Diesel Fuel Diesel Fuel Systems LEBW4976-04 PDF

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
DIESEL FUELS &

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEMS
Contents
Diesel Fuels ..........................................................................1

Common Diesel Fuel ......................................................... 2
Diesel Fuel Grades ........................................................ 2
Low Grade ............................................................... 2
High Grade............................................................... 2
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)...... 2
Diesel Fuel Types.......................................................... 3
Crude Oil ................................................................. 3
Residual Oil or Blended Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)................ 3
Distillate Fuel............................................................ 3
Marine Diesel Oil....................................................... 3
Aircraft Jet Fuels and Kerosene Type Fuels .................. 4
Biodiesel .................................................................. 4
Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) ................................... 4
Diesel Fuel Characteristics ............................................. 4
Diesel Fuel Selection ......................................................... 6
Diesel Fuel Systems ...............................................................7
Basic Fuel System ............................................................ 8
MUI Fuel System .......................................................... 8
MEUI Fuel System ........................................................ 8
HEUI Fuel System ......................................................... 9
Common Rail Fuel System ............................................. 9
ACERT Technology ....................................................10
Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations ..........................12
Fuel Storage Systems...................................................12
Main Fuel Tank ........................................................12
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks .................................................13
Fuel Head Limiting Tank............................................16
Base Mounted Tanks ................................................16
Fuel Tank Design Considerations ...................................17
Fuel Tank Sizing ......................................................17
Fuel Tank Material ...................................................17
Fuel Tank Installation ...............................................17
Fuel Tank Drains ......................................................17
Fuel Tank Grounding ................................................17
Fuel Tank Maintenance .............................................18
Fuel Transfer Systems ..................................................18
Fuel Transfer Pumps.................................................19
Fuel Piping Design Considerations ..................................21
Fuel Supply Piping....................................................21
Fuel Return Piping ....................................................21
Purging ...................................................................22
Siphoning & Check Valves ........................................22
Material ..................................................................22
Sizing .....................................................................22
Routing...................................................................23
Fuel Filtration Systems .................................................23
Filter Micron Ratings ................................................23
Primary Fuel Filter Element Specification .....................24
Duplex Fuel Filters ...................................................24
Water Separation .....................................................25
Miscellaneous Fuel System Considerations..........................29
Fuel Temperature.........................................................29
Fuel Coolers ................................................................29
Fuel Heaters................................................................30
Partial Load Operation ..................................................31
Burning Used Crankcase Oil ..........................................31
Continuous Blending.................................................33
Fuel Conservation Practices ..............................................34
Appendix 1 .........................................................................35
Day Tank Sizing (When Day Tank Serves as a Heat Sink) .......35
Day Tank Calculations ..................................................35
Day Tank Thermal Capacity Calculation ......................36
Useful Fuel Formulas and Data ..................................44
Appendix 2 .........................................................................46
Crude Oil Fuel .................................................................46
Pretreatment of Crude Oils............................................46
Crude Oil Maintenance Intervals ....................................48
Crude Oil Settling Tanks ...............................................48
Reference Material ...............................................................51
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Diesel Fuels and Diesel Fuel Systems for Cat engines listed on the cover of
this section. Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are
addressed in other sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
Diesel Fuels & Diesel Fuel Systems Application and Installation Guide
Diesel Fuels
Diesel fuel quality is an important factor in satisfactory engine life and
performance. Fuels must provide adequate combustion without producing
excess contaminates that can harm the engine. Additionally, fuel selection
involves economic and environmental considerations. The availability of
certain grades of diesel fuels may be cost prohibitive or inappropriate for
various applications. This Application and Installation Guide provides
information on the various diesel fuel oil types and how they relate to Cat
engine installations.
SECTION CONTENTS
Common Diesel Fuel............. 2 Diesel Fuel Selection .............6

Diesel Fuel Grades
Diesel Fuel Types
Diesel Fuel Characteristics
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All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Diesel Fuels & Diesel Fuel Systems
Common Diesel Fuel

