customer Strategy Manage-
ment in Information Retrieval, Athens, Greece.
ment, 11(3), 235-240.
BBC News. (2003). Top UK sites fail privacy test.
Salem, E. (personal communication, February 23,
Retrieved August 1, 2004, from http://
2004)
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3307705.stm
Schwartz, A., & Garfinkel, S. (1998). Stopping
BBC News. (2004). US anti-spam law fails to bite.
spam. Beijing: OReilly and Associates.
Retrieved August 1, 2004, from http://
news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/technology/3465307.stm Sipior, J.C., Ward, B.T., & Bonner, P.G. (2004).
Should spam be on the menu? Communications of
Brightmail. (2004). Retrieved August 1, 2004, from
the ACM, 47(6), 59-63.
http://www.brightmail.com/spamstats.html
Stewart, J. (2003). Spam and SoBig: Arm in arm.
Crichard, M. (2003). Privacy and electronic com-
Network Security, 12-16.
munications. Computer Law and Security Report,
19(4), 299-303. Syntegra. (2003). Can spam kill the mobile mes-
saging market? [white paper]. Retrieved August 1,
Gburzynski, P., & Maitan, J. (2004). Fighting the
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spam wars: A re-mailer approach with restrictive
acrobat208950.pdf
aliasing. ACM Transactions on Internet Technol-
ogy, 4(1), 1-30. Templeton, B. (2003). Brad Templeton Home Page.
Retrieved October 29, 2003, from www.templetons.
Gleick, J. (2003). Get out of my box. Guardian
com/brad/spam react.html
Review, 1-2.
Thomson, I. (2003). Mafia muscles in on spam and
Goodman, J., & Rounthwaite, R. (2004). Stopping
viruses. Vnunet.com. Retrieved Aptil 26, 2004,
outgoing spam. Proceedings of the 5 th ACM Con-
from http://www.vnunet.com/News/1151421
ference on Electronic Commerce, New York.
Hayes, B. (2003). Spam, spam, spam, lovely spam.
American Scientist, 91(3), 200-204. KEY TERMS
557
Spam
E-Mail Aliasing: Where an individual has more Sender Warranted E-Mail: This method al-
than one e-mail address, the practice allows the user lows the sender to use a special header to certify that
to use different addresses for different tasks; for the e-mail is genuine. The process could help to
example, one address for Internet communications prevent spam scams.
and another for business.
Spam: Otherwise termed unsolicited e-mail, un-
False Negatives: A false negative is a mail solicited commercial e-mail, junk mail, or unwanted
message that the filter tags as ham but is actually mail, it has been used in opposition to the term ham,
spam. which is wanted e-mail. The term was developed
from a Monty Python comedy sketch depicting spam
False Positives: A false positive is a mail
as useless and ham as lovely, albeit in ironic terms.
message that the filter tags as spam but is actually
ham. Wardriving: Also termed WiLDingWireless
Lan Driving, it is an activity whereby individuals
Phishing: Short for password harvest fishing, it
drive around an area detecting Wi-Fi wireless net-
is the process of impersonating another trusted
works, which they then can access with a laptop.
person or organization in order to obtain sensitive
personal information, such as credit card details,
passwords, or access information.
558
559
INTRODUCTION tally use spam words, like enlarge, your e-mail may
be filtered. Currently, receivers can recover false
Spam, undesired and usually unsolicited e-mail, has rejects from their spam filters quarantine area, but
been a growing problem for some time. A 2003 filtering before transmission means the message
Sunbelt Software poll found spam (or junk mail) has never arrives at all, so neither sender nor receiver
surpassed viruses as the number-one unwanted knows there is an error. Imagine if the postal mail
network intrusion (Townsend & Taphouse, 2003). system shredded unwanted mail and lost mail in the
Time magazine reports that for major e-mail provid- process. People could lose confidence that the mail
ers, 40 to 70% of all incoming mail is deleted at the will get through. If a communication environment
server (Taylor, 2003), and AOL reports that 80% of cannot be trusted, confidence in it can collapse.
its inbound e-mail, 1.5 to 1.9 billion messages a day, Electronic communication systems sit on the
is spam the company blocks. Spam is the e-mail horns of a dilemma. Reducing spam increases deliv-
consumers number-one complaint (Davidson, 2003). ery failure rate, while guaranteeing delivery in-
Despite Internet service provider (ISP) filtering, up creases spam rates. Either way, by social failure of
to 30% of in-box messages are spam. While each of confidence or technical failure of capability, spam
us may only take seconds (or minutes) to deal with threatens the transmission system itself (Weinstein,
such mail, over billions of cases the losses are 2003). As the percentage of transmitted spam in-
significant. A Ferris Research report estimates spam creases, both problems increase. If spam were 99%
2003 costs for U.S. companies at $10 billion (Bekker, of sent mail, a small false-positive percentage be-
2003). comes a much higher percentage of valid e-mail that
While improved filters send more spam to trash failed. The growing spam problem is recognized
cans, ever more spam is sent, consuming an increas- ambivalently by IT writers who espouse new Baye-
ing proportion of network resources. Users shielded sian spam filters but note, The problem with spam
behind spam filters may notice little change, but the is that it is almost impossible to define (Vaughan-
Internet transmitted-spam percentage has been Nichols, 2003, p. 142), or who advocate legal solu-
steadily growing. It was 8% in 2001, grew from 20% tions but say none have worked so far. The technical
to 40% in 6 months over 2002 to 2003, and continues community seems to be in a state of denial regarding
to grow (Weiss, 2003). In May 2003, the amount of spam. Despite some successes, transmitted spam is
spam e-mail exceeded nonspam for the first time, increasing. Moral outrage, spam blockers, spamming
that is, over 50% of transmitted e-mail is now spam the spammers, black and white lists, and legal re-
(Vaughan-Nichols, 2003). Informal estimates for sponses have slowed but not stopped it. Spam
2004 are over 60%, with some as high as 80%. In blockers, by hiding the problem from users, may be
practical terms, an ISP needing one server for making it worse, as a Band-Aid covers but does not
customers must buy another just for spam almost no cure a systemic sore. Asking for a technical tool to
one reads. This cost passes on to users in increased stop spam may be asking the wrong question. If
connection fees. spam is a social problem, it may require a social
Pretransmission filtering could reduce this waste, solution, which in cyberspace means technical sup-
but creates another problem: spam false positives, port for social requirements (Whitworth & Whitworth,
that is, valid e-mail filtered as spam. If you acciden- 2004).
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
BACKGROUND Ignore It
Why Spam Works One answer to spam is to ignore it: After all, if no one
bought, spam would stop. However, a handful of
Spam arises from the online social situation technol- positive responses is enough to make a mailing pay
ogy creates. First, it costs no more to send a million off, and there will always be a handful of suckers out
e-mails than to send one. Second, hits are a there (Ivey, 1998, p. 15). There are always spam
percentage of transmissions, so the more spam sent responders; a new one is born on the Internet every
means more sender profit. Hence, it pays individuals minute.
to spam. The logical goal of spam generators is to
reach all users to maximize hits at no extra cost. Yet Ethics
the system cannot sustain this. With 23 million
businesses in America alone, if each sent just one Online society seems unlikely to make people more
unsolicited message a year to all users, that is over ethical than they are in physical society, so it seems
63,000 e-mails per person per day. Spam seems the unlikely spammers will see the light any time soon.
electronic equivalent of the tragedy of the com-
mons (Hardin, 1968), where some farmers, each Barriers
with some cows and land, live near a common grass
area. The tragedy is that if the farmers calculate Currently the most popular response to spam is spam
their benefits, they all graze the commons, which is filters, but spammers need only 100 takers per 10
destroyed from overuse. In this situation, individual million requests to earn a profit (Weiss, 2003), much
temptation can undermine a public-good commons. less than a 0.01% hit rate. So even with 99.99%
For spam, the public good is free online commu- successful spam blockers, spam transmission will
nication, and the commons is the wires, storage, and increase.
processors of the Internet. The individual temptation
is to use the commons for personal gain. E-mail Revenge
creates value by exchanging meaning between
people. As spam increases, e-mail gives less mean- One way users handled companies faxing annoying
ing for more effort, that is, less value. Losses include unsolicited messages was by bombing them with
wasted processing, storage, and lines; ignore time return faxes, shutting down their fax machines. For
(time to reject spam); antispam software costs; time e-mail, ISPs, not senders, are registered. If we
to resolve spam false positives; time to confirm spam isolate ISPs that allow spam, this penalizes valid
challenges; important messages lost by spam; and users as well as spammers. Lessig (1999) argued
unknown lost opportunity costs from messages not before the U.S. Supreme Court for a bounty on
sent because spam raises the user cost to send a spammers, like bounty hunters in the Old West
message (Reid, Malinek, Stott, & T., 1996). E-mail (Bazeley, 2003). However, the cyberspace Wild
lowered this communication threshold, but spam West is not inside America, nor under U.S. courts.
makes communication harder by degrading the e- And do we really want an online vigilante society?
mail commons. If half of Internet traffic is spam, the
Internet is half wasted, and for practical purposes, Third-Party Guarantees
half destroyed. Spam seems to be an electronic
tragedy of the commons. Another approach is for a trusted third party to
validate all e-mail. The Tripoli method requires all e-
mails to contain an encrypted guarantee from a third
SOME SPAM RESPONSES party that it is not spam (Weinstein, 2003). However,
custodian methods require significant coordination
If spam is a traditional social problem in electronic and raise Juvenals question, Quis custodiet ipsos
clothes, why not use traditional social responses? custodies [Who will watch our watchers]? Will
560
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
stakeholders like the Direct Marketing Association number shown in this graphic. Since most spam is
or Microsoft guarantee against spam? If spam is in computer generated, and most spammers will not 5
the eye of the beholder, such companies may con- accept replies (lest they be spammed in return),
sider their spam not spam at all. such methods work well, but users communicate
twice to receive once.
Legal Responses
An E-Mail Charge
Why not just pass a law against spam? This approach
may not work for several reasons (Whitworth & One way to change the communication environ-
deMoor, 2003). First, virtual worlds work differently ment is to charge for e-mail. This would hit
from the physical world. Applying laws online cre- spammers pockets, but also reduce general usage
ates problems; for example, financial and health-care by increasing the communication threshold (Kraut,
organizations by law must archive all communica- Shyam, Morris, Telang, Filer, & Cronin, 2002).
tions so must not only receive spam, but also store it What would be the purpose of a charge, however
(Paulson, 2003). It is difficult to stretch physical law small? An Internet toll would add no new service as
into cyberspace (Samuelson, 2003). Legal prosecu- e-mail already works without such charges. Its sole
tions require physical evidence, an accused, and a purpose would be to punish spammers by slowing
plaintiff, yet spam evidence is in a malleable the flow for everyone. A variant is that all senders
cyberspace, e-mail sources are easily spoofed to compute a time-costly function (Dwork & Naor,
hide the accused, and the plaintiff is everyone with an 1993), but the effect is still to increase the transmis-
e-mail address. What penalties apply when each sion cost. Increasing across-the-board e-mail costs
individual loses so little? Second, virtual worlds change seems like burning down your house to prevent
faster than physical worlds. Spam can mutate in break-ins. If e-mail were metered, we would all pay
form, for example, Internet messaging spam or for something already paid for. Who would receive
spim. Any spam variant would require new laws, each payment? If senders paid receivers, each e-
yet while society takes years to pass laws, the mail would be a money transfer. The cost of admin-
Internet can change monthly. Third, in cyberspace, istering such a system could outweigh its benefit,
code is law (Mitchell, 1995). Software can make and who would set the charge rate? If e-mail
spammers anonymous or generate new addresses so providers took the charge, it would be an e-mail tax,
quickly that bans have no effect. Finally, laws are but what global entity can legitimately claim it?
limited by jurisdiction; for example, state laws against Making the Internet a field of profit could open it to
telemarketers were ineffective against out-of-state corruption. Spam works because e-mail costs so
calls, and the U.S. nationwide do-not-call list is little, but that is also why the Internet works. Fast,
ineffective against overseas calls. U.S. law applies easy, and free communication has benefited us all.
to U.S. soil, but spam can come from any country. To raise the communication threshold by charging
Traditional law seems too physically constrained, too for what we already have seems retrogressive. A
slow, and too impotent to deal with the spam chal- solution that reduces spam but leaves the Internet
lenge. As Ken Korman (2003, p. 3) concedes, Though advantage intact is to design for fair communication
legislative efforts to control spam continue, it is in the first place.
unlikely that new laws will have any real effect on the
problem. PC World adds, By all accounts, CAN-
SPAM has failed to stop the e-mail inundation LEGITIMATE COMMUNICATION
(Spring, 2004, p. 24).
Spam is an opportunity as well as a threat. The
Challenge Systems challenge is to close the social-technical gap
(Ackerman, 2000) between society and technol-
Challenge systems, like MailBlocks (2003), ask e- ogy. Traditional social methods, like the law, are
mail senders, Are you really a person? If so, type the struggling to do this. An alternative is for technol-
561
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
ogy to support society rather than being impartial to Who Owns E-Mail Messages?
social needs. The Internet was once thought to be
innately ungovernable, but it could just as easily From a social-rights perspective, e-mail is a request,
become a system of perfect regulation and control not a requirement, to receive a message. Receivers
(Lessig, 1999). If in cyberspace code, not law, should be able to refuse ownership after reading it,
makes the rules, it makes sense to design social perhaps via an e-mail toolbar rejection button. The
software to support legitimate interaction, that is, receiver does not own a rejected message (by
social exchanges that are both fair to individuals and definition), and the transmission system does not
beneficial to the social group (Whitworth & own it, so it belongs to the sender who created it and,
Whitworth, 2004). This raises the question of whether as with postal mail, should be returned to the sender.
spam is legitimate communication. This does not happen because e-mail was designed
as a forward-and-forget system, so replies to
Is Spam Legitimate Communication? spammers may go nowhere (Cranor & LaMacchia,
1998), one reason the spam-the-spammer approach
Spam is unfair because senders have all the trans- does not work (Held, 1998).
mission choices, just like telemarketers who have The social logic that communication is a two-way
your home phone number but invariably refuse to process implies that receiving back rejected e-mail
give you theirs. They call you at home, but you should be a necessary condition of transmission.
cannot call them at home. Spammers waste others Rejected spam would then return down the senders
time, but this is irrelevant to them because it is not communication lines to their computer, creating
their loss. Yet the loss is still real, and it is unfair that spammer disk and channel costs. It seems ineffi-
those who cause it do not bear it, that those who cient to return rejected messages that can be deleted
suffer spam are not its creators. at delivery, but supporting social accountability in the
Spam is unprofitable to society if its total losses long term both reduces waste and tells senders an e-
exceed its total profit. If 90% of people spammed do mail was rejected. Currently, spammers do not know
not buy, do their losses balance the gains of the 10% who reads their messages and who does not. If
who buy? What if 99.9% do not buy? There is a rejected e-mail were returned, it would pay spammers
saturation point when spams losses outweigh its to reduce their lists and give them the information
benefits. We seem well past that point already. By needed to do so. The right to reject e-mail is a social
one estimate, it costs about $250 to send a million e- requirement. Implementing it is an engineering prob-
mails, which cause about $2,800 in lost wages to lem. The e-mail transmission system controls both
society in general (Emery, 2003). Spammers steal the pieces of the communication game and the board
time, which in todays world equates to money. itself. It should be able to enforce a rule that to send
Some see it as a mild crime, like littering on the into the system, one must also receive from it.
Internet, but when litter blocks the streets, there is
concern. Over millions of people the productivity Who Owns Communication Channels?
loss is significant, as a cyber thief taking a few cents
from millions of bank accounts can steal a sizable Current systems give any sender the automatic right
sum. to open a channel to another. Yet society gives no
If spam is unfair to individuals and harmful to such right to communicate, but rather the right to be
online society, it is illegitimate communication on left alone (Warren & Brandeis, 1890). The social
two counts. concept is that one is not forced to communicate. To
pursue undesired interaction is to harass or stalk. If
Communication Rights someone knocks on our door, we need not answer.
If they telephone, we need not pick up. But we get
The method of legitimacy analysis (Whitworth & e-mail in our inbox, like it or not.
deMoor, 2003) asks, Who owns the elements of e- E-mail systems could present new messages in
mail communication: the messages, channels, and two parts: an initial Can I talk to you? channel
addresses?
562
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
563
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
spammers every reason to do what they are doing, Bazeley, M. (2003, April 26). New weapon for
and no reason to stop. spam: Bounty. Mercury News. Retrieved from http:/
If the social-technical gap were reduced, spam /www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/
would also reduce. If e-mail could be returned to the 5725404.htm
sender and really arrive there, spam would reduce.
Bekker, S. (2003, October 14). Spam to cost U.S.
If spammers had to knock before entering an in-
companies $10 billion in 2003. ENTNews. Retrieved
box, spam would reduce. If e-mail users could
from http://www.entmag.com/news/article.asp?
remove themselves from e-mail lists, spam would
EditorialsID=5651
reduce.
Such legitimacy-based changes have a unique Boutin, P. (2004, April 19). Can e-mail be saved?
property: They do not selectively discriminate spam Infoworld, pp. 41-53.
or spammers. They would apply to all of us equally.
Everyones personal data would be their personal Cranor, L. F., & LaMacchia, B. A. (1998). Spam!
property. Anyone could converse or not. Any e-mail Communications of the ACM, 41(8), 74-83.
could be rejected, not just spam. The goal is legiti- Davidson, P. (2003, April 17). Facing dip in subscrib-
mate interaction, not punishment or revenge, to ers, America Online steps up efforts to block spam.
reduce unwanted mail from all of us, not just USA Today, p. 3B.
spammers.
Dennis, A. R., & Valacich, J. S. (1999). Rethinking
media richness: Towards a theory of media
CONCLUSION synchronicity. Proceedings of the 32 nd Hawaii
International Conference on System Sciences.
These conclusions can be summarized as follows. Dodge, M., & Kitchin, R. (2001). Mapping
cyberspace. London: Routledge.
1. Technology advances alone, like filters, will not
in the long run reduce spam. Dwork, C., & Naor, M. (Eds.). (1993). Pricing via
2. Traditional social solutions alone, like the law, processing or combating junk mail. In Lecture notes
will work poorly in cyberspace. in computer science: Vol. 74. Advances in
3. Spam is a social problem that requires a social cryptology: Crypto 92 (pp. 139-147). New York:
solution. SpringerVerlag.
4. The technical architecture of social-technical Emery, T. (2003, January 27). Meeting takes aim at
systems must support social requirements for spam. The Beacon Journal. Retrived from http://
social solutions to work. www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/business/
5028845.htm
The growing flood of spam from spam-generat-
ing to spam-filtering machinesinformation without Gibson, W. (1984). Neuromancer. London:
meaning sent from no one to no oneseems a good HarperCollins.
place to start facing the social-technical challenge. Hall, R. J. (1998). How to avoid unwanted e-mail.
Communications of the ACM, 3(41), 88-95.
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Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
Retrieved from http://www.cs.columbia.edu/ Spring, T. (2003, November 11). Spam slayer: Laws
~hauben/netbook/ wont solve everything. PC World. Retreived from 5
http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/
Held, G. (1998). Spam the spammer. International
0,aid,113329,tk,dnWknd,00.asp
Journal of Network Management, 8, 69.
Spring, T. (2004, April). Spam wars rage. PC World,
Hiltz, S. R., & Turoff, M. (1985). Structuring com-
pp. 24-26.
puter-mediated communication systems to avoid
information overload. Communications of the ACM, Taylor, C. (2003, June 16). Spams big bang. Time,
28(7), 680-689. pp. 50-53.
Ivey, K. C. (1998). Spam: The plague of junk e-mail. Vaughan-Nichols, S. J. (2003). Saving private e-
IEEE Computer Applications in Power, 11(2), 15- mail. IEEE Spectrum, 40(8), 40-44.
16.
Warren, S. D., & Brandeis, L. D. (1890). The right
Korman, K. (2003). Canning spam. netWorker, to privacy. Harvard Law Review, 4(5), 193-220.
7(2), 3.
Weinstein, L. (2003). Inside risks: Spam wars. Com-
Kraut, R. E., Shyam, S., Morris, J., Telang, R., Filer, munications of the ACM, 46(8), 136.
D., & Cronin, M. (2002). Markets for attention: Will
Weiss, A. (2003). Ending spams free ride.
postage for email help? Proceedings of CSCW 02
netWorker, 7(2), 18-24.
(pp. 206-215).
Whitworth, B., & deMoor, A. (2003). Legitimate by
Lessig, L. (1999). Code and other laws of
design: Towards trusted virtual community environ-
cyberspace. New York: Basic Books.
ments. Behaviour & Information Technology,
MailBlocks. (2003). MailBlocks is the ultimate 22(1), 31-51.
spam-blocking email service. Retrieved from http:/
Whitworth, B., Gallupe, R. B., & McQueen, R.
/about.mailblocks.com/
(2001). Generating agreement in computer-medi-
Mitchell, W. J. (1995). City of bits space, place ated groups. Small Group Research, 32(5), 625-
and the infobahn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 665.
Murrell, L. (2003). Spam is now number one source Whitworth, B., & Whitworth, E. (2004). Reducing
of unwanted network intrusions. Sunbelt Soft- spam by closing the social-technical gap. IEEE
ware. Retrieved from http://www.itsecurity.com/ Computer, 38-45.
tecsnews/jul2003/jul141.htm
Woellert, L. (2003, August 11). Out, out damned
Paulson, L. D. (2003). Group considers drastic spam. Business Week, pp. 54-56.
methods to stop spam. Computer, 36(7), 21-22.
Reid, F. J. M., Malinek, V., Stott, C. J. T. E., & KEY TERMS
Evans, J. S. B. T. (1996). The messaging threshold
in computer-mediated communication. Ergonom- Asynchronous Communication: E-mail is nor-
ics, 39(8), 1017-1037. mally considered asynchronous communication.
Synchrony has been defined as the extent to which
Rice, R. (1994). Network analysis and computer-
individuals work together on the same activity at the
mediated communication systems. In S. Wasserman
same time (Dennis & Valacich, 1999), but is e-mail
& J. Galaskiewicz (Eds.), Advances in social net-
synchronous if e-mail communicants are online at
work analysis (pp. 167-2003). Newbury Park, CA:
the same time? Another view is that synchrony
Sage.
requires instant transmission, but if e-mail became
Samuelson, P. (2003). Unsolicited communications instantaneous, would it then be synchronous? Con-
as trespass. Communications of the ACM, 46(10), versely, consider a telephone (synchronous) conver-
15-20. sation during which one party boards a rocket to
565
Spam as a Symptom of Electronic Communication Technologies that Ignore Social Requirements
Mars; as the rocket leaves, there is a transmission E-mail lowered the messaging threshold so more
delay of several minutes. Is the telephone now messages were sent than otherwise would be.
asynchronous communication? That the same me-
Computer-Mediated Communication: CMC,
dium is both synchronous and asynchronous is unde-
like e-mail, is one-to-one, asynchronous communi-
sirable. Media properties should only change when
cation mediated by electronic means. List e-mail
the medium changes; that is, they should be defined
seems to be many-to-many communication, but the
in media terms, not sender-receiver or transmission
transmission system simply duplicates one-to-one
terms. The asynchronous-synchronous difference is
transmissions. In true one-to-many transmissions,
whether the medium stores the message or not. In
like a bulletin board, one communication operation is
this, e-mail remains asynchronous no matter how
transmitted to many people (e.g., posting a mes-
fast it is, and telephone synchronous no matter how
sage).
slow it is. The asynchrony is between receiver and
medium, not receiver and sender. The opposite is Computer-Mediated Interaction: Computer-
ephemerality, in which signals must be processed on mediated interaction (CMI) is interaction mediated
arrival. by electronic means, whether between people or
computer agents.
Communication Environment: In one sense,
technology operates in a physical environment, but Cyberspace: Space is central to our lives,
for computer-mediated communication, technology whether virtual or physical (Dodge & Kitchin, 2001).
is the environment, that is, that through which com- Gibson (1984) coined the term cyberspace from the
munication occurs. Telephone, CMC, and face to Greek kyber (to navigate), describing a nonphysical
face (FTF) are all equally communication environ- space (the matrix) that substituted for reality.
ments. FTF is mediated by the physical world just as Today, it means the electronic environment that
CMC is mediated by technology. One cannot com- enables computer-mediated interaction. Cyberspace
pare environments as one does objects in an environ- removes the physical space constraints of human
ment. To judge one environment by another is like interaction (Hauben, 1995) but is still a space, albeit
saying the problem with America is that it is not of a different kind. Physical space locates us to a
England. Describing e-mail as distributed rather three-number coordinate position. Cyberspace also
than colocated is like this. If distributed e-mail locates us to a unique URL (uniform resource
correspondents magically colocate in the same room, locator) position. While physical locations have dif-
what changes? In their environment, nothing changes fering distances between them, points in cyberspace
at all. E-mail is not distributed or colocated because seem equally distant. If one moves through
physical space does not exist in cyberspace. Nor do cyberspace by mouse clicks, cyberspace points could
environments perform as objects do. Imagine a new have distances between them. In theory, every
environment called underwater. Users find walk- cyberspace point is one click from every other, but
ing underwater painfully slow, then find a new way in practice, this is not so. Research on the diameter
of moving (swimming) that fits the environment of the World Wide Web suggests an average of 19
better, inventing flippers to support it. Now the new links between random points (Albert, Jeong, &
world seems better. Asking which environment is Barabassi, 1999).
better at walking is inappropriate. Cross-media stud-
ies (CMC vs. FTF) make this mistake of analysing False Positive: A filtering system can make
electronic communication in face-to-face terms (Hiltz two types of errors: false acceptance and false
& Turoff, 1985). A better approach is within-envi- rejection. The latter is a false positive. A spam filter
ronment research designs (Whitworth, Gallupe, & can wrongly let spam through, or wrongly filter real e-
McQueen, 2001). mail as spam. In false acceptance, it is not doing its
job, while in false positives, it is doing it too well.
Communication Threshold: The acceptable Decreasing one type of error tends to increase the
user cost to send a message (Reid et al., 1996). If the other, as with Type I and Type II errors in experimen-
cost to send a message is less than the individuals tal design. As the spam-filter catch rate rises above
messaging threshold, it is sent. Otherwise, it is not. 99.99%, the number of false positives also rises.
566
567
Gregorio Convertino
The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Eileen Trauth
The Pennsylvania State University, USA
John M. Carroll
The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Supporting Culture in Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
thing that a group of people thinks, says, does and Current Research in HCI and Information
makesits systems of attitudes and feelings. Cul- System
ture is learned and transmitted from generation to
generation (Kohls, 1996, p. 23). Two distinct per- HCI researchers have investigated how cultural
spectives on culture are represented in the literature: factors may affect design and evaluation of single-
culture is relatively constant vs. culture is variable user applications (Barber & Badre, 1998; Marcus,
and situated. The major advocate of the first per- 2000; Marcus & Gould, 2000; Sheppard & Scholtz,
spective (i.e., culture is a constant entity based on 1999). The research in this domain has focused on
shared assumptions) is Hofstede (1980), who de- research issues such as cultural usability (Barber &
fines culture as the collective programming of the Badre, 1998) and the design of intercultural user
mind which distinguishes the members of one group interfaces (UI) (Marcus, 2000). An instance of the
or category of people from another (p. 25). Re- impact of culture on UI design pertains to the
searchers who hold the first perspective on culture meaning of colors. The color red, for example, in
also define culture as beliefs, values, and assump- some cultures is associated with danger, anger, and
tions that are reflected in artifacts, symbols, and so forth (Dix & Mynatt, 2004). In other cultures,
behaviors (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1963). Schein such as in China, it is more commonly associated
(1992) defined organizational culture as a set of with happiness and good luck. Designing UI for
implicit assumptions shared within the group that multicultural audiences may require interfaces that
determines its perspective of and reaction to various adapt the standards to the cultural context of the
environments. specific audiences.
The other perspective on culture characterizes it Several IS (MIS) studies have investigated the
as variable, historically situated, and evolving with influence of cultural factors on the use of informa-
the context. Rather than being a holistic and rela- tion systems. Table 1, reproduced from Ward and
tively stable entity, culture is seen as fragmented, Ward (2002), summarizes a number of studies on
variable, contentious, and in-the-making (Brightman, GSS and culture. Setting future agendas for IS
1985; Prus, 1997). The values and attitudes of the research at the group level of analysis, Walsham
working group affect the behavior of the group, (2000) observed, There are clear agendas here for
whose collective patterns of behavior contributes to IS researchers to investigate in more detail the role
the group culture. The group culture, in return, has of groupware in multi-cultural contexts (p. 204).
significant impact on the values and attitudes of the
group. This cyclic relationship is true for not only Culture Issue in CSCW and Groupware
working groups or organizations but also for nations
(Davison & Jordan, 1996). Located between HCI and IS research, CSCW has
given increasing attention to cultural factors in CSCW
and groupware. CSCW researchers have acknowl-
BACKGROUND edged the relevance of culture to appropriately
design groupware and to successfully support coop-
Culture: A Research Issue in Multiple erative work. For example, Olson and Olson (2001)
Disciplines have observed that remote teams misunderstand
each other because of cultural differences. Dix and
In this section, we review studies from different his colleagues have observed that lack of consider-
research fields that have investigated the role of ation for different cultural perceptions and habits
culture in computer technology. We first describe about personal space (proxemics) may have un-
prior research in HCI and IS (or MIS) literature. pleasant effects in cross-cultural meetings (Dix &
Then, we focus on studies that have accounted for Mynatt, 2004). The following section discusses two
cultural factors in CSCW and groupware. distinctive examples of system design that support
cross-cultural communication.
568
Supporting Culture in Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
Table 1. Research on GSS and culture (reproduced from Ward and Ward, 2002)
5
Author Activity Results Groups
Researched
Tan et al. Influence of Status influence altered
(1993) minority source
Aiken et al. Effective use of Effective regardless of culture of language Malaysia
(1993) technology and
American
groups
Watson et al. Adoption of Culture will shape adoption of GSS features Singapore
(1994) technology Meeting designers need to match tools and and US
communication to meeting goals and cultural groups
norms
Niederman New technology Reaction similar
(1997) New meeting Some differences
norms
Aitkinson and Anonymity Higher productivity Four
Pervan (1998) national
groups
Abdat and Indonesian
Pervan (1999) groups
Anderson Cognitive conflict No difference for pre-meeting consensus, Multicultural
(2000) task influence equality, and post-meeting consensus and US
No difference for consensus change groups
Higher levels of perceived process gains,
perceived decision satisfaction, perceived
decision process satisfaction, and perceived
quality of discussion
569
Supporting Culture in Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
base cannot reflect the dynamic features of culture and Vygotsky draws on Marxs historical material-
(specifically referring to the cultural factors that ism and focuses on the function of culture in human
significantly affect group collaboration). For ex- development by considering the contributions of
ample, things that normally would cause miscommu- cultural artifacts, historical development, and prac-
nication because of cultural differences between the tical activity (Cole, 1998). Activity theory was born
communicators rather may be understood well be- from this perspective, where the primary unit of
cause one has been exposed to the others culture analysis is the activity (i.e., the fundamental type of
for an extended period of time. In this case, a culture context) (Bdker, 1991; Korpela, Mursu & Soriyan,
translator may not be useful for communication. 2001). Building on this basis, Engestrm (1987) has
Instead, the existence of a translator may be an depicted the intertwined relationships among sub-
obstacle for communicators to learn each others ject, object, and community of the activity through a
culture, which could be a positive outcome of cross- triangular model (Figure 1). The central subject-
cultural communication. Compared to CTA, the object-community triangle then is extended to in-
approach of Okamoto et al. (2002) takes into ac- clude sociocultural forms of mediation: instruments,
count the dynamic features of culture (e.g., an rules, and division of labor (Engestrm, 1987).
individuals culture literacy and experience are pro- Supporting collaborators awareness has been a
vided on the large screen, and communicators are central concern for CSCW researchers. Globally,
able to see each other and communicate directly). three major forms of awareness have been studied
Thus, the system supports cross-cultural communi- in CSCW research: social awareness (who is
cation by providing individual cultural background present), action awareness (what are they doing),
information while simultaneously enabling face-to- and the more general awareness of the entire activ-
face communication. ity (Carroll, Neale, Isenhour, Rosson & McCrickard,
We believe that appropriately supporting cross- 2003). With the aim of accounting for cultural fac-
cultural coordination represents a new challenge for tors in group cooperation, we suggest the inclusion of
CSCW design. In fact, people from different cul- cultural mediation as part of the activity awareness
tures may have different value systems and attitudes concept. Specifically, drawing on Engestrms (1987)
toward the same activity (e.g., expectations and activity model, we propose a comprehensive con-
assumptions on labor division and deadlines), differ- cept of awareness in CSCW, which accounts for
ent understanding of rules of the group, and so forth. collaborators awareness of cultural mediators, such
Such differences generally affect both work rela- as group norms and rules, division of labor, and
tionships and group performance. collaborative tools.
However, Engestrms (1987) model is based on
the assumption of a single, shared cultural context.
FUTURE TRENDS This model needs to be extended in order to describe
and explain collaborative phenomena among people
Activity Theory: A Useful Theoretical of different cultures. In fact, different cultures gen-
Tool erally imply different artifacts, rules, and ways of
dividing labor.
Activity theory is a useful tool to understand cultural Cross-cultural collaboration requires the addi-
mediation in human activities. In agreement with tional task of negotiating meanings at a cultural level.
ecological approaches to HCI and in contrast to Future research issues about awareness of cultural
individual-centric theories, activity theory empha- mediation in CSCW include the study of awareness
sizes the connection rather than the separation be- breakdowns due to lack of visibility or misunder-
tween human cognition and human action (Bdker, standings about cultural differences; the study of the
2003). Culture is viewed as a primary mediator in process of building common ground (Clark &
human activities. Brennan, 1991) in cross-cultural settings; and the
The cultural-historical approach put forth by study of the influence of cultural background infor-
Russian cultural-historical scholars Leontiev, Luria, mation on group performance.
570
Supporting Culture in Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
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Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Supporting Navigation and Learning in Educational Hypermedia
Learning depends on the construction of stable visual cues (spatial separation, clustering, bordering,
and usable mental representations of knowledge. connecting lines, etc.). 5
From an educational perspective, how do we induce
such representations? When presenting factual (e.g.,
some apples are red) or demonstrable (e.g., gravity THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GRAPHIC
makes things fall downward) information, creating ORGANIZERS
an appropriate mental representation is a matter of
relying on these physical aspects of the world to Although not all studies support the positive effects
stand as mental representations to be stored, ma- of graphic organizers (e.g., Farris, Jones, & Elgin,
nipulated, or retrieved. The creation of mental rep- 2002; Stanton, Taylor, & Tweedie, 1992), in the
resentations for abstract and complex ideas is not as hypermedia literature, there are many examples of
straightforward. In the cognitive-psychology litera- the usefulness of graphic organizers. For instance,
ture, it is suggested that people often use spatial Stanny and Salvendy (1995) found that the perfor-
structures as metaphors to reason out the relational mance of low-spatial-ability users could be im-
attributes of a set of abstract elements, attributes proved to the level of high-spatial-ability users by
that are not observable (Gattis, 2001). Research providing a 2-D (two-dimensional) hierarchical struc-
across several bodies of literature (educational psy- ture as a guide for users. Allen (2000) found that
chology, information science, instructional technol- low-spatial-ability users performed better when pro-
ogy) suggests that the arrangement of visual infor- vided with a word map: a configuration that showed
mation in particular in a hypermedia interface can the relationships between words in a bibliographic
impact both navigation (Allen, 2000; Boechler & collection.
Dawson, 2002; Chen, 2000; Westerman & Cribbin, McDonald and Stevenson (1999) reported on
2000) and learning (Boechler & Shaddock, 2004; two studies examining the effects of navigational
Mayer & Sims, 1994; Moreno & Mayer, 1999). In aids on navigation and learning. The first study
both cases, a successful spatial or visual arrange- indicated that providing a spatial map improved
ment should make salient the relations between navigation performance over using a content list or
semantic elements in the document. Concerning no navigation tool. In this case, the map consisted of
navigation, in the information-science literature, Dillon labels with connecting lines indicating the links be-
(2000) proposes a spatial and semantic model to tween nodes. Navigation performance was mea-
explain hypermedia navigation processes. The spa- sured by task time and the number of extraneous
tial and semantic model assumes all information pages accessed. However, this type of spatial map
spaces convey structural cues that are both spatial did not improve recall for the document material.
and semantic in nature, and that different user The second study showed that providing a spatial
characteristics and contexts determine which type map that also included link descriptions that showed
of cues will be relied on in relation to one another. the conceptual relations between the pages im-
Similarly, in the educational-psychology literature, proved learning.
Mayer and Sims propose a dual-coding theory to Boechler and Shaddock (2004) found that the
explain learning in hypermedia. In the dual-coding presence of visual links between page labels in a
theory of multimedia learning, learners construct navigation tool predicted incidental learning of mate-
referential connections between the mental repre- rial during an information-search task. Whether the
sentations of the verbal and visual information pre- navigation tool was two dimensional or three dimen-
sented within a hypermedia document. Hence, the sional did not predict these learning outcomes.
underlying assumption is that, for both navigation Nilsson and Mayer (2002) reported two studies
and learning, the impact of the visual arrangement using graphic organizers. They concluded that there
lies in the degree to which it preserves the meaning are benefits to graphic organizers, but that such
relations between different parts of the document benefits come at the expense of other aspects of
material. This mapping of verbal and visual elements performance. Specifically, a graphic organizer can
can be accomplished using multitudes of diverse assist users in navigation, but if the organizers make
575
Supporting Navigation and Learning in Educational Hypermedia
576
Supporting Navigation and Learning in Educational Hypermedia
Dillon, A. (2000). Spatial-semantics: How students Messick, S. (1976). Individuality in learning. San
derive shape from information space. Journal of Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 5
the American Society for Information Science,
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive
51(6), 521-528.
principles of multimedia learning: The role of modal-
Farris, J. S., Jones, K. S., & Elgin, P. D. (2002). ity and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psy-
Users schemata of hypermedia: What is so spa- chology, 91(2), 358-368.
tial about a Website? Interacting with Comput-
Nilsson, R. M, & Mayer, R. (2002). The effects of
ers, 14, 487-502.
graphic organizers giving cues to the structure of a
Fitzgerald, G., & Semrau, L. (1998). The effects of hypertext document on users navigation strategies
learner differences on usage patterns and learning and performance. International Journal of Hu-
outcomes with hypermedia case studies. Journal of man-Computer Studies, 57, 1-26.
