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Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Kinetics
Studies the rate at which a chemical
process occurs.
Besides information about the speed at
which reactions occur, kinetics also sheds
light on the reaction mechanism (exactly
how the reaction occurs).
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Outline: Kinetics
Reaction Rates How we measure rates.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
Reaction Rates
Rxn Movie
A B
D[A] D[A] = change in concentration of A over
rate = -
Dt time period Dt
D[B] D[B] = change in concentration of B over
rate =
Dt time period Dt
Temperature
Generally, as temperature
increases, so does the
reaction rate.
This is because k is
temperature dependent.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Concentration Affects Reaction Rate Constant
Here s another way of looking at reaction rates
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Notice that for every 1 mole of O2 that appears, 4 x as many moles
of NO2 will also appear. In the meantime, twice as many moles of
N2O5 will be disappearing as moles of O2 forming.
Changes in concentrations of the reactants and/or products is
inversely proportional to their stoichiometric proportions.
This means that the rate of the reaction could be written like this
Rate = [N2O5]/t = [NO2]/t = [O2]/t
* (Notice the negative sign on the rate of [N2O5] reminds us that it is disappearing.)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
A B
time
D[A]
rate = -
Dt
D[B]
rate =
Dt
rate = k [F2][ClO2] 1
aA + bB cC + dD
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
The Rate Law
The rate law expresses the relationship of the rate of a reaction
to the rate constant and the concentrations of the reactants
raised to some powers.
aA + bB cC + dD
Rate = k [A]x[B]y
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community Collegef
Concentration and Rate
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Concentration and Rate
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Rate Laws
A rate law shows the relationship between the reaction
rate and the concentrations of reactants.
For gas-phase reactants use PA instead of [A].
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Integrated Reaction Rate Laws
Integrated Rate Laws
Consider a simple 1st order reaction: A B
Differential form:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Integrated Rate Laws
The integrated form of first order rate law:
rate = k [F2]x[ClO2]y
slope of
tangent
slope of
tangent
slope of
tangent
[C4H9Cl] M
In this reaction, the
concentration of
butyl chloride,
C4H9Cl, was
measured at various
times, t.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
A plot of concentration
vs. time for this reaction
yields a curve like this.
The slope of a line
tangent to the curve at
any point is the
instantaneous rate at
that time.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rates
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Rate
Here s an example of a reaction
C4H9Cl(aq) + H2O(l) C4H9OH(aq) + HCl(aq)
We can plot [C4H9Cl] versus time
input
k
A + B C
k
A+ DE
k
B + E F
k
A+ F B
output
Given some initial concentrations, what is output give some prescribed input?
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Chemical reactions are collisions of molecules
Molecule
A
Molecule
B
k
A + B C
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A Molecule
A
Reactant A
time
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A1 Change in Concentration: DA= A2-A1
Reactant A
A2
t1 t2
time
Change in time: Dt=t2-t1
Reactant A A2
t1 t2 Derivative of A with
Respect to time
[]
dA
instantaneous rate of change in concentration during time dt =
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A
dA
= [. A ]
dt
Rate of change of A Concentration of A
Degradation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k
D A
dA
= k .[D] [. A]
dt
Rate of change of A
Concentration of D Concentration of A
Production constant
Degradation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k
A + B C
dA
[ ][ ]
= !k.A.B
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k
nA + mB C
[ ]
dA n
n m
m
[ ][B ]
= !kA
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k1
D Ak
2
A + B C
k2
C A+ B
dA
[ ]
= k1.[D] [. A] k2 . A.B + k2C
dt
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Reaching steady-state (equilibrium)
k
D A
]
dA
[ ] [
= k[.D ] .[A ]
dt
Steady-state: No more change in A
dA
[ ]
k[.D] .[A ]= 0
=0
dt
Production of A balances degradation [ K].[D ]
A is constant [A] =
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Example of Transcription
Reaction Kinetics