The high sulfur content often
Diesel Fuel Grades
found in low-grade fuels causes
A variety of fuel oils, also known
corrosion, wear and deposits in the
as middle distillates, is marketed for
engine. Fuels that are not volatile
use in diesel engines. Their
enough or dont ignite rapidly may
properties and performance depend
leave harmful deposits in the engine
upon the refining practices employed
and may cause poor starting or
and the nature of the crude oils from
running under adverse operating
which they are produced. Because
conditions. The use of low-grade
of constituents in the oil, some
fuels may require the use of high
crude oils are naturally suited for
priced, higher detergent lubricating
refinement into high-grade fuels
oils and more frequent oil changes
while others are best used for lower-
to yield appropriate performance and
grade fuels. Similarly, high-grade
engine life.
fuels, low-grade fuels and the
various grades between them High Grade
provide choices for the most suitable High-grade fuels burn cleaner, but
fuel for any given installation. have a lower heat value, which
Note: The use of very high-grade or yields slightly less power. Aviation
very low-grade fuel oils often jet fuels and kerosene are considered
requires modification to the fuel high-grade fuels and seldom
system and special consideration of contribute to the formation of
additional costs that may be harmful engine deposits and
encountered. Contact your Cat corrosion. Other attributes of high-
dealer for information regarding the grade fuels include the benefits of
use of these fuel types. faster engine starting and less
frequent overhauls, and the
Low Grade drawback of reduced lubricity.
Low-grade fuels produce a higher
heat value which translates into American Society for Testing and
more engine power, but they also Materials (ASTM)
produce more contaminates that Due to the different engine
could negatively impact engine-life. applications, designs and sizes,
Additionally, the use of low-grade standards for the limits of fuel
fuel oil in diesel engines often properties have been set by the
produces darker exhaust and a more American Society for Testing and
pronounced odor. These attributes Materials (ASTM). Utilizing the
may be objectionable in hospital, correct fuel for the engine will
office, commercial or urban settings minimize wear of the injection
and require the use of a higher-grade system, allowing easier starting and
fuel. improve component service life.
Experience has proven that
distillate fuels meeting basic
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Page 2 All rights reserved.
specifications will result in optimum deposit formations which can cause

engine performance and durability. increased cylinder and ring wear.
Depending on fuel costs and Blending may improve fuel density;
availability, the proper use of alterna- however, adding alcohol (ethanol,
tive fuels such as crude oil, blended methanol) or gasoline causes an
oil or residual oil can also provide explosive atmosphere in the tank
cost competitive engine operation. and is not recommended.
Diesel Fuel Types Cat 3600/C280 diesel engines, in
general EPG applications only, can be
Crude Oil modified to run on blended fuels, but
The term crude oil is used to extreme PREVENTIVE MEASURES
describe petroleum-based oils/fuels MUST BE TAKEN, including following
that are not yet refined. They are a thorough maintenance program and
essentially in the same state as when use of high quality fuel treatment
they were pumped from the earth. equipment. For any other applications
Certain types of crude oils can be including marine, petroleum, industrial,
burned in Cat engines. In some etc. that require the burning of blended
cases, crude oil is a practical and fuels, MAK Engines should be
economical fuel for diesel engines. considered.
Crude oils are evaluated individually Blended fuel can lower fuel cost,
and special equipment may be but there are often significant trade-
needed to condition the fuel. offs. Fuel price must be weighed
Minimum guidelines have been against the following.
established to determine the
suitability of crude oils as shown in Fuel containment effects
Appendix 2. Reduced engine component life
Higher maintenance and
Residual Oil or Blended Heavy Fuel personnel costs
Oil (HFO) Reduced warranty
Residual fuel (which resembles tar
and contains abrasive and corrosive Distillate Fuel
substances) is composed of the Distillate fuels are refined from
remaining elements from crude oil crude oil and are commonly referred
after the crude has been refined into to as diesel fuel, furnace oil, gas oil,
diesel fuel, gasoline, or lubricating or kerosene.
oil. Marine Diesel Oil
After the more desirable products Many different names are used for
have been refined, residual fuel can marine diesel fuels, which can often
be combined or diluted with a lighter cause a misunderstanding. Four
fuel to produce a mixture that can types of marine diesel fuel are
flow. This mixture is called blended generally recognized and available
or heavy fuel. Heavy fuels tend to at bunkering ports around the world.
create more combustion chamber However, not all of the types are
available at every station.
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Gas Oil components. Kerosene type fuels