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 7, 309-
Stanny, K. M., & Salvendy, G. (1995). Information
332.
visualization: Assisting low spatial individuals with
Ford, N., & Chen, S. Y. (2000). Individual differ- information access tasks through the use of visual
ences, hypermedia navigation and learning: An em- mediators. Ergonomics, 38(6), 1184-1198.
pirical study. Journal of Multimedia and
Stanton, N. A., Taylor, R. G., & Tweedie, L. A.
Hypermedia, 9(4), 281-311.
(1992). Maps as navigational aids in hypertext envi-
Gattis, M. (2001). Space as a basis for abstract ronments: An empirical evaluation. Journal of Edu-
thought. In M. Gattis (Ed.), Spatial schemas and cational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(4), 431-
abstract thought (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: MIT 444.
Press.
Tennant, M. (1988). Psychology and adult learn-
Korthauer, R. D., & Koubek, R. J. (1994). An ing. London: Routledge.
empirical evaluation of knowledge, cognitive style,
Westerman, S. J., & Cribbin, T. (2000). Mapping
and structure upon the performance of a hypermedia
semantic information in diagrams. Contemporary
task. International Journal of Human-Computer
Educational Psychology, 18, 162-185.
Interaction, 6(4), 373-390.
Lawless, K. A., & Kulikowich, J. M. (1998). Do-
main knowledge, interest and hypermedia naviga- KEY TERMS
tion: A study of individual differences. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 7(1), Cognitive Overhead: The amount of mental
51-69. resources that need to be expended to complete a
given task.
Mayer, R.E., & Sims, V. (1994). For whom is a
picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a Cognitive Style: Cognitive style has been de-
dual coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal fined as an individuals characteristic and consis-
of Educational Psychology, 86(3), 389-401. tent approach to organizing and processing informa-
tion (Tennant, 1988, p. 89).
McDonald, S., & Stevenson, R. (1998). Spatial
versus conceptual maps as learning tools in Compensatory Strategy: An educational ap-
hypermedia. Journal of Educational Hypermedia proach that focuses on providing structures that
and Multimedia, 8(1), 43-64. support and enhance learners weaknesses rather
than exploiting their strengths.
McDonald, S., & Stevenson, R. (1999). Navigation
in hyperspace: An evaluation of the effects of Disorientation: The sensation of feeling lost in
navigational tools and subject matter expertise on a hypermedia document, characterized by three
browsing and information retrieval in hypermedia. categories of the users experience: (a) The user
Interacting with Computers, 10, 129-142. does not know where to go next, (b) the user knows
577
Supporting Navigation and Learning in Educational Hypermedia
where to go but not how to get there, or (c) the user numerous types of spatial ability (e.g., scanning
does not know where he or she is in relation to the ability, visualization) that can be measured by stan-
overall structure of the document. dardized tests to detect ability differences between
learners.
Dual-Coding Theory of Multimedia Learn-
ing: A theory of learning in hypermedia (Mayer & Spatial and Semantic Model: A model of
Sims, 1994) that is a process account of how learn- hypermedia navigation proposed by Dillon (2000)
ers build mental connections between the verbal that is based on the notion of an information space
material, the visual material (e.g., images or dia- for users: The concept of shape assumes that an
grams), and the meaning that links the two together. information space of any size has both spatial and
semantic characteristics. That is, as well as identify-
Spatial Ability: Spatial ability refers to a persons
ing placement and layout, users directly recognize
ability to perceive, retain, and mentally manipulate
and respond to content and meaning (p. 523).
different kinds of spatial information. There are
578
579
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
The Purpose of a Task Analysis is more likely to be concerned with complex and
difficult tasks, and important and critical ones, and,
Task analysis has many applications that have noth- when a system is in use, tasks during which failures
ing to do with computer systems. Even when used in or problems have occurred. Wong (2004) describes
HCI (human-computer interaction), however, task his critical decision method as one way of dealing
analysis can contribute to all the stages of the with the latter types of tasks.
software-development life cycle. In addition, task Unless there are overriding constraints within a
analysis can make major contributions to other ele- software project, then task analysts should expect,
ments associated with software development, in and accept, the need to be iterative and repeatedly
particular the preparation of user-support systems select more tasks for analysis. Since the coverage of
such as manuals and help systems, and for training, all possible tasks can rarely be complete, there is a
which was the original application of hierarchical need for a systematic task selection approach. There
task analysis (HTA; Annett & Duncan, 1967; Annett, are two issues of coverage: first, the range of tasks
Duncan, Stammers, & Gray, 1971). HTA was the selected, and second, the range of different ways
first method that attempted to model some of the that tasks may be carried out, both successfully and
psychology of people performing tasks. unsuccessfully.
Although infrequently documented, identifying One criticism of task analysis is that it requires
the purposes for using task analysis in a software extant tasks. On the other hand, all tasks subjected
project must be the first step (Diaper, 1989a) be- to task analysis are only simulations as, even when
cause this will determine the task selection, the observed in situ, a Hiesenberg effect (Diaper, 1989b)
method to be used, the nature of the outputs, and the can occur whereby the act of observation changes
level of analysis detail necessary. The latter is vital the task. Often, it is desirable to simulate tasks so
because too much detailed data that does not subse- that unusual, exceptional, and/or important task in-
quently contribute to a project will have been expen- stances can be studied and, of course, when a new
sive to collect, and too high a level will require system or prototype is not available.
further iterations to allow more detailed analysis
(Diaper, 1989b, 2004). Decomposition-orientated Collecting Task Data
methods such as HTA partially overcome the level-
of-detail problem, but at the expense of collecting There are many myths about task analysis (Diaper et
more task data during analysis. Collecting task data al., 2003), and one of the most persistent involves the
is often an expensive business, and access to the detailed observation of people performing tasks. Some-
relevant people is not always easy (Coronado & times, task-analysis data do involve such observation,
Casey, 2004; Degen & Pedell, 2004; Greenberg, but they need not, and often it is inappropriate even
2004). Within a software-development life cycle, with an existing system and experienced users.
Diaper (2004) has suggested that one identify all the Johnson, Diaper, and Long (1984; see also Dia-
stages to which a task analysis will contribute and per, 1989b, 2001) claim that one of the major strengths
then make selections on the basis of where its traditionally associated with task analysis is its capa-
contribution will be greatest. bility to integrate different data types collected using
different methods. The critical concept is that of
Identifying Tasks fidelity. According to Diaper (2002a, 2002b), fidel-
ity, a close synonym is validity, is the degree of
In the context of task scenarios, which Diaper mapping that exists between the real world and the
(2002a, 2002b) describes as low fidelity task simu- world modelled by the (task) simulation, although
lations, Carroll (2000) rightly points out that there as he says parenthetically, N.B. slightly more accu-
is an infinity of possible usage scenarios. Thus, only rately perhaps, from a solipsistic position, it is the
a sample of tasks can be analysed. The tasks chosen mapping between one model of the assumed real
will depend on the task analysis purpose. For new world and another.
systems, one usually starts with typical tasks. For At one end of the task-fidelity spectrum there is
existing systems and well-developed prototypes, one careful, detailed task observation, and at the other,
580
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
when using scenarios of novel future systems, task stood in that it produces, by top-down decomposi-
data may exist only in task analysts imagination. tion, a hierarchy of goals, and these are often 6
Between, there is virtually every possible way of confused with physical or other cognitive activities.
collecting data: by interviews, questionnaires, classi- HTA uses rules to allow the goal hierarchy to be
fication methods such as card sorting, ethnography, traversed. Analyses such as HTA provide a basic
participative design, and so forth. Cordingley (1989) analysis (Kieras) that can then be used by methods
provides a reasonable summary of many such meth- such as GOMS. While often perceived as too
ods. The primary constraint on such methods is one complicated, it is claimed that GOMS provides good
of perspective, maintaining a focus on task perfor- predictive adequacy of both task times and errors.
mance. For example, Diaper (1990) describes the There are between 20 and 200 task analysis
use of task-focused interviews as an appropriate methods depending on how one counts them. This
source of data for a requirements analysis of a new presents a problem as different methods have dif-
generation of specialised computer systems that were ferent properties and are suitable for different
some years away from development. purposes. An agreed taxonomy of methods for
method selection is still unavailable. In Diaper and
Task Analysis and Task Representation Stanton (2004a), there are half a dozen different
taxonomies. Diaper (2004), rather depressingly,
The main representation used by virtually all task suggests, in practice, people either choose a task
analysis methods is the activity list, although it goes analysis method with which they are familiar or
by many other names such as a task protocol or they use something that looks like HTA.
interaction script. An activity list is a prose descrip- Limbourg and Vanderdonkt (2004) produced a
tion of one or more tasks presented as a list that taxonomy of nine task analysis methods, abridged in
usually has a single action performed by an agent on Table 1. The methods have been reorganized so that
each line. Each action on an activity-list line may they increase in both complexity and expressiveness
involve one or more objects, either as the target of the down the table. References and further descriptions
action or as support for the action, that is, as a tool. can be found in Diaper and Stanton (2004a).
An important component of an activity list should be As can be seen from Table 1, there is no ac-
the identification of triggers (Dix, Ramduny-Ellis, & cepted terminology across task analysis methods.
Wilkinson, 2004). While most tasks do possess some An exception, noted by Diaper and Stanton (2004b),
sequences of activity list lines in which the successful is that of goals and their decomposition and
completion of an action performed on one line trig- generalisation.
gers the next, there are many cases when some A number of recent attempts have been made to
event, either physical or psychological, causes one of classify tasks into a small number of subtasks
two or more possible alternatives to occur. (Carroll, 2000; Sutcliffe, 2003; Ormerod & Shep-
Diaper (2004) suggests that an activity list is herd, 2004). The latters subgoal template (SGT)
sometimes sufficient to meet a task analysis pur- method, for example, classifies all information han-
poses. He suggests that one of the main reasons for dling tasks into just four types: act, exchange,
the plethora of task analysis methods is the volume of navigate, and monitor. Underneath this level, they
data represented in the activity list format, often tens, have then identified 11 task elements. The general
if not hundreds, of pages. As Benyon and Macaulay idea is to simplify analysis by allowing the easy
(2002) discuss, the role of task analysis methods identification of subtasks, which can sometimes be
applied to activity lists is not only to reduce the sheer reused from previous analyses.
amount of the data, but to allow the data to be
abstracted to create a conceptual model for designers.
The two oldest and most widely cited task-analy- TASK ANALYSIS AT THE HEART OF
sis methods are HTA (Annett, 2003, 2004; Shepherd, HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
2001), and goals, operators, methods, and selection
rules (GOMS; Card, Moran, & Newell, 1983; John & Diaper and Stanton (2004b) claim that [t]oday,
Kieras, 1996; Kieras, 2004). HTA is often misunder- task analysis is a mess. Introducing Diaper (2002c),
581
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
Table 1. An abridged classification of some task analysis methods (based on Limbourg & Vanderdonkt,
2004)
Kilgour suggests that Diaper should consider the Work is achieved by the work system making
rise, fall and renaissance of task analysis. While changes to the application domain. The
Diaper argues that really there has been no such fall, application domain is that part of the assumed
Kilgour is right that there was a cultural shift within real world that is relevant to the functioning of
HCI in the 1990s away from explicitly referring to the work system. A work system in HCI consists of
task analysis. Diapers oft-repeated argument has one or more human and computer components
been that whatever it is called, analysing tasks has and usually many other sorts of thing as well.
remained essential and at the heart of virtually all Tasks are the means by which the work system
HCI work. Diaper (2002a, 2002b) comments, It changes the application domain. Goals are
may well be that Carroll is correct if he believes that desired future states of the application domain
many in the software industry are disenchanted with that the work system should achieve by the tasks
task analysisIt may well be that the semantic it carries out. The work systems performance is
legacy of the term task analysis is such that deemed satisfactory as long as it continues to
alternatives are now preferable. achieve its goals in the application domain. Task
analysis is the study of how work is achieved by
tasks.
TASK ANALYSIS TODAY
Most models and representations used in soft-
Central to Diapers current definition of task analy- ware engineering and HCI are declarative; that is,
sis, and the primary reason why task analysis is at they describe things and some of the relationships
the heart of virtually all HCI work, is the concept of between things, but not the processes that transform
performance. His definition (Diaper, 2004; Diaper things over time. For example, data-flow diagrams
et al., 2003) is as follows: are atemporal and acausal and specify only that data
582
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
may flow, but not when and under what circum- technological artefacts that possess goals and other
stances. In contrast, it is essential, for all successful cognitive properties, but the work system, which 6
task-analytic approaches, that performance is mod- usually has both human and nonhuman components.
eled because tasks are about achieving work.
Based on Dowell and Longs (1989) and Longs
(1997) general HCI design problem, Diapers (2004) FUTURE TRENDS
systemic task analysis (STA) approach emphasizes
the performance of systems. While STA is offered While recognising the difficulty, perhaps impossibil-
as a method, it is more of an approach in that it deals ity, of reliably predicting the future, Diaper and
with the basics of undertaking the early stages of a Stanton (2004b) suggest that one can reasonably
task analysis and then allows other analysis methods predict possible futures, plural. They propose that
and their representations to be generated from its [f]our clusters of simulated future scenarios for
activity list output. The advantage of STA over most task analysis organized post hoc by whether an
other task analysis methods is that it models systems agreed theory, vocabulary, etc., for task analysis
and, particularly, the performance of the work sys- emerges and whether task analysis methods become
tem. STA allows the boundary definition of a work more integrated in the future. While not predicting
system to change during a task so that different which future or combination will occur, or when,
constituent subtasks involve differently defined work they are however confident that [p]eople will al-
systems, and these may also be differently defined ways be interested in task analysis, for task analysis
for the same events, thus allowing alternative per- is about the performance of work, even though
spectives. they admit that [l]ess certain is whether it will be
The novelty of STAs view of work systems is called task analysis in the future.
threefold. First, as the agent of change that performs Probably because of its long history, there is an
work, a work system in HCI applications is not undoubted need for the theoretical basics that under-
usually anthropocentric, but a collection of things, pin the task concept and task analysis to be revisited,
only some of them human, that operate together to as Diaper (2004) attempts to do for the development
change the application domain. Second, it is the work of STA. Diaper and Stanton (2004b) also suggest
system that possesses goals concerning the desired that some metamethod of task analysis needs to be
changes to the application domain rather than the developed and that more attention needs to be
goals being exclusively possessed by people. Third, placed on a wide range of types of validation, theory,
STA is not monoteleological, insisting that work is methods, and content, and also on methods predic-
never achieved to satisfy a single goal, but rather it tive capability to support design and for other engi-
states that there are always multiple goals that neering purposes (Annett, 2002; Stanton, 2002;
combine, trade off, and interact in subtle, complex Stanton & Young, 1999). At least two other areas
ways. need to be addressed in the future: first, how work is
STAs modeling of complex work systems has defined, and second, the currently ubiquitous con-
recently been supported by Hollnagel (2003b) in cept of goals.
cognitive task design (CTD); he claims that cogni- Task analysis has always been concerned with
tion is not defined as a psychological process unique the achievement of work. The work concept, how-
to humans, but as a characteristic of systems perfor- ever, has previously been primarily concerned with
mance, namely the ability to maintain control. The employment of some sort. What is needed, as Karat,
focus of CTD is therefore the joint cognitive system, Karat, and Vergo (2004) argue, is a broader defini-
rather than the individual user. Hollnagels formu- tion of work. Their proposals are consistent with
lation of CTD is more conservative than STAs; for STAs definition of work being about the work
example, CTD is sometimes monoteleological when system changing the application domain. They per-
he refers to a single goal, and he restricts nonhuman suasively argue for nonemployment application do-
goals to a limited number of things, albeit a growing mains, for example, domestic ones. Thus, a home
number of technological artefacts capable of cog- entertainment system, television, or video game, for
nitive tasks. In STA, it is not some limited number of example, could be components of a work system,
583
Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
and the goals to be achieved would be to induce than Hollnagels book. No apology is made for citing
pleasure, fun, or similar feelings in their users. That the Diaper and Stanton book frequently in this
such application domains are psychological and in- article, or for the number of references below,
ternal to such work systems users, rather than the although they are a fraction of the vast literature
more traditional changes to things separate and explicitly about task analysis. Moreover, as task
external to some work systems components, is also analysis is at the heart of virtually all HCI because
consistent with STAs conceptualisation of task it is fundamentally about the performance of sys-
analysis. tems, then whether called task analysis or not, nearly
Finally, Diaper and Stanton (2004b) broach, in- all the published HCI literature is concerned in some
deed they attempt to capsize, the concept of goals. way with the concept of tasks and their analysis.
They question whether the goals concept is neces-
sary, either as what causes behavior or as an expla-
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Stanton, N. A. (2002). Developing and validating
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Johnson, H., & Johnson, P. (1987). The develop- nomics Science, 3, 111-114.
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Stanton, N. A. (2004). The psychology of task
for carrying out task analysis (ICL Report). Un-
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published manuscript.
The handbook of task analysis for human-com-
Johnson, P., Diaper, D., & Long, J. (1984). Tasks, puter interaction (pp. 569-584). Mahwah, NJ:
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based descriptions. Interact84: First IFIP Con-
Stanton, N. A., & Young, M. S. (1999). What price
ference on Human-Computer Interaction, 1, 23-
ergonomics? Nature, 399, 197-198.
27.
Sutcliffe, A. (2003). Symbiosis and synergy? Sce-
Karat, J., Karat, C.-M., & Vergo, J. (2004). Expe-
narios, task analysis and reuse of HCI knowledge.
riences people value: The new frontier for task
Interacting with Computers, 15(2), 245-264.
analysis. In D. Diaper & N. A. Stanton (Eds.), The
handbook of task analysis for human-computer Taylor, F. W. (1912). Principles of scientific man-
interaction (pp. 585-602). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence agement. New York: Harper and Row.
Erlbaum Associates.
Wilson, M., Barnard, P., & MacLean, A. (1986).
Kieras, D. (2004). GOMS models for task analysis. Task analysis in human-computer interaction
In D. Diaper & N. A. Stanton (Eds.), The hand- (Rep. No. HF122). IBM Hursely Human Factors.
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The handbook of task analysis for human-com-
Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge, puter interaction (pp. 569-584). Mahwah, NJ:
MA: Cambridge University Press. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Limbourg, Q., & Vanderdonkt, J. (2004). Compar-
ing task models for user interface design. In D. KEY TERMS
Diaper & N. A. Stanton (Eds.), The handbook of
task analysis for human-computer interaction Activity List: A prose description of a task or
(pp. 135-154). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum subtask divided into lines to represent separate task
Associates. behaviors and that usually has only one main agent
Long, J. (1997). Research and the design of human- and one action per line.
computer interactions or What happened to valida- Application Domain: That part of the assumed
tion? In H. Thimbleby, B. OConaill, & P. Thomas real world that is changed by a work system to
(Eds.), People and computers XII (pp. 223-243). achieve the work systems goals.
New York: Springer.
Goal: A specification of the desired changes a
Ormerod, T. C., & Shepherd, A. (2004). Using task work system attempts to achieve in an application
analysis for information requirements specification: domain.
The sub-goal template (SGT) method. In D. Diaper
& N. A. Stanton (Eds.), The handbook of task Performance: The quality, with respect to both
analysis for human-computer interaction (pp. errors and time, of work.
347-366). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Subtask: A discrete part of a task.
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Task Analysis at the Heart of Human-Computer Interaction
587
588
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
589
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
590
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
computer interaction comprehending the properties learner, play roles of planning, monitoring, and con-
of PSOL appropriately. Implementing an interaction trolling problem-solving, and learning processes, re-
between a system and a learner based on this allows spectively.
the system to show effective information to encour- With PSOL, a learner first defines a problem-
age the learners appropriate decision-making. solving goal and refines it to sub-goals which con-
tribute to achieving goal G (Figure 3(i)). They are
Cognitive Model in Problem-Solving refined to feasible problem-solving plans (Figure
Oriented Learning 3(ii)); thereafter, the learner performs them to solve
the problem (Figure 3(viii)).
Figure 3 shows a cognitive model that captures If the learner recognizes a lack of knowledge in
detailed working processes of a learner. This model the sub goals and performs problem-solving plans,
is PSOL task specific while Rasmussens model is a we can generate an adequate learning goal (LG) to
task independent one. By making the correspon- get knowledge (Figure 3(iii)) and refine it to learning
dence between these models, we can define an HCI process plans (Figure 3(iv)). In learning processes
framework based on Rasmussens theory. (Figure 3(x)), s/he constructs knowledge (Figure
Figures 3(i) and 3(iii) represent the planning 3(iv)) to be required to plan and perform the prob-
process of the problem-solving plan and learning lem-solving process. Based on constructed knowl-
plan, respectively, and 3(viii) and 3(x) represent edge, she or he specifies and performs the problem-
problem-solving and learning processes in Figure 1, solving processes (Figure 3(viii)), to change the real
respectively. Figures 3(v) and 3(vi) represent the world (Figure 3(vii)). The learner assesses gaps
monitoring process. among goal states (GS), current goal states (CGS) of
We have presented a problem, say, developing problem-solving process plans, and current state (c-
an XML based document retrieval system in the state) of the real-world (Figure 3(v)) and ones
upper left corner. Two virtual persons, a problem- among learning goal states (LGS), current learning
solving planner and learning process planner in the goal states (CLGS) of learning process plans and
591
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
understanding state (Figure 3(vi)). She or he con- Task Ontology for Problem-Solving-
tinuously iterates these processes until the c-state of Oriented Learning
the real world satisfies the GS of problem solving.
It is notable that learners in PSOL have to make Figure 4 presents an outline of the PSOL Task
and perform not only problem-solving plans, but also Ontology (Problem-Solving-Oriented Learning Task
learning plans in the process of problem solving. Ontology). Ovals in the figure express a cognitive
Furthermore, it is important for the learner to moni- activity performed by a learner in which a link
tor real-world changes by performing problem-solv- represents an is-a relationship.
ing processes and to monitor his/her own under- The PSOL task ontology defines eight cognitive
standing states by performing learning processes processes modeled in Rasmussens cognitive model
and checking and analyzing whether states of the as lower concepts (portions in rectangular box (a) in
real world and understanding states satisfy defined the figure). They are refined through an is-a hierar-
goal states (Figures 3(v) and 3(vi)). The gap be- chy to cognitive activities on the meta-level (meta
tween current states and goal states causes the activity), and cognitive activities on the object level
definition of new goals to be dissolved. (base activity). Moreover, they are further refined in
Consequently, PSOL impels a learner to perform detail as their lower concepts: a cognitive activity in
complicated tasks with heavy cognitive loads. A connection with learning activities and a cognitive
learner needs to manage and allocate the attentional activity in connection with problem-solving activi-
capacity adequately because of limited human ties. Thereby, a conceptual system is constructed
attentional capacity. This explains why a novice that reflects the task structure of PSOL. For ex-
learner tends to get confused and lose his/her way. ample, typical metacognition activities that a learner
592
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
performs in PSOL, such as Monitor knowledge definition, the system can suggest the candidate
state and Monitor learning plan, are systematized causes of infeasibility of the object plan, and the
as lower concepts of metacognition activities in the information the learner should focus on.
Observe activity. Making this PSOL task ontology into the basis of
Figure 5 shows a conceptual definition of an act a system offers useful information in the situation
that identifies a possible cause of why a plan is that encourages appropriate decision-making. This
infeasible. All the concepts in Figure 5 have a is one of the strong advantages using PSOL task
conceptual definition in a machine readable manner ontology.
like this, thus, the system can understand what the
learner tries to do and what information he/she An Application: Planning Navigation as
needs. an Example
Cause identification activities defined include:
the actor of the activity is a learner; a learners The screen image of Kassist, a system based on the
awareness of infeasibility becomes an input PSOL Task Ontology, is shown in Figure 6. Kassist
(in%symptom in Figure 5); the lower plan of an is an interactive open learner-modeling environ-
target plan that the learner tries to make it feasible ment. The system consists of six panels. A learner
now is made into a reference information describes a problem-solving plan, own knowledge
(in%reference in Figure 5). Moreover, this cognitive state about the object domain, and a learning process
activity stipulates that a learners awareness of in each panels of (a), (b), and (c), respectively.
causes of infeasiblity is output (out%cause in Figure Furthermore, a learner can describe the correspon-
5). The definition also specifies that the causes of dence relationship between the problem-solving pro-
the infeasibility include (axioms in Figure 5): that the cess placed at (a) and the concept of (b), that is, the
sufficiency of that target plan is not confirmed correspondence relationship with the knowledge of
(cause1 in Figure 5); that the feasibility of a lower the object domain required for carrying out the
plan, small grained plan that contributes to realize the process of (a); and the correspondence relationship
target plan, is not confirmed (cause2 in Figure 5); between the learning process placed at (c), and the
and that the target plan is not specified (cause3 in concept of (b), that is, the correspondence relation-
Figure 5). Based on this machine understandable ship with the learning process of (c) which con-
593
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
Figure 6. Interactive navigation based on problem solving oriented learning task ontology
structs an understanding on the concept of (b). Each learning plans connected by the part-of links,
shaded node in (b) represents either knowing or a plan Learn how to design module structure,
not knowing the concept. A learner can describe whose feasibility is not secured is highlighted
the correspondence of the concepts and processes based on the ontology; and a learner is shown
in the object world placed on (a), (b), and (c) with the causes of infeasibility with a message con-
resource (f), used as those reference information, so nected lower plan is not feasible.
that appropriate information can be referred to when ii. Then, it shows the cause as a learner has lack
required. of knowledge to specify the plan.
This provides a learner with an environment in iii. Moreover, plans influenced by the infeasibility
which she or he can externalize and express her own of this learning plan are displayed in the inter-
knowledge; it then encourages his or her spontane- pretation process.
ous metacognition activities such as the Activation iv. Here, a problem-solving plan Design module
activity and Observation activity in Rasmussens structure is highlighted. Such navigation al-
model. Moreover, we can implement a more positive lows a learner to comprehend knowledge re-
navigation function that encourages a learners quired to carry out problem-solving and to
metacognition activity in the subsequent cognitive understand at what stage in a problem-solving
process by making ontology the basis of a system. process such knowledge is needed and their
Consider, for example, this task Investigate how influence.
to develop XML-based document retrieval system.
Assume a situation where a learner does not know Thus, a learner can conduct appropriate deci-
how to tackle this task: sion-making by acquiring detailed knowledge based
on this modular design method.
i. In this situation, a learner clicks the Investi- A series of cognitive activities are typical
gate how to develop XML-based document metacognition activities in PSOL. They include: a
retrieval system node on (c); among the lower learners awareness of feasibility of a learning pro-
594
Task Ontology-Based Human-Computer Interaction
cess as a start; monitoring ones own knowledge and understanding. In E. M. Markman, & J. H.
state; comprehending its influence on a problem- Flavell (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (4th 6
solving plan; and building a learning plan for master- ed.), Cognitive development, 30 (pp. 515-629).
ing knowledge required for problem solving. Refer- New York: John Wiley & Sons.
ence to the appropriate information offered by a
DeBells, M. (1995). User-centric software engi-
system to a learner encourages his or her appropri-
neering, IEEE Expert, 34-41.
ate metacognition activities, which help implement
effective PSOL. Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of prob-
lem solving. In L. Resnick (Ed.), The nature of
intelligence (pp. 231-235). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
FUTURE TRENDS Erlbaum Associates.
Gruber, T. R. (1993). A translation approach to
Ontology-Aware System
portable ontologies. Knowledge Acquisition, 5(2),
199-220.
The systems which support users to perform intelli-
gent tasks based on the understanding of ontologies Hayashi, Y., Tsumoto, H., Ikeda, M., & Mizoguchi,
are called ontology aware systems (Hayashi, R. (2003). Kfarm: An ontology-aware support envi-
Tsumoto, Ikeda, & Mizoguchi, 2003). Systemizing ronment for learning-oriented knowledge manage-
ontologies contributes to providing theories and mod- ment. The Journal of Information and Systems in
els, which are human-orientated to enhance sys- Education, 1(1), 80-89.
tems abilities of explanation and reasoning. Fur-
Hori, M., & Yoshida, T. (1998). Domain-oriented
thermore, from the viewpoint of system develop-
library of scheduling methods: Design principle and
ment, building systems with explicit ontologies would
real-life application. International Journal of Hu-
enhance their maintainability and extendability. There-
man-Computer Studies, 49(4), 601-626.
fore, future work in this field should continue devel-
oping systems that integrate ontology and HCI more Ikeda, M., Seta, K., & Mizoguchi, R. (1997). Task
effectively. ontology makes it easier to use authoring tools. In the
Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Joint
Conference on Artificial Intelligence 97 (IJCAI-
CONCLUSION 97) (pp. 342-347).
Izumi, N., & Yamaguchi, T. (2002). Integration of
This article introduced a task ontology based human
heterogeneous repositories based on ontologies for
computer interaction framework and discussed vari-
EC applications development. International Jour-
ous related issues. However, it is still difficult and
nal of Electronic Commerce Research and Appli-
time consuming to build high quality sharable ontolo-
cations, 1(1), 77-91.
gies that are based on the analysis of users task
activities. Thus, it is important to continue building Mizoguchi, R. (2003). Tutorial on ontological engi-
new methodologies for analyzing users tasks. This neering - Part 1: Introduction to ontological engi-
issue should be carefully addressed in the future, and neering. New Generation Computing, 21(4), 365-
we hope more progress can be achieved through 384.
collaboration between researchers in the fields of
ontology engineering and human computer interaction. Mizoguchi, R., Tijerino, Y., & Ikeda, M. (1992).
Task ontology and its use in a task analysis interview
systemTwo-level mediating representation in
MULTIS. In the Proceedings of the 2nd Japanese
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Knowledge Acquisition Workshop (JKAW) (pp.
185-198).
Brown, A. L., Bransford, J. D., Ferrara, R. A., &
Campione, J. C. (1983). Learning, remembering,
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Mizoguchi, R., Tijerino, Y., & Ikeda, M. (1995). ings of the International Conference on Comput-
Task analysis interview based on task ontology. ers in Education (ICCE-02), Workshop on Con-
Expert Systems with Applications, 9(1), 15-25. cepts and Ontologies for Web-based Educational
Systems, Auckland, New Zealand (pp. 27-33).
Okamoto, M. (1999). The study of metacognition in
arithmetic word problem solving. Tokyo: Kazama-
shobo Publishing (in Japanese). KEY TERMS
Rasmussen, J. (1986). A framework for cognitive
Attentional Capacity: Cognitive capacity di-
task analysis. In Information processing and hu-
vided and allocated to perform cognitive task.
man-machine interaction: An approach to cogni-
tive engineering (pp. 5-8). New York: North- Metacognition: Cognition about cognition. It
Holland. includes monitoring the progress of learning, check-
ing the status of self-knowledge, correcting self-
Schreiber, G., Akkermans, H., Anjewierden, A., De
errors, analyzing the effectiveness of the learning
Hong, R., Shadbolt, N., Van de Veide, W., & Wielinga,
strategies, controlling and changing self-learning
B. (2000). Knowledge engineering and manage-
strategies, and so on.
mentThe common KADS methodology. Cam-
bridge, MA: The MIT Press. Ontology: A specification of a conceptualization
(Gruber, 1993).
Seta, K., Ikeda, M., Kakusho, O., & Mizoguchi, R.
(1997). Capturing a conceptual model for end-user Problem-Solving Oriented Learning (PSOL):
programmingTask ontology as a static user model. Learning not only to build up sufficient understand-
In the Proceedings of the Sixth International ing for planning and performing problem-solving
Conference on User Modeling, UM 97 (pp. 203- processes but also to gain the capacity of making
214). efficient problem-solving processes according to a
sophisticated strategy.
Seta, K., Tachibana, K., Umano, M., & Ikeda, M.
(2003). Basic consideration on reflection support for Rasmussens Ladder Model: A cognitive
problem-solving oriented learning. In the Proceed- model that models humans decision-making pro-
ings of the International Conference on Comput- cesses. This model is often used for human error
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160-168).
Task Ontology: A system of vocabulary/con-
Seta, K., & Umano, M. (2002). A support system for cepts used as building blocks for knowledge-based
planning problem solving workflow. In the Proceed- systems.