Transcription
Transcription
factor
promoter terminator
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
mRNA Translation
Proteins
mRNA
ribosomes
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Modeling activator binding and production of mRNA
start end
gene
promoter terminator
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A + DNA A : DNA Fast
d [ A : DNA]
= k1. A.DNA k2 .[ A : DNA] = 0
dt
k1. A.DNA
k1. A.DNA = k2 .[ A : DNA] [ A : DNA] =
k2
but
k1. A.DNA = (1 + k1. A ) DNA
DNAtotal = DNA + [ A : DNA] = DNA +
k2 k2
DNAtotal
DNA =
k1. A
(1 + )
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
k2
DNAtotal
DNA = k1. A.DNA
k1. A [ A : DNA] =
(1 + ) k2
k2
k1
A
k2
[ A : DNA] = DNAtotal
k1
1+ A
k2
k2
= kd
k1
Dissociation constant
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
A
Hill Function kd
[ A : DNA] = DNAtotal
A
1+
kd
[ A : DNA]
DNAtotal
Hana El-Samad
A
UCSB
k2
A : DNA mRNA + A : DNA
dmRNA
= k3 .[ A : DNA] 1mRNA
dt
A
kd
[ A : DNA] = DNAtotal
A
1+
kd
A
dmRNA kd
= k3 . DNAtotal 1mRNA
dt A
1+
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
kd
Cooperativity
start end
gene
promoter terminator
A 3
( )
dmRNA kd
= k3 . DNAtotal 1mRNA
dt A 3
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Cooperativity
start end
n molecules
gene
promoter terminator
A n
( )
dmRNA kd
= k3 . DNAtotal 1mRNA
dt A n
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
Repressor
start end
gene
promoter terminator
dmRNA 1
= k3 . DNAtotal 1mRNA
dt X n
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
UCSB
1
k3 . DNAtotal
X n
1+ ( )
kd
Hana El-Samad
X
UCSB
Order of Reactions
Order of Reactions
A reaction is zero order in a reactant if the change in
concentration of that reactant produces no effect.
A reaction is 1st order if doubling the concentration
causes the rate to double.
A reaction is 2nd order if doubling the concentration
causes a quadruple increase in rate.
-3rd orderdoubling concentration leads to 23 (or 8 times) the rate.
Note-- The rate constant, k, does not depend on concentration!
Once we have determined the rate law and the rate constant, we
can use them to calculate initial reaction rates under any set of
initial concentrations. (See Practice Problems for examples.)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Zeroth Order Reactions
Zero-Order Reactions
D[A]
rate = - rate = k [A]0 = k
Dt
[A] is the concentration of A at any time t
[A] - [A]0 = kt [A]0 is the concentration of A at time t=0
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of [A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (-k) and intercept [A]0.
(slope= -k)
[A]t
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Time (s)
First Order Reactions
Change of Concentration with Time
Goal: to convert the rate law into a convenient equation to give
concentrations as a function of time(the book has the derivation, and it
involves calculus, so we will skip to the conclusion)
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of ln[A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (-k) and intercept ln
[A]0.
(slope= k)
ln[A]t
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS Time (s)
First-Order Processes
Consider the process in
which methyl isonitrile is
converted to acetonitrile.
CH3NC CH3CN
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
First-Order Processes
CH3NC CH3CN
Does
rate=k[CH3NC]
for all time intervals?
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
First-Order Processes
If a reaction is first-order:
a plot of ln [A]t vs. t will yield a straight line
with a slope of -k.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
First-Order Processes
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half-Life
For a first-order process, set [A]t=0.5 [A]0 in
integrated rate equation:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half-Life- 2nd order
For a second-order process, set
[A]t=0.5 [A]0 in 2nd order equation.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Half-Life
Half-life is the time taken for the concentration of a
reactant to drop to half its original value.
For a first order process, half life, t is the time taken for
[A]0 to reach [A]0(see the book for the next equation s derivation.)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
First-Order Reactions
[A]0
ln
[A]0/2 Ln 2 0.693
t = = =
k k k
What is the half-life of N2O5 if it decomposes with a rate
constant of 5.7 x 10-4 s-1?
t = Ln 2 = 0.693
= 1200 s = 20 minutes
k 5.7 x 10 s
-4 -1
# of
half-lives [A] = [A]0/n
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
So if a process is second-order in A, a
plot of 1/[A] vs. t will yield a straight line
with a slope of k.