This is a light distillate fuel which have lower energy content than
does not contain any residual fuel. diesel fuels and therefore will
Gas oil is approximately ASTM No. 1 produce less peak power output
diesel fuel. and/or will require more fuel volume
to do an equivalent amount of work.
Marine Diesel
This is a distillate fuel that boils Biodiesel
at a higher temperature than gas oil. Biodiesel is a fuel that can be made
The fuel varies from ASTM No. 2 from a variety of sources. Soybean
diesel fuel to ASTM No. 4 diesel oil and rapeseed oil are the primary
fuel. The composition can vary sources, but alternate base stocks
within the following range: ASTM may include animal tallow, waste
No. 2 diesel fuel, No. 2 that is cooking oil, or a variety of other
contaminated with heavier fuel in feedstocks.
the bottom of the tanker, and In original forms, these oils are not
No. 2 that is blended with as much suitable for use as a fuel in com-
as 20 % residual fuel. pression engines; they must first be
Blended Fuel Oil esterified. Without esterification,
This is a blend of distillate and these oils will gel in the crankcase
residual fuel. This fuel is blended to and the fuel tank.
the viscosity that is requested by the Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD)
operator or the engine manufacturer. Ultra low sulfur diesel represents
Blended fuel is not recommended for distillate fuels with 15 ppm sulfur.
use in Cat engines that are It has been developed to reduce
configured to use distillate fuel. particulate engine emissions.
Residual Fuel
This is residue from the distillation Diesel Fuel Characteristics
of crude oil in a refinery. DO NOT The following information
use residual fuel in Cat engines that describes the basic fuel
are configured to use distillate fuel. characteristics and their relation to
engine performance.
Aircraft Jet Fuels and Kerosene Type
Cetane Number: Index of
Fuels
ignition quality determined by
Aircraft jet fuels and kerosene type
comparing with fuels used as
fuels may be used as a diesel engine
standards for high and low
fuel provided they meet acceptable
cetane numbers. The higher
limits. Adequate viscosity,
the cetane number is the
particularly with kerosene type fuels
shorter the ignition delay
is a major concern. For Cat engine
period which affects warm-
fuel systems, a minimum viscosity
up, combustion, cold start and
of 1.4 cSt at 38C (100F) is
exhaust smoke density.
required at the engine transfer pump
to properly lubricate fuel system
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Sulfur: Sulfur is an element Flash Point: Lowest

that occurs naturally in all temperature at which fuel will
crude oils, and when burned give off sufficient vapor to
in the combustion chamber, ignite when flame is applied.
can form oxides of sulfur. Pour Point: Is the temperature
These can react with water which is 3C (5F) above the
vapor to create sulfuric acid, temperature where the fuel
which can cause severe just fails to flow or turns
engine damage. High sulfur solid.
content requires usage of high Cloud Point: The temperature
Total Base Number (TBN) oils at which a cloud or a haze
or shortening of the oil change appears in the fuel. This will
periods. happen when the temperature
Gravity: An index of weight of falls below the melting point
a measured volume of fuel. of waxes or paraffins that
Lower American Petroleum occur naturally in petroleum
Institute (API) ratings indicate products.
heavier fuel containing greater Water and Sediment:
heat content. Percentage by volume of
Viscosity: A time measure water and foreign material
to resistance of flow. High removed by centrifuging.
viscosities cause poor fuel Carbon Residue: Percentage
atomization thereby by weight of dry carbon
decreasing combustion remaining when fuel is burned
efficiency. Low viscosity may until no liquid remains.
not provide adequate Ash: Percentage by weight of
lubrication to fuel system dirt, dust, sand, and other
components. foreign matter remaining after
Distillation: This involves combustion.
heating crude to relatively Corrosion: A polished copper
high temperatures. Vapor strip is immersed in fuel for
drawn at various temperatures three hours at 50C (122F).
produce fuels of different Fuel imparting more than
types. Lighter fuels, such as slight discoloration is rejected.
gasoline, are drawn off first
and heavier fuels last. It has
an influence on viscosity of
the fuel and the BTU content,
which affects exhaust and
smoke, starting and power
output.
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Diesel Fuel Selection