596
597
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Think Aloud Method and User Interface Design
solve a problem while thinking aloud; that is, stating Instructions to the subjects about the task at hand
directly what they think. The data so gathered are should be given routinely. The instruction on thinking
very direct; there is no delay. These verbal utter- aloud is straightforward. The essence is that the
ances are transcribed, resulting in verbal protocols, subject performs the task at hand, possibly sup-
which require substantial analysis and interpretation ported by a computer, and says out loud what comes
to gain deep insight into the way subjects perform to mind.
tasks (Deffner, 1990). A typical instruction would be, I will give you a
task. Please keep talking out loud while performing
The Use of the Think Aloud Method in the task. Although most people do not have much
Computer System Design difficulty rendering their thoughts, they should be
given an opportunity to practice talking aloud while
In designing computer systems, the think aloud performing an example task. Example tasks should
method can be used in two ways: (1) to analyze not be too different from the target task. As soon as
users task behaviors in (simulated) working prac- the subject is working on the task, the role of the
tices, after which a computer system is actually built instructor is a restrained one. Interference should
that will support the user in executing similar tasks in occur only when the subject stops talking. Then, the
future; or (2) to reveal usability problems that a user instructor should prompt the subject by the following
encounters in interaction with a (prototype) com- instruction: Keep on talking (Ericsson & Simon,
puter system that already supports the user in per- 1993).
forming certain tasks. Full audiotaping and/or videorecording of the
In both situations, the identification and selection subjects concurrent utterances during task perfor-
of a representative sample of (potential) end users is mance and, if relevant, videorecording of the com-
crucial. The subject sample should consist of per- puter screens are required to capture all the verbal
sons who are representative of those end users who data and user/computer interactions in detail. After
will actually use the system in the future. This the session has been recorded, it has to be tran-
requires a clearly defined user profile, which de- scribed. Typing out complete verbal protocols is
scribes the range of relevant skills of system users. inevitable to be able to analyze the data in detail (Dix
Computer expertise, roles of subjects in the work- et al., 1998). Videorecordings may be viewed infor-
place, and a persons expertise in the domain of mally, or they may be analyzed formally to under-
work that the computer system will support are stand fully the way the subject performed the task or
useful dimensions in this respect (Kushnirek & to detect the type and number of user-computer
Patel, 2004). A questionnaire may be given either interaction problems.
before or after the session to obtain this information. The use of computer-supported tools that are
As the think aloud method provides a rich source of able to link the verbal transcriptions to the corre-
data, a small sample of subjects (eight to 10) suffices sponding video sequences may be considered to
to gain a thorough understanding of task behavior facilitate the analysis of the video data (Preece,
(Ericsson & Simon, 1993) or to identify the main 2002).
usability problems with a computer system (Boren & Prior to analyzing the audio and/or video data, it
Ramey, 2000). A representative sample of the tasks is usually necessary to develop a coding scheme to
to be used in the think aloud study is likewise identify step-by-step how the subject tackled the
essential. Tasks should be selected that end users task and/or to identify specific user/computer inter-
are expected to perform while using the (future) action problems in detail. Coding schemes may be
computer system. This requirement asks for a care- developed bottom-up or top-down. In a bottom-up
ful design of tasks to be used in the study to assure procedure, one would use part of the protocols to
that tasks are realistic and representative of daily life generate codes by taking every new occurrence of
situations. It is recommended that task cases be a cognitive subprocess code. For example, one could
developed from real-life task examples (Kushnirek assign the code guessing to the following verbal
& Patel, 2004). statements: Could it be X? or Lets try X. The
remaining protocols then would be analyzed by using
598
The Think Aloud Method and User Interface Design
Figure 1. Excerpt from a coded verbal protocol for analyzing human task behavior
6
Code Verbal Protocol Segment Explanation
NPSCR04 How can I exit this screen? Navigation problem screen04
MBT012 What does this button mean? Meaning of button012
RTACT002 It has been busy a very long time Response time after action002
VSSACT006 What is it doing now? Visibility of system status after action006
MSSACT009 What does fatal error098 mean? Meaning of system feedback after action009
this coding scheme. An excerpt from a coded verbal most useful methods to gain a deep understanding
protocol is given in Figure 1. Note that the verbal of the way humans perform tasks and of the spe-
protocol is marked up with annotations from the cific user problems that occur in interaction with a
coding scheme. Otherwise, categories in the coding computer system. As opposed to other inquiry
scheme may be developed top-down, for example, techniques, the think aloud method requires little
from examination of categories of interactions from expertise, while it provides detailed insights regard-
the human/computer interaction literature (Kushnirek ing human task behavior and/or user problems with
& Patel, 2004). Before it is applied, a coding scheme a computer system (Preece, 2002). On the other
must be evaluated on its intercoder reliability. hand, the information provided by the subjects is
To prevent experimenter bias, it is best to leave subjective and may be selective. Therefore, a care-
the actual coding of the protocols to a minimum of ful selection of the subjects who will participate and
two independent coders. Correspondence among the tasks that will be used in the study is crucial. In
codes assigned by different coders to the same addition, the usefulness of the think aloud method is
verbal statements must be found, for which the highly dependent on the effectiveness of the re-
Kappa mostly is used (Altman, 1991). cording method. For instance, with audiotaping
The coded protocols and/or videos can be com- only, it may be difficult to record information that is
piled and summarized in various ways, depending on relevant to identify step-by-step what the subjects
the goal of the study. If the goal is to gain a deep were doing while performing a task, whether com-
insight into the way humans perform a certain task in puter-supported or not (Preece, 2002).
order to use these insights for developing a computer Another factor distinguishing the think aloud
system to support task performance, then the proto- method from other inquiry techniques is the prompt-
col and video analyses can be used as input for a ness of the response it provides. The think aloud
cognitive task model. Based on this model, a first method records the subjects task behavior at the
version of a computer system then may be designed. time of performing the task. Other inquiry tech-
If the aim is to evaluate the usability of a (prototype) niques, such as interviews and questionnaires, rely
computer system, the results may summarize any on the subjects recollection of events afterwards.
type and number of usability problems revealed. If Subjects may not be aware of what they actually
the computer system under study is still under devel- are doing while performing a task or interacting
opment, these insights then may be used to better the with a computer, which limits the usefulness of
system. evaluation measures that rely on retrospective self-
reports (Boren & Ramey, 2000; Preece, 2002). The
advantage of thinking aloud, whether audio- or
PROS AND CONS OF THE THINK videotaped, as a data eliciting method includes the
ALOUD METHOD fact that the resulting reports provide a detailed
account of the whole process of a subject executing
The think aloud method, preferably used in combina- a task.
tion with audio- and/or videorecording, is one of the Although using the think aloud method is rather
straightforward and requires little expertise, ana-
599
The Think Aloud Method and User Interface Design
lyzing the verbal protocols can be very time-con- processes are no more disturbed than by other
suming and requires that studies are well planned in inspection techniques (Ericsson & Simon, 1993).
order to avoid wasting time (Dix et al., 1998). The think aloud method, if applied under pre-
The think aloud method has been criticized, par- scribed conditions and preferably in combination
ticularly with respect to the validity and complete- with audio- and/or videorecording, is a valuable
ness of the reports it generates (Boren & Ramey, information source of human task/behavior and, as
2000; Goguen & Linde, 1993). such, a useful technique in designing and evaluating
An argument made against the use of the think computer systems.
aloud method as a tool for system design is that
humans do not have access to their own mental
processes and, therefore, cannot be asked to report FUTURE TRENDS
on these. With this notion, verbalizing thoughts is
viewed as a cognitive process on its own. Since The think aloud method is propagated and far more
humans are poor at dividing attention between two often used as a method for system usability testing
different tasks (i.e., performing the task under con- than as a user requirements eliciting method. In
sideration and verbalizing their thoughts), it is argued evaluating (prototype) computer systems, thinking
that thinking aloud may lead to incomplete reports aloud is used to gain insight into end users usability
(Nisbett & Wilson, 1997). problems in interaction with a system to better the
However, this critique seems to bear on some design of these systems. The use of think aloud and
types of tasks that subjects are asked to perform in video analyses, however, may be helpful not merely
certain think aloud studies. As Ericsson and Simon in evaluating the usability of (prototype) computer
(1993) point out, in general, talking out loud does not systems but also in analyzing in detail how end users
interfere with task performance and, therefore, does tackle tasks in daily life that in the end will be
not lead to much disturbance of the thought pro- computer supported. The outcomes of these kinds of
cesses. If reasoning takes place in verbal form, then analyses may be used to develop a first version of a
verbalizing thoughts is easy and uses no extra human computer system that directly and fully supports
memory capacity. However, if the information is users in performing these kinds of tasks. Such an
nonverbal and complicated, verbalization will not approach may reduce the time spent in iterative
only cost time but also extra human memory capac- design of the system, as the manner in which poten-
ity. Verbalization of thoughts then becomes a cogni- tial end users process tasks is taken into account in
tive process by itself. This will cause the report of building the system.
the original task processing to be incomplete, and Although a deep understanding of users task
sometimes, it even may disrupt this process (Ericsson behaviors in daily settings is indispensable in design-
& Simon, 1993). Therefore, the think aloud method ing intuitive systems, we should keep in mind that the
only may be used on a restricted set of tasks. Tasks implementation of computer applications in real-life
for which the information can be reproduced ver- settings may change and may have unforeseen
bally and for which no information is asked that is not consequences for work practices. So, besides in-
directly used by the subject in performing the task volving potential user groups in an early phase of
under attention are suitable for introspection by the system design and in usability testing, it is crucial to
think aloud method (Boren & Ramey, 2000). gain insight into how these systems may change
The fact that the experimenter may interrupt the these work practices to evaluate whether and how
subject during task behavior is considered another these systems are being used. This adds to our
source of error, leading to distorted reports (Goguen understanding of why systems may or may not be
& Linde, 1993). It has been shown, however, that as adopted into routine practice.
long as the experimenter minimizes interventions in Today, a plea for qualitative studies for studying
the process of verbalizing and merely reminds the a variety of human and contextual factors that
subject to keep talking when a subject stops verbal- likewise may influence system appraisal is made in
izing his or her thoughts, the ongoing cognitive literature (Aarts et al., 2004; Ammenwerth et al.,
600
The Think Aloud Method and User Interface Design
602
603
David Navarre
Universit Paul Sabatier, France
Philippe Palanque
Universit Paul Sabatier, France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications
Figure 1. Iterative development process with Figure 2. A menu opened on the radar for a
PetShop selected plane
Early Prototyping +
specification Evaluation
requirements
Super high-fidelity
Super high-fidelity
prototype
prototype
Detailed
Detailled
Yes
Yes requirements
requirements
prototype
prototype
No
Ok?
Formal
Yes specifications
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Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications
Figure 3. Architecture of the PetShop environment In this window, we can see the set of transitions
that are currently enabled (represented in dark grey 6
Design time Comprehensive ICO description
and the other ones in light grey). This is automati-
cally calculated from the current marking of the
ObCS
graphical ObCS User-interface
User-interface object petri net.
editor builder
builder
Each time the user acts on the PlaneManager,
the event is passed onto the interpreter. If the
UI layout Rendering Activation
corresponding transition is enabled, then the inter-
Analysis
function function preter fires it, performs its action (if any), changes
tools
the marking of the input and output places, and
performs the rendering associated (if any).
Runtime
ICO
interpretor
INTERACTIVE PROTOTYPING
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Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications
606
Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications
However, the work done on this air traffic control tion. Human Factors in Computing Systems
application has also shown the amount of work that INTERCHI93, 424-429. 6
is still required before the environment can be used
Hix, D., & Hartson, R. (1993). Developing user
by other people than the ones that took part in its
interfaces: Ensuring usability through product
development.
and process. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
This article has presented a CASE tool called
PetShop, dedicated to the formal description of Hussey, A., & Carrington, D. (1999). Model-based
interactive systems. design of user interfaces using object-Z. Proceed-
ings of the 3rd International Conference on Com-
puter-Aided Design of User Interfaces (pp. 153-
REFERENCES 179).
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tion language for non-WIMP user interfaces. ACM
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on Human-Computer Interaction: Interact90, (pp.
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an interactive software by analysis of its formal
Bastide, R., & Palanque, P. (1996). Implementation
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tems. Proceedings of INTERACT 2003, IFIP TC
Bastide, R., & Palanque, P. (1999). A visual and
13 th Conference on Human Computer Interac-
formal glue between application and interaction.
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163).
KEY TERMS
Beaudouin-Lafon, M. (2000). Instrumental inter-
action: An interaction model for designing post- ATC (Air Traffic Control): This acronym re-
WIMP user interfaces. ACM CHI2000 Confer- fers to both the activities and the systems involved in
ence on Human Factors in Computing Systems, (pp. the management of flights by air-traffic controllers.
153-161). The air traffic controllers main task is to ensure
Bodart, F., Hennebert, A. M., Leheureux, J. M., & flight safety with an efficient, secure, and ordered
Vanderdonckt, J. (1993). Encapsulating knowledge air traffic flow. ATC systems are dedicated to the
for intelligent automatic interaction objects selec- support of these tasks.
607
Tool Support for Interactive Prototyping of Safety-Critical Interactive Applications
608
609
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Toward an HCI Theory of Cultural Cognition
(1979, 1989) and carried on by Luria (1971, 1976) in delivery to international users, these specialists are
the 1960s-1970s. The central theory of the Russian exploring ways to confront an array of cultural
School argues that cognitive processes emerge from contexts that are both vast and complex.
practical activity that is culturally constrained and In regard to HCI, there are multiple usability
historically developing. Nisbett makes note of the studies that address cross-cultural Web site design
significance of this early Vygotskian research (Luria, from a socio-behavioral perspective (Barber & Badre,
1971; Vygotsky, 1979) to promote the idea that 1998; Dalal et al., 2000; Eveland & Dunwoody,
culture fundamentally shapes thought. This latter 2000; Fernandes, 1995; Honold, 2000; Kim & Allen,
claim has provided a theoretical model for cultural 2002; Marcus, 2000, 2003; Marcus & Gould, 2000;
cognition theory (CCT), which goes to the root of Sears et al., 2000; Wheeler, 1998; Zahedi et al.,
human information processing and other complex 2001). However, limited focus on the relationship
cognitive systems that are affected by cultural con- between culture and cognition as a theoretical model
text. Nisbett and Norenzayan (2002) present evi- has been adequately explored, especially when we
dence concerning assumptions about universality consider user preferences that are culturally deter-
and content independence, concluding that multiple mined by social-cognitive development. Hence, this
studies support their view of the relationship be- article presents the view of cultural cognition theory
tween culture and cognition, casting substantial doubt (CCT) from the earliest work of Vygotsky (1979,
on the standard assumptions held by many psycholo- 1989) and Luria (1971, 1976). Their work was
gists. At the same time, the vast majority of empiri- further developed through the contemporary re-
cal studies in cross-cultural psychology and cultural search of Richard E. Nisbett (Nisbett et al., 2001,
anthropology support the position that cognition is 2002; Nisbett, Fong, Lehman, & Cheng, 1987; Nisbett
dependent upon cultural context, especially where & Ross, 1980) and colleagues. A relationship is
formal education is present. drawn between CCT and cross-cultural Web devel-
opment as a means to identify cognitive differences
among designers that ultimately influence site design
MAIN FOCUS and user-Web interaction. The collective works
outlined earlier identify propositions that argue how
Over the last ten years, usability theory and testing culture shapes cognitive phenomena, influencing the
have dominated the discussion among HCI and content of thought through shared knowledge, and
information technologists in academia and industry, subsequently learning, cognitive development, and
setting the stage for culture to become the next processes that may impact Web design.
frontier of Web design research (Dalal, Quible, & One proposition purported by Nisbett and
Wyatt, 2000; Eveland & Dunwoody, 2000; Norenzayan (2002) is that cultures differ markedly
Fernandes, 1995; Kim & Allen, 2002; Marcus & in the sort of inferential procedures (cognitive pro-
Gould, 2000; Sears, Jacko, & Dubach, 2000; Wheeler, cesses) they typically use for a given problem (p.
1998; Zahedi, Van Pelt, & Song, 2001; Zassoursky, 2). To support this claim, they spend considerable
1991). At present, many technologists neglect the time outlining a range of studies dealing with linguis-
impact of culture on communication, content deliv- tics and mathematics that show cultural differences
ery, and information structure. For them, technology in basic knowledge structures and inferential proce-
is often used in place of creative and research-based dures (Lucy, 1992; Luria, 1971; Miller, Smith, Zhu,
solutions for overcoming limitations to human com- & Zhang, 1995; Miller & Stigler, 1987; Wynn, 1990).
munication. However, as the strategic planning of Specifically, these studies show infinitely variable
Web design has fallen into the hands of HCI design- differences in knowledge domains, analytical pro-
ers, social scientists, and communication experts, cesses, learning skills, and inferential procedures
technology has not been seen as the panacea to (such as deductive rules and schemes for induction
online communication issues between cultures. and causal analysis), among diverse cultures. This is
Rather, in the process of investigating the most because these processes operate on different inputs
appropriate ways to maximize online information for different people in different situations and cul-
610
Toward an HCI Theory of Cultural Cognition
tures. A summary of these studies showed repeated challenges, technological trends and technologies
evidence to support the linguistic differences that will continue to address complex issues surrounding 6
affect thought. Nisbett and Norenzayan (2002) rec- semantics and language delivery through the Web.
ommend that more research is needed to examine the Language technologies are showing promising ca-
pervasiveness of the influence of language on thought. pabilities in addressing the challenges of unre-
Hence, HCI research that focuses on social and stricted cross-cultural communication.
cognitive science and cross-cultural communication Research in the United States and Europe (Gast,
methodologies may inform international Web site 2003; Sierra, Wooldridge, Sadeh, Conte, Klusch, &
designers. A range of Web design components needs Treur, 2000; Wagner, Yezril, & Hassel, 2000) is
to be considered during the development stage of being funded to support cooperatively built tech-
cross-cultural sites. Besides the explicit cultural dif- nologies to better facilitate cross-cultural communi-
ferences of text, numbers, dates, symbol-sets, and cation. Cross-cultural sites may attempt to appeal
time, more critical are the implicit and less formal to international users by using human-like anthropo-
dimensions of page format, imagery, colour, informa- morphic agents that simulate their cultural profiles.
tion architecture, and system functionality. Russo This could include cultural-centric related attributes
and Boor (1993) discuss the intuitive behaviour that such as body language, gestures and facial expres-
influences the use of these elements. Studies focused sions that mimic human characteristics. The inten-
on information technology also show considerable tion would be to adapt to the users emotional world
cultural differences in attitudes toward computers in order to enhance cognitive capabilities and inter-
(Choong & Salvendy, 1998, 1999; Igbaria & Zviran, actions while using a site. Web site developers will
1996; Omar, 1992). However, Van Peurssen (1991) increasingly take into account the full complexity of
suggests that culture is a concept that is far too the human emotional apparatus, including the hu-
complex for mere description. In fact, variations in man-like responses that users often seek while
the implicit aspects of Web design may be too subtle engaging interactive systems.
to discern their cultural origin, and therefore demand Recent research (Burnett & Buerkle, 2004;
a more rigorous investigation of their relationship to Dou, Nielsen, & Tan, 2002; Faiola, 2002; Faiola &
culture and cognition. Matei, 2005; Hillier, 2003; Yetim & Raybourn,
Based on this theoretical foundation, future HCI 2003; Zahedi et al., 2001) continues to examine the
research must identify the knowledge structures, influence of culture on Web design by comparing
logic, and analytical approaches that constitute a subjects from a range of diverse cultures. These
specific Web design orientation based on the cogni- studies provide computational models that show
tive structures influenced by cultural context. By trends and comparisons of the data that can help to
observing the way Web designers organize online draw conclusions regarding the influence of cultural
information, findings should show cultural orienta- cognition on local developers and subjects who
tions in design styles, preferences, and strategic interacted with Web sites. Future studies must also
planning. address cultural differences in: (1) task times, navi-
gational paths, interface design, and information
architecture, and (2) user preferences for sites
FUTURE TRENDS created by designers from their own cultures, that
is, will users demonstrate bias toward color, design,
New research opportunities in communication tech- and information structure by designers from their
nology are emerging worldwide that are working own culture?
towards universal access for all international Web
users. However, the rapid transition to online deliv-
ery of information products has forced corporations CONCLUSION
to confront the polarizing effect of culture and com-
munication as they attempt to build Web sites that From a cultural cognition perspective, we have
cross the barriers of language and a broad range of addressed how cognitive processes are susceptible
more subtle cultural issues. To work through these to cultural variation, adding that cultural orientation
611
Toward an HCI Theory of Cultural Cognition
has a direct impact on designers of Web sites. As a comprehension on the World Wide Web. Informa-
result, Web developers need to design online sites tion Processing and Management, 36(4), 607-
from an understanding of cultural cognitive theory 621.
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KEY TERMS the International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) code: ISO/IS 9294-11, http://www.iso.org/
Anthropomorphic: An attribution of human iso/en/ISOOnline.openerpage.)
characteristic or behavior to natural phenomena or Vygotskian: A general theory of cognitive de-
inanimate objects, that is, the embodiment of a velopment, developed by Vygotsky (1979, 1989) in
graphic user interface agent can be anthropomor- the 1920s and 1930s in Russia, suggests that: (1)
phic since the representation may take on human social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
attributes or qualities. Anthropomorphism is an at- development of cognition, and (2) consciousness is
tempt to design technologies to be user-friendly. the end product of socialization, for example, that
Cognition: The mental processes of an indi- cognitive development depends upon the zone (con-
vidual, including internal thoughts, perceptions, un- textual) of proximal development.
derstanding, and reasoning. It includes the way we
614
615
system as possessing a very general pool of re- flexible processing systems, and so the person can
sources that can be allocated to the performance of effortlessly do these automatic processes in parallel
various concurrent tasks. This model attempts to with the controlled or effortful processes that re-
explain how limitations to process a particular task quire the use of the flexible general-purpose proces-
will change depending on what other processing sor (cf Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977).
tasks might also compete for resources from the The discussion above suggests that there are at
central processor. For example, some of us can talk least three general mechanisms involved in how
while typing, but our typing speed and accuracy people process information.
often suffers when doing so. Neither of these two
models was viewed by Kahneman as adequate 1. System components composed of a flexible,
alone; Kahneman viewed the single-channel idea as general-purpose central processor and other
associated with processes that have structural limi- more specialized, but flexible, processors. These
tations. Our visual system, for example, can only resources can process different tasks concur-
point at and process one single view at a time. rently or in parallel.
2. Serial system components and structurally lim-
Multiple-Resource Theory ited components that must be switched from
one task to another. Eyes can only be pointed
The undifferentiated-capacity hypothesis is also not in one direction at a time and must be physically
completely adequate. Researchers found, for ex- moved if we want to pay attention to something
ample, that it is easier to attend to auditory and visual else. Ears can receive many conversations at
messages concurrently than to two concurrent audio once, but the preprocessor associated with
messages (Rollins & Hendricks, 1980; Triesman & them can only process a single conversation at
Davies, 1973). This could be due in part to the a time.
existence of more than one flexible processor oper- 3. Hardwired system components that do not
ating in parallel, for example, one limited-capacity consume the resources of these flexible paral-
processor for visual messages and one limited- lel and serial processing components. Pro-
capacity processor for auditory ones, both operating cesses become hardwired through practice.
in parallel and feeding into a flexible limited-capacity Learning to ride a bicycle, for example, re-
central processor. Friedman, Polson, and Dafoe quires all of a childs attention at first, and the
(1988) found that there are differences in processing slightest distraction can cause the child to fall.
degradation between tasks processed in each cere- With practice, however, the child will be able to
bral hemisphere and a common second (concur- ride effortlessly, concurrently carrying on a
rently performed) task, further suggesting evidence conversation or thinking about something else.
of multiple capacity- or resource-limited processors.
Voluntary Attention
Automatism and Skilled Processing
The notion that we have a flexible central processor
A problem with the capacity explanations is that or a set of processors and can choose where to focus
processing can sometimes appear to be resource our thinking is associated with what is called volun-
free, or to consume from a processor that has no tary attention (e.g., Hunt & Kingstone, 2003; James,
apparent bottlenecks or resource limitations. Early 1899). A student may choose to daydream rather
researchers such as Bryan and Harter (1899) were than listen to the teacher: Both tasks can be per-
finding that practice could lead to the automatization formed concurrently, but the student consciously
of task performance, or skill acquisition. The early and deliberately allocates most attentional resources
dual-task studies were finding that when two tasks toward thinking about something while allocating
are performed concurrently, they tend to interfere some resources to listen just enough to pick out
with each other less and less with continued prac- anything important that should be written in the
tice. It appears that with practice, some processes notebook. An online shopper consciously and delib-
become hardwired outside of the control of the erately chooses to use attentional resources toward
616
Tracking Attention through Browser Mouse Tracking
seeking out the best deal on a new computer rather browser. With a mouse, JavaScript, and a Web
than to attend to e-mail or an online forum discussion browser, we can detect the following: 6
with friends.
Click events (mouse-button presses), as
Selective Attention when a person does a click-through on a
banner ad. We know where a person was
Related to voluntary attention is selective attention, looking when the mouse button was pressed.
whereby we can choose what to process when X- and y-coordinates of the mouse pointer in
presented with choices (e.g., Camels, Berthoumieux, the browser window. We can collect the posi-
& dArripe-Lontueville, 2004; Moray, 1969). An tion of the mouse at any point in time, and so
automobile driver may choose to look at scenery by periodically sampling position and time in-
outside of the car window rather than to focus on formation, we can track mouse movements
traffic ahead. An online shopper can choose to within a screen. In this way, we can know
physically shift the eyes to one brands ad rather than where a person was considering a click, or we
the ads for other brands on a single Web page. Some can instruct the person to move the pointer
of this might be due to allocating resources to differ- continuously to show us where he or she was
ent tasks within a capacity-limited processor, and looking.
some of this might be due to switching our attention Mouse-over events, as when the mouse
between serial or structurally limited system re- pointer is moved over or through an item on a
sources. menu list, over a button in a button list, or over
an image in a Web page. If we know the
Involuntary Attention location of such items in the page, we can
collect the mouse-over information along with
In some cases, our attention is taken without desire the time associated with the mouse-over event,
on our part. Involuntary attention can occur when thereby allowing us to track mouse move-
a stimulus is, say, novel and unusual, surprising, or ments within a screen.
highly contrasted with the background (e.g., Berlyne,
1960; Berti & Schroger, 2003). Web advertisers Collecting Data to Track Attention
attempt to do this with flashing banner ads and pop-
up windows. It is possible to become habituated to a In all the cases above, we are ultimately collecting
stimulus, however, and to no longer notice it; flashing a measure of the screen position of the mouse
banner ads, for example, might be less effective as a pointer, and in all cases we could additionally take
user experiences them more and more. It is possible a measure of clock time. With an indication of time,
that with practice, some tasks become automated in we then have real-time data that can be used to
helping us to ignore some stimuli, as when a person remotely replay where a users mouse pointer was
automatically clicks off a pop-up banner ad without positioned during a visit to a Web site or within a
much conscious thought. single page. An assumption is that if the user clicks
on something, he or she presumably has an interest
in that thing and is therefore paying attention to it.
METHODS OF TRACKING By watching where a mouse pointer moves from
ATTENTION WITH A BROWSER and to, and where clicks are made we could track
MOUSE a persons attention.
JavaScript, a programming language that is
Many methods and devices have been devised for the included with the mainstream Web browsers, can
measurement and tracking of attention, but the focus be asked to perform a programmed routine when-
of the rest of this article is on how we might be able ever some particular user action occurs. For ex-
to track attention by using a mouse and a Web ample, clicking the mouse button when the pointer
is over a particular hyperlink can send the user to
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Tracking Attention through Browser Mouse Tracking
another page, open a pop-up window, or (of interest screen. Detecting when the mouse pointer moves
here) save data associated with the circumstances out of one quadrant into another leaves us with a
of that user action. If we are attempting to track a much simpler task of data collection and substan-
persons attention in real time, then we want to save tially less data to send to the server, to store, and to
mouse position and mouse clicks along with time later analyze.
information (Owen, 2002, discusses some issues The most important advantage of this method,
with time-measurement resolution and with saving however, is that the program function that is trig-
data). gered by the mouse-over event allows us to change
the image. This is a crucially important advantage in
X- and Y-Coordinates a study that wants to track where the user is looking.
If the image changes, then we can mimic the way
Using JavaScript, it is possible to capture the values that people really do look at a Web page, with the
of the pointers x- and y-coordinates when the center of vision, the area of concentration, being
mouse is moving (an authors example is at http:// more clear, and the peripheral areas being less clear.
mousEye.SyKronix.net). If the mouse moves, then The author has used this method in several ways:
the x- and y-coordinates of the pointer are captured
and saved along with the clock time. This makes it No change in the image: The movement of
possible to track movements of the mouse in real the mouse pointer over various graphic-image
time, for which differences between the clock time fields merely sends back information regarding
on each capture suggest the speed of movement. If where the pointer was positioned in real time.
the user is instructed to move the mouse pointer to The user is instructed to move the mouse
indicate where he or she is looking, then we could pointer wherever he or she is looking. For
capture data that tells us where the person was example, if the user is participating in a Web
looking in real time. There are two concerns with this usability study, we might ask the user to find
method, however. One is that a very high amount of something within the Web site (an example is at
data would be collected when using this method. http://mousEye.SyKronix.net/demos/
Another is that the user might not actually move the web.html). The user might move the pointer
mouse pointer in tune with where he or she is over a button on the left column, but then
looking. An alternative method that solves these decide to move the pointer over an index item
problems is presented next. along the bottom and click. In this way, we did
not simply collect information about what was
Mouse-Over Events ultimately clicked, but collected information
about the hesitancy in selecting another choice.
A simpler and more powerful alternative to detect- If time information is collected with the trigger
ing where the user is focusing attention is to use of these events, then we would also have
JavaScript to detect whenever the mouse pointer information regarding the amount of time that
moves over some particular position on the screen. was associated with the hesitancy in consider-
JavaScript can be used to detect whenever the user ing one choice before moving to make another.
moves the mouse pointer over a hyperlinked portion Such data can be collected remotely, sent to a
of text or graphic image. This will trigger an event in server, and played back in real time later as if
the program that causes the program to save which the researcher is actually standing over the
link or image the mouse pointer moved over. This is shoulder of the user.
an improvement over the method of saving the x- and Change in focus: The entire page of, say, a
y-coordinates because the program function is only one-page advertisement is presented some-
called whenever the user rolls over the target area of what out of focus. Moving the pointer over the
interest, not simply whenever the mouse is moved. place where the user is looking makes that part
We might only be interested, for example, in a users more clear. In this way, the user is forced to
movement between four different quadrants of the reveal where he or she is looking (an example
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Tracking Attention through Browser Mouse Tracking
is at http://mousEye.SyKronix.net/demos/ CONCLUSION
drive.html). Again, this data can be sent to a 6
remote server for storage, and can be played Mouse tracking, which has reasonable grounding in
back later (in the style of a movie) in real time. attention theory, is advocated as a means to track
Change in contrast: The entire page of, say, user attention remotely as well as in a lab. Unlike eye
a one-page advertisement is washed of color tracking equipment, it is low in cost, relatively unob-
and low in contrast. Moving the pointer over trusive, and can be done remotely in a Web users
the place where the user is looking makes that own natural environment as well as in a laboratory
part brighten in color and contrast (an example setting. Using the mouse-over method that allows us
is at http://mousEye.SyKronix.net/demos/ to change the focus and contrast of objects in the
phren.html). Again, this forces the user to periphery of vision, it is possible to encourage the
reveal where he or she is looking, and we can user to move a mouse pointer to indicate the location
play this back remotely. of his or her attention. The notion of automatism
suggests that with a little practice, this would not
interfere with the users task of browsing through a
FUTURE TRENDS Web page or site. In this way, we could study
voluntary attention, selective attention, and involun-
Eye tracking (see Porta, 2002, for a review of tary attention in studies of Web usability and Web
methods) can be used in such studies as reading advertising.
(e.g., Stewart, Pickering, & Sturt, 2004) and Web
usability (e.g., Karn, Ellis, & Juliano, 2000; Schiessl,
Duda, Thlke, & Fischer, 2003). The adoption of eye REFERENCES
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under the mouse pointer.
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Tracking Attention through Browser Mouse Tracking
performance (pp. 5-52). Amsterdam: North-Hol- sors (e.g., visual system, auditory system) that can
land Publishing Co. function in parallel. 6
Selective Attention: The idea that a person
KEY TERMS can actively choose to attend to one of multiple
stimuli that are present while ignoring others.
Attention: Mental processing that consumes
Single-Channel Hypothesis: A model of at-
our conscious thinking. Through a variety of mecha-
tention that assumes that some mechanisms can
nisms, there is a limit to the amount of processing
process only one task at a time in a serial fashion.
that can take place in our consciousness.
Some mechanisms have structural limitations (e.g.,
Automatism: An attention mechanism estab- eyes can only point to one place). Multiple tasks are
lished through practice whereby the performance of processed within some time frame by attention
a task apparently no longer interferes with the switching between tasks.
concurrent performance of other tasks.
Undifferentiated-Capacity Hypothesis: A
Habituation: The suppression of a response to model of attention that assumes a flexible, multipur-
or attention to a stimulus after repeated exposures. pose central processor that can process multiple
tasks concurrently. This processor has a limited
Involuntary Attention: The idea that some- amount of resources, however, that can be allocated
thing can take a persons attention by being novel, across all tasks.
contrasting, startling, and so forth.
Voluntary Attention: The idea that a person
Multiple-Resource Theory: A model of at- can actively seek out information or things to think
tention that assumes many specialized preproces- about.
621
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Jan Noyes
University of Bristol, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Traditional vs. Pull-Down Menus
ence between the use of icons and text, and a speed indexed menu than the cascading, pull-down menus.
advantage of direct manipulation over menus. This Their results indicated that using a categorical menu 6
advantage, however, was diminished when the task would be 4.27 minutes quicker when accessing 40
was repeated for a third time, indicating that there pages on the Internet. (This figure was derived from
may be a learning effect occurring in menu interac- Nielsen [2003], who suggested that a user accesses
tions. However, studies such as this do not serve to 40 pages of information in a typical surf of the
indicate the basic type of menu layout that is most Internet.) Bernard and Hamblin (2003) also found
beneficial to the user. that the indexed menu was preferred by participants
Given the importance of navigation in computer- who chose this design more as a first choice over the
based tasks, many studies have been carried out on two cascading menu designs.
menu design. For example, Yu and Roh (2002) In a study we conducted comparing traditional
investigated the effects of searching using a simple and pull-down menus with older and younger adults,
menu with a hierarchal structure, a global and local time differences between the menu types were
navigation menu, and a pull-down menu. They found found for both age groups, with traditional menus
search speeds differed significantly, with the pull- eliciting shorter times than pull-down menus. Carey
down menu being faster than the other two. et al. (1996) found that traditional menus elicited
Carey, Mizzi, and Lindstrom (1996) compared fewer errors than pull-down menus and found no
traditional and pull-down menu formats and found evidence for their hypothesis that experienced users
that experienced users completed menu search tasks would commit fewer errors than novices. The differ-
faster than novice users, regardless of the menu ence in error rates between the menu types was
style used, although there was no significant differ- replicated in our work, although the effect was only
ence between the two user groups in the number and present for the older age group.
type of errors made. The traditional menus elicited In terms of participant opinions about the two
fewer errors than the pull-down menus for both menu types, younger respondents expressed a pref-
experienced and novice users, but there was no time erence for pull-down menus; older adults preferred
difference for task completion between the two traditional menus. Both menu styles were shown to
menu types. Carey et al. (1996) also found that users be easy to use by both age groups. There was one
preferred the traditional style menu, with this prefer- significant differenceyoung participants found the
ence being stronger for novices than for experi- traditional menus hard to search by trial and error
enced users. They suggested the fact that using a compared to their ratings for pull-down menus and to
cash point application may have skewed the results the older adults ratings of both menu types. This
in favor of the traditional menus due to a familiarity may have been because younger participants are
effect. A further bias in favor of the traditional menu more familiar with pull-down menus. However, this
condition lies in the fact that it required fewer key finding is not supported by Bernard and Hamblin
presses per transaction than the pull-down menus. (2003). Their participants were relatively young
This is an intrinsic feature of the two menu de- with a mean age of 32.6 years (SD = 8.2) but
signsthe pull-down system by definition will re- indicated a preference in use for the indexed menu.
quire an additional action at the start to open the
menu from the top of the screen, while the traditional
menu would already be occupying the majority of the FUTURE TRENDS
screen.
Bernard and Hamblin (2003) compared cascad- These experimental studies have demonstrated a
ing menus in horizontal and vertical forms with a number of points. First, older adults were more
categorical indexed menu design. Although the ter- disadvantaged in their use of pull-down menus com-
minology is different, the categorical indexed menu pared to traditional menus, relative to younger adults.
appears to be equivalent to the traditional menu, and This was true of the time taken to complete the task,
the cascading menus seem to be pull-down menus. the number of errors, and the steps required. Sec-
They found that searching was faster using the ondly, the type of searching used by participants in
623
Traditional vs. Pull-Down Menus
624
Traditional vs. Pull-Down Menus
Norman, K. L. (1991). The psychology of menu now have a menu-driven component in contrast to a
selection: Designing cognitive control at the command-driven system; that is, where explicit com- 6
human computer interface. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. mands must be entered as opposed to selecting items
from a menu.
Straub, K. (2004, July). Adaptive menu design. UI
Design Update Newsletter, 6. Mouse: In computer terms, this is a hand-oper-
ated electronic device that moves the cursor on a
Walker, D. (2000). A flying menu attack can
computer screen. A mouse is essentially an upside-
wound your navigation. Retrieved from http://
down trackball, although the former needs more
www.shorewalker.com/pages/flying_menu-1.html
room during operation as it moves around a horizon-
Yu, B. -M., & Roh, S. -Z. (2002). The effects of tal surface.
design on information-seeking performance and
Public Access Technologies: These are com-
users attitude on the World Wide Web. Journal of
puter-based technologies that are designed to be
the American Society for Information Science,
used by the general public. This has implications for
53(11), 923-933.
their design, since they will be used by a diverse and
Zaphris, P., Shneiderman, B., & Norman, K. L. unknown user group drawn from the human popula-
(2002). Expandable indexes vs. sequential menus tion.
for searching hierarchies on the World Wide Web.
Pull-Down Menu: When the user points at a
Behaviour and Information Technology, 21(3),
word with either a keystroke or a mouse, a full menu
201-207.
appears (i.e., is pulled down, usually from the top of
the display screen), and the user then can select the
KEY TERMS required option. A cascading menu (i.e., a submenu)
may open when you select a choice from the pull-
Graphical User Interface: Commonly abbrevi- down menu.
ated GUI, this type of interface is a standardized Traditional Menu: This type of menu is essen-
way of presenting information and opportunities for tially a series of display screens that appear sequen-
interaction on the computer screen using the graphi- tially as the user responds to the requests detailed on
cal capabilities of modern computers. GUIs use each screen.
windows, icons, standard menu formats, and so
forth, and most are used with a mouse as well as a WIMP: This acronym stands for Windows, Icons,
keyboard. Mouse, Pointing device, and is a form of GUI.
Icons: Icons are a principal feature of GUIs and WYSIWYG: This acronym stands for What You
are small pictures representing objects, files, pro- See Is What You Get; it is pronounced Wiz-zee-wig.
grams, users, and so forth. Clicking on the icon will A WYSIWYG application is one where you see on
open whatever is being represented. the screen exactly what will appear on the printed
document (i.e., text, graphics, and colors will show
Menu: A list of commands or options that ap- a one-to-one correspondence). It is particularly popu-
pear on the computer screen and from which the lar for desktop publishing.
user makes a selection. Most software applications
625
626
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Turning the Usability Fraternity into a Thriving Industry
Being business-literate is important for practitio- other hand, an improvement in the structure of
ners. Business-literate would mean knowing how the applications navigation is likely to make a 6
enterprises in various industries (banking, insurance, significant improvement in the users perfor-
retail, etc.) perform their business functions. Also, mance thereby impacting things like enter-
since business-literate practitioners understand the prise workforce productivity (Henry, 2003).
business reasons why an enterprise invests in an One candidate the author evaluated for recruit-
application, they will know the impact of user- ment into his usability group had an MS degree
performance (or usability) on the enterprise rather in Human Factors and three years of HCI
than on the users alone. experience. As always, the candidate was given
a test to evaluate his skills. The candidates
design recommendation sheet was filled with
FOCUS ON DESIGN, NOT TESTING terms such as memory load, mental load, con-
ceptual load, syntactic learning load, and cog-
Literaturefrom the earliest to the most recent nitive load. Such a narrow focus on the human
has always recommended conducting usability tests, side of users too does not help make a signifi-
unfortunately with little or no emphasis on design. cant impact on the enterprise.
Authors have included well-known usability gurus. There is another advice (and therefore prac-
No wonder, most usability practitioners appear to be tice) that leads to low-impact contribution.
focused on testing. Testing, of course, is a useful Usability practitioners have been inspired into
technique to discover certain types of design prob- believing that even a small usability improve-
lems. However, the point is that a test-fix-test-fix ment is better than no improvement at all. That
kind of approach is not going to result in a highly might sound like good advice. But, following
usable user interface. This argument could be best this advice only results in mediocre practitio-
appreciated by imagining the approach of usability- ners, mediocre applications, and therefore a
testing a building that was not designed correctly in poor image for the whole usability fraternity.
the first place. Shneiderman et al. (2002) call this
orientation to evaluation The first human factors If usability practitioners only deliver low-impact
limitation. contributions, how will enterprises take them seri-
Shneiderman et al. (2002) say, we do not ously? Practitioners need to rethink the current
contribute anything of substance: we are critics, able thinking and practices in usability.
to say what is wrong, unable to move the product line
forward. He goes on to say that usability practitio-
ners must become designers. Yes, practitioners PROMOTE HIGH-IMPACT
should apply strong design skills using a strong CONTRIBUTIONS
design-driven process (Henry, 2003) that preferably
has testing as one of the evaluation methods. Most of the time, the usability fraternity just talks
about the small improvements that it creates. These
small improvements are things that do not signifi-
MAKE HIGH-IMPACT cantly impact the enterprise. These are things that
CONTRIBUTIONS are not perceived as significant by the enterprise.
Instead, practitioners should start talking about
Here are a few reasons why low-impact user big things (of course, assuming they have achieved
interfaces are rampant. big things). For example, if they redesigned an
application user interface to significantly reduce
Most usability practitioners often fight only for expenses on user-training, they should talk about it
screen-level improvements to user interfaces. and preferably in dollar terms.
Such improvements do not make a significant Usability practitioners know that users get con-
impact on the performance or bottom-line of fused, frustrated, dissatisfied, and so forth while
the enterprise using the application. On the interacting with poorly designed user interfaces.
627
Turning the Usability Fraternity into a Thriving Industry
However, those are not the terms that typically get news, however, is that with the right skills and the
the attention of business folks. So, practitioners should right approach, usability practitioners will not only
understand and articulate the business impact of such keep their jobs at difficult economic times, but
user reactions. actually grow the field into a thriving industry.