First order:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Determining rxn order
The decomposition of NO2 at 300C is described by
the equation
NO2 (g) NO (g) + 1/2 O2 (g)
and yields these data:
This equation has the general form for a straight line, y=mx+b, so
a plot of l/[A]t vs. t is a straight line with slope (k) and intercept of 1/
[A]0.
(slope= k)
1/[A]t
Time (s)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Second-Order Reactions
D[A]
rate = - rate = k [A]2 [A] is the concentration of A at any time t
Dt [A]0 is the concentration of A at time t=0
Concentration-Time
Order Rate Law Equation Half-Life
[A]0
0 rate = k [A] - [A]0 = - kt t =
2k
Ln 2
1 rate = k [A] ln[A] - ln[A]0 = - kt t =
k
1 1 1
2 rate = k [A]2 - = kt t =
[A] [A]0 k[A]0
Rate
Laws
Integrate
d Rate complicated
Laws
Half-life complicated
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Outline: Kinetics
First order Second order Second order
Rate
Laws
Integrate
d Rate complicated
Laws
Half-life complicated
k(T)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Discrete Models for Chemical
Kinetics
The Collision Model
In a chemical reaction, bonds are broken and
new bonds are formed.
Molecules can only react if they collide with
each other.
Furthermore, molecules must collide with the
correct orientation and with enough energy to
cause bond breakage and formation.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Collision Model
Most reactions speed up as temperature increases.
- Example: food spoils when not refrigerated.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Activation Energy
Activation Energy
In other words, there is a minimum amount of energy
required for reaction: the activation energy, Ea.
Just as a ball cannot get over a hill if it does not roll
up the hill with enough energy, a reaction cannot
occur unless the molecules possess sufficient energy
to get over the activation energy barrier.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
A+B C+D
Exothermic Endothermic
(a) Activation energy (Ea) for the forward reaction 50 kJ/mol 300 kJ/mol
(b) Activation energy (Ea) for the reverse reaction 150 kJ/mol 100 kJ/mol
(c) Delta H -100 kJ/mol +200 kJ/mol
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Activation Energy
Consider the rearrangement of methyl
ActivationActivation isonitrile:
Energy Energy Activation
Consider theConsider
Activation
rearrangement of methyl
Energy
the rearrangement
Consider
isonitrile:
of methyl
the rearrangement
isonitrile: o
Consider the rearrangement of methyl isonitrile:
In H3C-N C, the C-N C bond bends until the C N bond
breaks and the N C portion is perpendicular to the H3C
Inportion.
H3C-N!C, This structure
IntheH3C-N!C,
C-N!C is called
bond the
the C-N!Cbends activated
until
Inbond
H3the complex
C-N!C,
bends
C-N until
bondor
thetheC-N!CC-N bond bo
transition
breaks andHthe
In 3
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portion. Thisrequired
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called
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Consider the rearrangement calledEnergy
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ison
transition state. transition state. is called thetransition
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Dan Reid
Champaign CHS s what *breaks
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Dan Reid Dan Reidtransition state. The energy required for the above twist and br
Dan Reid
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Activation Energy
The change in energy, E, for the reaction is the difference in
energy between CH3NC and CH3CN.
The activation energy, Ea , is the difference in energy between
reactants, CH3NC, and the transition state.
The rate depends on Ea. If the hill is taller, the reaction rate is
slower. If the hill is shorter the rate is faster.
Notice that if a forward reaction is exothermic (CH3NC CH3CN),
then the reverse reaction is endothermic (CH3CN CH3NC).
The methyl isonitrile molecule needs to gain enough energy to
overcome the activation energy barrier.
From kinetic molecular theory, we know that as temperature
increases, the total kinetic energy increases and the number of
molecules with energy greater than Ea increases.
So as long as the temperature is high enough, the reaction can
make it over the hill and proceed.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Temperature vs. Energy of Activation
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Reaction Mechanisms
Reaction Mechanisms
The sequence of events that describes the
actual process by which reactants become
products is called the reaction mechanism.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Mechanisms
Reactions may occur all at once or
through several discrete steps.