Fuel should always be selected Table 2 lists acceptable aircraft jet
based on the requirements set forth fuels and kerosene type fuels.
in the Engine specific Operation
and Maintenance Manual. The
information and charts below are Name Description
for reference only. The fuels ASTM D Aviation Turbine Fuel
recommended for use in Cat diesel 1655-80 (JET A-1)
engines are normally No. 2-D diesel Aviation Turbine Fuel
fuel and No. 2 fuel oil, although MIL-T-5624L (JP-5)
No. 1 grades are also acceptable. (NATO Code No. F-44)
Aviation Turbine Fuel
Table 1 lists the worldwide fuel MILT-T-
(JP-8)
standards which meet Caterpillar 83133B
(NATO Code No. F-34)
requirements.
Table 2
Standard Name Description

ASTM No. 1-D & No. 2-D
D975 Diesel Fuel Oils
ASTM No. 1 & No. 2 Fuel
American
D396 Oils
ASTM No. 1-GT & No. 2-GT
D2880 Gas Turbine Fuels
Classes A1, A2 & B2
BS 2869
Engine Fuels
British
Classes C2 & D Burner
BS 2869
Fuels
DIN
Diesel Fuel
West 51601
German DIN
Heating Oil El
51603
AS Automotive Diesel
Australian
3570 Fuel
JIS Types 1 (spl), 1, 2, 3,
Japanese
K2204 & 3 (spl) Gas Oil
DF-1, DF-2 Conus &
W-F-
DF-20 Conus Diesel
U.S. 800C
Fuel
Government
W-F- FS-1 & FS-2 Burner
815C Fuel Oil
U.S. MIL-L-
Marine Oil
Military 16884G
Table 1
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Diesel Fuel Systems

The fuel system on a diesel engine is a highly specialized set of
components which must deliver the correct amount of fuel to the cylinder
at the precise moment it is needed. A well-designed fuel system enables the
engine to produce maximum power at maximum efficiency with a minimum
of exhaust emissions.
Todays diesel injectors must develop very high injection pressures to
function with modern high compression ratio engine designs. They must also
control the start and duration of injection within milliseconds to perform at
the level demanded by engine customers. These precision injectors require an
adequate supply of clean, stable fuel for proper operation. This requirement
in turn demands careful attention to the fuel storage and handling systems
specified for each installation.
This section discusses the various fuel systems available on current Cat
diesel engines, details the numerous fuel storage and handling system
options available for diesel fuels, and outlines the advantages,
disadvantages, and special considerations which accompany each system.
Diesel Engine Fuel System Descriptions/Components
Cat diesel engines are all furnished with a fuel system based on a
conventional design, utilizing unit injectors, but with differing means of
injector actuation and control.
The following sections briefly describe the basic fuel system and the three
types of injector control systems currently in use.
SECTION CONTENTS
Basic Fuel System................ 8 Fuel Piping Design

MUI Fuel System Considerations
MEUI Fuel System Fuel Filtration Systems
HEUI Fuel System Miscellaneous
Common Rail Fuel System Considerations ...................29
ACERT Technology Fuel Temperature
Design Considerations .........12 Fuel Coolers
Fuel Storage Systems Fuel Heaters
Fuel Tank Design Burning Used Crankcase Oil
Considerations Fuel Consumption
Fuel Transfer Systems Practices ...........................34
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Basic Fuel System