Practitioners, however, should not use a preten-
tious word to describe what they do. One company
the author worked with had a user interface Archi- REFERENCES
tect, who pulled out her screen visual layout tem-
plate when in fact the author was talking about Bias, R. G., & Mayhew, D. J. (1994). Summary: A
user interaction architecture! place at the table. In R. G. Bias, & D. J. Mayhew
Also, if a practicing team has the capability to (Ed.), Cost-justifying usability (p. 324). San Di-
design high-impact user interfaces, it should not try ego, CA: Academic Press.
to cost-justify its efforts. Instead, it should talk about
Return on Investment (ROI). The phrase cost- Henry, P. (2003, March & April). Advancing UCD
justification might not sound different from ROI, but while facing challenges working from
it is. Sure, methods like cost-benefit analysis, cost- offshore. Interactions, 38-47.
justification, and ROI projection all attempt to pre- Mauro, C. L. (n.d.). More science than art. Re-
dict the financial and other business consequences of trieved September 4, 2004, from http://
an action. However, when terms like cost-justifica- www.taskz.com/ usability_indepth.php
tion are mentioned, attention is directed to cost. On
the other hand, when a term like ROI is mentioned, Merholz, P., & Hirsch, S. (2003). Report review:
attention is directed to returns or gains. Merholz and Nielsen/Norman groups usability return on in-
Hirsch (2003) say, The key strategy is to get enter- vestment. Retrieved eptember 4, 2004, from http://
prises to recognize that user experience is not simply www.boxesandarrows.com/archives/ report_
a cost of doing business, but an investment that review_nielsennorman_groups_usability_return_on_
with appropriate expenditure, you can expect a finan- investment.php
cial return. Orenstein, D. (1999, August). Is software too hard
to use? CNN.com. Retrieved October 4, 2004, from
http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9908/25/
FUTURE TRENDS easyuse.ent.idg/index.html
Usability practitioners will benefit from reports that Shneiderman, B., Tremaine, M., Card, S., Norman,
are based on research projects regularly conducted D. A., & Waldrop, M. M. (2002, April 20-25).
on how well and how frequently they touch enter- CHI@20: Fighting our way from marginality to
prise bottom-line. That would help the practitioners power. Extended Abstracts: Conference on Hu-
know how well the field is doing from the enterprise man Factors in Computing Systems, Minneapolis,
perspective so they could focus on areas that matter Minnesota (pp. 688-691). New York: ACM Press.
most to the enterprise.
KEY TERMS
CONCLUSION Application: Computer software meant for a
specific use such as payroll processing.
It is sad that usability, which has the potential to bring
a big business value, has so far not made an impact Business and IT Executives: Senior people
on (and therefore is not taken seriously by) enter- at a business organization, such as the chief infor-
prises that invest in IT. Therefore it has remained a mation officer (CIO), chief technology officer
small and struggling field for many decades. The (CTO), and chief executive officer (CEO).
blame is on the usability practitioners. The good
628
Turning the Usability Fraternity into a Thriving Industry
Business Process: A series of related activi- Usability Practitioner: A person who designs
ties performed by staff in a business organization to and evaluates software user interfaces. 6
achieve a specific output (for example: loan pro-
Usability Fraternity: A group of people that
cessing).
designs and evaluates software user interfaces.
Enterprise: A business organization.
Enterprise Performance and Bottom-Line:
Data critical for business success, such as employee
productivity, customer satisfaction, and revenues.
629
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Antti Salovaara
Helsinki Institute for Information Technology, Finland
INTRODUCTION
sitively into account. Although Weiser (1991) never that assume some of the control responsibility from
intended to confine context to mean merely location, the users. 7
the following five years of research mostly focused The latest widely referred to definition was given
on location-based adaptation. Want et al. (1992) by Dey et al. (2001), who defined context as any
described the ActiveBadge, a wearable badge for information that characterizes a situation related to
office workers that could be used to find and notify the interaction between users, applications, and the
people in an office. Weiser (1993) continued by surrounding environment (p. 106). Satyanarayanans
exploring systems for sharing drawings between (2001) formulation of pervasive computing also be-
disconnected places (the Tivoli system). Schilit et al. longs to this line of thinking, but the author has
(1994) defined context to encompass more than chosen to avoid defining context and merely admits
locationto include people and resources as well that it is rich and varies.
but their application examples were still mostly In his review of context definitions over the
related to location sensing (i.e., proximate selection, years, Dourish (2004) calls this the representa-
location-triggered reconfiguration, location-triggered tional approach to context. Recent work within
information, and location-triggered actions). Want, this branch has come close to finding the limits to
et al. (1995) added physical parameters like time and recognizing and labeling contexts. For example,
temperature to the definition. Perhaps the best- simple physical activities of a person in a home
known mobile application developed during this lo- environment can be recognized with about 80-85%
cation paradigm era was the CyberGuide (Long et accuracy (Intille et al., 2004), as can be the
al., 1996), an intelligent mobile guide that could be interruptability of a person working in an office
used to search for nearby services in a city. This (Fogarty et al., 2004). Some critics have drawn
paradigm was also influential in the research on parallels from this enterprise to problems encoun-
Smart Spaces, such as intelligent meeting rooms. tered in strong AI (Erickson, 2002).
Although the idea that location equals context was New Directions Inspired by Human and
eventually dismissed, many researchers coming from Social Sciences
computer science still believed that contexts were
something that should be recognized, labeled, and By the year 1996, other approaches to context were
acted upon (Schmidt et al., 1998). Here, context was beginning to emerge. Wearable computing (Mann,
supposed to be recognized from sensor data, labeled, 1996) looked at personal wearable computers able to
and given to applications that would use it as a basis help us remember and capture our everyday experi-
for adaptation. Dey et al.s (1999) five Ws of ences through video and sound recording of context.
contextWho, Where, When, What, and Why Tangible bits (Ishii & Ullmer, 1997), although in-
extended this approach and demonstrated convinc- spired by ubiquitous computing, looked at context not
ing examples of how a labeled context could be used as something that had to be reacted upon but as
for presenting, executing, and tagging information. surroundings of the user that could be augmented
Tennenhouses (2000) proactive computing para- with tangible (i.e., graspable) computers and ambi-
digm endorsed a similar way of thinking about con- ent media that display digital information using dis-
text, emphasizing the role of computers in doing real- traction-free output channels.
time decisions on behalf of (or pro) the user. A More recently, researchers have started to em-
somewhat similar approach that also attempts to phasize the social context and issues in peoples
delegate decision-making responsibility to intelligent practices and everyday conduct. These approaches
systems is taken by the Ambient Intelligence (AmI) give special consideration to activities that people
technology program of the European Union (ISTAG). engage in and highlight their dynamic nature, differ-
One part of the AmI vision entails intelligent agents ent from the labeling-oriented representational ap-
631
Ubiquitous Computing and the Concept of Context
proach. Activity-centered approaches emphasize Dey, A. K., Salber, D., & Abowd, G. A. (2001). A
both turn taking in communication between the user conceptual framework and a toolkit for supporting
and the applications (Fischer, 2001) and acknowl- the rapid prototyping of context-aware applica-
edge the situated and time-varying nature of the tions. Human-Computer Interaction, 16(2-4), 97-
needs that a user has in his or her life (Greenberg, 166.
2001). This line of research highlights the difficulties
Dourish, P. (2004). What we talk about when we
that exist in making correct inferences about a users
talk about context. Personal and Ubiquitous Com-
tasks through sensor information. Considerations of
puting, 8(1), 19-30.
social issues in ubiquitous computing design include
questions of how to fit computation intelligence into Erickson, T. (2002). Some problems with the notion
peoples routines in an unremarkable manner (Tolmie of context-aware computing. Communications of
et al., 2002) and how peoples patterns of interaction the ACM, 25(2), 102-104.
with humans and computers change when
computationally augmented artifacts are adopted into Fischer, G. (2001). Articulating the task at hand and
use. Yet another emerging idea from HCI addresses making information relevant to it. Human-Com-
specifically the aim to be free from distraction; that puter Interaction, 16(2-4), 243-256.
is, when it is appropriate to interrupt the user at his or Fogarty, J., Hudson, S. E., & Lai, J. (2004). Exam-
her present task. Some call systems with such infer- ining the robustness of sensor-based statistical mod-
ring capabilities attentive user interfaces (Vertegaal, els of human interruptibility. Proceedings of the
2003). SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Com-
puting Systems (CHI04).
632
Ubiquitous Computing and the Concept of Context
Satyanarayanan, M. (2001). Pervasive computing: Context: That which surrounds and gives mean-
Vision and challenges. IEEE Personal Communi- ing to something else. (Source: The Free On-line 7
cations, 8(4), 10-17. Dictionary of Computing, http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/
foldoc/)
Schilit, B., Adams, N., & Want, R. (1994). Context-
aware computing applications. Proceedings of the Peripheral Computing: The interface attempts
IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems to provide attentionally peripheral awareness of
and Applications. people and events. Ambient channels provide a
steady flow of auditory cues (i.e., a sound like rain)
Schmidt, A., Beigl, M., & Gellersen, H. -W. (1998).
or gradually changing lighting conditions.
There is more to context than location. Computers
& Graphics, 23(6), 893-901. Pervasive Computing: Technology that pro-
vides easy access to information and other people
Tennenhouse, D. (2000). Proactive computing. Com-
anytime and anywhere through a mobile and scal-
munications of the ACM, 43(5), 43-50.
able information access infrastructure.
Tolmie, P., Pycock, J., Diggins, T., MacLean, A., &
Proactive Computing: A research agenda of
Karsenty, A. (2002). Unremarkable computing.
developing interconnected devices and agents,
Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Hu-
equipped with faster-than-human-speed computing
man Factors in Computing Systems (CHI02).
capabilities and means to affect real-world phenom-
Vertegaal, R. (2003). Introduction to a special issue ena that a user can monitor and steer without a need
on attentive user interfaces. Communications of to actively intervene in all decision-making situa-
the ACM, 46(3), 31-33. tions. By raising the user above the traditional hu-
man-computer interaction loop, efficiency and free-
Want, R., Hopper, A., Falco, V., & Gibbons, J. dom from distraction are expected to be enhanced.
(1992). Active badge location system. ACM Trans-
actions on Information Systems, 10(1), 91-102. Tangible Bits: According to Hiroshi Ishii of
MIT, the smooth transition of users focus of
Want, R., et al. (1995). An overview of the ParcTab attention between background and foreground using
ubiquitous computing experiment. IEEE Personal ambient media and graspable objects is a key chal-
Communications, 2(6), 28-43. lenge of Tangible Bits (p. 235).
Weiser, M. (1991). The computer for the 21st cen- Tangible User Interfaces: Systems that give a
tury. Scientific American, 265(3), 66-75. physical form to digital information through aug-
Weiser, M. (1993). Some computer science issues in menting tools and graspable objects with computing
ubiquitous computing. Communications of the ACM, capabilities, thus allowing for smooth transitions
36(7), 75-84. between the background and foreground of the
users focus of attention.
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634
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Ubiquitous Internet Environments
tion to the net (intranet or extranet) but also voice information) and between different multilingual de-
and messaging (SMS, EMS, MMS) (Cereijo, 2001). vices available. That means that a users transaction 7
with a certain interface (e.g., flight booking from an
iTV setup box) also must appear in real time, if the
USAGE OF MOBILE user accesses the related site afterwards with a
COMMUNICATION different interface (e.g., PC or Pocket PC). The
problem of the convergence implies some other
In the 1980s, the first generation (1G) of mobile ones, such as the information must be optimized
communication systems revolutionized the TLC world, according to the physical and technical features of
as users could carry a phone in their pocket. The 2G each interface (Cereijo, 2003).
communication system and its new protocols to ac- One of the main consequences of 3G will be an
cess the Internet, beyond just voice calls, provided enhanced interaction with information (companies
users in mobility with a whole range of interactive and institutions), people (personal and group com-
services based on wireless data transmission. munication), the smart-house and the automated
Today, the market is characterized by different office. This context of ubiquitous communication
technologiesin America and Japan, the IS95 net- (across mobile phones, iTV, palms, pocket PCs,
work based on CDMA (Code Division Multiple PDAs, etc.) will have applications in domotics,
Access); in Europe, Asia, and Africa, the GSM videoconferencing, commerce, iTV, entertainment,
(Global System for Mobile Communication) using learning, finance, medicine, and so forth (Burkhardt,
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access). Analysts 2002).
foresee a relevant growth of mobile Internet users in
the upcoming yearsby 2005, more mobile phones MULTI-CHANNEL IDENTITY
will be connected to the Internet than PCs (Ovum,
3G Mobile, 2000). One of the challenges of 3G will be the design of the
Now we see the advent of 3G and 4G systems multi-channel identity. Each type of device has
offering unprecedented bandwidth and speed con- different technical and physical features that condi-
nection up to 2 Mbps for data transmission with tion the design decisions (regarding architecture,
audio and video streaming capabilities directly on the navigation, contents, and graphics).
phone. The variety and difference of the services This requires a coordinated graphic and interac-
offered are a challenge for todays service and tion design that takes these issues into account. At
application developers, and the battlefield is usability the same time, the peculiarities of each interface of
and effectiveness (Cereijo, 2002). the system (Figure 1) might make the achievement
of desired design homogeneity difficult (from both
the functional and visual point of view) (Bergman,
MULTI-ACCESS AND MULTI- 2000).
CHANNEL CONVERGENCE
635
Ubiquitous Internet Environments
USABILITY AND SELF-USABILITY vices, and aim of the action happens. Therefore, in
an optic of human-centered microdesign, the inter-
The usability of a system can be defined as the est of the design director is not the single button,
effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction with which display, or screen, but the global project of the
specified users achieve specified goals in particular human-machine interface (Nielsen, 1992). Inter-
environments (ISO 9241, ergonomic requirements acting with a wired device is related to a specific
for office work with visual display, Part 11). This user experience; usually, the contents are fat, and
means that the measurement of users performance audio-visual factors are relevant. The navigation
in mobility is not only important, but also their satis- here has several possible schemes due to the large
faction, which is related to their perceived relevance size and rich color of the screen. Moreover, ani-
of the mobile services provided in the particular mated images and videos can enrich and facilitate
contexts of use. Now more than ever, a participative interaction. Accessing the Internet through mobile
design process (synergetic cooperation between the devices instead does not replicate the PC-based
designer and the user during the whole cycle of the access. In fact, compared with the PC, in this kind
creation of the product) can be appropriated to of interface, we encounter important limitations. We
reduce design and development costs as well as to can mention the small size of the interactive area, the
provide successful services (Jordan, 2000). low resolution, the high cost of the device and that of
There is another aspect that concerns usability the connection, the slowness of data entry, the
that deserves special regard. It can be defined as reduced memory storage, the limited processing, and
self-usability and is related to the emotional effects of the short battery autonomy (Weiss, 2000).
this extended way of multi-access services commu- Another aspect that contributes to increase the
nication (e.g., iTV users by interacting with distrib- aforementioned complexity in microdesign is re-
uted interfaces). In order to make technology friend- lated to the shape of the device. In fact, two main
lier, mobile users have developed the so-called new trends can be denotedin one case, navigation
m-language of the mobile interactive community. It is tools have been gradually transferred to the graphic
made of slang words, neologisms, acronyms, num- interface and voice commands (i.e., PDAs, Palms,
bers, and icons of cyber communication. This new and table PCs, where keyboards have been almost
way of expressing was born as a consequence of eliminated in favor of the screen [Figure 2a]); and
interacting with SMS, e-mail, chat, forums, and in the other case, the device tends to configure itself
newsgroups, and evolved with WAP and GPRS as a typical mobile phone (Figure 2b).
communication (Macleod, 1994). In any case, it is crucial to be able to develop
services that offer positive experiences to end
users independently from these technology limita-
MICRODESIGN tions. Information retrieval will no more be a frus-
trating experience, but users will be satisfied in less
The interface is not a physical object but the space in time throughout a logical sequence with minimum
which the interaction among the human body, de- effort (Picard, 2000).
636
Ubiquitous Internet Environments
From GSM to 3G systems, wireless devices are Satisfaction of users expectations and
driving the mobile Internet evolution, opening up users perceived value of the services 7
innovative ways of communicating and interacting provided.
with content. The knowledge of this interaction Speed in task completion.
context is crucial in order to be able to design and Number of irreversible mistakes.
develop multi-access services. The uncertainty fac- Degree of interaction enabled.
tor regarding any technologys most appropriate
future use in terms of usage or shape can be reduced The designer must know who is the user in
with a good knowledge of the utilization scenario. mobility in order to know the users limitations
Wireless communication introduces an innova- (Wharton, 1992), needs, and expectations; to hy-
tive way to get the best out of the information world. pothesize the users behavior; to predict a model of
The key aspect is mobilityanytime-anywhere ac- multi-access interaction; to measure (Sears, 1993)
cess means quick and successful end-user experi- the users performance and the emotive level pro-
ence in getting the right information at the right time vided; to optimize human interface (Shneiderman,
and in the right place (Leed, 1991). On the other 1987); and to find a balance between automation and
hand, mobile devices are personal tools, they contain creative-affective interaction (deals with the plea-
personal information (agenda, phone book), and they sure of the users savoir faire).
can be personalized. Moreover, they remain on most According to the European experience with mo-
of the day and night and are carried anywhere as an bile interactive communities that use WAP and
absolutely needed connecting device. They not only SMS, users appreciate enhanced interaction, per-
enhance communication, they also change our social sonal, always-on and immediate communication (in-
relations (Ravy, 2000). formation delivered with sensibility to time and con-
The first step will be the definition of scenarios of text), new emotional experiences, new ways of
ubiquitous interactive communication (UMTS, MMS, socializing and sharing experiences, and new ex-
iTV, etc.) to prospect multi-access communication pressions of entertainment (e.g., multiplayer games,
contexts where users will be able to interact with group iTV interaction). An adequate targetization of
people, information, TV, other devices and ma- users in terms of lifestyle, needs, behavior, and role
chines, and so forthindependently of place and in a social group will lead to a successful personal-
timethanks to a system of distributed interfaces ization of the devices.
(PC, TV, PDA, pocket PC, mobile phone, etc.) In order to provide users with a high perceived
(Cereijo, 2003). Once the 3G scenario and the value of mobile interfaces, it is crucial to develop a
context of use are well defined, the designer should: human-centered microdesign approach that leads to
innovative interaction schemes (accessible via multi-
Know the expectances, limitations, and behav- devices: PC, smart phones, PDA) and site architec-
ior of users in mobility. ture as well as intuitive navigation. A scant attention
Set a user-centered design. to human factors and behavioral science principles
Design right interaction models and patterns. (learning ergonomics, social psychology, biomechan-
Foresee transcultural adaptability. ics, and HCI), which definitely is detrimental in Web
Ensure a good communication of the services design, is fatal in the mobile Internet. For example,
provided in order to guarantee a satisfactory users frustrations in WAP is undoubtedly more
added value to the user. dangerous than on the Web, as mobile devices
Keep a coherent and relevant multi-channel interfaces are much smaller, and delivery of service
identity. is slower and more expensive (Cooper, 1995).
Recognize the level of usability of an interface Even though there still are no standards for
according to: usability in mobile Internet, it is possible to indicate
Self-learning and length of the training some basic guidelines for a user-centered
phase. microdesign.
637
Ubiquitous Internet Environments
638
Ubiquitous Internet Environments
sion between buttons and non-linkable icons (this to create shared universal interaction codes, a co-
problem is more visible in the case of devices with herent language between all holistic systems of 7
touch screens, where linkable icons undoubtedly can interfaces. Innovative design patterns, human factor
help navigation). Mobile users hate to lose their way studies, behavioral theories, and evaluation tech-
within the site, and they dont appreciate dead links, niques in ubiquitous communication scenarios have
which can affect a sites reliability). been investigated in order for these technologies to
Some recent researches on users behaviors put enjoy widespread popularity and usage.
into evidence a reluctance of utilization of the physi-
cal buttons of mobile devices as function keys (only
some expert users are prone to make current use of REFERENCES
them). Therefore, only a minimum number of navi-
gation functions or commands should be placed in Aug, M. (1992). Non-lieux. Paris: Seuil.
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redundancy) on the screen, together with the rest of tions and architecture. Boston: Addison Wesley.
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bridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Ubiquitous Internet Environments
Hunter, R. (2002). World without secrets: Busi- Stanton, N. (Ed.). (2001). Ubiquitous computing:
ness, crime and privacy in the age of ubiquitous Anytime, anyplace, anywhere? International Jour-
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London: Taylor & Francis. John Wiley.
Leed, E.J. (1991). The mind of the traveler. Basic Wharton, C., Bradford, J., Jefferies, R., & Franzke,
Book. M. (1992). Applying cognitive walkthroughs to more
complex user interfaces: Experiences, issues, and
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Books.
KEY TERMS
Macleod, M. (1994). Usability in context: Improving
quality of use. Proceedings of the International
Infodesign: A broad term for the design tasks of
Ergonomics Association 4 th International Sym-
deciding how to structure, select, and present infor-
posium on Human Factors in Organizational
mation.
Design and Management, Stockholm, Sweden.
Microdesign: The process of designing how a
Nielsen, J. (1992). Finding usability problems through
user will be able to interact with a small artifact.
heuristic evaluation. Proceedings of the ACM CHI
92, Monterey, California. Mistake: An error of reasoning or inappropriate
subgoals, such as making a bad choice or failing to
Nielsen, J. (2000). Designing Web usability: The
think through the full implications of an action.
practice of simplicity. Indianapolis, IN: New Rid-
ers Publishing. Multi-Access: Interacting with a computer us-
ing more than one input or output channel at a time,
Picard, R. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge:
usually suggesting drastically different input chan-
MA: MIT Press.
nels being used simultaneously (e.g., voice, typing,
Raby, F. (2000). Project #26765Flirt: Flexible scanning, photo, etc.).
information and recreation for mobile users.
Multi-Channel: Different interfaces that can
London: RCA CRD Research Publications.
be available to the user for data entry in a multi-
Reyes, A., et al. (2001). Flash design for mobile platform system (iTV, PC, mobile phone, smart-
devices: A style guide for the wireless revolution. phone, pocket-PC, etc.).
New York: John Wiley.
Multi-Channel Identity: A perceived commu-
Sears, A. (1993). Layout appropriateness: A metric nicational coherence for each service provided
for evaluating user interface widget layouts. IEEE through the whole system of interfaces.
Transactions on Software Engineering, 19(1),
Reversible Actions: Any action that can be
707-719.
undone. Reversibility is a design principle that says
Shneiderman, B. (1987). Designing the user inter- people should be able to recover from their inevitable
face: Strategies for effective human-computer mistakes.
interaction. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Self-Usability: Sort of mechanisms set by users
(e.g., use of acronyms in a SMS) in order to make
more usable the interaction with complex human
artifacts.
640
641
Mark Hindmarch
University of Sunderland, UK
In order to better explain the work we have done on This technique is based on the CE+ [This is a
improving UIMs, three of the more commonly used combination of Cognitive Complexity Theory (CCT)
UIMs will be described. These are by no means the (Kieras & Polson, 1985) and Explanation-based
only usability inspection methods; other examples Learning (EXPL) (Polson & Lewis, 1990)] theory of
being claims analysis (Carroll & Rosson, 1991) and exploratory learning. This theory states that users
pluralistic walkthroughs (Bias, 1994). exploring a new interface are guided by general task
goals, and they search for interface elements that
Heuristic Evaluation promise to move them closer to these goals. Cogni-
tive Walkthrough is a practical technique for apply-
This method was developed by Nielsen (1992). The ing CE+ in an evaluation and was fully outlined in
basis of the method is the comparison of an interface Wharton, Rieman, Lewis, and Polson (1994). In
with a set of usability guidelines, known as the contrast to Heuristic Evaluation, Cognitive
heuristics. Originally nine, there are currently 10 Walkthrough can only be performed by experts.
guidelines dealing with areas such as visibility of The technique focuses on how well an interface
system status, user control and freedom and error can support a novice user without formal training. A
prevention. Cognitive Walkthrough is usually performed by the
A heuristic evaluation is carried out by a number interface designer with a small group of colleagues.
of different evaluators; five is recommended as the It requires that certain information be available to
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods
the evaluators to be successful, including a descrip- reasons, analysts will make predictions about usabil-
tion of the users and their knowledge resources, a ity problems that in reality cause no problems to the
description of the tasks to be performed and the users (Cockton & Woolrych, 2001).
correct sequence of actions necessary to carry out For example, UIMs such as Heuristic Evaluation
the tasks. In performing the walkthrough, for each (Nielsen, 1992) are simply not good enough in their
step in a task, the evaluation team asks a series of current state. The negative outcome of the use of
questions including: such inspection methods is two-fold. First of all,
because such methods are not thorough (they fail to
Is the correct action obvious to the user? find all of the usability problems), designs subjected
Will the user match the systems response with to them can result in poor usability, especially if the
the chosen action? nature of their flaws is not fully understood. For
example, is there a type of usability problem that the
Cognitive Walkthrough has been criticized for method is typically good at finding? Or more impor-
being too time consuming and requiring large amounts tantly, is there a type of problem the method is
of paperwork to be completed, although attempts particularly bad at finding, and are these problems
have been made to streamline the method (Rowley likely to be severe ones? Second, if the false posi-
& Rhoades, 1992; Spencer, 2000). tives are addressed as real usability problems, time
and money is wasted in the redesign of usable
Heuristic Walkthrough features.
Although the assessment of UIMs has been very
Sears (1997) proposed a method which combines poor (Gray & Saltzman, 1998), this has improved
aspects of cognitive walkthroughs and heuristic recently (e.g., Cockton, Woolrych, Hall, &
evaluation to address the weaknesses of both. Hindmarch, 2003). Research must, therefore, focus
Heuristic walkthrough is a two phase technique. on the reliable assessment of inspection methods
The first phase has similarities with cognitive before work on inspection method improvement can
walkthrough, in that evaluators have a set of ques- begin.
tions to guide their exploration of the interface as Despite these problems with inspection methods,
well as a set of common user tasks; this is designed there is still a place for reliable UIMs given the
to expose the evaluators to the core functionality of original rationale for their developmentsaving valu-
the interface. During the second phase, the evalua- able resources such as time and costs. The chal-
tors use usability heuristics to assess problems with lenge is to improve UIM quality without increasing
the interface. However, unlike a straightforward costs.
heuristic evaluation which is relatively unstructured,
the use of the heuristics in a heuristic walkthrough is
focused on those areas of the interface identified as IMPROVING USABILITY
important in the first phase of the evaluation. INSPECTION METHODS
It is claimed that the major advantage of heuristic
walkthrough is its ability to identify severe usability Thorough assessment of UIMs is reliant on accurate
problems compared to heuristic evaluation while coding of analyst (non)-predictions. UIMs are com-
avoiding the narrow focus commonly associated monly assessed by their validity, thoroughness, and
with cognitive walkthroughs. effectiveness (Sears, 1997), even though percent-
Despite variations in the strengths and weak- ages fail to comprehensively assess UIMs (Woolrych
nesses of the various UIMs, the unreliability of the & Cockton, 2000).
assessment of all such methods is well documented Validity drops as the number of problems found
(e.g., Gray & Salzman, 1998). In practice, these with a UIM exceeds the real problems found. Ana-
methods fail to predict all of the usability problems lysts make false predictions (false positives) as well
in a design; not all of the analysts predictions are as successful ones. Fewer false positives mean a
true predictions. Such false predictions are com- more valid UIM.
monly known as false positives. For a variety of
642
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods
Validity = Count of real problems found using UIM 1. Predicted (true positive) real problem
Count of problems predicted by UIM 2. Predicted, unconfirmed (false positive) 7
3. Not Predicted (discovered and correctly elimi-
The thoroughness of a UIM improves as more of nated) not a problem (true negative)
the real problems that exist are actually found. 4. Not Predicted (discovered and incorrectly
eliminated) real problem (false negative)
Thoroughness = Count of real problems found using UIM 5. Genuine Miss (undiscovered real problem)
Count of known usability problems
643
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods
rate coding; in other words, we can be confident that ESPRF, in which Part 1 consists of the original
if a problem exists it will be found! SPRF, for problem extraction and matching.
Part 2 of the ESPRF addresses discovery re-
Extended Structured Problem Report sources and methods. Analysts were required to
Formats (ESPRFs) explain their discovery strategy, such as system, or
user-centered, unstructured or structured. Essen-
ESPRFs were developed as research support tools. tially there are four strategies for problem discovery:
The original version was the Structured Problem system scanning, system searching, goal playing,
Report Format (SPRF) (Cockton & Woolrych, 2001). and method following. The first two are system-
This version was developed to aid problem matching centered, the first and third are unstructured. Differ-
and extraction and intended to be used in both ent knowledge resources are required: little if any
research and in practical use. The SPRF was de- for system scanning; product knowledge for system
rived from an analysis of usability problems, follow- searching; user/domain knowledge for goal playing;
ing from difficulties faced in the assessment of and task knowledge for method following. Part 2
UIMs (Lavery & Cockton, 1997; Cockton, & also addresses confirmation rationales for problems
Atkinson, 1997, Cockton & lavery 1999). General that analysts decide to retain as probable problems.
principles from SUPEX such as transcription, seg- Part 3 deals specifically with heuristic applica-
mentation, difficulty isolation, and generalization were tion to individual problems. Analysts were required
all applied. to provide evidence of conformance rather than just
The purpose of the SPRF was to address the name a heuristic (as was the case in the SPRF).
issues associated with constructing a master prob- Part 4 requires analysts to justify any problem
lem set from multiple analyst inspections. A simple elimination, with specific reference to user impact
description of reported problems was not enough. and behavior. The initial extensions focused on
An individuals description of the same predicted information that was clearly missing from the SPRF,
usability problem can vary greatly even to the point that is, how analysts approach discovery and whether/
of appearing to be describing completely different why elimination occurs.
events. The SPRF allowed for multiple points of As well as preventing the miscoding of analyst
reference to achieve accurate problem merging for (non)-predictions, the ESPRF also allows for the
the creation of a master problem set by requiring the identification of analyst discovery strategy and rel-
analyst to report further detail about the reported evant resources used in discovered problem analy-
problem. The SPRF required the analyst to provide sis. ESPRFs are essential tools in usability inspec-
a problem description but also to record the likely/ tion method assessment; however, ESPRFs need
actual difficulties associated with the problem and the support of falsification testing for thorough analysis
also any specific contexts in which the problem of usability inspection methods.
occurred (if applicable) and the assumed causes of
the problem.
Experience has shown that, in many cases, prob- FALSIFICATION TESTING
lem merging is possible using the problem descrip-
tion alone. However, there were many instances The method for falsification testing (Woolrych,
where the problem description alone was insuffi- Cockton, & Hindmarch, 2004) involves the rigorous
cient to confirm a confident match, but reference to testing of analyst predictions via user testing. Ana-
other descriptions did enable problem matching. lyst predictions are analyzed and merged into a
The current ESPRF (Cockton & Woolrych, 2001) master problem set. Thorough analysis of the pre-
was developed purely as a research tool. It is an dicted problem determines the individual difficulties
extension of the SPRF, which is designed to extract with each problem.
analyst search strategy, knowledge resources used Within the context of the test application, task
in problem analysis, and aid in the accurate coding of sets are systematically derived to expose these likely
analyst (non)-predictions. There are four parts to the difficulties, that is, if the prediction is valid. Put
644
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods
simply, the individuals predicted problems are confidence in the accurate coding of all analysts
stressed via user testing to ensure a high level of (non)-predictions. Recorded rationales for problem 7
confidence in final coding. confirmation/elimination extracted from ESPRFs
Falsification testing is a fixed task user testing can be used to identify appropriate knowledge re-
method. Users are restricted in their choice of task sources for potential problem analysis. Analysis of
approach and execution. The goal of falsification such knowledge resources can identify those that
testing is an accurate assessment of validity, that is, aid analysts in appropriate problem confirmation/
to accurately determine if a prediction is a hit or elimination analysis.
false positive, and, with the assistance of ESPRFs, This is essentially the framework for the DARe
to accurately code true/false negatives. model for analyst performance in inspection. Fur-
The principle is simple, if a prediction is accurate, ther work is necessary, however the DARe model
then it will be confirmed by user testing. If a predic- can provide the focus of future research that will
tion does not materialize as a problem, we can have lead to improved assessment of usability inspection.
confidence that it does not exist, and that the particu- In turn, positive inroads can be made in better
lar prediction can be confidently coded as a false analyst training with emphasis on knowledge re-
positive. Falsification testing ensures that false posi- sources for both problem discovery and analysis.
tive coding of predictions is not a consequence of Then we can consider improving individual usability
incomplete coverage in user testing. inspection methods.
Previous attempts to streamline and fix usability The authors would like to thank John Rieman for his
inspection methods have been unsuccessful prima- explanation of the origins of CE+.
rily due to the fact that assessment of UIMs was
inadequate. The DARe model for analyst behavior
and associated research has provided a more rigor- REFERENCES
ous assessment of UIMs. Much more is known
about the limitations of UIMs in general although Bias, R. G. (1994). The pluralistic usability
work in this area is not yet complete. The weight of walkthrough: Coordinated empathies. In J. Nielsen,
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CONCLUSION ing inspection methods: Lessons from an assess-
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inspection methods in their current state, a likely Cockton, G., Woolrych, A., Hall, L., & Hindmarch,
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Cockton, G., Woolrych, A., & Hindmarch, M. (2004). nal of Human-Computer Interaction, 9(3), 213-
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Comparison of evaluation methods using structured KEY TERMS
usability problem reports. Behaviour and Informa-
tion Technology, 16(4), 246-266. False Negative: A potential usability problem
discovered in a usability inspection that upon analy-
Nielsen, J. (1990). Paper versus computer imple-
sis is incorrectly eliminated by the analyst as an
mentations as mockup scenarios for heuristic
improbable problem. The discovered problem is
evaluation. Paper presented at INTERACT 90
confirmed in real use as causing difficulties to users.
(pp. 315-320).
False Positive: A prediction of a usability prob-
Nielsen, J. (1992). Finding usability problems
lem reported in a usability inspection that in reality is
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not a problem to the real users.
CHI 92 (pp. 373-380).
Falsification Testing: A method for testing the
Nielsen, J., & Landauer, T.K. (1993). A mathemati-
accuracy of predictions made during usability in-
cal model of the finding of usability problems.
spections.
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Genuine Miss: A usability problem that causes
Polson, P., & Lewis, C. H. (1990) Theory-based
user difficulties that remains undiscovered in usabil-
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Thoroughness: A measure for assessing us-
Rowley, D. E., & Rhoades, D.G. (1992). The cog-
ability inspection methods. Determined by dividing
nitive jogthrough: A fast-paced user interface
the number real problems found by the UIM by the
evaluation procedure. Paper presented at CHI 92
number of known problems.
(pp. 389-395).
True Negative: A potential usability problem
Sears, A. (1997). Heuristic walkthroughs: Finding
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646
Understanding and Improving Usability Inspection Methods
sis is correctly eliminated by the analyst as an improb- Usability Inspection Methods (UIM): The
able problem. The discovered problem is confirmed in term given to a variety of analytical methods for 7
real use as causing the user no difficulties. predicting usability problems in designs.
True Positive: A prediction of a usability prob- Validity: A measure for assessing usability in-
lem reported in a usability inspection that is proven spection methods. Determined by dividing the num-
to be a real problem in actual use with real users. ber of real problems found by the UIM by the
number of problems predicted by the UIM.
647
648
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is currently the most The Human Memory System:
prominent cognitive theory pertaining to instruc- The Modal Model of Memory
tional design and is referred to in numerous empirical
articles in the educational literature (for example, It has long been accepted that the human memory
Brnken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003; Chandler & system is made up of two storage units: long-term
Sweller, 1991; Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van memory and working memory. There is an abun-
Gerven, 2003; Sweller, van Merrinboer, & Paas, dance of behavioral (for example, Deese & Kaufman,
1998). CLT was developed to assist educators in 1957; Postmand & Phillips, 1965) and neurological
designing optimal presentations of information to evidence (Milner, Corkin, & Tueber, 1968;
encourage learning. CLT has also been extended Warrington & Shallice, 1969) to support this theory.
and applied to the design of educational hypermedia Long-term memory is a repository for information
and multimedia (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). The theory and knowledge that we have been exposed to repeti-
is built around the idea that the human cognitive tively or that has sufficient meaning to us. Long-term
architecture has inherent limitations related to ca- memory is a memory store that has an indefinable
pacity, in particular, the limitations of human work- duration but is not conscious; that is, any information
ing memory. As Sweller et al. (pp. 252-253) state: in long-term memory must first be retrieved into
working memory for us to be aware of it. Hence, any
The implications of working memory limitations conscious manipulation of information or intentional
on instructional design cannot be overstated. All thinking can only occur when this information is
conscious cognitive activity learners engage in available to working memory. The depth and dura-
occurs in a structure whose limitations seem to tion of processing in working memory determines
preclude all but the most basic processes. whether information is passed on to long-term
Anything beyond the simplest cognitive activities memory. Once knowledge is stored in long-term
appear to overwhelm working memory. Prima memory, we can say that enduring learning has
facie, any instructional design that flouts or occurred.
merely ignores working memory limitations
inevitably is deficient. It is this factor that provides Working Memory Limitations
a central claim to cognitive load theory.
Unfortunately, working memory has some very defi-
In order to understand the full implications of nite limitations. First, there is a limit of volume.
cognitive load theory, an overview of the human Baddeley, Thomson, and Buchanan (1975) reported
memory system is necessary. that the size of working memory is equal to the
amount of information that can be verbally re-
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Understanding Cognitive Processes in Educational Hypermedia
hearsed in approximately 2 seconds. A second limi- visual and auditory format, (b) presenting material in
tation of working memory concerns time. When segments and providing pretraining on some material 7
information is attended to and enters working can reduce overload, (c) the redundancy of informa-
memory, if it is not consciously processed, it will tion can be eliminated, and (d) visual and auditory
decay in approximately 20 seconds. information can be synchronized.