Each of these processes is known as an
elementary reaction or elementary
process.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Mechanisms
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Intermediates
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Example of Slow & Fast
Reaction Mechanisms
Slow Initial Step
NO2 (g) + CO (g) NO (g) + CO2 (g)
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Fast Initial Step
Step 1 is an equilibrium:
it includes the forward and reverse reactions.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Fast Initial Step
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Fast Initial Step
k1
k1
[NO] [Br 2 ] = [NOBr 2 ]
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Fast Initial Step
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Rate Laws for Multistep
Reactions
Rate Laws for Multistep Mechanisms
Most reactions proceed through more than one step:
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
A proposed mechanism is as follows
NO2(g) + NO2(g) NO3(g) + NO(g) (slow step)
NO3(g) + CO(g) NO2(g) + CO2(g) (fast step)
Notice that if we add the above steps, we get the overall reaction:
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
If a reaction proceeds via several elementary steps, then the
elementary steps must add to give the balanced chemical equation.
Intermediate: a species which appears in an elementary step which
is not a reactant or product. They are formed in one elementary step
and consumed in anotherOur Example: NO3(g)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Rate Laws for Multistep Mechanisms
Often one step is much slower than the others. The slow
step limits the overall reaction rate.
This is called the rate-determining step of the reaction.
This step governs the overall rate law for the overall
reaction.
In our previous example, the theoretical rate law is
therefore
Rate = k[NO2]2
The experimentally determined rate law is
Rate = k[NO2]2
This supports, (but does not prove), our mechanism.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Rate Laws for Multistep Mechanisms
Let s look at another example
2NO(g) + Br2(g) 2NOBr(g)
k1
Step 1: NO(g) + Br2(g) NOBr2(g) (fast)
k-1
k2
Step 2: NOBr2(g) + NO(g) 2NOBr(g) (slow)
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Arrhenius Equation
Arrhenius Equation
Svante Arrhenius developed a mathematical
relationship between k and Ea:
k = A exp( -Ea/RT )
(Arrhenius equation)
Ea is the activation energy (J/mol)
R is the gas constant (8.314 J/Kmol)
T is the absolute temperature
A is the frequency factor
-Ea 1
Ln k = - + lnA
R T
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
MaxwellBoltzmann
Distributions
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
Temperature is
defined as a
measure of the
average kinetic
energy of the
molecules in a
sample.
At any temperature there is a wide
distribution of kinetic energies.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
As the temperature
increases, the curve
flattens and
broadens.
Thus at higher
temperatures, a
larger population of
molecules has
higher energy.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
If the dotted line represents the activation
energy, as the temperature increases, so does
the fraction of molecules that can overcome the
activation energy barrier.
As a result, the
reaction rate
increases.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
MaxwellBoltzmann Distributions
This fraction of molecules can be found through the expression:
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Coordinate Diagrams
Reaction Coordinate Diagrams
It is helpful to
visualize energy
changes
throughout a
process on a
reaction coordinate
diagram like this
one for the
rearrangement of
methyl isonitrile.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Reaction Coordinate Diagrams
It shows the energy of
the reactants and
products (and, therefore,
!E).
The high point on the
diagram is the transition
state.
The species present at the transition state is
called the activated complex.
The energy gap between the reactants and the
activated complex is the activation energy
barrier.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction without itself being consumed.
Ea k
uncatalyzed catalyzed
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
One way a
catalyst can speed
up a reaction is by
holding the
reactants together
and helping bonds
to break.
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles Community College
Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing a permanent chemical change in the
process.
There are two types of catalyst: Heterogeneous--one that is present
in a different phase as the reacting molecules. Homogeneous-- one
that is present in the same phase as the reacting molecules.
Example: Hydrogen peroxide decomposes very slowly in the absence of a catalyst:
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
In the presence of bromide ions, the decomposition occurs rapidly in
an acidic environment:
2Br(aq) + H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) Br2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Br2(aq) + H2O2(aq) 2Br(aq) + 2H+(aq) + O2(g)
Br is a homogeneous catalyst because it is regenerated at the end of the reaction.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
The net reaction is still2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Catalysts and Reaction Rates
How do catalysts increase reaction rates?