The basic fuel system, common the proper fuel pressure to the
to all Cat diesel engines, includes injectors.
an engine driven fuel transfer pump, The manual fuel priming pump is
a secondary fuel filter, unit fuel recommended if no electrical priming
injectors and a fuel pressure pump is available. The manual pump
regulator. Optional Caterpillar helps to bleed air from the fuel
supplied fuel system components piping before initial engine operation
include flexible hoses, a manual fuel and following engine maintenance
priming pump, and a duplex primary such as filter element changes and
fuel strainer. A basic fuel system injector replacement.
schematic is shown in Figure 1.
Caterpillar also recommends the
The engine driven transfer pump use of a duplex primary fuel filter
delivers fuel to the unit injectors via prior to the engine driven fuel
the secondary fuel filter. The pump transfer pump. This filter is available
is equipped with a pump-mounted from Caterpillar via custom quote.
safety valve and the fuel flow at When used, the duplex primary fuel
rated rpm is listed in the technical filter is installed, remotely from the
data and varies with engine speed. engine, in the fuel transfer pump
The unit injector, either suction piping.
mechanically or hydraulically
actuated, combines the functions of MUI Fuel System
pumping, metering and injecting into The Mechanically actuated and
a single unit. It is located near the controlled Unit Injectors (MUI) use
center of the combustion chamber in the engine camshaft and push rods
each cylinder head, between the to generate fuel injection pressure,
rocker arms. External manifolds and a mechanical linkage system to
supply fuel from the transfer pump control the amount of fuel injected
to the injectors, eliminating the need into the cylinders. The mechanical
for high pressure fuel lines. Fuel linkage system connects the
continuously circulates through the governor to the fuel rack, which
injectors, and the excess fuel that is allows the fuel rate to the engine
not used for combustion cools the to be controlled in relation to the
injectors and is returned to the fuel varying engine loads.
tank via the pressure regulating
valve. This excess fuel also aids in
MEUI Fuel System
The Mechanically actuated
the purging of air from the system.
Electronically controlled Unit
The fuel delivery pressure to the Injectors (MEUI), formerly known as
injectors is controlled by a pressure Electronic Unit Injectors (EUI), also
regulating valve. The pressure use the engine camshaft and push
regulator must be adjusted at the rods to generate fuel injection
installation site in order to provide pressure, but use an Electronic
2012 Caterpillar
Control Module (ECM) to control the delivery and timing of the fuel
amount of fuel injected into the injection(s). Similar to some other
cylinders. A solenoid on each systems, the common rail fuel
injector receives voltage signals from system has capability of multiple
the ECM to become energized. The injections for a given combustion
injectors will inject fuel only while event.
the injector solenoid is energized. The main components of a
The ECM controls the amount of common rail system include the
fuel that is injected by varying the high-pressure pump, the high-
signals that are sent to the injectors. pressure lines and rail system, and
By controlling the timing and the the injectors. The low-pressure fuel
duration of the voltage signal, the system utilizes similar components
ECM can control injection timing and to the unit injector fuel system. See
the amount of fuel that is injected. Figure 2 for a schematic of the
common rail fuel system.
HEUI Fuel System
The common rail fuel system does
The Hydraulically actuated
not continually circulate fuel through
Electronically controlled Unit
the entire system like the unit
Injectors (HEUI) use a hydraulic
injector fuel system. Instead, small
pump and engine oil to generate fuel
amounts of fuel are bypassed during
injection pressure, and an ECM to
the injection event. Due to the very
control the pressure and amount of
high pressure in the fuel manifold,
fuel injected into the cylinders.
more heat is put into the fuel than
The operation of the HEUI fuel on previous systems. Because of the
system is completely different from additional heat added to the fuel, it
any other type of fuel system that is is critical that the fuel inlet
actuated mechanically. The HEUI temperature is maintained within
fuel system is completely free of guidelines provided for the engine
adjustment. Changes in performance model. Recommended, and
are made by installing different sometimes required, is the use
software in the ECM. of a fuel cooler to maintain the
appropriate inlet fuel temperature.
Common Rail Fuel System Otherwise, the overheated fuel will
Unlike the MEUI fuel system, in a
have very low viscosity and film
common rail fuel system injection
strength which makes the fuel
pressure is created external to the
system components, especially the
unit injectors in a high-pressure fuel
injectors, more susceptible to
pump which is driven off the engine.
damage from fuel contaminants and
The pump pressurizes a high-
wear, hence the importance of
pressure fuel manifold that runs
proper filtration practices on
along both sides of the engine
common rail engines.
feeding high pressure fuel to the
injectors. The electronic fuel
injectors at each cylinder control the
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ACERT Technology produce higher performance with