Mayer and Moreno (2003) also refer to inciden-
tal processing as cognitive processes that are not
CLT AND EDUCATIONAL required for making sense of the presented material
HYPERMEDIA but are primed by the design of the learning task (p.
45). Incidental processing is considered undesirable
The modal model of human memory, specifically as it relates to the cognitive resources that are
these limitations of working memory, is the basis for needed to process extraneous, irrelevant material
CLT. A version of CLT, Mayer and Morenos that may be included on the presentation. Mayer and
(2003) selecting-organizing-integrating theory of Moreno advocate weeding out this extraneous ma-
active learning, is specifically targeted to learning in terial to reduce cognitive load.
hypermedia environments. The theory is built upon
three core assumptions from the modal model of Measuring Cognitive Load
memory: the dual channel assumption, the limited
capacity assumption, and the active processing as- If the premise of cognitive load theory is correct,
sumption. The dual channel assumption is based on then certainly a primary activity in designing instruc-
the notion that working memory has two sensory tional materials must be the meaningful measure-
channels, each responsible for processing different ment of cognitive load. This is not a simple task as
types of input. The auditory or verbal channel pro- the method of measurement is dependent on the
cesses written and spoken language. The visual constructs that different researchers use to describe
channel processes images. The limited capacity cognitive load. For example, Paas et al. (2003)
assumption applies to these two channels; that is, propose that three constructs define cognitive load:
each of these channels has a limit as to the amount mental load, which reflects the interaction between
of information that can be processed at one time. task and subject characteristics; mental effort, which
The active processing assumption is derived from reflects the actual cognitive reserves that are ex-
Wittrocks (1989) generative learning theory and pended on the task; and performance, which can be
asserts that substantial intentional processing is re- defined as the learners achievements. Previous
quired for meaningful learning. With these assump- research in cognitive load measurement has relied
tions as a foundation, Mayer and Moreno have on three types of measures to assess the cognitive
focused on three key mental activities that can place load of the user: (a) physiological measures such as
demands on available cognitive resources: attention, heart rate and pupillary responses, (b) performance
mental organization, and integration. data on primary and secondary tasks, and (c) self-
reported ratings (Paas et al.). These tasks have been
Improving Working Memory Capacity used in various configurations to measure overall
Directly cognitive load (Brnken et al., 2003; Chandler &
Sweller, 1996; Gimino, 2002; Paas, 1992). To date,
How does CLT advocate improving working memory most efforts to measure cognitive load have focused
limitations? To date, the solution for reducing cogni- on self-reported ratings (see Paas et al.).
tive load has focused on directly reducing the de-
mands on working memory. Mayer and Moreno
(2003) outline a number of methods for reducing FUTURE TRENDS
cognitive load in hypermedia: (a) Resting on the dual
channel assumption, cognitive load on one channel Our ability to reduce cognitive load in educational
can be relieved by spreading information across both hypermedia rests on our thorough definition of the
modalities, that is, by providing information in both a underlying constructs of cognitive load as well as the
649
Understanding Cognitive Processes in Educational Hypermedia
design of test mechanisms that allow us to measure Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1996). Cognitive load
cognitive load and detect situations where cognitive while learning to use a computer program. Applied
resources are overtaxed. Future research directed at Cognitive Psychology, 10, 151-170.
these two issues will contribute to the explanatory
Deese, J., & Kaufman, R. A. (1957). Serial effects
power of the theory and allow us to apply these
in recall of unorganized and sequentially organized
theoretical principles to educational settings that make
verbal material. Journal of Experimental Psy-
use of hypermedia materials.
chology, 54, 180-187.
Frensch, P. A., & Miner, C. S. (1994). Effects of
CONCLUSION presentation rate and individual differences in short-
term memory capacity on an indirect measure of
The cognitive load theory for educational hypermedia serial learning. Memory and Cognition, 22, 95-
has emerged as a prominent theory for guiding in- 110.
structional designers in the creation of educational
Gimino, A. (2002). Students investment of mental
hypermedia. It is based on the modal model of human
effort. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
memory, which posits that there are limits to the
American Educational Research Association, New
working memory store that impact the amount of
Orleans, LA.
cognitive effort that can be expended on a given task.
When available cognitive resources are surpassed, Mayer, R., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to
performance on memory and learning tasks is de- reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Edu-
graded, a condition referred to as cognitive overload. cational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52.
CLT for educational hypermedia advocates that edu-
cational materials must be designed that take into Milner, B. S., Corkin, S., & Tueber, H. L. (1968).
account these limitations. In order to do this, two Further analysis of the hippocampal amnesic syn-
obstacles to using CLT to its full advantage must be drome: 14 year follow-up study of H. M.
resolved: (a) the diversity of the descriptions of its Neuropsychologica, 6, 215-234.
underlying constructs and (b) the lack of valid and Paas, F. G. (1992). Training strategies for attaining
reliable methods for the measurement of cognitive transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A
load. cognitive approach. Journal of Educational Psy-
chology, 84, 429-434.
Baddeley, A., Thomson, N., & Buchanan, M. (1975). Postmand, L., & Phillips, L. W. (1965). Short-term
Word length and the structure of short-term memory. temporal changes in free recall. Quarterly Jour-
Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, nal of Experimental Psychology, 17, 132-138.
14, 575-589. Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit
Brnken, R., Plass, J. L., & Leutner, D. (2003). knowledge: An essay on the cognitive uncon-
Direct measurement of cognitive load in multidimen- scious (Oxford Psychology Series No. 19). New
sional learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), York: Oxford University Press.
53-61. Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994). Character-
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load istics of dissociable learning systems. Behavioral
theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and & Brain Sciences, 17, 367-395.
Instruction, 8, 293-332.
650
Understanding Cognitive Processes in Educational Hypermedia
Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: Limited Capacity Assumption: The limited
A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys and capacity assumption applies to the dual channels of 7
humans. Psychological Review, 99, 195-231. verbal and auditory processing. The assumption is
that each of these channels has a limit as to the
Sweller, J., van Merrinboer, J. J., & Paas, F. G.
amount of information that can be processed at one
(1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional de-
time.
sign. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-
296. Long-Term Memory: Long-term memory is a
repository for information and knowledge that we
Tulving, E. (2000). Concepts of memory. In E.
have been exposed to repetitively or that has suffi-
Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford hand-
cient meaning to us. Long-term memory is a memory
book of memory (pp. 33-43). New York: Oxford
store that has an indefinable duration but is not
University Press.
conscious; that is, any information in long-term
Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Primary and memory must first be retrieved into working memory
human memory systems. Science, 247, 301-306. for us to be aware of it.
Warrington, E. K., & Shallice, T. (1969). The elec- Mental Effort: A second construct related to
tive impairments of auditory verbal short-term measuring cognitive load, mental effort is the as-
memory. Brain, 92, 885-896. pect of cognitive capacity that is actually allocated to
accommodate the demands imposed by the task
Wittrock, M.C. (1989). Generative processes of (Paas et al., 2003, pp. 64).
comprehension. Educational Psychologist, 24, 345-
376. Mental Load: One of three constructs devised
by Paas et al. (2003) to assist in the measurement of
cognitive load. Mental load reflects the interaction
KEY TERMS between task and subject characteristics. Accord-
ing to Paas et al. (2003), it provides an indication of
the expected cognitive capacity demands and can be
Active Processing Assumption: The active considered an a priori estimate of cognitive load(pp.
processing assumption asserts that intentional and 64).
significant mental processing of information must
occur for enduring and meaningful learning to take Performance: Performance is the third con-
place. struct in Paas et al.s (2003) definition of cognitive
load and is reflected in the learners measured
Cognitive Load Theory: Cognitive Load achievement. Aspects of performance are speed of
Theory asserts that the capacities and limitations of completing a task, number of correct answers and
the human memory system must be taken into ac- number of errors.
count during the process of instructional design in
order to produce optimal learning materials and Short-Term or Working Memory: Short-Term
environments. or Working Memory refers to a type of memory
store where conscious mental processing occurs,
Dual Channel Assumption: The dual channel that is, thinking. Short-term memory has a limited
assumption is based on the notion that working capacity and can be overwhelmed by too much
memory has two sensory channels, each responsible information.
for processing different types of input. The auditory
or verbal channel processes written and spoken
language. The visual channel processes images.
651
652
Usability Barriers
David R. Danielson
Stanford University, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Usability Barriers
of these dimensions, see the article titled Usability User Ability and Motivation
Data Quality in this encyclopedia.) 7
One of the most widely employed collection meth-
ods, think-aloud usability testing, requires users to
BARRIERS TO USABILITY-DATA engage in a highly unnatural activity, namely, ver-
QUALITY bally unloading a stream of consciousness while
interacting with a system (Nielsen, 1993). Lin,
The successful collection, analysis, and reaction to Choong, and Salvendy (1997) point out that many
usability data are hindered in practice by numerous users have difficulty in keeping cognitive processes
constraints and biases. Far more empirical work verbalized while performing tasks, and that expert
identifying barriers to data quality has focused on users in particular find it difficult to verbalize their
collection than analysis and reaction for the obvious (often automatic) processes. When activities are
reasons: Collection processes are more amenable to routine or would not normally require attention,
experimental control and more accessible to re- concurrent verbalization is not only difficult, but can
searchers (i.e., easier to simulate or observe in affect cognitive processes (Birns, Joffre, Leclerc, &
entirety). Nonetheless, in recent years, barriers Paulsen, 2002; Ericsson & Simon, 1980) and there-
throughout the development process have been iden- fore hinder the validity of behavioral observations
tified, as discussed in this section. made during testing.
Remote methods in which the setting of data
Resource Constraints collection is more realistic do not avoid these barri-
ers. Fundamentally, data collection is limited by the
If representative customers and end users are dis- ease of use of the collection instrument (Hartson &
tributed (especially internationally), costs become Castillo, 1998) and users ability to notice usability
the primary barrier to (empirical) collection, which problems as they occur (Galdes & Halgren, 2001),
will tend to drive the selection of methods (Englefield, ability to evaluate incomplete prototypes with miss-
2003; Stanton & Baber, 1996; Vasalou, Ng, Wiemer- ing functionality, ability to remember and articulate
Hastings, & Oshlyansky, 2004) and affect data the context of a previously encountered problem (J.
quality. As a result, informal data-collection meth- Karat, 1997), and willingness to accept the cost of
ods are more frequently employed in practice than providing feedback.
formal methods (Vredenberg, Mao, Smith, & Carey,
2002). Selective Feedback and Feedback Bias
Perhaps the most common constraint arises from
the timing of data collection in the development Under many circumstances, usability data that could
cycle. Not surprisingly, the general finding is that the drive system improvements are simply never col-
later usability data are collected, the less likely they lected. Even when mechanisms are in place for
are to result in design changes (Bias & Mayhew, reporting critical incidents during actual use, users
1994). This problem can be exacerbated when a will choose which problems to report, often neglect-
short development cycle is demanded by concerns ing those they deem unimportant (Costabile, 2001).
orthogonal to usability. Neglecting low-severity problems can in some cases
When data collection is performed at low cost be a benefit to data quality, but only to the extent that
(for example, by using nonintrusive remote collec- users are able to recognize which problems recur
tion methods), the resource burden is often not and to tune their feedback activities effectively.
avoided but rather shifted to analysis since such Users conversely will often neglect reporting high-
methods can result in more data than are possible to severity problems, naturally in favor of focusing
translate into problem descriptions within the devel- their attention on correcting such problems and
opment cycle. getting their work done.
Neglecting feedback altogether may in some
cases be the lesser of two feedback evils, the other
653
Usability Barriers
being speculation. Hilbert and Redmiles (1999) have countered usability deficiencies, but they are still at
noted speculative feedback from both novices and least from the horses mouth. Another key effect
experts that can affect data quality. Novices will in of cost constraints is a reliance on filtered usability
some cases speculate that a real usability problem feedback from sales professionals or from custom-
would not interfere with expert usage, and conse- ers making the buying decisions (who may have
quently neglect to report serious system learnability varying levels of engagement with end users) rather
deficiencies, while experts will incorrectly speculate than directly from the end users themselves. The
on the usability of interface features for novice users quality of such filtered data remains largely
rather than focus on real problems they encounter. uninvestigated.
User assumptions about the usefulness of their own A similar filtering that has been investigated is
feedback is a particularly difficult problem to tackle data collection via analytic methods. Such methods
in part because such assumptions may not be articu- often explicitly require usability specialists to take
lated in the context of data collection; when custom- on the role of the end user. Hertzum and Jacobsen
ers filter feedback to indicate only those problems (2001) distinguish between two types of barriers to
they foresee as feasibly (and quickly) being ad- data quality in these cases: (a) anchoring, in which
dressed by a software vendor, for example, such a system is evaluated with respect to users too
filtering is unlikely to be made explicit without prompt- similar to the evaluator to be representative of the
ing. user population, and (b) stereotyping, in which the
system is evaluated with respect to a homogenous
Indirect Data catchall user not accounting for a wide-enough
range of user characteristics. Not surprisingly, such
A key effect of attempting to maximize the cost biases and differences in technique lead to differ-
effectiveness of data collection is an increased reli- ences in the results of analytic methods applied by
ance on indirect sources of usability data during different evaluators (Andre, Hartson, Belz, &
formative evaluation stages. Despite its shortcom- McCreary, 2001; Cockton, Woolrych, Hall, &
ings, face-to-face usability testing has the advantage Hindmarch, 2003); more problems tend to be dis-
of allowing analysts to view problems as they occur covered by a team of evaluators specializing their
and to clarify end-user comments and reasoning focus (i.e., looking for only certain types of prob-
while interacting with a prototype or live system. lems in the interface; Zhang, Basili, &
When cost constraints require remote collection, the Schneiderman, 1999). As a result, multiple evalua-
resulting data frequently lack context (Hilbert & tors are commonly recommended in employing ana-
Redmiles, 1998). Moreover, users will frequently lytic methods.
delay providing usability feedback until well after an
important incident has occurred (Hartson & Castillo, Method Scope
1998). Birns et al. (2002) describe instances of users
encountering usability problems only to later blame A shift toward preference data for particular col-
themselves for the problem after subsequent interac- lection methods is one example of limited method
tions with the system. Thus, the goal of collecting scope; the types of problems typically indicated by
data uninfluenced by such factors can be compro- different collection methods can vary (John &
mised. Not only are indirect data often influenced by Kieras, 1996), one of the primary reasons they
subsequent interactions, but they tend to more heavily traditionally supplement one another in user-cen-
focus on users subjective preferences rather than tered design processes. Englefield (2003) distin-
objective descriptions of problems. Were user pref- guishes between the breadth of a usability methods
erences consistent predictors of performance defi- data collection capabilities (similar to method thor-
ciencies, data quality would be unaffected, but fre- oughness, or the extent to which it is capable of
quently they are not (Frkjr, Hertzum, & Hornbk, detecting all usability deficiencies) and its sensitiv-
2000; Nielsen & Levy, 1994). ity to particular types of problems, claiming for
Preference feedback and descriptions of prob- example that empirical methods tend to be sensitive
lems from memory may not directly represent en-
654
Usability Barriers
to sociotechnical design problems that expert in- tests (Kantner, Sova, & Rosenbaum, 2003). Both
spections have difficulty identifying. the realism and the credibility of the test itself can 7
An important consequence is that methods vary hinge on this activity, particularly if the tasks of
in their appropriateness at different stages in the interest to the evaluator are focused on information
development cycle (Lewis & Wharton, 1997; Rubin, gathering and usage. The realism of such mock data
1994) and for different types of prototypes or sys- can be difficult to achieve in part because prototype
tems; the fidelity of the prototype used can have designers are typically not subject-matter experts in
subtle effects on the sensitivity of data collection the systems domain and are often still learning
(Virzi, Sokolov, & Karis, 1996). Coordinating the about the domain during development.
application of multiple collection methods is a matter Finally, evaluators often must accept the practi-
of achieving optimal scope so as not to focus too cal limits of task simulation. Tasks that span days or
heavily on particular types of problems at the ex- even weeks, for example, require the application of
pense of others, for example, by devoting too many less direct methods to gather data (Galdes & Halgren,
resources to analytic methods such as cognitive 2001). Systems for which tasks frequently involve
walk-throughs to address system learnability, but safety risks similarly present simulation difficulties.
doing so at the expense of other usability dimensions.
Evaluation Effects
Stimulus and Simulation Effects
Some of the advantages of having an expert evalu-
Ecological validity is of primary concern for usability ator present to interact with end users during empiri-
data collection given the goal of discovering defi- cal data collection have been previously mentioned,
ciencies that occur for real users in their actual such as the ability to clarify user comments and
working environments. Remote collection allows reasoning. However, numerous aspects of evaluator
end users to evaluate systems under more realistic intervention affect usability data, including the amount
social and technical constraints (Krauss, 2003), but of such intervention (Held & Biers, 1992), the type
in many cases, the user is nonetheless evaluating an of observation and type of evaluator prompts (such
incomplete prototype. Particularly in the application as leading questions and task guidance; Galdes &
of empirical methods, usability specialists have long Halgren, 2001; Kjeldskov & Skov, 2003), and the
been aware of subtle and unintended effects of presence of recording devices (Nielsen, 1993). Boren
prototypes on the quality of the data they collect. and Ramey (2000) investigated the usage of verbal
Usability engineering work frequently involves the protocols in usability testing, finding widespread
assessment of systems that range in fidelity from inconsistencies in the methods application. These
fully functional products to paper prototypes and effects are perhaps impossible to avoid altogether;
sketches. Matching fidelity attributes to data collec- as C. Karat (1994) puts it, collection methods act as
tion goals is often a difficult balancing act. Have too filters on user-system interactions.
high fidelity, and an end user may focus on color The effects of evaluator differences have largely
schemes or branding logos that were never intended been investigated by noting a substantial lack of
to represent the definite final product. Have too low overlap between usability problem sets produced by
fidelity, and normally attention-consuming aspects multiple evaluators (Hertzum, Jacobsen, & Molich,
of the interface may fail to have their realistic 2002; Jacobsen, Hertzum, & John, 1998; Molich,
impact. Have the product be too vertical (deep Ede, Kaasgaard, & Karyukin, 2004). These effects
functionality for only a few features or tasks), and cannot be avoided when the testing work must be
the user may lose focus when attempting to explore divided for practical reasons, for example, when a
nonfunctioning areas of the prototype. Have it be too system has an international user base, and cultural
horizontal (shallow functionality across many fea- and language barriers require the expertise of mul-
tures and tasks), and collected data may be of little tiple team members (Vasalou et al., 2004). The clear
use in driving design decisions. implication is that usability tests conducted by differ-
A more subtle difficulty occurs in producing ent evaluators lack reliability and consistency. How-
mock data for prototypes and simulated usability ever, because such consistency is not the only goal
655
Usability Barriers
of usability data collection, these effects can turn out argue, however, that even armed with standard
to be a blessing. The secondary effect of inconsis- reports, descriptions of design solutions are often
tent think-aloud techniques is an increase in the vague or incomplete, and there is inevitable loss of
scope and sensitivity of the method; similar to ana- information as developers interpret these documents.
lytic methods, optimal empirical data collection for Analysts must pick the right set of problems to
usability purposes is likely a team effort. present as too large a set may hinder persuasiveness
(Dumas & Redish, 1993). They must also effec-
Analyst Ability and Analytical Bias tively leverage face-to-face meetings with develop-
ment (Galdes & Halgren, 2001).
Placing usability specialists with varying backgrounds
and perspectives in the picture affects not only the Development Conflicts
data resulting from evaluation methods, but the
interpretation of that data and resulting work prod- Solutions to usability deficiencies can be at odds with
ucts in the development cycle. Analyst skills come one another, forcing a reliance on prioritization, but
into play in two important areas: (a) the organization even the highest priority and most persuasive data
and prioritization of usability deficiencies and poten- can be thwarted by concerns orthogonal to usability
tial solutions, and (b) the reporting of these conclu- improvements. Some of these concerns are simply
sions to development. outside development control, such as imposed cor-
Determining problem severity is partially a judg- porate standards (Hertzum, 1999). Others require
ment call. Jacobsen et al. (1998) point out that the trade-off decisions, such as in considering legacy
criteria employed by different analysts in estimating concerns, whether potential solutions to usability
severity can vary, and that such estimates may be problems may conflict with other aspects of soft-
biased when analysts judge problems that they them- ware quality, and the architectural changes needed
selves observed. On the other hand, severity judg- to fix high-severity problems (Folmer & Bosch,
ments by analysts who did not observe the problem 2004). The timing of data collection is again critical
are limited by a lack of information about the details since addressing usability concerns late in the cycle
and context of the deficiency. Here again, an indi- is likely to increase development costs (Folmer &
vidual analyst is probably nonoptimal. Similarly, ana- Bosch, 2003).
lyst expertise is critical in the identification of under-
lying causes of usability problems and their transla- Process Bias
tion into design solutions (John & Marks, 1997).
Such expertise is also important in the recognition of Conceptually, there are two types of potential pro-
similar problems previously encountered and appli- cess biases than can hinder usability data impact: (a)
cable solution patterns. Expertise is also important in if a type of data is cost effective and tends to achieve
the successful prioritization of problems, which is high impact when reacted to, but nonetheless tends
typically the result of considering estimated problem not to be persuasive in the eyes of developers and
severity and representativeness (Gediga, Hamborg, other stakeholders (untapped potential), and (b) if
& Dntsch, 1999) as well as likely implementation a type of data tends not to have impact but has high
costs. persuasiveness (false prophet). For example, sup-
Once problems and potential solutions have been pose a development team highly respects one type of
identified, analysts are responsible for effectively data (say, empirical usability test data) and tends to
reporting a plan of action for improving system focus on implementing changes suggested by it at
usability. This activity is of course set against a the expense of other types of data, such as heuristic
background of a project commitment and incentives reviews. If it turns out that heuristic reviews pro-
(or lack thereof) for achieving usability goals, and a duce cost-effective, high-impact data, or if the us-
previous relationship between usability and develop- ability testing data tends to be of low quality, impact
ment teams (Bias & Mayhew, 1994; Mirel, 2000), on system usability suffers from a process bias. The
but additionally depends on analyst ability and stan- first type (high impact and cost effectiveness, but
dardized reporting (Bevan, 1998). Andre et al. (2001) low persuasiveness) only indicates a potential bias
656
Usability Barriers
since it is at least possible that downstream stake- short time. A similar problem arises with any rela-
holders will tune responses to data from a particular tively new product, for which power users simply do 7
method based on an effective understanding of not yet exist. How does one most effectively design
when it will likely have impact. for nonexistent experts? How are usability concerns
most effectively balanced to meet current needs but
not create usability legacy problems?
FUTURE TRENDS
657
Usability Barriers
Boren, M. T., & Ramey, J. (2000). Thinking aloud: Gediga, G., Hamborg, K. -C., & Dntsch, I. (1999).
Reconciling theory and practice. IEEE Transac- The IsoMetrics usability inventory: An
tions on Professional Communication, 43(3), 261- operationalization of ISO 9241/10 supporting
278. summative and formative evaluation of software
systems. Behaviour and Information Technol-
Cockton, G., Woolrych, A., Hall, L., & Hindmarch,
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impact of a new instrument for usability inspection Hartson, H. R., Andre, T. S., & Williges, R. C.
method assessment. People and Computers XVII: (2003). Criteria for evaluating usability evaluation
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(pp. 145-161). puter Interaction, 15(1), 145-181.
Costabile, M. F. (2001). Usability in the software life Hartson, H. R., & Castillo, J. C. (1998). Remote
cycle. In S. K. Chang (Ed.), Handbook of software evaluation for post-deployment usability improve-
engineering and knowledge engineering (pp. 179- ment. Proceedings of AVI98, Advanced Visual
192). Singapore: World Science. Interfaces (pp. 22-29).
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guide to usability testing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. ity testing: Do evaluator intervention and task struc-
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Usability Barriers
660
661
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Usability Data Quality
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Usability Data Quality
system deficiency without requiring analysts to fill in on usability as well as attempts to motivate the
the blanks and without noise. Like validity, complete- prioritization of development resources in imple- 7
ness cannot be properly assessed without standard menting design changes. Following Nielsen (1994),
problem descriptions for comparison. such metrics typically incorporate reliability and
Researchers have instead shown interest in as- representativeness with the predicted impact of the
sessing analogous concepts at the UEM level, namely, problem (i.e., whether a work-around exists and
the thoroughness of a method (the extent to which it can be easily discovered, or if the problem will be a
uncovers all known usability problems, often with showstopper and prevent task completion or fur-
usability testing as the benchmark; Sears, 1997) and ther use of the system). Thus, they often combine
false positives, noting predicted problems that lack objective measures with an analysts subjective
validity (Gediga et al., 2002). assessment.
663
Usability Data Quality
(what made a problem severe or who a systems less outside the perspective of usability. For this
representative users were during the development reason, researchers have attempted to analyze the
cycle, for example, may change by the time the return on investment (ROI) of usability work, look-
system is in live use), it is in practice an effective ing at broader impacts of usability data. Usability
way of ensuring usability improvements. John and engineering methods have been argued to reduce
Marks (1997) first formalized the design-change development time and cost, reduce call center and
effectiveness of usability data by tracking the support costs due to decreased usability deficien-
datas influence on design changes and subsequently cies, reduce system training costs (Nielsen, 1993b),
observing the effects of these implemented changes increase the customer base, retain customers due to
in a development cycle, using a live system usability satisfaction with the system, and ultimately increase
test as the benchmark for comparison. Their work product sales (Bias & Mayhew, 1994).
remains a rare attempt to observe data impact. These effects appropriately do not refer directly
Usability-data impact is of course not restricted to the usability of the system; the target of ROI
to individual process cycles and products, and is not analysis is the entity incurring the cost. Benefits to
always geared toward correcting specific problems. end users are relevant only insofar as they result in
Performance measures, for example, are often ex- benefits to those investing in usability-data collec-
plicitly meant to determine general pain points in an tion. As a result, the connection between system
interface to guide subsequent data collection and usability and ROI depends in part on the type of
generally drive usability resource allocation (Dillon system being evaluated. It is commonly noted that in
& Morris, 1999; Gray & Salzman, 1998). Such data e-commerce, the effect of usability and buying
can also guide selection amongst design alternatives behavior is relatively straightforward since a
(Nielsen & Phillips, 1993). Usability data can result showstopper in usability is necessarily a showstopper
in long-term guidelines, standards, and design pat- in completing a transaction. Similarly, the usability of
terns applied to subsequent products (Henninger, internal systems such as intranets leads to increased
2001), validate system improvements leading to employee productivity and satisfaction for the com-
increased usability funding and visibility, increase pany footing the usability bill. But in contexts where
organizational acceptance of usability processes (C. buying decisions are not made by end users and
Karat, 1994), indicate needed change in these pro- instead by customers who have varying levels of
cesses, and open the eyes of developers and other engagement with end users, the connection, and the
stakeholders (particularly empirical data such as ROI of usability-data collection, is less clear-cut.
video from usability tests) to end-user needs and Even in instances in which the end user makes
behaviors (Englefield, 2003). Finally, as user-cen- the buying decision, the typical context of those
tered design processes are iterative and involve decisions likely impacts the relationship between
attempts to improve prototypes as much as possible usability and ROI. Lesk (1998) gives the example of
in each iteration, quantitative data can be instrumen- end users making buying decisions at trade shows
tal in indicating when to stop iterating to maximize (or computer stores), in which case actual system
cost effectiveness. usability may take a backseat to the perceived
usability achieved by a quick interaction with a demo
Cost (Effectiveness) or display unit. Generally, the connection between
usability and system acceptance is not entirely clear.
High-quality usability data achieve impact at rela- Dillon and Morris (1999) review system acceptance
tively low cost. Costs include the resources neces- models indicating perceived usefulness to be a more
sary to collect, analyze, and react to the data by powerful predictor, but as one might intuitively pre-
implementing design changes. In more constrained dict, usability may over time influence continued use;
experiments, time is often used as a simple proxy for that is, actual usability begins to impact the user
cost, comparing the quality of the collected data to perceptions that under many circumstances power-
the time taken in collection (Englefield, 2003). fully influence system acceptance.
To be fair, while comparing usability improve-
ments to cost is useful, it is in some sense meaning-
664
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Usability Data Quality
Boren, M. T., & Ramey, J. (2000). Thinking aloud: Henninger, S. (2001). An organizational learning
Reconciling theory and practice. IEEE Transac- method for applying usability guidelines and pat-
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Computers, 6, 86-108. SIGGROUP Bulletin (vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 35-40).
Desurvire, H. W. (1994). Faster, cheaper!! Are Hilbert, D. M., & Redmiles, D. F. (2000). Extracting
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Usability inspection methods (pp. 173-202). New
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and performance: From usability engineering to tech-
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The evaluator effect in usability studies: Problem
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Englefield, P. (2003). A pragmatic framework for
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selecting empirical or inspection methods to
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KEY TERMS
Nielsen, J. (1994). Heuristic evaluation. In J. Nielsen
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Analytic Method: Method in which a system is
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relative usability of two interfaces: Heuristic, for-
Empirical Method: Method in which a system
mal, and empirical methods compared. Proceed-
is evaluated based on observed performance in
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Preece, J., Rogers, Y., Sharp, H., Benyon, D.,
Formative Evaluation: The collection of us-
Holland, S., & Carey, T. (1994). Human-computer
ability data during the development of a system in
interaction. Wokingham, UK: Addison-Wesley.
order to guide iterative design.
Sawyer, P., Flanders, A., & Wixon, D. (1996).
Summative Evaluation: The collection of us-
Making a difference: The impact of inspections.
ability data to evaluate a completed system in use.
Proceedings of CHI96, Human Factors in Com-
puting Systems (pp. 376-382). Usability Data: Any information used to mea-
sure or identify factors affecting the usability of a
Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation.
system being evaluated.
In R. W. Tyler, R. M. Gagne, & M. Scriven (Eds.),
Perspectives in curriculum evaluation (pp. 39- Usability Data Quality: Extent to which usabil-
83). Skokie, IL: Rand McNally. ity data efficiently and effectively predict system
usability in actual usage, can be efficiently and
Sears, A. (1997). Heuristic walkthroughs: Finding
effectively analyzed, and can be efficiently and
the problems without the noise. International Jour-
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667
668
The term affordance was coined by Gibson (1977, As mentioned in the introduction, Gibson (1977,
1979) to define properties of objects that allow an 1979) was the one who coined the term affordance
actor to act upon them. Norman (1988) expanded on to refer to the actionable properties between the
this concept and presented the concepts of real and world and an actor (whatever that actor may be;
perceptual affordances in his book The Psychology Gibson as cited in Norman, 1999). Gibson did not
of Everyday Things. Norman was essentially the create the term to refer to any property that may be
first to present the concept of affordance to the field observable by the actor. Rather, he referred to all
of human-computer interaction (HCI). the properties that allow the actor to manipulate the
Since then, affordance as a term has been used world, be they perceivable or not. Thus, in Gibsons
by many designers and researchers. But as Norman view, an affordance is just a characteristic of the
(1999) explained, many of the uses of the term are environment that happens to allow an actor to act
vague or unclear, which prompted the writing of his upon the environment. In this view, saying that a
1999 article in the Interactions periodical. In fact, designer has added an affordance to a device or an
there have been many publications that try to eluci- interface does not immediately mean that the device
date the term (see Hartson, 2003; McGrenere & Ho, or the interface has becosme more usable, or that the
2000). user would be able to sense the affordance in any
This article will try to provide a brief overview of way that would help him or her understand the usage
the term and its many subclasses. It will try to give of that device or interface. In fact, in Gibsons
the reader a clear idea about what affordance is and definition, an affordance is not there to be perceived.
how the concept can be used to allow designers and The affordance just exists and it is up to the actor to
researchers to create better user interfaces and discover the functionality that is offered by the
better interaction devices. The article however, affordance. It is just a feature of the environment.
does not try to clear up any ambiguities in the usage
of the term in the literature or present a new way of Normans Affordance
viewing affordance. Rather, it tries to provide a
short overview of the literature around affordance Norman (1988) took the term affordance from Gibson
and guide the reader to a correct understanding of (1977, 1979), and in his book The Psychology of
how to use affordance in HCI. Everyday Things, he elaborated upon it, creating
something quite different from the original defini-
tion. Norman did not change the original term.
BACKGROUND Rather, he introduced the concept of perceived
affordance, which defines the clues that a device or
This section presents the evolution of the concept of user interface gives to the user as to the functionality
affordance. It presents the creation of the term by of an object. He also distinguished it from Gibsons
Gibson (1977, 1979), and the way that affordance affordance, which he named real affordance. We
was incorporated into HCI. will mention probably the most used example of
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
The Use and Evolution of Affordance in HCI
affordance in HCI to clarify the difference between 2). Perceptible affordance is the affordance for
a real affordance and a perceived affordance. Con- which there is perceptual information for the actor to 7
sider a door that opens when pushed having a flat perceive. This type of affordance would fall under
plate that takes the place of the door handle (Figure Normans (1988) perceived-affordance definition.
1b). The design of the door handle gives out the clue Conversely, if there is information that suggests that
that the door is not supposed to be pulled since there an affordance is there when there is none, then that
is no handle that the actor can grab in order to pull the is a false affordance. A hidden affordance is an
door. Conversely, a door handle that can be grabbed affordance for which no perceptual information
(Figure 1a) gives out the clue that the door opens exists. Finally, a correct rejection is the case when
when pulled. However, as Norman (1988) points there is no perceptual information and no affordance.
out, this convention is not always followed, resulting In Gavers (1991) terms, affordance is the exist-
in people thinking that they cannot figure out how to ence of a special configuration of properties so that:
open a door whereas the problem lies in bad design
and bad use of a perceived affordance. The differ- physical attributes of the thing to be acted upon
ence between the real affordance, or the affordance are compatible with those of an actor, that
as defined by Gibson, and the perceived affordance information about those attributes is available in
in Normans definition is that the door affords to be a form compatible with a perceptual system, and
opened in some way but the perceived affordance (implicitly) that these attributes and the action
that the flat panel gives out is that the door can be they make possible are relevant to a culture and
opened by pushing on the panel. a perceiver. (Gaver, 1991, p. 81)
Norman (1988) concludes that well-designed
artifacts should have perceived affordances that In fact, Gaver (1991) united the two concepts of
give out the correct clues as to the artifacts usage real and perceived affordance, and named the sys-
and functionality. tem of the property of an object and the ability of that
property to be perceived as affordance.
Gavers Affordance
Hartsons Affordance
Gaver (1991) wrote an article in which he also
creates a definition of affordance, but he breaks Hartson (2003) used the concept of affordance to
affordance down into four different categories. Gaver create the User Action Framework (UAF). He used
defines perceptible affordance, false affordance, the concept by basing it on Normans (1988) defini-
correct rejections, and hidden affordance (Figure tion, but also redefining it to make the distinction
Figure 1. Two door handles, one (a) very Figure 2. Separating types of affordance from
confusing as to its usage, and one (b) which gives information available about them (Gaver, 1991)
clues as to its usage
Perceptual Information
False Perceptible
Yes Affordance Affordance
No
Correct Hidden
No Rejection Affordance
No
No Yes
Yes
Affordance
669
The Use and Evolution of Affordance in HCI
between each type of affordance that can be encoun- the concept and a lot of literature trying to elucidate
tered clearer. He refers to four different types of the meaning of this term.
affordance: physical, cognitive, sensory, and func- People like Gaver (1991), Hartson (2003), and
tional. He defines physical affordance as a feature of McGrenere and Ho (2000) have also provided
the artifact that allows the actor to do something with frameworks or theories that are based on affordance
it. A cognitive affordance is the information that that can help designers design better user inter-
allows the actor to realize that the physical affordance faces and interaction devices. For example, a de-
is there. A sensory affordance is the information that signer could create a user interface and make sure
the actor gets before it gets processed at a cognitive that the buttons are clearly labeled so that the user
level, and a functional affordance is the usefulness can easily read the labels (sensory affordance) to
that the physical affordance gives to the actor. The understand what the button does (cognitive
metal plate on the door from the previous example affordance) in order to use it correctly (functional
can be used to elucidate the differences between affordance; Hartson). This example uses the types
each affordance type that Hartson proposes. The of affordance that Hartson proposes and shows
physical affordance of the plate is the feature that how one could think about the different types of
allows the placement of the hand of the user on the affordance in Hartsons definition to create a better
door so that the user can open the door. The cognitive interface.
affordance is the combination of information from The concept of affordance is indeed useful in
the users knowledge and the appearance of the plate HCI because, at the very least, it forces the de-
that allows the user to realize whether the door is signer to think about the information that he or she
opened by pulling or pushing. If one assumes that the is giving to the user by the very design of the user
metal plate has Push engraved on it, then the clarity interface or interaction device.
of the lettering and the size and shape of the letters Another short example that uses Normans
that allow the user to clearly make them out is the (1988) definition of affordance may elucidate the
sensory affordance. Finally, the functional affordance usage of the concept in interaction-device design.
is the placement of the plate at the correct position on Suppose the design of a keyboard for a palm device
the door as to allow for the easiest opening of the door (much like the one on the Handspring Treo de-
if the user pushes on the metal plate. vices). The keys on this keyboard are restricted by
Hartson (2003) goes on to propose the UAF, the size of the device, which means the physical
which is a framework for designing systems and affordance of a user pressing the buttons is hin-
artifacts. The framework is based on the four types dered. However, the designer who thinks about this
of affordance that he proposes. For more information in the design stage will have already taken this
on the UAF, the reader is referred to Andre, Belz, affordance into account and may allow for slightly
McCreary, and Hartson (2000), Andre, Hartson, bigger buttons by designing the device with slightly
Belz, and McCreary (2001), and Hartson, Andre, bigger dimensions at the bottom where the key-
Williges, and Van Rens (1999). board lies. Other examples in interaction-device
design that take account of affordance can be found
in the tangible-user-interfaces (Ishii & Ullmer, 1997)
DISCUSSION literature.