In general, catalysts operate by lowering the overall activation
energy, Ea, for a reaction. (It lowers the hill .)
However, catalysts can operate by increasing the number of
effective collisions.
A catalyst usually provides a completely different mechanism for
the reaction.
In the preceding peroxide decomposition example, in the absence
of a catalyst, H2O2 decomposes directly to water and oxygen.
In the presence of Br, Br2(aq) is generated as an intermediate.
When a catalyst adds an intermediate, the activation energies for
both steps must be lower than the activation energy for the
uncatalyzed reaction.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Catalysts and Reaction Rates
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Often we encounter a situation involving a solid catalyst in contact
with gaseous reactants and gaseous products
Example: catalytic converters in cars.
- Many industrial catalysts are heterogeneous.
How do they do their job?
The first step is adsorption (the binding of reactant molecules to
the catalyst surface).
Adsorption occurs due to the high reactivity of atoms or ions on
the surface of the solid.
Molecules are adsorbed onto active sites on the catalyst surface.
The number of active sites on a given amount of catalyst depends
on several factors such as:
- The nature of the catalyst.
- How the catalyst was prepared.
- How the catalyst was treated prior to use.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Example: C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
In the presence of a metal catalyst (Ni, Pt or Pd) the reaction
occurs quickly at room temperature.
Here are the steps
- First, the ethylene and hydrogen molecules are adsorbed onto active
sites on the metal surface.
- Second, the HH bond breaks and the H atoms migrate about the metal
surface and runs into a C2H4 molecule on the surface.
- Third, when an H atom collides with a C2H4 molecule on the surface,
the CC -bond breaks and a CH -bond forms.
- Lastly, When C2H6 forms it desorbs from the surface.
When ethylene and hydrogen are adsorbed onto a surface, less
energy is required to break the bonds.
The E for the reaction is lowered, thus the reaction rate increases.
Dan Reid a
Champaign CHS
Heterogeneous Catalysts
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Examples of Catalysts: Enymes
Enzymes
Enzymes are
catalysts in
biological systems.
The substrate fits
into the active site of
the enzyme much
like a key fits into a
lock.
John D. Bookstaver
John D. Bookstaver
St. Charles
John D. Community
Bookstaver College
St. Charles
John D. Community
Bookstaver College
St. Charles Community College
St. Charles Community College
Enzyme Catalysts
Enzymes are biological catalysts. There may be as many
as 30,000 enzymes in the human body. (Ex: Lactase)
Most enzymes are protein molecules with large molecular
masses (10,000 to 106 amu).
Enzymes have very specific shapes.
Most enzymes catalyze very specific reactions.
The substances that undergo reaction at the active site on
enzymes are called substrates.
A substrate locks into an enzyme and a fast reaction
occurs. The products then move away from the enzyme.
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS
Enzyme Catalysts
Only substrates that fit into the enzyme lock can be involved
in the reaction.
If a molecule binds tightly to an enzyme so that another
substrate cannot displace it, then the active site is blocked and
the catalyst is inhibited (enzyme inhibitors).
Many poisons act by binding to the active site blocking the
binding of substrates. The binding can also lead to changes in
the enzyme.
Enzymes are extremely efficient catalysts.
The number of individual catalytic events occurring at an
active site per unit time is called the turnover number.
Large turnover numbers correspond to very low Ea values.
For enzymes,
Dan Reid
Champaign CHS turnover numbers are very large 103 to 107/sec
Enzyme Catalysis
What can you say about the relative rates of steps 1 and 2?
rate = k[NO2]2 is the rate law for step 1 so
step 1 must be slower than step 2
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
13.5
Write the rate law for this reaction. Rate = k [HBr] [O2]
Hot Pt wire
Pt-Rh catalysts used over NH3 solution
in Ostwald process
Chung (Peter) Chieh
University of Waterloo
13.6
Catalytic Converters
catalytic
CO + Unburned Hydrocarbons + O2 converter CO2 + H2O
catalytic
2NO + 2NO2 converter 2N2 + 3O2