When thinking about affordance, sometimes it
Affordance is perhaps one of the most exciting does not matter which affordance definition one
concepts in HCI. The introduction of the concept by might use as long as the definition allows for the
Norman (1988) created a big stir and, consequently, design to become more usable. In both cases above,
it created a lot of discussion because of its inconsis- one can see that by taking into account the concept
tent usage. Many, along with Norman, claim that of affordance, the design of a device becomes a
affordance as was presented in the POET book was little more usable and maybe even a little more
not understood correctly by the HCI community, foolproof.
something that triggered a lot of discussion around
670
The Use and Evolution of Affordance in HCI
671
The Use and Evolution of Affordance in HCI
on Human Factors and Computing Systems (pp. Functional Affordance: The last of Hartsons
234-241). (2003) definitions, this type of affordance is the
feature of the artifact that allows the actor to
McGrenere, J., & Ho, W. (2000). Affordances:
actually accomplish the work that the artifact is
Clarifying and evolving a concept. Proceedings of
supposed to perform (the usefulness of the artifact).
Graphics Interface 2000, Montreal, Canada (pp.
179-186). Hidden Affordance: Gaver (1991) used this
term to represent the affordance of an artifact that
Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of every-
the user cannot perceive. Thus, while the affordance
day things. New York: Basic Books.
is there, there is no perceptible information for the
Norman, D. A. (1990). The design of everyday actor to realize that the affordance is there.
things. New York: Doubleday.
Perceived or Perceptible Affordance: The
Norman, D. A. (1999). Affordance, conventions term perceived affordance was created by Norman
and design. Interactions, 6(3), 38-42. (1988), whereas perceptible affordance was coined
by Gaver (1991). They both refer to a property of an
Overbeeke, K., & Wensveen, S. (2003). From per- artifact that provides observable cognitive clues as
ception to experience, from affordances to to its usage and function by an actor.
irresistibles. Proceedings of the 2003 Interna-
tional Conference on Designing Pleasurable Real or Physical Affordance: The term
Products and Interfaces (pp. 92-97). affordance was first proposed by Gibson (1977).
The term real affordance was proposed by Norman
Steedman, M. (2002). Formalizing affordance. Pro- (1988), and the term physical affordance was pro-
ceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Cog- posed by Hartson (2003). They all refer to the same
nitive Science Society (pp. 834-839). definition proposed by Gibson, which is that
affordance is an actionable property between the
KEY TERMS world and an actor. An affordance does not have to
be perceptible by the actor.
Cognitive Affordance: According to Hartson Sensory Affordance: Again, one of Hartsons
(2003), this type of affordance is the combination of (2003) definitions, this affordance is a feature of an
the information that allows the user to understand artifact that helps the user sense something about
what the purpose of the artifact that has this the artifact.
affordance is.
False Affordance: Gaver (1991) used this term
to refer to information that makes the actor think that
there is an affordance when in fact there is none.
672
673
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention
and shortly after, the flight crew declared an emer- ence can be observed with the so-called dual task or
gency to the approach controller, attributing engine secondary task technique, used in the measure of
failure as the cause. The U.S. National Transporta- mental overload, mental attention, mental effort, and
tion Safety Board (NTSB, 2000), however, con- such.
cluded that the airplane simply ran out of fuel and
that the crew had not considered this possibility. The
airplanes performance capabilities and simulator BACKGROUND
tests suggested that the flight crew still should have
been able to land the airplane with the first engine The concept of information overload is based on the
out, with the second engine erratic, or with both assumption that the human information processing
engines out. The NTSB report surmised that the system has a limit in its capacity to process informa-
failure of the first engine could have caused the tion. Most of us could effortlessly add two 2-digit
pilots to fixate on instruments such as the altitude numbers, but would experience extreme difficulty in
indicator and airspeed indicator and to allow the attempting to add three 10-digit numbers without
course heading to wander (NTSB). some additional scratch-pad memory in the form of
In the same way, we can observe erratic or a pencil and paper. The operationalization of evi-
degraded performance on tasks that are performed dence for information overload relies on the prob-
concurrently with other ordinary, everyday tasks, ability of errors in task performance.
such as watching TV, reading from a book or Studies in the 1950s and 1960s attempted to
computer screen, or driving a car. If we can observe locate a bottleneck in the processing system as if it
erratic or degraded performance on a secondary was a single-channel serial transmission line (cf
task, then we can presume that the primary task of Welford, 1967). Broadbent (1954, 1957) proposed
watching TV, reading, or browsing a Web site is that there was a many-to-one selection switch in the
consuming quite a lot of the persons mental pro- channel, with throughput limited by how fast this
cessing capacity. There are three conclusions that switch could operate in selecting parallel input sig-
we can draw from such observations. nals. Moray (1967), however, proposed that the
system behaved instead like a flexible central pro-
1. We need to consider this limited capacity of the cessor of limited capacity.
human processing system and the potential for The idea of a limited-capacity central processor
dysfunctional performance when designing was furthered by Kahneman (1973), Kerr (1973),
human-machine systems such as aircraft, au- and others. The idea was that the processing system
tomobiles, ordinary and everyday office com- is very flexible in the kinds of tasks that it can
puter applications, Web sites, and so forth. process concurrently at any given instant, but that it
2. We can use this observation of degraded per- is very limited in its overall size. Kahneman viewed
formance on concurrent tasks as a way to the earlier models of processing as explanations of
identify human overload or failure points in a structural limitations in processing. We cannot, for
human-machine system. example, focus our eyes on two objects simulta-
3. We can use this observation of degraded per- neously. The limited-capacity processor model was
formance as a measure of a variety of human proposed by Kahneman and contemporaries as an
mental processes, such as attention, mental explanation of how some mental processing tasks
effort, information overload, and such. can be performed concurrently.
There is currently no single correct view of the
The first issue is the motivation behind this ar- mechanisms that cause the human processing sys-
ticle. The remainder of this article, however, will tem to be limited in its ability to process information.
focus on the latter two issues. First will be a brief Importantly, we know that the human processing
theoretical discussion on how interference or dys- system is not just a single-resource processor, but
functional mental processing performance occurs that there are multiple resources that can be limited
from a black-box perspective of the system. This (cf Friedman et al., 1988; Rollins & Hendricks, 1980;
will be followed by a discussion of how this interfer- Triesman & Davies, 1973). From a practical per-
674
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention
675
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention
grip on a spring-loaded handle. The handle was secondary task measure of the amount of processing
attached to a lever; at the end of the lever was a pen resources being consumed by radio tuning.
that left a mark on a revolving drum. As the partici-
pant loosened or tightened his or her grip on the
handle, the pen moved one way or the other on the FUTURE TRENDS
revolving drum. With this apparatus, Welch could
trace physical changes in grip over time. Welch This article has described some uses of the second-
observed that error in maintaining a constant grip ary task technique in the measure of attention,
corresponded with an increase in effort and with an mental effort, and such over the past century. Al-
increase in the number of simultaneous tasks that the though the technique can be relatively simple to
participant was asked to perform. implement and relatively low tech in many (but
Lechner et al. (1998) describe grip maintenance certainly not all) cases, it nonetheless remains use-
as a method that has seen recent use in studies of ful. In recent years, there have been attempts to
sincerity of effort in physical therapy. It otherwise combine the dual task technique with more sophisti-
does not seem to be in common use as a secondary cated methods such as magnetic resonance imaging
task probe. However, it seems that it would not be (use of magnets and radio waves to construct brain
especially difficult to implement this method through pictures; see discussion in Corbetta & Shulman,
a mouse on a computer. A spring could be attached 2002), but it is unlikely that more complicated meth-
to the mouse, or a weight could be tied to the mouse ods will replace the secondary task technique in the
cord hanging over the back edge of the table. The foreseeable future. The secondary task technique is
secondary task would be to maintain the mouse in a appealing in that it is very portable and relatively
constant position against the force of the weight or unobtrusive to the environment of the task under
spring. study.
Greater use of the secondary task technique is
Other Secondary Task Measures therefore advocated for use in the study of ordinary
and everyday human-computer systems. For ex-
Mental arithmetic is sometimes used as a secondary ample, it could easily and unobtrusively be incorpo-
task (e.g., Bahrick et al., 1954). Wogalter and Usher rated into the usability testing of Web sites. While
(1999) asked participants to say answers to math the participant is involved in an assigned task during
problems aloud while attempting to install a com- a Web site usability test, he or she could be asked to
puter hard-disk drive according to the instruction simply tap a finger at a regular pace. The casual
manual. Brown, McDonald, Brown, and Carr (1988) observation of changes in the performance of this
paired handwriting with listening. In a simulated secondary task could be taken as an objective obser-
automobile driving task, Young and Stanton (2002) vation that a particular step in the primary task is
asked participants to judge whether a pair of geo- consuming a substantial amount of processing re-
metric shapes in the lower left corner of the screen sources. Nothing in the usability study needs to be
was the same or different by pressing buttons at- altered in order to implement the secondary task
tached to the steering stalk. technique in this way.
Note that we can pair almost any set of tasks in
which performance for one of the tasks runs across
a range from baseline performance to degraded CONCLUSION
performance, with degraded performance taken as
a measure of increased resource consumption by the The secondary task technique is portable, relatively
other task. Schieber et al. (2000), for example, uncomplicated, and relatively unobtrusive as a probe
paired the tasks of tuning a radio while driving a car. into a variety of mental processes associated with
Although our interest might be associated with is- attention. It has been in use for over a century and
sues of automobile driving, we are actually inter- continues to be used in a variety of disciplines.
ested in radio tuning as the primary task while Although it has some limitations (see Owen, 1991),
observing degradations in driving performance as a these are not likely to be of issue in practical
676
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention
applications such as usability testing. This article has ping and verbal memory. Journal of Experimental
not detailed the how-to aspects in the use of this Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor- 7
technique, but the implementation of some of the mance, 14, 60-68.
simpler uses, such as the observation of degraded
Jastrow, J. (1892). Studies from the laboratory of
performance in finger tapping, should be reasonably
experimental psychology of the University of Wis-
obvious. A more detailed account of how to imple-
consin: The interference of mental processes. A
ment the RT-probe technique, useful in settings that
preliminary survey. American Journal of Psychol-
might require more rigorous tests, can be found in
ogy, 4, 198-223.
Owen et al. (1995). Simpler implementations such as
finger tapping tasks, however, should be adequate in Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort.
many applied situations such as Web usability test- Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
ing.
Kantowitz, B. H., & Knight, J. L., Jr. (1976). Testing
tapping timesharing, II: Auditory secondary task.
Acta Psychologica, 40, 343-362.
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Murray, L. L., Holland, A. L., & Beason, P. M. Welch, J. C. (1898). On the measurement of mental
(1998). Spoken language of individuals with mild activity through muscular activity and the determi-
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Consumer Research, 18, 552-557. pliance behavior. Proceedings of the Human Fac-
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workload and attention resource allocation. Acci-
dent Analysis and Prevention, 36, 341-350. KEY TERMS
Posner, M. I., & Boies, S. J. (1971). The compo-
Attention: Mental processing that consumes
nents of attention. Psychological Review, 78(5),
our conscious thinking. This is associated with a
391-408.
variety of more specific constructs such as mental
Prezuhy, A. M., & Etnier, J. L. (2001). Attentional effort, mental focus, mental elaboration, and such.
patterns of horseshoe pitchers at two levels of task Processes associated with the attention-related con-
difficulty. Research Quarterly for Exercise and structs are what we presume to be detecting in dual
Sport, 72(3), 293-298. task studies.
Rollins, H. A., & Hendricks, R. (1980). Processing Dual Task Study: A study in which two tasks
of words presented simultaneously to eye and ear. are performed concurrently to observe changes in
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human task interference. Usually, the participant is ex-
Perception and Performance, 6, 99-109. pected to or asked to focus on the primary task so
that interference is observed only in the secondary
Schieber, F., Werner, K. J., & Larsen, J. M. (2000).
task, but this is not necessarily always the objective.
Real-time assessment of secondary task intrusive-
Observations of task interference are taken to sug-
ness upon real-world driver steering performance
gest that the limits of the processing system are
using a fiber-optic gyroscope. Proceedings of the
being reached.
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual
Meeting 2000 (Vol. 3, pp. 3-3063-307). Limited-Resource Model: The idea that the
human information processing system has a limited
Stapleford, R. L. (1973). Comparisons of population
pool of resources available for the concurrent per-
subgroups performance on a keyboard psychomotor
formance of any number of tasks. The observation
task. Proceedings of the 9 th Annual Conference
of degraded performance in one or more processing
on Manual Control (pp. 245-255).
tasks is taken to suggest that the capacity of the
Triesman, A. M., & Davies, A. A. (1973). Divided system is being approached.
attention to ear and eye. Attention and Perfor-
Primary Task: The resource consumption task
mance, 4, 101-125.
that is of interest in a secondary task study. Often
678
Use of the Secondary Task Technique for Tracking User Attention
(but not necessarily), the participant is asked to Secondary Task: The task that is used as a
focus on the performance of this task while concur- probe in a secondary task study. Changes in the 7
rently performing the secondary task. For example, performance of the secondary task are taken to
the participant could be asked to focus on reading a suggest changes in the processing of the primary
passage of text on successive screens of a computer task or the detection of processing system overload.
display (primary task) while concurrently pressing a
Secondary Task Technique: A dual task study
handheld button switch whenever a random beep
in which one task is designated as the primary task
sound is heard (secondary task).
of interest while a secondary task is concurrently
RT Probe (Reaction Time Probe): A com- performed as a probe to test the consumption of
monly used secondary task in which changes in processing resources by the primary task. Changes
reaction time performance of the secondary task are in secondary task performance are taken to indicate
of interest. changes in resource consumption by the primary
task.
679
680
Jenine Beekhuyzen
Griffith University, Australia
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Using Mobile Communication Technology in Student Mentoring
science graduates dropped from a high of 50,000 in reer possibilities, thus increasing the motivation of
1986 to 36,000 in 1994, reported by the Office of study and working in the area. It also clarifies and 7
Technology Policy in 1998 (von Hellens et al., 1999). enhances student perceptions concerning the reali-
Many general IT degrees also have high dropout ties of the field. Note: all participation in the program
rates, particularly in the transition from the first to is of a voluntary basis, and no financial benefits are
second year of undergraduate studies. Student sta- obtained.
tistics also show that university IT degree programs When commencing the traditional part of the
are not attracting the high achieving students, some mentoring program, mentors and mentees partici-
possible reasons include the low entrance level pate in an initial short training session. In this session,
scores needed to enter the program, the attraction to the mentoring partners are introduced, and the role
high-entrance level degree programs such as medi- and expectations of mentors and mentees is dis-
cine, law, and psychology and the confusion and cussed. Mentor and mentee generally meet thereaf-
uncertainty relating to what a career in IT will entail ter on a regular basis during one semester period
(ASTEC, 1995). (usually 13-15 weeks) which is arranged as suits
Misconceptions associated with understanding best for both parties. Face-to-face communication is
IT as a field specialized for those with masculine also usually complimented by e-mail conversations.
attributes exist and are reinforced by the teachings A mid-program event is organized by the Alumni
at secondary school level (Beekhuyzen & Clayton, Association, usually with a presentation by an indus-
2004; Greenhill, von Hellens, Nielsen, & Pringle, try representative on a pertinent topic such as net-
1997), thus often having a negative effect on stu- working (in terms of meeting people, making con-
dents, particularly on females. Consistent results tacts, etc.a skill particularly useful within the IT
have been obtained in studies concerning high school industry). A final session is held to close the program
physics, which faces similar difficulties and biased and gather together all program participants to dis-
ideas as IT (Hkkil, Krks, Aksela, Sunnari, & cuss their experiences.
Kylli, 1998). A remarkable number of university
students choose their area of study without any
preliminary experience in the particular field. With ENHANCING COMMUNICATION WITH
information technology, the students also often have MOBILE TECHNOLOGY
unclear or distorted perceptions of what to expect
later in their studies or after graduation, including In addition to the traditional mentoring methods
what kind of employment their area of study can being employed by the mentoring program in the
offer (Nielsen, von Hellens, Pringle, & Greenhill, university, we have introduced the use of mobile
1999). communication technology into the mentoring pro-
Within the IT context, university student mentoring gram. The primary aim in introducing the novel
has been introduced to offer students insight into the approach was to augment communication during the
industry and to employment possibilities enabling mentoring process. There was no aim to replace the
them to have them a closer look at the everyday life conventional communication mediums but to add
of working in the field. The aim is to dispel some of value with features offered by the mobile communi-
the misconceptions associated with what IT work is cation device. A pilot study was conducted in 2003.
all about. When entering into this mentoring pro- Due to positive feedback, the approach has contin-
gram, the student is matched with a personal mentor ued to be integrated in the traditional program in
who has a similar educational background and is 2004.
currently employed in the IT industry. Convention- The equipment used in the experiment consists of
ally, mentoring is carried out with face-to-face meet- two Nokia 7650 Mobile Phones, of which one was
ings, e-mail and telephone conversations between given to the mentee and one to the mentor for the
mentor and mentee. In line with many published duration of the program. The mentor was advised to
studies, early results from our studies suggest that communicate with the student about all which (s)he
mentoring can provide valuable information on ca- felt was a relevant part of their work and leisure, and
681
Using Mobile Communication Technology in Student Mentoring
Figure 1. Two multimedia messages describing included feedback or comment to the previous
the work tasks of a mentor messages. The typical number of sent messages
was two per day from mentor to mentee, and one
from mentee to the mentor, although more mes-
sages were exchanged if a message gave rise to a
longer, more detailed conversation. The time for
messaging was found to be varied from morning
hours to past midnight and also sometimes during
the weekend, as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The majority of messages sent contained a short
description of the work task the mentor was cur-
rently involved in, accompanied by a picture. In
addition to the actual task, the messages often
described the atmosphere at that particular moment
and also included short opinions (see Figure 1).
Some of the messages were not primarily related to
the work tasks, but described more the mentors
personal interestsfree time, hobbies, and per-
sonal preferences.
especially to use picture messaging as an illustrative The initiative for conversations containing pro-
supplement. Using this type of technology to commu- fessional information was taken by the mentor, and
nicate brings about many issues relating to human- was not motivated by, for example, a question from
computer interaction. For example, the size of the a mentee. However, mentees took initiative in re-
screen, the structure of the information being viewed/ porting about their duties related to studying. For
sent (Chae & Kim, 2003), and the increasing com- instance, assignments and projects they were work-
plexity of functionality can lead to ineffective use of ing on. Conversations relating to free time were
the mobile device. However, benefits include the initiated equally by both parties. Examples of
ability to access information from anywhere without messages relating to free time are illustrated in
the need to physically sit at a computer workstation Figure 2.
(Chae & Kim, 2003).
The student mentee was given a certain monetary
amount (AUD $15Australian dollars) of pre-paid
credit on the mobile phone, which they were allowed Figure 2. Two free time orientated multimedia
to use during the study. For example, the price for messages from a mentor (company name of the
sending an SMS message and MMS message were employer replaced with asterisk)
0.20 AUD (20 cents) and 0.75 AUD (75 cents),
respectively. The phone mentoring period lasted for
one week for one mentor-mentee pair. In the begin-
ning of the experiment period, the functions of the
phone were explored together to ensure seamless
communication. At the completion of the one-week
period, the participants gave their feedback about the
experience via a questionnaire.
The media used in communications between the
mentor and mentee were short messages (SMS) and
multimedia messages (MMS), the latter to be more
common. Conversations consisted mainly of one
message or a message and a reply, where the reply
682
Using Mobile Communication Technology in Student Mentoring
683
Using Mobile Communication Technology in Student Mentoring
ronment, task descriptions and the time sched- mentor and mentee are adhoc and generally un-
ule of the day. planned which can and often does result in long
periods between communications. Lack of structure
can also distort perceptions of outcomes and results,
FUTURE TRENDS with no clear aim being achieved.
The results show that integrating mobile commu-
When the mobile mentoring program first began in nication into the mentoring process has provided
early 2003, the number of multimedia messaging added value to the traditional program. Participants
capable phones was minimal. It is expected that suggest that it enhances the mentoring experience
when they become more common, mobile mentoring and that it can be regarded as a valuable tool in
can be adopted on a larger scale, and it may come a communications between the mentor and mentee.
natural part of the interaction process. However, as Positive aspects of the program were identified as
a starting point, it was important to lend out the MMS increased frequency and flexibility in communica-
capable phones and get people actively involved in tion, which are highly valued because of the time
the process. constraints of both mentor and mentee. Mentors
In 2004, yet another novel approach to mentoring emphasised also the easy access and speed of use,
was added to the ongoing Alumni Association as sending a message with mobile phone was re-
mentoring program in the form of international garded as more easy and flexible than e-mail, which
mentoring. In addition to a local mentor to commu- took more time and was limited to the work situations
nicate with (either traditionally and/or phone), volun- and a computer. Both parties reported on the devel-
teering student mentees were given contact persons opment of a deeper personal relationship and re-
working abroad as mentors. The mentoring contacts laxed communication between mentor and mentee
were obtained through the university departments over time. Including visual information to the com-
connections to the international IT industry. The munication in a form of MMS, new aspects of both
communication employs mainly e-mail, but also ad- mentors work and her/his lifestyle were highlighted.
ditional mobile messaging techniques. Due to diffi- Generally, mobile communication technology was
culties in connectivity between mobile phone opera- found to offer a valuable tool for a mentoring pro-
tors, the MMS between two phones was found gram as a supporting tool of communication, even
inoperative, thus picture messages were exchanged though some weaknesses were identified. The re-
by sending a MMS from a phone to e-mail. Initial sults have encouraged the authors to continue the
results of this additional experiment will be reported. integration of mobile communication into mentoring
to enhance the information exchanged between
mentor and mentee. Continuing and future research
CONCLUSION in this area includes the continuation of the study
using both MMS and conventional styles, with im-
This article introduces how mobile communication provements according to feedback received from
technology has been embedded into a university this pilot phase concerning issues such as the time
student mentoring program which was held among period devoted to the experiment. The aim is to
first-year information technology students within an increase the amount of participants from a relatively
Australian university. The study was implemented small sample to larger numbers of mentee-mentor
by giving mentor-mentee pairs mobile phones with pairs and to attempt to better measure the benefits of
MMS functionality. Participants communicated with the program.
each other over a one-week period. Participants were
advised to incorporate visual information into the
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KEY TERMS
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685
686
Claudia Roda
American University of Paris, France
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Various Views on Digital Interactivity
plains that by following pre-programmed, objec- Multidimensional hypertext at its best takes ad-
tively existing associations, users of interactive vantage of and exploits the human tendency to 8
media are being asked to mistake the structure of construct narratives to make sense of the world,
somebody elses mind for their own (p. 61). relying on individual human selection of appropriate
One of the characteristics of interactivity is the stimuli and human ability not simply to choose links
nature of play involved. The importance of play in but to create connections, rather than simply follow-
performing identity and social structure has long ing pre-ordained paths. Joyce (1995) remarks that
been recognized (Huizinga, 1955), and, as Zimmerman the user/readers task is to make meaning by per-
(2004) has more recently noted, play both expresses ceiving order in space, so that the meaning is orderly
and simultaneously resists the structure of the sys- but there is a continual replacement of meaningful
tem within which it exists. Within any interactive structures throughout the text: the narrative is con-
system, this element of play could perhaps be seen stantly evolving in time and space.
as a crucial factor in removing the impression of a Murray (1997) identifies three qualities (which
predictable structure, which stifles user individuality she calls pleasures) that characterize the interac-
and involvement. Although choices, or links, are tive audience: immersion, agency, and transforma-
indeed programmed, there can be no play without tion. Immersion, meaning engagement of the imagi-
constraints; games always have rules that cannot nation and the senses, has already been discussed as
be changed without creating a different game a property of interactivity. Murray emphasizes the
(unless, of course, this is a device of the game active audience and differentiates between the role
creator to produce engagement and thus reinforce of the interactive user/reader and the role of the
the nature and structure of the game!) author by describing the user/reader as agent. Her
This consistency of world or play further emphasis on various points of view as one technique
contributes to the willing suspension of disbelief. for incorporating multi-sequencing in hypertext is
As Douglas (2000) remarks, ambiguity is always typical of a narrative approach.
embedded in the interactive, but this ambiguity can An alternative approach is that of Laurel (1993),
be harnessed in service to the sense of play, which who suggests drama as a model for interactivity, and
of itself both provides and subverts the structural emphasizes three features:
framework.
1. Enactment (to act out) rather than to read.
Hypertext: Interactivity as Narrative Narrative is description; drama is action.
and/or Drama 2. Intensification. incidents are selected, arranged,
and represented to intensify emotion and con-
No consideration of digital interactivity is possible dense time.
without a discussion of interactive hypertext, often 3. Unity of action versus episodic structure. In
characterized as multidimensional. It is necessary the narrative, incidents tend to be connected by
to remember that multidimensional does not mean theme rather than by cause to the whole; in
random explorations, but what Douglas (2000) drama, there is a strong central action with
calls polysequential rather than Nelsons non- separate incidents causally linked to that ac-
sequential writing (Nelson, 1992), or even Bushs tion. Drama is thus more intense and economi-
1945 encyclopedia of associative trails for Memex cal.
(Bush, 1992), for in such an encyclopedia, al-
though the associations of the reader will be used to When Laurel advocates strategies for designing
construct individual unique meaning or personal interactive media, she emphasizes that the concep-
narrative, the encyclopedia has not necessarily tual structure should encourage the potential for
been structured for this purpose by the author; this action. Laurel outlines several key points for design-
is the difference between constructed narrative and ing interactive media, and emphasizes that tight
information retrieval. linkage between visual, kinesthetic, and auditory
modalities is the key to immersion.
687
Various Views on Digital Interactivity
Every interface asks the audience to participate in its One aspect of digital interactivity is about creating
construction, and creative link authoring is one of the the impression of the enactment of an infinite
most important factors determining whether the au- possibility of sequencing through creative linking;
dience will perceive this interface as interactive. structure and content are formed by and equated
Early on, Nelson (1992) proposed different simple with space traveled. The physical action of click-
styles of guiding the sequencing of hypertext: ing to select links is combined with the mental
planned variations, which focus on the transmission action of connecting links; both serve to structure
of a message, representing interconnections, repre- and layer digital space, and to produce the sensation
senting the structure of the subject for the reader to of movement through space. As noted before, users
explore. Golovchinsky and Marshall (2000) point out do not visualize themselves traveling up and down
that the quality and quantity of the readers choices a line, or even back and forth on branching lines to
are confined by the fixity of the links and that the and from a center of meaning, but navigating through
trick of creating interactive hypertexts is to subvert 3D space. Further, identification of what might be
this fixity. Choices as to the use of fixed links, considered as being inside or outside the text
variation of links, query-mediated links, provide a loses meaning and importance. This virtual space
hidden structure, which conditions the audiences is self-contained but through linking and association
choices and reactions to the text as well as the level can contain more than the sum of its parts.
of perceived interaction. Further, linking As Wertheim (1999) has remarked, the frescoes
reconfigures the text and is crucial to creating the of Giotto in the Arena Chapel of Padua (1305)
placement in space, which gives the text its multidi- provide a visual parallel and enactment of this kind
mensional aspect and aligns and realigns mean- of Memory Palace, and also a precedent for the
ing, both visual and verbal. As Garrand (1997) re- layering of meaning in space, which has come to be
marks, there must be a balance between the viewers seen as characteristic.
freedom and narrative coherence (the constraints of Livingstone (1999) also points out that the physi-
the game further the sense of play!), and subtle and cal movement of the human agent (in clicking,
appropriate linking creates that balance. Garrand, choosing paths, etc.) manipulates objects, which
writing with reference to interactive multimedia, exist only in digital space, as if they existed within
emphasizes that linking for interaction must be ver- physical space. He compares this to Lakoff and
tical as well as horizontal, that interactive writing Johnsons embodied interaction (1980), and, as
is 3-D writing. we drag objects onto and around the screen, the
Links both emphasize the visual element of the conceptual relationships we make between the real
text itselfthe text as a visual featureand help to and the digital form the foundations of a com-
create an enactment of three dimensional space in pletely new interactive space with its own specific
the spatial relations of navigation (up/down, left/ characteristics, and its own formulae for conveying
right, etc.) and in the impression of layering. In meaning.
hypermedia link authoring, where hypertext is linked Paths of reading are also important for the
with images, videos, sounds, animations, and so forth, creation of interactive space. As Kress (2003)
linking makes clear that verbal text is only one kind of makes clear, reading paths are culturally dictated
content, and that a link does not just match verbal (left to right/ right to left, etc.). Multimodal texts
text, sound, image, and so forth, but reveals content open the question of reading pathsin terms of
from different perspectives. Although links used in directionality (which direction?) and in terms of
the course of interactive exploration can give the which elements the reader chooses as points
688
Various Views on Digital Interactivity
along the reading path. What are the elements to be is not a television, not only in the aspect of viewer
read together? (Just as children learning to read do control or interactivity, but also in the way that 8
not make the assumptions about ordered reading images are presented, sequenced, used, and val-
space that trained adults do.) Is the reader looking at ued.
a text to be read as a conventional text, a text to
be read as an image, an image to be read as part
of a text? Thus the reading of an interactive FUTURE TRENDS
verbal/visual text screen implies that the reader
establish the order through his/her own preferences An increased implementation of techniques to en-
as to relevance, thereby constructing a personalized hance the impression of interactivity is important for
meaningful space. every aspect of digital media. Some interesting
The creation of interactive multimodal discourse future applications include Peer-to-Peer Commu-
thus demands that authors and designers consider nications/Visualizing Community (Burnett, 2004),
carefully the interplay between visual and verbal design practice in humanities-based applications
units of meaning and their placement, not simply in (Strain & VanHoosier-Carey, 2003), and the field of
terms of the space of the screen, but in terms of the interaction design as a whole. As Lowgren (2002)
relative value of that space, and how juxtaposition in remarks: Interaction Design is a fairly recent
that space affects the relative values of text and conceptIt clearly owes part of its heritage to HCI,
image. Not only do text and image provide different even though the turns within established design
possibilities for the creation of meaning and en- fieldssuch as graphic design, product design and
gagement, but verbal text on-screen becomes an- architecturetowards the digital material are every
other aspect of the visual (fonts, graphics, visual bit as important. Further, as McCullough (2004)
sculpting of blocks of text, layout, etc.)and this notes, the goal of natural interaction drives the
should be taken into account by creators to capitalize movement toward pervasive computing and embed-
on capacity for interactivity. ded systems (p. 70).
De Certeau (1988) suggests that, through the Techniques of narrative characteristic of inter-
spatial practice of walking, the pedestrian learns active hypertext are being exploited to increase user
to create and inhabit his own city by the paths he involvement in a variety of commercial and web
chooses. A similar creation of personal space in applications (Broden, Gallagher, & Woytek, 2004).
virtual space is important for immersion and engage- The digital design identity of corporations and
ment, which is why Johnson-Sheehan and Baehr brands offers another area for future application.
(2001) place such importance on the use of design McCullough (2004) has underlined the prospective
metaphorsarchitectural, physical spaces such as value of interactive media for developing new rela-
cafs, museums, and so forth, to involve the user tionships between the brand and the market, and
physicallyand why the use of visual features particularly emphasized the expected future diversi-
(frames, icons, images) to create possibilities for the fication of interactive systems by digital brands and
navigator, rather than simply as dead links, is also services as a way of manifesting and performing
relevant to user perception of screen space as brand identity.
interactive space. (Laine, 2002)
Darley (2000) has proposed that the interactive
element of visual digital culture is best thought of as CONCLUSION
related to earlier forms of entertainmentlike the
amusement park, or music hall for example, which As Aarseth (2003) suggests, attempts to clarify
demand active participation from the audience what interactivity means should start by acknowl-
rather than more contemporary media, like television edging that the terms meaning is constantly shifting
or cinema. This comparison highlights an aspect of and probably without descriptive power and then try
visual digital interactivity which often is not consid- to argue why we need it, in spite of this (p. 426). We
ered adequately because it is so obviousthe screen need interactivity and all the various points of view
689
Various Views on Digital Interactivity
that coexist within the shifting meaning of this term Garrand, T. (1997). Scripting narratives for interac-
because successful interaction transforms the pas- tive multimedia. Journal of Film and Video 49(1/
sive receiver of information into the active partici- 2), 66-79.
pant in communication.
Golovchinsky, G., & Marshall, C. C. (2000, May 30-
June 4). Hypertext interaction revisited. In the Pro-
ceedings, Eleventh ACM on Hypertext and
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KEY TERMS is perceived by the user as having similar presence
and importance as the physical environment (Kiousis,
Common Ground: Shared knowledge and ex- 2002).
perience common to both sender and receiver. This Vicarious Kinaesthesia: The dimension of di-
common ground enables the references and con- rect physical involvement which gives the user in a
text of the message to be deciphered successfully mediated environment the impression of agency, of
and meaning to be communicated. controlling events that are taking place in the present
Digital Interactivity: Despite the fact that (Darley, 2000, p. 157).
interactivity as a blanket concept cannot be pre-
691
692
Gabriel Jacobs
University of Wales Swansea, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
home, and the real computer-games industry began. dimensional platform-style visuals, but the interface
The visual interface of Spacewar nonetheless typi- was, in fact, far more sophisticated than the games 8
fied that of the 1960s and 1970s in both its graphical of the 1970s and early 1980s; in addition to colour, it
simplicity and the undemanding nature of the user offered dynamic on-screen textual information, in-
control it offered; gamers had only four options cluding options between stages and more complex
rotate left, rotate right, thrust, and shoot. Still less controls. The visual interfaces of the current gen-
advanced, even given the 13-year age gap, was the eration of games have taken on even greater com-
interface of Pongplayers merely moved a block plexity, as exemplified by Mario Sunshine (Figure
of pixels up and down; the block was supposed to 4), where 3D rendering, a wide array of controls, and
represent a table-tennis bat that sent a square ball changes in visual perspectives (e.g., from first- to
to the other side of the screen at an angle determined third-person and 360-degree camera angles) are the
by the position of the bat and the previous stroke. order of the day. Thus, whereas a quarter of a
Jump forward in time to 1989, and there was some- century ago, even inexperienced gamers were able
thing of a transformation in the norm for the games to play a game to the maximum of what it had to offer
interface. Super Mario World 3 (Figure 3) charac- with barely any learning involved, this is no longer
terized games of its period with its basic two- the case with most of todays games, given the
degree of familiarity required for understanding and
making full use of a typical games interface. This is
particularly true of the strategy, simulation, and role-
Figure 3. Super Mario World 3 (1989 Nintendo play genres, where the emphasis on information
Entertainment System) management necessitates an intricate visual inter-
face (see Figure 5 for one example).
Yet, despite the extent of the revolution in visual
interfaces, game designers still need to adhere to
certain conventions (Poole, 2000). While the task of
designing effective interfaces in most cases is linked
inevitably to the type of game being developed,
research has shown that the design of any game
generally considered to be good tends to conform to
a fixed pattern (Cousins, 2003; Fabricatore et al,
2002; Ip & Jacobs, 2004). Accordingly, even with all
the opportunities offered by todays hardware, there
is not as much freedom in design as might be
Figure 4. Mario Sunshine (2002 Nintendo Figure 5. Warcraft 3: Frozen Throne (2003
Gamecube) PC)
693
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
imagined. Studies by academic researchers such as also been used over the past two decades, and items
Taylor (2002) and Warren (2003) and those by hands- such as steering wheels and light guns have been
on games designers such as Dalmau (1999) and fairly popular for use with appropriate games. Re-
Caminos and Stellmach (2004) have shown convinc- cently, dance mats and pressure pads, which enable
ingly that good visual interface design is now a users to interact with their entire bodies, have also
prerequisite for those attempting to develop a truly been gaining some ground. Peripherals designed for
immersive gaming experience, but that using the full the arcade market include innovative hardware
power of the hardware does not in itself lead to interfaces, such as skiing platforms and driving or
effective design. Johnson and Wiles (2001) have flying simulators, but the high cost of producing
proposed that the most successful games are those these as well as the bulkiness of the cabinets they
whose user interfaces invoke a deep sense of con- use have more or less confined them to their ar-
centration, enjoyment, and absorption, whether or not cades; there has been little or no transference to the
they are innovative. Caminos and Stellmach (2004) domestic market.
discuss the issues surrounding the development of an Nevertheless, there have been numerous at-
intuitive user interface for games, noting that, despite tempts to introduce elaborate peripherals into the
what may appear to be simple design problems, home market, some of which have been spectacular
getting the basic interface right is extraordinarily failures. The promise of virtual-reality (VR) hard-
difficult. However, the full capabilities of the hard- ware, head-mounted displays above all, which in the
ware cannot be ignored, of course. In addition to 1990s showed all the signs of offering the ultimate
what one might call the conventional aspects of gaming experience, has remained largely unful-
visual-interface design (basic screen layout, menu filled. Head-mounted displays fell short of expecta-
design, etc.), modern game designers must also take tions in a number of ways, including comparatively
account of more complex possibilities, such as the poor graphic resolution and their tendency to cause
point-of-view (camera angle) delivered to the gamer so-called VR sickness, the equivalent of motion
as smoothly as possible, or realistic graphical effects sickness (Adams, 1998; Edge, 1999; Vaughan, 1999),
(Adams, 1999; Poole, 2000; Schell & Shochet, 2001). not to mention the fact that players generally do not
Taylor (2002) has examined the delicate relationship want to wear cumbersome equipment (Hecker,
between first- and third-person perspectives and 1999). Thus, VR has not yet been able to establish
how these influence gameplay, while Federoff (2002) a significant foothold in the game industry, whereas
has proposed various methods for the evaluation of a over a relatively long period of time, there have
games playability based on its visual appearance. been numerous successful applications of it in other
fields (Kalawsky, 1993). Two other examples of
Physical Interface advanced physical interfaces that have not achieved
widespread use are Mattels Powerglove for the
Research on game user interfaces so far has con- Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) and
verged above all on visuals. This is somewhat sur- Nintendos Virtual Boy. The Powerglove, intro-
prising, since while for the majority of non-game duced in 1989, was a potentially winning VR data
computer applications the hardware interface con- glove that could track hand motion in three dimen-
sists of nothing more than a keyboard and a mouse, sions; it was soon withdrawn because of serious
the present generation of computer and video games technical problems (Gardner, 1989). Virtual Boy
can benefit significantly from a broader range of was a stereoscopic device that claimed on its re-
peripherals. In spite of this, hardware games inter- lease in 1995 to be ushering in a new era of video
faces have changed far less over the years than their games. It failed badly as a result of a rather clumsy
on-screen counterpart. design and relatively poor interaction possibilities
The most common devices for domestic gaming, (Herman, 1997).
as defined by the standard mode of interaction with Conventional joypads, keyboards, and mice, then,
the game, are joypads, joysticks, and keyboards, persist as the dominant physical interfaces. As can
which typically are bundled with the initial purchase be seen in Table 1 (a comparison among the most
of the hardware. Many other optional devices have popular platforms and their hardware interfaces
694
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
since the 1970s), in spite of the availability of a wide previous N64 machine). Yet the increase in the
selection of peripherals, the principal physical inter- number of buttons aside, it is clear that the predomi- 8
face for console games has remained the joypad and, nant physical interface (the joypad for console games,
for computer games, the keyboard and mouse. In- the keyboard and mouse for the desktop or laptop
deed, such is the emphasis on these interfaces, that computer) has actually altered little since the 1970s.
even titles that would appear to be ideally suited to
genre-specific devices (i.e., driving and shooting
games) are designed primarily with joypads and FUTURE TRENDS
keyboards in mind, and comparatively common ad-
ditional interfaces such as steering wheels and light The fact that over the years there has been little
guns are still seen largely as novelty items. Evident change in standard physical game interfaces is now
in Table 1 also is that the number of buttons on being taken seriously by manufacturers, because it
joypads has increased steadily with each new gen- may be only a matter of time before joypads, key-
eration since the 1970s (except between generations boards, and mice simply will no longer fit the bill.
4 and 5, and in the case of the Nintendo Gamecube, Hence, we are seeing developments such as Sonys
the number of buttons actually decreased from the EyeToy (in which a camera attached to Playstation
695
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
2 allows the player to be immersed in a game by objects or characters around a virtual space and to
becoming a character on the screen) and hands-free make them perform actions. In driving games, a
gaming devices based on relatively simple Web steering wheel and pedals; in first-person shooters,
cams that can be used as a substitute for the mouse a gun; in golf games, a golf club; and so forth, would
(Gorodnichy & Roth, 2004). Further, despite the seem to be obvious standard replacements for cur-
obstacles presented by VR, research is on the rent controllers, but in practice, joypads have proven
increase into the possibilities for domestic use of- so far to retain a solidly entrenched position as the
fered by immersive VR-type full-body interaction dominant vehicle of interaction between player and
(Warren, 2003). One of the most intriguing among game. This is partly because many other peripherals
the emerging ideas is an affective interface that has have not reached a stage at which they can be used
been described as computing that relates to, arises with the ease and accuracy of a joypad (drivers of
from, or deliberately influences emotions (Picard, real cars find, for example, that even in the most
1997, p. 3). A study conducted by Scheirer et al expensive games, steering wheels do not behave like
(2002) has demonstrated how user emotions can be real steering wheels, even when properly calibrated).
measured and taken into account in order to facili- In any event, while the joypad can be used across
tate the design of the user interface and, even more many different types of game, specialized peripher-
importantly, to enable certain factors (e.g., screen als are self-evidently unsuitable for all types. In fact,
layout or number of button presses before the next the joypad has become so much a part of the
option is presented) to respond by making changes in videogame culture that it well may persist in more or
real time that depend on the behavior of the user less its present form, regardless of future visual-
(e.g., when frustration is detected). It may be that interface developments, while the keyboard and the
such developments will be necessary in order for the mouse, however clumsy they may be when used for
videogame industry to continue to flourish, since, PC games, so far have shown considerable resis-
even with the advent of 256-bit machines capable of tance even against the joystick, notwithstanding the
photo-realistic 3D graphics and fully controllable, low cost of the latter and specific joystick ports on
interactive, seamless motion video, improvements in many desktop computers.
the visual interface alone may prove insufficient to On the other hand, the recent spate of releases of
ward off the player dissatisfaction, which, since the compact and relatively inexpensive interactive con-
early 1990s and in the face of all the success, has trol devices (e.g., the motion-sensitive EyeToy, head-
been a central factor in holding back what might phones, and microphones offering voice commands
have been an even greater market volatility (Edge, and audio feedback; pressure pads for skateboard-
1993, 2002, 2003, 2004). Indeed, it may be that the ing and snowboarding games; increasingly accurate
very existence of ever-more advanced visual inter- light guns with long reach; and infrared pads for
faces, if unaccompanied by parallel developments in football games, which recognize shooting, tackles,
physical interfaces, may cause such a disparity and so on) still may see substantial growth as they
between the two that design creativity will suffer, break free of the confines of arcades. Needless to
while the market witnesses even greater consumer say, the obstacle to mass sales, which is the speci-
resistance than has been the case so far. ficity of such devices, always will remain, but as
prices fall and as visual interfaces make greater
demands on their corresponding controllers, so the
CONCLUSION all-purpose joypad eventually may become more of
a secondary device than it is at present.
We have seen that the visual interface for games has If this does not prove to be the case, one wonders
come a long way in terms of both capabilities and how joypads, keyboards, and mice will be able to
design complexity, while the physical interface has cope with the coming advances in visual interfaces
not kept pace. Of course, it may be that even if they and to what extent we shall see consumer resistance
lack realism, the joypad controllers of Gamecube, as a result. That said, who could have predicted a
Playstation, Xbox are the most natural command few years ago that Nintendos Gameboy, with its
mechanisms for games requiring users to move diminutive screen and limited control functions (let
696
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
alone mobile phones with their even smaller screens Herman, L. (1997). Phoenix: The fall and rise of
and more primitive control functions) would have videogames. Union, NJ: Rolenta Press. 8
been so well received by so many consumers as
Ip, B., & Jacobs, G. (2004). Quantifying games
hand-held games devices?
design. Design Studies, 25, 607-624.
Johnson, D., & Wiles, J. (2001). Effective affective
REFERENCES user-interface design in games. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Affective Human
Adams, E. (1998). The VR gorilla-rhino test. Re- Factors Design, Singapore.
trieved August 2004, from www.gamasutra.com/
Kalawsky, R. (1993). The science of virtual reality
features/designers_notebook/19980814.htm
and virtual environments. Wokingham, UK:
Adams, E. (1999). Designing and developing Addison-Wesley.
sports games. Retrieved August 2004, from
Picard, R. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge,
www.gamasutra.com/features/designers_notebook/
MA: MIT Press.
19990924.htm
Poole, S. (2000). Trigger happy. New York: Ar-
Caminos R., & Stellmach, T. (2004). Cross-plat-
cade.
form user-interface development. Retrieved Au-
gust 2004, from www.gamasutra.com/gdc2004/fea- Scheirer, J., Fernandez, R., Klein, J., & Picard, R.
tures/20040326/caminos_02.shtml (2002). Frustrating the user on purpose: A step
toward building an affective computer. Interacting
Cousins, B. (2002). Mind your language. Develop,
with Computers, 14, 93-118.
20, 14-16.
Schell, J., & Shochet, J. (2001). Designing interac-
Dalmau, S. (1999). Learn faster to play better:
tive theme park rides: Lessons from Disneys
How to shorten the learning cycle. Retrieved
battle for the buccaneer gold. Retrieved August
August 2004, from www.gamasutra.com/features/
2004, from www.gamasutra.com/features/
19991108/dalmau_02.htm
20010706/schell_01.htm
East is Eden. (2002). Edge, 108, 52-63.
Taylor, L. (2002). Video games: Perspective, point-
Fabricatore, C., Nussbaum, M., & Rosas, R. (2002). of-view, and immersion. Masters thesis. Univer-
Playability in action videogames: A qualitative de- sity of Florida.
sign model. Human-Computer Interaction, 17(4),
Vaughan, B. (1999). Whatever happened to virtual
311-368.
reality? Edge, 71, 64.
Federoff, M. (2002). Heuristics and usability
Warren, J. (2003). Unencumbered full body inter-
guidelines for the creation and evaluation of fun
action in video game. Masters thesis. New York:
in video games. Masters thesis. University of
Parsons School of Design New York.
Indiana, Bloomington.
Whatever happened to virtual reality? (1999). Edge,
Game over. (1993). Edge 3, 62-67.
71, 60-67.
Gardner, D.L. (1989). The power glove. Design
News, 4, 63-68.
KEY TERMS
Gorodnichy, D., & Roth, G. (2004). Nouse, use your
nose as a mouse: Perceptual vision technology for Computer Game: An interactive game played
hands-free games and interfaces. Image and Vi- on a computer.
sion Computing, 22(12), 931-942.
First-Person Perspective: The visualization
Hecker, C. (1999). Whatever happened to virtual of the gaming environment through the eyes of the
reality? Edge, 71, 62. character.
697
Visual and Physical Interfaces for Computer and Video Games
Game(s) User Interface: Elements and de- used predominantly in stand-alone arcade machines
vices through which the user interacts with the and some home consoles.
game.
Physical Interface: Tangible devices for inter-
Joypad: A palm-sized device designed for use action with the game.
with both hands to interact with the game. Its layout
Third-Person Perspective: The visualization
is typified by directional keys on the left and buttons
of the gaming environment through an external body
on the right and top sections of the pad. Modern pads
of the character.
incorporate additional analogue sticks on the left or
on both the left and right sides. Videogame: An interactive game played on a
stand-alone arcade machine or home console.
Joystick: A 360-degree stick mounted on a
sturdy platform of buttons used for interacting with Visual Interface: Visual on-screen elements
the game; used predominantly in stand-alone arcade that can be altered or that provide information to the
machines and early home consoles. user during interaction with the game.
Light Gun: A device used for shooting games,
which allows the user to target objects on screen;
698
699
INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
European users have eagerly adopted novel forms of Many efforts have been devoted to design valuable
digital media and related information and communi- tools for the mobile worker, but so far only a few of
cations technologies (Stanton, 2001), making them a them have been successful. Surprisingly, most of the
part of their increasingly varied and segmented mobile applications originally designed as work tools
cultures (Brown, Green, & Harper, 2001). For ex- (chat, message board, etc.) have found a fertile
ample, the young are active consumers of music, market in entertainment. There seem to be two main
videos, movies, and games; businessmen on the causes of this failure: the lack of usability of the
other hand need more and more working tools and applications provided and, above all, the failure to
applications that enable connectivity when they are create realistic usage scenarios.
on the move. A not very dissimilar scenario is The European Commission (EC) and European
envisaged on troops in action where work on tactical Space Agency (ESA) jointly set up an expert group
and strategic information and mission management, on collaborative working environments that met for
command, and control, including real-time mission the first time in Brussels on May 4, 2004. The expert
replanning, are essential. All these users rely on the group discussed the vision of next-generation col-
Internet, i-TV, and mobile phones, and they have laborative working environments (NGCWEs). The
adapted all of these into the fabric of their lifestyles, vision drawn by the expert group was that NGCWEs
or in short, their mobile life. But, functionality cannot will deliver a high quality of experience to cowork-
be the main driver for design as mobile life is also ers, and will be based on flexible service components
deeply founded upon shared values and worldviews and customized to different communities. Mobility,
of the users, pleasure, enjoyment, culture, safety, interaction among peers (systems and persons),
trust, desire, and so forth (Rheingold, 1993). utility-like computing capacity and connectivity,
For example, WAP (wireless application proto- contextualization and content, security, privacy, and
col) technologies seemed to provide a powerful tool trust were among the RTD challenges in nine areas
to the mobile worker. However, it is well known the identified by the experts.
fraud of WAP mainly due to the scarce usability,
high usage cost, and inadequate range of the ser-
vices provided together with intrinsic limitations of FROM THE MOBILE
the device itself (insufficient memory storage, low ENTERTAINMENT COMMUNITY TO
battery autonomy, poor screen resolution, etc. THE NOMADIC WORK TEAM
[Cereijo Roibs, 2001]). However, some WAP ap-
plications have been widely used by Italian users. If there is always an uncertainty about the most
The success of this system of applications is due to suitable use of a new service, the case of wireless
its efficiency, effectiveness, and relevance for some applications is not an exception (Flynn, 2002). As
specific work purposes. Each of the services will be will be explained for each case, the following appli-
analysed, describing the expected use of each ser- cations have been created to work in different
vice and the actual use of it by Italian users. platforms: WAP, WEB, and SMS (short-message
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
service). They were supposed to find wide use office with a need and a device that can help satisfy
within the increasing Italian mobile community for it. How these technologies are used is a matter of
entertainment purposes. However, they have been context: There is no optimized path to be imposed on
used more and more as work tools. Obviously, some end users. Multimode applications impose new chal-
services such as the multimode chat have had and lenges because end users get more and more de-
still have a strong use for entertainment purposes manding. End users do not want technology, but
(Now There is the Wappario, 2000). Users that services. Technology is going back behind the scenes.
need to communicate with their colleagues in real
time when they are out of the office are largely using Mobile Applications for Work and
mobile chat as a working tool. There is no experi- Sharing Knowledge
ence of the above-mentioned phenomenon in the
classical Web-only chat services. The services that will be discussed below were
launched by the Italian mobile-services provider
HiuGO in early 2001 as part of a Blu-branded
THE USE OF WAP AND SMS offering. All applications fully exploited the potenti-
APPLICATIONS AS ality of the mobile medium by combining messaging
WORKING TOOLS with WAP and later on GPRS browsing. The appli-
cations have been tested and corrected according to
Who, Where, When, Why, and How the companys usability standards both before their
launch and after it as data from consumers were
Supposed target users of multimode applications collected. Continuous interaction with mobile users
(Burkhardt et al., 2002) were thought to be teenag- included the following activities: monitoring usage
ers, but, as recent technology history has shown, and traffic patterns, controlling services require-
consumers behaviour and use of technology have ments, polling end users expectations, analysing
contradicted predictions. Mobile technologies, rang- end users interactions (Schneiderman, 1987), and
ing from WAP to SMS, from GPRS (general packet checking users satisfaction.
radio service) to MMS (multimedia message ser- The main methodology consisted of the fol-
vice), were born to meet the desire of teens, the lowing:
same people who had made text messaging their
preferred medium. However, as had happened for Users perceived value of the services pro-
short messages, multimode applications have been vided (questionnaires)
used for a purpose that contradicts its unique selling Self-training with a quick learning phase (us-
proposition, confirming once more the inner limits of ability test)
todays marketing of new technology. Outside cu- Time for task completion (usability test)
bicles, mobility is at the heart of multimode applica- Number of users irreversible mistakes (us-
tions, allowing users to make a real personal use of ability test)
technology. People stopped being slaves of given Satisfaction of users expectations (question-
and prepackaged software: They want technology naires)
when it shows to be relevant in real lifenot a Level of users interaction (usability test)
utopian Internet where they are living nowhere but Flexibility toward users personalization (us-
in wires because without wires, people are free. ability test and questionnaires)
Relevance is the reason for multimode applications:
People want technology relevant to work, dating, Message Board
participating in TV voting, and chatting. What counts
is that technology is at their hands when they need it, A message board is a thematic forum with file-
and they are the ones giving meaning to it. It is not sharing options. Users can access the forum via
a chat software waiting for them at a URL (uniform SMS or WAP/GPRS. All functionalities are avail-
resource locator), but it is a person at home or in the able and optimized for mobile devices. Users sub-
700
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
scribe to one or more forums choosing a nickname touch on the fly, for example, among study groups
and password. Once successfully registered, they and in distance learning courses. When public chats
can consult content browsing through topics, publish are held with a teacher, students part of a buddy
messages, and receive alerts when a topic they are group get reminders of appointments. Those who
interested in is updated simply by setting a keyword cannot access the Net via PCs can participate in the
alert. For example, by sending a text message with discussion via mobile devices. Again, an example of
the following keyword and search parameters, <up- usage is given by journalists who log in the chat via
date food supplies>, the user will get an alert every mobile phones and can send information to their
time a message is sent. The mobile device turns out teams and colleagues in real time while interview-
to be essential in getting critical updates. This tool has ing someone or during press conferences. Mobile
revealed to be ideal also for knowledge sharing chats are also useful for security guards who can
among working groups (Figure 1). In distance learn- keep in touch with each other through SMS or
ing courses and for nomadic groups of workers and WAP/GPRS: They cannot be heard because they
journalists, message boards turn out to be a vital do not need to talk, allowing them to share secure
resource. Journalists who need to move from one information in a simple way.
place to another can keep in touch with each other
and with the editorial team thanks to closed message PageMaker
boards where they can consult last-minute updates
and information as well as rumours, or send short PageMaker is a publishing tool that makes the
previews of their articles in real time as events are creation of personal WAP pages easy and immedi-
happening. ate. Users can publish their own content (text and
images, and now also colour images with new
Multimode Chat devices) and protect it with a password. They can
also use advanced interactive features such as
Multimode chat is a real-time communication service personal chats and message boards accessible via
that works via SMS (asynchronous), the Internet, the Internet or mobile devices. PageMaker has
and WAP/GPRS (synchronous): The same interface been adopted by all kinds of professionals willing to
is accessible from a PC (personal computer) and promote their activities. Lawyers promote their
from a mobile phone (each chatter has an icon or studios as do shoppers. Users searching for info
avatar that evidences the device he or she is using in can get localised results thanks to various position-
that moment). The chat service is organised in the- ing systems that have been implemented. Informa-
matic rooms and permits one-to-many and one-to- tion sent to users can be enriched by interactive
one messages. Users can also create their buddy lists maps to help reach places. Potentialities of the
and be alerted via SMS when one of them is available medium have been exploited by marketing manag-
(Figure 2). Multimode chat has showed itself to be ers: Coupons and special offers can now reach the
essential in working communities that need to keep in target in an unprecedented way: reaching them on
701
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
a personal device with relevant informationa spe- national federation. Once referees had to use faxes,
cial offer responding to a specific need. but now a simple text message to a dedicated service
number is all they have to give.
Multimode Mail
Transactions and Error Rates
Multimode mail uses personal mailboxes accessible
via PC and mobile devices. SMS is used to get alerts In the following, we provide some interesting statis-
on new mails. All mail functionalities are available tics (April 2001).
from the WAP interface. This service proves to be
very useful for working communities of every kind. Message Board: There are 150,000 active
users, and 78% of them access the boards from
Event Enhancer mobile devices via WAP or SMS. The average
number of transactions via SMS are 18 per
Event enhancer is a complete suite of multimode month. The error rate is 7%. There are 20,000
software facilitating attendees and exhibitors during new monthly users, and the churn rate is 7%.
events. Users who subscribe to the service can Multimode Chat: There are 100,000 active
receive information on locations and alerts on spe- registered users, with 90% accessing from
cial events of their interest. A dedicated matchmaking mobile devices via WAP or SMS. The average
engine also allows them to save time and effort in number of monthly transactions via SMS is 20.
finding the right person at the right time: By inserting There is an error rate of 5.5%. There are
your profile and needs, you will be put in contact with 20,000 new monthly users, and there is a churn
the person or company you need to meet. Users who rate of 15%.
have been matched can also chat via SMS or WAP Multimode Mail: There are 250,000 active
before meeting, exchange business cards, and down- users of multimode mail. The average number
load commercial information on Bluetooth-enabled of transactions via SMS is 24 per month. An
handsets. Users can also book interesting events via error rate of 3% exists. The number of new
SMS or WAP. The application has been adopted by monthly users is 22,000. The churn rate is 3%.
schools: Courses have their own schedules available PageMaker: PageMaker has 70,000 active
via mobile devices, teachers who give their contact users, with 60% accessing from mobile devices
information can be reached at any moment, and via WAP or SMS. The average number of
students can enroll in classes, seminars, or special monthly transactions via SMS is 10. The error
courses at the last minute (in the Italian school rate is 7%. The number of new monthly users
system). But the event enhancer has also turned out is 6,000, and the churn rate is 7%.
to be a very useful and successful application for Event Enhancer: There are 120,000 active
companies. It has been adopted as a marketing tool users, and 78% of them access the service
to optimize ROI on fairs and events: Procter & from mobile devices via WAP or SMS. The
Gamble first adopted it at the international beauty average number of transactions via SMS is 10
fair in 2001, setting an example for others. Event per month. There is an error rate of 4%. The
Enhancer in fact helped in driving traffic to the stand number of new monthly users is 4,000. The
and offered personalized service: Attendees were churn rate is 11%.
given the chance to set an appointment and get an
SMS reminder, receive personalized advice in their
mobile mail or via SMS, get a mobile coupon, and FUTURE TRENDS
participate in an instant-win competition. Many other
applications may be mentioned. Sometimes a simple Small personal interfaces, such as those on mobile
SMS can improve productivity or facilitate work. An phones, interconnected with other surrounding plat-
example is given by referees. When the match ends, forms (e.g., interactive TV, PCs, PDAs [personal
each referee has to send the official score to the digital assistants], in-car navigators, smart-house
702
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
appliances, etc.) and particularly suitable for con- acteristics: the capabilities of learning, organising,
text-awareness applications (Schilit, Adams, & carrying out routine tasks, and taking autonomous 9
Want, 1994) will strongly stimulate the development decisions for support in case of unexpected events.
and diffusion of the prospected ubiquitous communi-
cation scenarios. These new scenarios will imply the
need to rethink new kinds of services and applica- CONCLUSION
tions and of course new forms of content. A fertile
research area in this sense regards the design of As the Italian case shows, it was not necessary to
applications and services for the mobile worker wait until the arrival of the more promising 3G (third-
(Winslow & Bramer, 1994). generation) technologies to have successful mobile
Designing complex ubiquitous communication interactive services that enhance communications in
scenarios for work involving cross-platform cus- work environments (Cereijo Roibs et al., 2002).
tomer technologies (ranging from I-TV, radio, mu- This case demonstrates that it is possible to design
sic, and mobile phones to portable or wearable useful and usable services for a starting poor tech-
information devices) for different users and con- nology despite its HCI (human-computer interac-
texts requires an original way of conceiving the tion) limitations (Cereijo Roibs et al.). This experi-
interactive user experience. This need to design ence shows how extensive attention to the mobile
novel ubiquitous and mobile services and products user is essential in order to envision realistic and
that will address the new demands, requirements, relevant scenarios of use (Kleinrock, 1996).
and potentials of mobile workers in critical situations
implies a new approach to design that goes beyond
the existing conventions. This design for innovation REFERENCES
will lead to the identification of novel experience
models and their social, cultural, and regulatory Brown, B., Green, N., & Harper, R. (Eds.). (2001).
implications, allowing us to explore new and relevant Wireless world: Social, cultural and interac-
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ness (Tamminen, Oulasvirta, & Toiskallio, 2004), Schack, T. (2002). Pervasive computing: Tech-
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These integrated systems should contribute to im- next generation terminals and identifying ways to
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mixed distributed autonomous and manned assets of success of UCommerce. Proceedings of the
(Suchman, 1995). Fifth International Conference on Electronic
In this sense, we can anticipate the use of intel- Commerce Research, Montreal, Canada.
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gies. These agents need to have the following char-
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WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
Tamminen, S., Oulasvirta, A., Toiskallio, K., & Multimode: Service that can be accessed and
Kankainen, A. (2004). Understanding mobile con- used with different interfaces in a multiplatform
texts. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 8(2), system (e.g., a chat that is available across handhelds
135-143. and PCs).
Winslow, C. D., & Bramer, W. L. (1994). Shared-Window System: System that allows a
Futurework: Putting knowledge to work in the single-user application to be shared among multiple
knowledge economy. Anderson Consulting. New users without modifying the original application.
York: The Free Press. Such a system shows identical views of the applica-
704
WAP Applications in Ubiquitous Scenarios of Work
tion to the users and combines the input from the a space for an observer to sit, along with a special
users or allows only one user to input at a time. observation area. 9
SMS (Short-Message Service): A text-mes- User Studies: Any of the wide variety of meth-
sage service offered by the GSM digital cellular- ods for understanding the usability of a system based
telephone system. Using SMS, a short alphanumeric on examining actual users or other people who are
message can be sent to a mobile phone to be representative of the target user population.
displayed there, much like in an alphanumeric pager
User Testing: A family of methods for evaluat-
system. The message is buffered by the GSM net-
ing a user interface by collecting data from people
work until the phone becomes active. Messages
actually using the system.
must be no longer than 160 alphanumeric characters
and contain no images or graphics. WAP (Wireless Application Protocol): A pro-
tocol used with small handheld devices and small file
Usability Lab: A lab designed for user testing,
sizes.
typically a quiet room with computer equipment and
705
706
Mark Levene
Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Wearable and Mobile Devices
continuously being improved, but to counter Standard software tools also should be available
this, users expectations also are growing. on mobile devices to support, among other applica- 9
3. Slow Connectivity: Relatively slow at the tions:
moment for anywhere Internet connectivity;
3G technologies promise to improve the situa- E-mail.
tion. Wireless LAN connectivity, such as Web browsing and other Web services.
802.11, provides simple and reliable perfor- Document and data handling, including com-
mance for localized communication. pression software.
Synchronization of data with other devices.
Mobile devices generally support multimodal in- Security and authentication.
terfaces, which ease usability within the anytime- Personalization and collaboration agents.
anywhere paradigm of computing. Such support eLearning content management and delivery,
should include: which is normally delivered on mobile devices
via its Web services capability.
Pen input and handwriting recognition soft-
ware. Apart from the last two, these tools are widely
Voice input and speech recognition software. available, although the different platforms are not
Touch screen, supporting color, graphics, and always compatible. This is not a major problem,
audio where necessary. since communication occurs through standard Web
and e-mail protocols. Current personalization and
In order to take advantage of the promise of collaboration tools are based mainly on static profil-
mobile computing devices, they need to have oper- ing, while what is needed is a more dynamic and
ating systems support such as: adaptive approach. There are still outstanding issues
regarding content management and delivery of
A version of Microsoft Windows for mobile eLearning materials, since these technologies, which
devices. we assume will be XML-centric, are still evolving.
Linux for mobile devices.
Palm for PDAs.
Symbian for mobile phones. HCI AND MOBILE AND
WEARABLE DEVICES
In addition, mobile devices need to support appli-
cations-development technologies such as: This article will highlight some of the central HCI
issues regarding the design, development, and use of
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), where mobile and wearable devices. Our review pertains to
in the current version content is developed in devices such as mobile phones, personal digital
XHTML, which extends HTML and enforces assistants (PDAs), and wearable devices, and less
strict adherence to XML (eXtensible Markup to mobile devices such as laptops and tablet PCs that
Language). generally are larger in size.
J2ME (Sun Java 2 Micro Edition), which is a Several main issues regarding the HCI issues of
general platform for programming embedded using mobile and wearable devices have been pos-
devices. ited in the literature, including contextual concerns
.NET framework, which includes Microsofts (Lumsden & Brewster, 2003; Sun, 2003), limitations
C# language as an alternative to Java. of the interface (Brewster, 2002), and their conver-
NTT DoComos i-mode, which currently cov- gence with other technologies and systems. These
ers almost all of Japan with well over 30 million devices reflect the range of different contexts that
subscribers. Phones that support i-mode have mobile and wearable technology can be used for
access to several services such as e-mail, interfacing with data sets, interactive content, and
banking, news, train schedules, and maps. enhanced visual display that augment activities and
exploration within physical environments.
707
Wearable and Mobile Devices
Table 1. Summary of a selection of mobile and wearable interaction tools and interfaces
According to some commentators, the design of many current wearable systems are built on mobile
interaction techniques for use with mobile and wear- technology components such as PDAs, these do not
able systems has to address complex contextual always provide the best interfaces for maximizing
concerns (Lumsden & Brewster, 2003, p. 197). wearability, relying as they do upon graphical and
While the physical environment that the mobile user visual interfaces.
inhabits is constantly changing, there is a host of Developers have met this challenge by designing
environmental issues to contend with, including pri- a whole range of new and adapted interfaces in
vacy, noise levels, and general interruptions to the order to provide eyes- and hands- free interaction.
flow of communications and data access. While A review of some of the recent mobile and wear-
708
Wearable and Mobile Devices
Table 1. Summary of a selection of mobile and wearable interaction tools and interfaces, cont.
9
Smart clothing Smart clothing The smart clothing prototype for the Rantanen et al. (2002)
prototype for the Arctic includes a suit with
Arctic communication, global positioning
environment and navigation, user and
environment monitoring, and
heating.
Touch pad interface Touchpad mouse The touchpad mouse can be used as Thomas et al. (2002b)
Wearable a component with other wearable
computers computers (i.e., with wearable
computer and HMD). The touchpad
can be worn in a number of different
positions on the body; however,
testing has shown that the preferred
place is on the thigh.
Peephole displays that PDAs Peephole displays that combine pen Yee (2003)
combine pen input with input with spatially aware displays,
spatially aware displays enabling navigation through objects
that are larger than the screen.
Body area computing Wearable Unit Plessl et al. argue that future Plessl et al. (2003)
system with wearable computing systems should
Reconfigurable be regarded as embedded systems
Modules and suggest the development of a
(WURM) body area computing system
composed of distributed nodes
around a central communications
network. Sensors are distributed
around the body using field-
programmable arrays (FPGAs).
able technology interfaces has found the following potential applications in many fields (e.g. aiding
interaction tools and interfaces (see Table 1). people with disabilities). In addition to the interfaces
As these divergent interfaces indicate, there is as that we already have mentioned, we have reviewed
yet no preferred interface for wearable technology, three examples of mobile and wearable devices.
and the scope for HCI input into design issues clearly
is needed to inform future integrated systems. In The IBM Linux Watch
addition to providing more mobile and embedded (www.research.ibm.com/WearableComputing/
interfaces, other design parameters have attempted factsheet.html)
to address individual user difficulties inherent in
traversing the physical environment while communi- IBM recently has developed a wristwatch computer
cating, and some have been aimed specifically at that they collaboratively are commercializing with
user groups, including those with hearing or sight Citizen under the name of WatchPad. Apart from
impairments (Ross & Blasch, 2002). telling the time, WatchPad supports calendar sched-
uling, address book functionality, to-do-lists, the
ability to send and receive short e-mail messages,
EXAMPLES OF WEARABLE AND Bluetooth wireless connectivity, and wireless ac-
MOBILE DEVICES cess to Web services. WatchPad runs a version of
the Linux operating system allowing a very flexible
Wearable devices are distinctive from other mobile software applications development platform. It is
devices by allowing hands-free interaction or by at possible to design WatchPad for specific users (e.g.,
least minimizing the use of a keyboard or pen input a students watch could hold various schedules and
when using the device. This is achieved by devices provide location sensing and messaging capabili-
that are worn on the body, such as a headset that ties). A recent commercial product with overlapping
allows voice interaction and a head mounted display functionally, called Wrist Net Watch (www.fossil.
that replaces a computer screen. The area of wear- com/tech), has been developed by Fossil. Current
able devices is currently a hot research topic with information such as news headlines and weather is
709
Wearable and Mobile Devices
delivered in real time to the watch through the MSN these smart buttons allow registration of students as
Direct service. well as access to classrooms, Web pages, and
computers.
Xybernaut Mobile Assistant
(www.xybernaut.com/Solutions/product/ MIThril: A Platform for Context-Aware
mav_product.htm) Wearable Computing
(www.media.mit.edu/wearables/mithril/)
This commercial product is the most widely avail-
able multi-purpose wearable device currently on the MIThril is a wearable research platform developed
market. It is a lightweight wearable computer with at the MIT Media Lab (DeVaul et al., 2001). Al-
desktop/laptop capabilities, including wireless Web though not a commercial product, MIThril is indica-
connectivity and e-mail, location sensing, hands-free tive of the functionality that we can expect in next-
voice recognition and activation, access to data in generation wearable devices. Apart from the hard-
various forms, and other PC-compatible software. It ware requirements, it includes a wide range of
has a processor module that can be worn in different sensors with sufficient computing and communica-
ways, a head-mounted display unit, a flat-panel tion resources and the support for different kinds of
display that is touch-screen activated and allows pen interfaces for user interaction, including a vest.
input, and a wrist-strapped mini-keyboard. Xybernaut There are also ergonomic requirements that include
is currently trialling the use of the mobile assistant in wearability (i.e. the device should blend with the
an educational context, concentrating on students users ordinary clothing) and flexibility (i.e., the
with special needs. It allows the student full comput- device should be suitable for a wide range of user
ing access beyond the classroom, including the behaviors and situations).
ability to do standard computing functions such as As an application of this architecture, a reminder
calculations, word processing, and multi-media dis- delivery system called Memory Glasses was devel-
play and, in addition, has continuous Internet con- oped, which acts on user-specified reminders (e.g.
nectivity and voice synthesis capabilities. It also During my next lecture, remind me to give addi-
supports leisure activities, such as listening to music tional examples of the applications of wearable
and playing games. computers) and requires a minimum of the wearers
attention. Memory Glasses uses a proactive re-
iButtons minder system model that takes into account time,
(www.ibutton.com/ibuttons/index.html) location, and the users current activities based on
daily events that can be detected (i.e. entering or
iButtons developed by Dallas Semiconductor Cor- leaving an office).
poration/Maxim currently are being piloted in a
range of educational institutions. An iButton is a
computer chip enclosed in a durable stainless steel FUTURE TRENDS
can. Each can of an iButton has a data contact
(called the lid) and a ground contact (called the base) Wearable and mobile devices currently are being
that are connected to the chip inside the can. By used in a range of contexts, but they also are being
touching each of the two contacts, it is possible to used in conjunction with a range of other technolo-
communicate with an iButton, and iButtons are gies that may have implications for the evolution of
distinguished from each other by each having a human-computer interfaces. Possible uses might
unique identification address. By adding different include the use of wearable and mobile devices for
functionality to the basic iButton (i.e. memory, a outdoor activities; for example, Cheok, et al. (2004)
real-time clock, security, and temperature sensing), consider the use of wearable devices in conjunction
several different products are being offered. There with game play that links virtual and real spaces (Xu
are many applications for this technology, including et al., 2003). Wearables also might allow users to
authentication and access control, eCash, and a explore access to a range of personalized informa-
range of other services. In educational contexts, tion services integrating access through portal sys-
710
Wearable and Mobile Devices
711
Wearable and Mobile Devices
standing access anytime, anywhere. ACM Trans- Xu, K., Prince, J.D., Cheok, A.D., Qiu, Y., &
actions on Computer-Human Interaction, 8(4), Kumar, K. G. (2003). Visual registration for unpre-
323-347. pared augmented reality environments. Personal
and Ubiquitous Computing, 7(5), 287-298.
Piekarski, W., & Thomas, B.H. (2004). Interactive
augmented reality techniques for construction at a Xu, Y., Yang, M., Yan, Y., & Chen, J. (2004).
distance of 3D geometry. Proceedings of the Work- Wearable array as user interface. Proceedings of
shop on Virtual Environments 2004, Zurich, Swit- the 5th Australasian User Interface Conference
zerland. (AUIC2004).
Plessl, C., et al. (2003). The case for reconfigurable Yee, K-P. (2003). Peephole displays: Pen interac-
hardware in wearable computing. Personal and tion on spatially aware handheld computers. Pro-
Ubiquitous Computing, 7, 299-308. ceedings of the ACM Conference on Human
Factors in Computing Systems 2003, Ft. Lauder-
Randell, C., & Muller, H.L. (2002). The well-man-
dale, Florida.
nered wearable computer. Personal and Ubiqui-
tous Computing, 6, 31-36.
KEY TERMS
Rantanen, J., et al. (2002). Smart clothing prototype
for the Arctic environment. IEEE Pervasive and
Hands-Free Operation: Allows the user to
Ubiquitous Computing, 6, 3-16.
interact with data and information without the use of
Ross, D.A., & Blasch, B.B. (2002). Development of hands.
a wearable computer orientation system. Personal
Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs): Visual dis-
and Ubiquitous Computing, 6, 49-63.
play units that are worn on the head as in the use of
Sun, J. (2003). Information requirement elicitation in VR systems.
mobile commerce. Communications of the ACM,
Head-Up Displays (HUPs): Displays of data
46(12), 45-47.
and information that are superimposed upon the
Thomas, B., et al. (2002a). First person indoor/ users field of view.
outdoor augmented reality application: ARQuake.
Mobile Devices: Can include a range of por-
Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 6, 75-86.
table devices, including mobile phones and PDAs,
Thomas, B., Grimmer, K., Zucco, J., & Milanese, S. but also can include wearable devices, such as
(2002b). Where does the mouse go? An investiga- HMDs and smart clothing, that incorporate sensors
tion into the placement of a body-attached touch-pad and location tracking devices.
mouse for wearable computers. Personal and Ubiq-
Multimodal Interaction: Uses more than one
uitous Computing, 6, 97-112.
mode of interaction and often uses visual, auditory,
Weld, D., et al. (2003). Automatically personalizing and tactile perceptual channels of interaction.
user interfaces. Retrieved May 12, 2003, from
Pervasive and Context-Aware Computing:
www.cs.washington.edu/homes/weld/papers/weld-
Allows mobile devices to affect everyday life in a
ijcai03.pdf
pervasive and context-specific way.
Westeyn, T., Brashear, H., Atrash, A., & Starner, T.
Wearable Devices: May include microproces-
(2003). Multimodal architectures and frameworks:
sors worn as a wristwatch or as part of clothing.
Georgia Tech gesture toolkit: Supporting experi-
ments in gesture recognition. Proceedings of the Wearable Sensors: Can be worn and detected
5th International Conference on Multimodal In- by local computing systems.
terfaces, Vancouver, Canada (pp. 85-92).
712
713
Web Credibility 9
David R. Danielson
Stanford University, USA
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Web Credibility
Fogg and Tseng (1999) have proposed four types of case studies, and thinking-aloud protocols, are also
credibility in assessing interactive systems: pre- employed to investigate user reasoning about cred-
sumed, reputed, surface, and experienced. Pre- ibility.
sumed credibility assessments are based upon gen-
eral underlying assumptions about the system, for
example, in assuming that Web sites in the dot-org UNIQUENESS OF THE WEB
domain are more credible than those in the dot-com
domain. Reputed credibility assessments are based The types of needs that trigger usage of the Web
upon third-party reports or endorsements, for ex- may be relatively similar to other media (Rieh &
ample, in finding pages linked to by a credible site as Belkin, 1998), and Sundar (1999) has found the
likely to provide accurate information. Surface cred- underlying dimensions of Web and traditional media
ibility assessments are based upon features observ- credibility assessments to be similar. Rieh (2002), on
able via simple inspection, for example, in using the other hand, has since found that the range of
visual design or interface usability as an indicator of evidence Web users consider in making these as-
credibility. Finally, experienced credibility is based sessments is much wider than for other media, and
upon first-hand experience with the system, for even in cases where the factors considered are
example, in returning to a Web site that has previ- similar, they may be weighed differentially across
ously provided information verified by the user to be media (Payne, Dozier, & Nomai, 2001). Moreover,
accurate. the Web may be less credible than print newspapers
Conceptualizations and taxonomies of credibility (Flanagin & Metzger, 2000), but in some cases, more
recognize the construct as not only referring to credible than traditional media counterparts such as
source characteristics, but as referring to attributes television, radio, and magazines (Flanagin & Metzger;
relevant to the perceived likelihood of message Johnson & Kaye, 1998). Finally, Klein (2001) has
accuracy and validity. In so doing, they distinguish found users to be generally aware of credibility
credibility from another related construct: trust. differences between the Web and other media.
Trust relates more properly to the perceived likeli- Given these differences, one may ask, What is
hood of behavioral intentions, reliability, and depend- special about the Web with respect to credibility?
ability rather than message accuracy, and as Fogg Researchers have theorized or empirically identi-
and Tseng (1999) point out, the word is often used in fied a number of ways in which features of the Web
phrases referring to credibility, such as trust the may give rise to differences between online cred-
information and trust the advice. ibility assessments and those made with traditional
Given a grounding in the credibility concept, media. These explanations tend to focus on four
Web-credibility researchers have set out to general characteristics of the Web: (a) the relative
operationalize the construct in a number of ways. As lack of filtering and gatekeeping mechanisms, (b)
Wathen and Burkell (2002) point out, credibility may the form of the medium, including interaction tech-
be operationalized by either direct or indirect assess- niques and interface attributes either inherent to
ment methods, both of which have been applied to the Web and other hypertext systems or emergent
Web credibility research. Researchers employ di- from common design practices, (c) a preponder-
rect assessment methods by asking users to rate the ance of source ambiguity and relative lack of
extent to which the source, message, or medium is source attributions, and (d) the newness of the Web
described by the underlying dimensions of credibil- as a medium in conjunction with its lack of evalua-
ity. Indirect methods in the field include measuring tion standards.
attitude and behavior changes as a result of stimulus
Web content. Moreover, the field is by no means Filtering Mechanisms
limited in its range of methodological approaches.
Experimental, quasi-experimental, and traditional Perhaps the most critical feature of the Web with
and Web survey methods are all commonly em- respect to user credibility evaluations is its relative
ployed. Qualitative analyses, including interviews, lack of centralized information filtering or quality
714
Web Credibility
control mechanisms (Abdulla, Garrison, Salwen, (Flanagin & Metzger, 2000) due in part to both
Driscoll, & Casey, 2002; Andie, 1997; Flanagin & browser display and design conventions. 9
Metzger, 2000; Johnson & Kaye, 1998). In contrast
to traditional media, Web users are free to upload Source Ambiguity
information irrespective of scrutiny (Johnson &
Kaye), and content is frequently made available Web content often lacks a clear source. In many
without the benefit of editorials, reviews, and other cases, the source is not present at all (Burbules,
gatekeeping procedures (Flanagin & Metzger). This 2001; Eastin, 2001), and in others it is present but
lack of quality control can affect perceptions of not easy to ascertain (Toms & Taves, 2004). This
credibility for the Web as a medium (Johnson & problem is accompanied by users generally high
Kaye) and users evaluative processes, shifting their reliance on source identity as a criterion for assess-
attribute focus (Rieh, 2002). ing information quality and credibility (Rieh & Belkin,
The Web may have a property analogous to 1998). Such ambiguity also coincides with Riehs
gatekeeping procedures, primarily in the form of finding that a group of scholars showed a greater
ranking systems evaluating link structures as these reliance on source identity at the institutional level
structures provide predictive power over credibility (such as URL [uniform resource locator] domain
assessments (Toms & Taves, 2004). Simultaneously, type) than at the individual level (such as author
however, the Web fosters the incidental arrival at credentials), which contrasts with findings regard-
sites, and this may increase the likelihood of encoun- ing traditional media. Additionally, Web users often
tering inaccurate information (Andie, 1997). lack information about source reputation (Toms &
Taves), a potentially unavoidable problem due to
Form the number and diversity of online sources.
The Web, much like the television, offers new form Infancy as a Medium
factors and interactive characteristics previously
unavailable in information-seeking environments. Just Finally, one indicator of the Webs uniqueness with
as the televisions multimodal properties altered evalu- respect to credibility is the general concern over
ative processes and credibility perceptions (Newhagen fostering Internet literacy (Greer, 2003) in addition
& Nass, 1989), the Webs unique interactive fea- to the acknowledged need for evaluation guidelines
tures, in conjunction with emerging design practices and assessment standards (Tate & Alexander, 1996;
that further distinguish it from traditional media, may Wathen & Burkell, 2002). As Greer points out,
result in fundamentally different credibility-evalua- evaluating credibility on the Web is not an easy task,
tion processes. and this difficulty is due in part to the need to learn
The relative ease of data manipulation, duplica- new evaluative skills, such as checking URL do-
tion, and dissemination is one critical characteristic of mains. Not only must users master new evaluative
digital information systems. Web content is suscep- techniques, but they must do so in an environment
tible to frequent alteration (Metzger, Flanagin, & in which familiar ways of assessing credibility are
Zwarun, 2003), can easily be tailored to individual less applicable (Burbules, 2001) and in contexts that
recipients (Campbell et al., 1999), and is easily dupli- may require them to rethink previous evaluative
cated and widely replicated. This last attribute poten- strategies. As Graefe (2003) points out, information
tially has significant implications for within-medium objects on the Web (such as product descriptions)
verification procedures since inaccurate content may are removed from sensory information typically
be replicated by its recipients with extraordinary used to verify claims in real-world evaluative con-
ease. Unique evaluation processes may also result texts. While this is of course equally true of some
from the diverse and relatively unstructured organi- non-Web contexts, e-commerce ups the ante: De-
zation of content (Rieh, 2002), the lack of organiza- cisions about credibility and relevant behaviors must
tional conventions (Burbules, 2001), and a relative frequently be made wholly independent of normally
difficulty in distinguishing content from advertising available sensory information.
715
Web Credibility
716
Web Credibility
Advertising Stanford et al. (2002) point out that there are inher-
ent differences in the types of information provided
The impact of advertising on site credibility appears within varying domains, including how established
to arise from two competing pressures. On the one the information commonly tends to be and the typical
717
Web Credibility
goals of information providers within that domain. Web credibility assessments. As Dutta-Bergman
These may lead to different expectations when (2004) points out, the potential analogy between the
users evaluate content. Rieh (2002) found evalua- notions of directed search and browsing and the
tions of computer-related and medical information to notions of central and peripheral processing point the
rely more heavily on assessments of trustworthiness way to useful research.
than for research and travel. Moreover, Riehs work
indicated less focus on the source in making credibil- Theory Development
ity assessments of travel sites, consistent with Fogg,
Soohoo, et al. (2003), who also found the effect for Finally, it is worth noting that because Web credibil-
search-engine sites. This last finding may reflect the ity research is a relatively new field of inquiry,
unique nature of sites acting primarily as gatekeepers theoretical frameworks that can drive systematic
to other brand-name sites; the recognizable airlines programs of empirical work are only recently begin-
and high-ranking sites pointed to may cause users to ning to appear. These early frameworks are critical,
overlook the reputation of the gatekeeper itself, and there remains a need for the further develop-
leading to the effect. ment and empirical testing of Web-specific theories
of credibility assessment.
FUTURE TRENDS
CONCLUSION
Web credibility research has identified factors influ-
encing credibility and evaluative strategies employed Evaluative processes and credibility assessments on
by users, but the area remains ripe for further the Web arise out of complex interactions between
empirical work. This section suggests three emerg- characteristics of the user, the site under evaluation,
ing and important areas in the field: the relationship and the Web as a medium. Fundamental character-
between network structures on the Web and cred- istics of the Web act as pressures on information
ibility, the effects of user motivation, and further seekers, shaping which interface elements will be
theory development. noticed, how they will be interpreted, and the evalu-
ative processes users will employ in making credibil-
Networks of Credibility ity assessments.
718
Web Credibility
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Toms, E. G., & Taves, A. R. (2004). Measuring user Expertise: A sources perceived ability to pro-
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Presumed Credibility: A credibility assess-
KEY TERMS ment based upon general underlying assumptions
about a system.
Credibility: A characteristic of information
sources that influences message persuasiveness, Reputed Credibility: A credibility assessment
attitudes toward the information source, and behav- based upon third-party reports or endorsements.
iors relevant to message content, consisting of two
Surface Credibility: A credibility assessment
primary attributes: expertise and trustworthiness.
based upon features observable via simple inspec-
Evaluative Judgment: An assessment based tion.
on characteristics of an information object indepen-
Trustworthiness: A sources perceived will-
dent of assessments based on information prior to
ingness to provide accurate information given the
encountering the object (predictive judgments).
ability (based on attributes such as perceived hon-
Experienced Credibility: A credibility assess- esty and lack of bias); with expertise, it is one of two
ment based upon first-hand experience with a system. primary attributes of credibility.
721
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Gnter Graf
University of Klagenfurt, Austria
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing
1. Consider existing skills of the user. with wireless networks, which enable wireless
2. Facilitate the maximizing of operator choice communication on the shop floor. 9
and control.
3. Integrate the planning, execution, and monitor- Consequently, Internet technologies have be-
ing components. come ubiquitously available on the shop floor. The
4. Design to maximize the operators knowledge. data and computation services will be portably ac-
5. Encourage social communications and interac- cessible from many, if not most, locations on the shop
tion. floor. Internet technologies also trigger a standard-
ization of the screen design and content distribution.
This leads to a major change in the traditional HMI,
RISE OF WEB-BASED HMI especially for blue-collar workers. In fact, the inter-
action between workers and machines approxi-
The usage of interoperable, adaptive, and standard- mates the common screen handling of the office
ized information technologies on the shop floor is world. Therefore, we state that the human machine
essential to solve the problems in human-centered interaction is converging into a Web-Based Human
manufacturing, in which the previously mentioned Machine Interaction.
fulfill the criteria. Due to restrictions in the capability Web-based HMI is an advanced and extended
of computers and their associated technologies in form of computerized HMI characterized by the
the 1980s and 1990s, the computer interfaces were logical separation of the computer unit from the
built upon those technological limits and were not machine itself. Internet technologies integrate the
oriented to an optimized effectiveness of the human human as well as the machine within a corporate
machine interaction on the shop floor. In addition, network. They make the entirely Web-based infor-
HMI has been machine-specific up until now and mation infrastructure and all of the interaction part-
bounded on the implementation by the facility ven- ners connected to it available for the employees as
dor. The diffusion of Internet technologies within well as the information systems on the shop floor. By
automation and new trends in automation technolo- using Web-based interfaces for user input, screens
gies provide the necessary infrastructure (Blecker, can be implemented or modified rapidly. Cost sav-
2003). The following trends are essential: ings are realized, since any device (mobile or fixed)
that can support a browser becomes a personal
1. Mobilization of Computers: For example, computer. The enhancements due to the use of
Web pads enable the mobilization of all interac- Web-based HMI in manufacturing can be summa-
tions between humans and machines as well as rized in the following groups:
between humans on the shop floor.
2. Embedded Computing: Every machine may 1. An ergonomic visualization in many variants
have an integrated full-featured computer that (colored, high resolution screens and standard-
stores data, which provide a front end; it au- ized visualization technologies enable an ap-
tonomously can sense and respond to the envi- pealing and effective representation of data
ronment (by blinking, e-mail messages, soft- from the shop floor and data, for example, from
ware calls, etc.) and offers services for ma- the ERP-System).
chine maintenance and control. Embedded com- 2. Hardware and software advancements enable
puters in machines and facilities on the shop more efficient input- and data-manipulation
floor induce the development of intelligent sys- processes.
tems in every machine. Here, intelligence means 3. The contents and screen designs are easily
that the system can set a wide array of autono- updatable und changeable.
mous (clearly predefined) actions on the oc- 4. The visualization is not bounded to the com-
currence of certain events. puter in the machine but connects via the
3. Standardization of Networks: (Industrial) Internet, which enables the delocalization of
Ethernet replaces common field busses and the interaction in various scenarios.
proprietary networking. It is also compatible
723
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing
Web-based HMI changes and enhances several headsets for speech entry. The networked local
workflows, especially in manufacturing information computer may use a Web service on a remote
processing (AWK, 1999). This triggers several con- server for speech recognition.
sequences. The high resolution of screens and the integra-
tion into an intranet on the shop floor push the setup
of Web-based training on the job in manufactur-
CONSEQUENCES OF ing. Especially relearned, low-educated workers
WEB-BASED HMI show good results, if they are trained in short
lessons during their work hours (Schmidt/Stark,
Through the standardized technologies used in Web- 1996). Furthermore, an effect of the extended use
based HMI, all other forms of applications that build of computers and the training on abilities to handle
upon Internet technologies are distributable on the computers has positive effects on the diffusion of
shop floor to every worker. The consequences affect new information systems and the resulting pro-
the following fields of activity with extended HMI cesses (Rozell & Gardner, 1999).
processes: The extended Web-based interaction abilities
also virtualize the communication and coordination
1. Collaboration on the shop floor with the management of the organization. Opera-
2. Data collection tors have access to upper level information via Web
3. Communication and coordination with the man- browsers, and the top-down communication be-
agement comes more intuitive, which directly simplifies the
4. HMI processes themselves coordination structures (Eberts, 1997).
Although the improved interfaces have wide-
The availability of a full networked computer spread effects on information handling on the shop
enables collaboration applications (e.g., workflow floor, the most important aspect remains the HMI
management systems, instant messaging, and voice- itself. HMI has several similarities to human com-
over Internet Protocol (IP) on the shop floor. Internet puter interaction in the office world, although there
technologies enable the intuitive integration of those are important differences. These include the exten-
technologies and interfaces that support the worker sive application of touch-screen interaction and the
in his or her special environment. For example, feedback via the activities of the controlled ma-
workers in the assembly may interact directly with chine. The other interaction scenarios are compa-
engineers via the IP-based speech and video connec- rable with common HCI scenarios. Indeed, there
tions to solve special problems or to learn specific are differences in the work environment (industrial
work processes cooperatively. The aerospace indus- settings), the design of the computers (use of touch
try uses such methods for the assembly of compli- screens, no keyboards or mice) and the abilities of
cated parts of planes. Those intraorganizational vir- the workers (Fakun& Greenough, 2002). These
tual relationships help to reduce costs through Web- differences require an analysis of Web-based HMI
switched communication by reducing or, in the case on the shop floor that differentiates from the results
of wireless techniques, by replacing the necessary of common HCI. The Web-enabled facilities induce
cable lanes and a markedly eased setup of infrastruc- two contrary consequences:
ture through the use of open standards.
The Web-based interfaces enable an accompany- 1. Web-based information distribution leads to a
ing data collection through the integration of data- more intuitive and efficient HMI, which de-
entry screens into the normal workflow screens of creases the interaction complexity for the
the interface. The mobilization of computers allows human. This induces reduced qualification
the worker to have a personalized pad, which enables requirements, because the handling of ma-
mobile data collection in various applications (e.g., chines requires less specialized knowledge.
logistics or quality assurance). Those pads or devices This leads to the hypothesis that there are
have sufficient computation power and offer connec- lesser skills necessary for workers interacting
tivity to use specialized equipment, such as Bluetooth- with machines.
724
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing
2. The diffusion of Internet technologies enables rule-based behavior into the forefront. Workers
a networking of machines and information sys- have only assisted the machines by inserting punch 9
tems, which demands the usage of those opti- cards, which have been prepared by engineers. The
mization possibilities for competitive improve- diffusion of computerized, programmable control
ments. This results in an increasing HMI com- architectures enabled the direct influence of skilled
plexity, because much more information is to workers again (Strahe, 1995) and is promoted through
be handled on the shop floor, which requires the upcoming Web-based HMI knowledge-based
additional skills of the workers. Furthermore, behavior on the shop floor.
the span of control of a single worker over Compromising the technological advances in HMI
different machines may increase. This leads to has changed the machine control itself as well as the
the hypothesis that additional skills of workers interaction with all actors on and off the shop floor.
are necessary. To benefit from those changes, a coordinated imple-
mentation of the technology and organizational pro-
Workers on the shop floor may not have the cesses is required (Wu, 2002).
necessary skills for the extended screen-oriented
information handling, although they are often spe-
cialists and well-trained (Mikkelsen et al., 2002). FUTURE TRENDS
Therefore, cooperation between the human resources
and planning departments in manufacturing has to The realization of the potential of Web-based HMI
clarify whether the workers should receive ex- requires an adequate implementation of technical
tended training or whether the screen and informa- and organizational structures. First, management
tion design has to be adapted according to the users has to assure whether a ubiquitous Web-based HMI
abilities. To evaluate the consequences in practical infrastructure is desirable. The additional benefits of
cases, we have to consider the resulting behavior Web-based HMI are reasonable only if there is a
that is necessary for fulfilling the tasks within manu- demand for it (Stolovitch, 1999). Therefore, an
facturing. Those behaviors can be categorized as implementation of the described technologies and
follows (Strahe, 1995): organizational changes should be accomplished if:
725
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing
Adaptation Information Systems and of normal screen design, as is shown in Ozok and
Machining Infrastructure Salvendy (2004). The adoption should boil down the
information to the most important messages. This
Technological barriers are critical. Web-based HMI can be assured using semantic technologies
scenarios require adequate machinery that has em- (Geroimenko & Chen, 2003) and the use of short
bedded computation power. Moreover, there has to abstracts and keywords. The input workflows should
be a networking infrastructure. Barriers result from be implemented in wizard style, for example, so that
the existing infrastructure. Technology manage- scrolling and additional mouse-like movements on
ment has to ensure the implementation of Internet the screen can be omitted.
technologies within the production system. Facilities
as well as information systems have to be strategi- Production Portals for
cally equipped with Internet technologies (Blecker, Visual Representation
2006). This also means that existing information
systems may be extended to meet the new require- To design enterprise-wide screen guidelines based
ments. on the information system integration, it is necessary
to set up a strategy for visual integration of informa-
Development of an Education Strategy tion systems as well as the machine control for the
workers on the shop floor. Production portals are a
Indirect communication over different Internet-based solution to those challenges. A production portal is a
communication technologies requires employees to digital enterprise portal that is used by a manufactur-
have sufficient knowledge in handling information ing organization or plan as a means to assist its
technologies. They also should have a basic under- decision-making activities (Huang & Mak, 2003).
standing of how the omnipresent network operates; These portals are able to deliver adapted interfaces,
otherwise, they are likely to see it as a black box. for example, for experts or beginners with the help
This would lead to a passive use of the information of dynamically generated pages based on Web
network, where an active use really is required. technologies. Through the dynamic linking capabili-
Therefore, human resource management has to ties of Web technologies (e.g., the use of Web
train employees to meet the requirements. The services for the delivery of information from enter-
training also should reduce the resistance of employ- prise resource planning systems), the integration of
ees. The suggested mechanisms make the work all information sources into one screen design can be
environment more transparent. Indeed, this trans- realized. Due to the characteristics of work on the
parency has to be dealt with carefully, because it shop floor, multitasking also is not a desired feature.
also allows the detailed reconstruction of the usage An explorer-like tree (Botsch & Kunz, 2001) orga-
and the spying of the interaction behavior of the nizes all of the personalized features that are rel-
employees. evant for the worker. In this case, workers do not
have to work with different application windows but
Ergonomics and Motivation can navigate in one browser window between infor-
mation sources and data entry forms through rela-
Yi and Hwang (2003) have shown that application- tively simple links.
specific self-efficacy, enjoyment, and learning-goal
orientation all determine the actual usage of a Web-
based information system. Those aspects have to be CONCLUSION
considered during the setup of a Web-based human-
machine infrastructure. Especially in the exposed The evolution in human machine systems will be
areas on the shop floor, the design of the devices and driven in the future by new information technologies.
the interaction possibilities beyond traditional HCI Management has to react to those changes by the
are important. Therefore, the distributed content has application of the latest technological advancements
to be adopted for use on the shop floor, although the in interface design. Special attention is to be further
representation also has to satisfy the requirements placed on input technologies such as augmented
726
Web-Based Human Machine Interaction in Manufacturing
reality or, for example, data gloves, which will be Geroimenko, V., & Chen, C. (2003). Visualizing
integrated into the human-machine system through the semantic WebXML-based Internet and in- 9
Internet technologies (Roco & Bainbridge, 2003). formation visualizationI. Berlin: Springer.
Furthermore, human-centered aspects, such as cog-
Huang, G.Q., & Mak, K.L. (2003). Internet appli-
nitive models of workers, that are psychologically
cations in product design and manufacturing.
tested also have to be integrated into screen and/or
Berlin: Springer.
input interface design. Web-based infrastructures
enable the necessary flexibility and adaptability of Mikkelseen, et al. (2002). Job characteristics and
interfaces. computer anxiety in the production industry. Com-
puters in Human Behaviour, 18, 223-239.
Nagamachi, M. (Ed.). (1992). Design for
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728
729
Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc., distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI is prohibited.
Web-Based Instructional Systems
ery of instruction through the use of hyperlinks space and are able to follow paths through the
(Federico, 1999). As a consequence, WBI has led to subject content produced by designers, or to develop
a new model for teaching and learning that focuses their own routes according to individually-prescribed
on the learner not as passive recipient of knowledge requirements (Large, 1996).
but as an active, self-directed participant in the Another attractive element is the flexibility to
learning process. Nevertheless, this approach to access course contents through intranets and the
instruction has also created a series of challenges Internet at any time and from different places, which
that users of educational technology, such as teach- is considered as the main reason many educators
ers, learners, providers of educational content, edu- have tried to develop distance learning programs on
cational institutions and so forth, have to meet: (i) the WWW. This flexibility creates many opportuni-
ensure the improvement of learning experience, as ties for exploration, discovery, exchange/sharing of
usual technology-driven innovations consume prodi- information and learning according to learners indi-
gious amounts of time and money to little educational vidual needs. Flexibility, however, comes at a price:
effect; (ii) bring a real and substantial change in
education by improving their understanding of learn- The complexity of the system may increase
ing and teaching with the use of this new technology. (Ellis & Kurniawan, 2000). Users may need
This article presents the main features of Web- more time to search for the information (Ng &
based instructional systems, including their advan- Gunstone, 2002), and the dynamism and rich-
tages and disadvantages. It discusses critical factors ness of the content may negatively affect learn-
that influence the success and effectiveness of ers level of comprehension (Power & Roth,
WISs. It stresses the importance of pedagogy on 1999).
WBI and explores the pedagogical dimensions of the Despite the plethora of communication tools,
interface tools and functionalities of WISs. Lastly, it learners sometimes find feedback insufficient,
summarises future trends in Web-based instruction. feel isolated or not supported enough, and drop
out of the course (Quintana, 1996).
It is unlikely all learners are equally able to
BACKGROUND performing their own sequencing, pacing, and
navigation. Moreover, the learner is not always
The appeal of WISs lies in their ability to actively going to choose the content to study next in a
engage learners in the acquisition and use of infor- way that will lead to effective learning
mation, support multiple different instructional uses (Hammond, 1992; Leuthold, 1999).
(tutoring, exploration, collaboration, etc.), support Previous knowledge of the domain content
different learning styles and promote the acquisition varies for different learners, and indeed knowl-
of different representations that underlie expert- edge may grow differently through the interac-
level reasoning in complex, ill-structured domains tion with the system (Winkels, 1992).
(Selker, 1994). Learners select the knowledge they Learners tend to get lost, especially when the
perceive as being most suited to their needs. But, educational content is large and/or when they
although the act of browsing is a pleasing experi- are novices. This can lead to disorientation
ence, browsing in an unknown domain is not likely to experienced when users do not know where
lead to satisfactory knowledge acquisition at all they are within hypertext documents and how
(Jonassen, Mayes, & McAleese, 1993). Thus, navi- to move towards the desired location, com-
gational aids, such as a pre-defined hierarchical monly known as lost in hyperspace
structure of the subject matter, are necessary espe- (Brusilovsky, 2001).
cially in large domains. The pre-defined structure of Learners may fail to get an overview of how all
the domain knowledge provides learners (especially the information fits together when browsing. In
novices) with guidance during their study, offering the absence of information that might help
them a sense of safety and a reliable navigation path. them formulate knowledge goals and find rel-
In this way, learners are supported in constructing evant information, learners may stumble through
their own individualised model of the knowledge the content in a disorganised and instructionally
730
Web-Based Instructional Systems
inefficient manner (Hammond, 1992). Further- and partly because of re-assessment of instruc-
more, if learners are too accustomed to tional methodologies. Individuals are now expected 9
memorising and are faced with multiple expla- to be adaptable to modern ways of communication,
nations of the same knowledge, they may at- such as e-mail systems, the Internet, intranets, the
tempt to memorise them all. This is one of the WWW, conferencing systems. They are also ex-
aspects of a problem known as information pected to apply high cognitive skills, such as analysing,
overload which is usually experienced by summarising, and synthesising information as well
users of WISs (McCormack & Jones, 1998). as engaging in creative and critical thinking (Vogel
& Klassen, 2001). In principle, WISs can serve this
purpose but the greatest benefits of their use can
CRITICAL ISSUES FOR DESIGNING occur via a pedagogic approach that most effec-
AND DELIVERING WEB-BASED tively uses the characteristics of this technology to
INSTRUCTION increase the quality of the learning experience as
already explained earlier.
The Role of the Users As a result, a number of educational trends
emerged in recent years have played a particularly
In WBI, the roles of teachers and learners are important role in Web-base instruction; three of
different from their classic definitions. Thus, teach- these are presented in the following:
ers design educational content that is attractive to
learners in order to motivate them, interact with the Individualised Learning: This approach pro-
learners, and act as facilitators of the learning vides learners the capability to select the mode
process. Learners are mainly responsible for their of delivery and timing of module material. For
own learning, assessment of knowledge goals and example, learners can choose a blended way
objectives. As a consequence, learners need to be for learning which consists of lectures, partici-
able to form their own ideas about the content and pation in traditional face-to-face communica-
understand the educational material in their own tion in a classroom, and collaborative work in
way. That change of roles requires course broaden- a remote environment on the WWW.
ing of skills and competencies for teachers and Constructivist Theory: The constructivist
learners. Table 1 highlights the differences in users perspective describes learning as change in
roles and the impact of WBI. meaning constructed from experience (Newby,
Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 1996).
Constructivism covers a wide diversity of
The Pedagogy of
perspectives that consider learning as an ac-
Web-Based Instruction
tive process of constructing rather than ac-
quiring knowledge and instruction as a pro-
The need for changing instructional methods has
cess of supporting that construction rather
come partly in response to demands of the workplace
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Web-Based Instructional Systems
than communicating knowledge (Duffy & learning, one should ensure it contains the set of
Cunningham, 1996). elements such as attraction of attention, recall of
Experiential Learning: According to Kolb prior knowledge, consistent presentation style and
(1984), experiential learning involves the fol- structure, group work or individual tasks, self-as-
lowing steps: concrete experience; observa- sessment questions, practice/exercises, feedback,
tion and reflection; formulation of abstract review, learning guidance, post knowledge. The use
concepts and generalisations; testing of the of the WWW adds extra dimensions to teaching and
implications of the concepts in new situations. learning. But for learning to take place, the learner
Experiential learning can take different forms: has to be not only active but also engaged in the
learning by doing (Graf & Kellogg, 1990); learning process. Table 2 provides a, example, mak-
experience-based learning, trial and error ing a link between learners involvement and ac-
and applied experiential learning (Gentry, quired skills (following Blooms (1956) taxonomy of
1990); reflection in action (Senge, 1995); intellectual behaviour) with the types of educational
action learning (Pedler, 1997). But experi- content in a WIS.
ence must be accompanied by reflection, as Planning, designing, and implementing WBI in-
experience alone does not automatically lead to cludes several dimensions, which of course contrib-
learning. This is important for both teachers ute to the effectiveness of this approach. Among a
and students. number of factors, the user interface of the educa-
tional system, the communication facilities offered
The WWW and especially hypermedia provide and the educational content are of particular im-
an eminently suitable environment for the develop- portance. Table 3 gives an overview of pedagogical
ment of educational systems that adopt these in- considerations for designing a WIS.
structional models; that is, educational hypermedia The considerations for the components in Table
are considered as excellent representations of 3 show that WBI strives to create environments that
constructivist approaches in theory (Jonassen et al., favour a constructivist model of learning that allows:
1993). To set up a WIS to facilitate these forms of learners actively construct, transform and extend
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Web-Based Instructional Systems
their knowledge; active engagement in the interpre- Cognitive and learning styles that refer to a
tation of the content and reflection on their interpre- users information processing habits have an
tations; linking educational content with real-world impact on users skills and abilities, such as
situations (Jonassen, 1994). Thus, through explora- preferred modes of perceiving, thinking, re-
tion of educational material, which addresses differ- membering, and problem solving (Ford & Chen,
ent knowledge levels, learning objectives, and learn- 2000, 2001; Shih & Gamon, 2002).
ing styles, learners take the responsibility of their Gender differences affect WBI in the sense
learning. that males and females have different require-
ments with respect to navigation support and
Individual Differences interface features. The preferences of males
and females also differentiate remarkably in
Learners differ in traits such as skills, aptitudes and terms of information seeking strategies, media
preferences for processing information, construct- preferences, and learning performance
ing meaning from information, and applying it to real- (Campbell, 2000; Large, Beheshti, et al., 2002;
world situations. Recent approaches to WBI try to Leong & Hawamdeh, 1999; Liu, 2003).
take into account various dimensions of individual Prior knowledge and system experience
differences, such as the level of knowledge or affect learners interactions with the WIS and
literacy, gender, culture, spatial abilities, cognitive their level of knowledge of the educational
styles, learning styles, accessibility issues for the content. The impact of this individual differ-
disabled and elderly. To this end, learner-centered ences dimension depends on learners previ-
approaches, which have been motivated by socio- ous understanding of the educational content,
cultural and constructivist theories of learning that is, because of relevant studies, and their
(Soloway et al., 1996), have been proposed. Learner- familiarity with the WISs features and
centered design acknowledges that understanding functionalities, that is, familiarity with distance-
of learners needs is of primary importance to provide learning systems (Reed & Oughton, 1997; Law-
effective WBI to heterogeneous student populations less & Kulikowich, 1998; Last, ODonnell, &
(Soloway, Guzdial, & Hay, 1994; Quintana, Krajcik, Kelly, 2001).
& Soloway, 2000).
The impacts of individual differences on WBI The empirical evaluation of the effects of indi-
have been investigated along different dimensions: vidual differences on the degree of success or
failure experienced by learners needs to be explored
in more detail to fully understand their impact on the
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Web-Based Instructional Systems
quality of learning attained within WISs (Magoulas, PLEs adapt the content, structure, and/or pre-
Papanikolaou, & Grigoriadou, 2003). Actually, the sentation to each individual users characteristics,
main problems in exploiting such information in a usage behaviour, and/or usage environment.
WIS is to determine which characteristics should be Personalisation usually takes place at three different
used (are worth modelling) and how (what can be done levels: content level, presentation level, and naviga-
differently for learners with different preferences or tion level. For example, in a system with
styles) (Brusilovsky, 2001). In the next section, this personalisation at the content level, the educational
problem is addressed in the context of personalisation content is generated or assembled from various
technologies, which are considered a promising ap- pieces depending on the user. Thus, advanced learn-
proach to accommodate individual differences. ers may receive more detailed and deep information,
while novices will be provided with additional expla-
nation. At the presentation level, adaptive text and
FUTURE TRENDS adaptive layout are two widely used techniques.
Adaptive text implies that the same Web page is
Personalised learning environments (PLEs) have assembled from different texts following learners
instantiated a relatively recent area of research that current need, such as removing some information
aims at alleviating the information overload and lost from a piece of text or inserting extra information to
in hyperspace problems by integrating two distinct suit the current user. Adaptive layout aims to differ-
technologies in WBI: intelligent tutoring systems entiate levels of the subject content by changing the
(ITS) and educational hypermedia systems. This is layout of the page, instead of the text, such as font
in effect a combination of two approaches to WISs: type and size, and background colour. At the naviga-
the more directive tutor-centred style of traditional tion level, the most popular techniques include direct
tutoring systems and the flexible learner-centred guidance, adaptive ordering, link hiding, and link
browsing approach of educational hypermedia sys- annotation.
tems (Brusilovsky, 2001).
Table 4. Web-based instructional systems that employ personalisation features (adapted from
Magoulas et al., 2003)
Individual Differences
System and Subject domain Level of Personalisation Pedagogical Approach
Dimension
CS383 (Carver et al., 1996) Media selection based on
Learning style Presentation
Computer Systems learners learning style
AST (Specht et al., 1997) Knowledge level; Learning Content;
Multiple teaching strategies
Introductory Statistics style; User preferences Navigation
ELM-ART II (Weber & Specht, 1997) Knowledge level; User Content;
Example-based programming
Programming in Lisp preferences Navigation
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Web-Based Instructional Systems
Table 4 (adapted from Magoulas et al., 2003) Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational
presents the features of several PLEs with respect objectives: Cognitive domain (Handbook I). New 9
to: the individual student characteristics used to York: McKay.
guide the personalisation (see Individual Differ-
Brusilovsky, P. (2001). Adaptive hypermedia. User
ences column), the type of personalisation provided
Modeling and User-adapted Interaction, 11, 87-110.
(see Level of Personalisation column), and the
teaching/learning approach or theory (see Peda- Campbell, K. (2000). Gender and educational tech-
gogical Approach column). nologies: Relational frameworks for learning design.
Several approaches to evaluate the performance Journal of Educational Multimedia and
of PLEs have been proposed in the literature, and Hypermedia, 9, 131-149.
the empirical results look really promising
(Weibelzahl, Lippitsch, & Weber, 2002). However, Duffy, T., & Cunningham, D. (1996). Constructivism:
many questions are still open in this context. Among implications for the design an delivery of instruction.
the most critical ones are questions related to the In D. Johansson (Ed.), Handbook of research for
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development of appropriate methods of assessing 170-198). New York: Macmillan.
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Ellis, R. D., & Kurniawan, S. H. (2000). Increasing
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CONCLUSION case study in participatory design. International
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Advances in technology are increasingly impacting 263-276.
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Selker, T. (1994). Coach: A teaching agent that Computer-Assisted Instruction: The use of
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simulations, exercises. It usually refers either to
Senge, P. (1995). The fifth discipline. New York:
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Shih, C., & Gamon, J. (2002). Relationships among and taught by teachers.
learning strategies, patterns, styles, and achieve-
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Tauber (Eds.) Interactions, 1(2), 36-48. Vancouver,
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British Columbia: Association for Computing Ma-
interfaces and communication abilities.
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Educational Technology: The use of technol-
Soloway, E., Jackson, S. L., Klein, J., Quintana, C.,
ogy to enhance individual learning and to achieve
Reed, J., Spitulnik, J., Stratford, S. J., Studer, S., Jul,
widespread education.
S., Eng, J., & Scala, N. (1996). Learning theory in
practice: Case studies of learner-centered design. Individual Differences: In the context of Web-
Proceedings of CHI 96 (pp. 189-196). based instruction, this term is usually used to denote
a number of important human factors, such as
Squires, D., Conole, G., & Jacobs, G. (2000). The
gender differences, learning styles, attitudes, abili-
changing face of learning technologies. Cardiff:
ties, personality factors, cultural backgrounds, prior
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knowledge, knowledge level, aptitudes and prefer-
Triantafillou, E., Pomportsis, A., & Demetriadis, S. ences for processing information, constructing mean-
(2003). The design and formative evaluation of an ing from information, and applying it to real-world
adaptive educational system based on cognitive situations.
styles. Computers & Education, 41(1), 87-103.
Information Overload: Learners face the in-
Vogel, D., & Klassen, J. (2001). Technology-sup- formation overload problem when acquiring increas-
ported learning: Status, issues and trends. Journal ing amounts of information from a hypermedia sys-
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Weibelzahl, S., Lippitsch, S., & Weber, G. (2002).
the learning experience.
Advantages, opportunities, and limits of empirical
evaluations: Evaluating adaptive systems. Knstliche Instructional/Pedagogical Design/Approach:
Intelligenz, 3/02, 17-20. In the context of Web-based instruction, this usually
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cerns two different aspects of the system design:
tutoring systems: Computational and cognitive
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Web-Based Instructional Systems
planning the educational content (what concepts systems that do not provide users with navigation
should be the focus of the course) and planning the tools, signposting, or any information about their
delivery of instruction (how to present these con- structure.
cepts).
Web-Based Instruction: Can be defined as
Lost in Hyperspace: This is a feeling experi- using the Web as the medium to deliver course
enced by learners when losing any sense of location material, administer a course (registrations, supervi-
and direction in the hyperspace. It is also called sion, etc.), and communicate with learners.
disorientation and is caused by badly-designed
738