Caterpillar ACERT Technology fewer emissions. This new
improves diesel engine performance. technology works with the MEUI,
This technology provides precise HEUI and Common Rail fuel
control over a range of combustion systems.
variables, which can be regulated to
Fuel System Schematic
Figure 1
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Common Rail System Schematic
Figure 2
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Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations

Diesel fuel supply systems must application. Rule of thumb for tank
ensure continuous and clean supply size is to find the fuel consumption
of fuel to the engines fuel system. rate at 100% load factor (depending
The recommended diesel fuel supply on application: Prime, stand-by etc.)
system typically has three major and multiply it with the number of
components: a fuel storage system, hours between refills. Fuel
a fuel transfer system and a fuel consumption rates are shown on the
filtration system. The three Engine Technical Data Sheets for the
component systems provide clean specific engine. Additionally, 10%
operating fuel to the engine. should be added to the result; 5%
for expansion at the top of the tank,
Fuel Storage Systems and 5% for sediment settlements at
Bulk fuel is usually stored in large the bottom.
main storage tanks and transferred
to smaller auxiliary tanks (service Example:
tanks or day tanks) near engines by A power plant with one (1) 3516B
electric motor-driven pumps as diesel generator set, rated for
shown in Figure 3. 1145 bkW (1560 bhp) at 100%
load. The fuel rate for the engine is
If auxiliary tanks are not 284 L/hr (75 G/hr) as found in TMI.
necessary, the main fuel tank must
provide a ready fuel supply to the The time between tank refills is
engine-mounted transfer pump. based on weekly fuel tanker truck
deliveries, so refill time is 168 hours.
Main Fuel Tank
The main fuel tank represents Solution:
the primary fuel reservoir in all Tank vol. = 284 x 168 x 1.1 = 52,583 L
applications, and must have Tank vol. = 75 x 168 x 1.1 = 12,600 gal
adequate capacity for the intended
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Installation Example with Main and Auxiliary Fuel Tanks
Figure 3
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks and operation. The purpose of an

Note: Additional clarification is auxiliary tank is to relieve the fuel
needed for C175. Reference TMI pressure head from the fuel
and the special instructions transfer pump and injection
REHS4726. equipment for efficient fuel flow.
Auxiliary fuel tanks, service tanks A manual fuel priming pump,
and day tanks are secondary fuel offered as an attachment, or an
tanks located between the main fuel electric motor-driver boost pump
tank and the engine. These tanks are may allow operation under
required in the following situations. conditions more severe than those
previously described; but where
The main fuel tank is located
starting dependability is required,
on the same level but more
Caterpillar recommends the use of
than 15 m (50 ft) away.
an auxiliary fuel tank.
The main fuel tank is located
3.7 m (12 ft) or more below Auxiliary tanks offer convenient
the engine. and ready fuel storage while
The main fuel tank is located providing a settling reservoir for
above the engine fuel water, sediment and sludge. An
injectors. example of an auxiliary fuel tank
Any of the above conditions can is shown in Figure 4.
cause unsatisfactory engine starting
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Typical Auxiliary Fuel Tank
Figure 4
Fuel Service Tank or Day Tank usually employed using a float-

Auxiliary tanks such as fuel service actuated, electric motor-drive pump.
tanks or day tanks can be quite The refilling pump can be positioned
simple. It usually consists of a small either at the auxiliary tank or at the
metal tank, either floor or wall main tank outlet. The performance
mounted, in the immediate vicinity capability of the pump must be
of the engine. The tank is usually considered during placement.
sized to hold approximately eight Features of the auxiliary tank, as
hours of fuel, based on the engines shown in Figure 5, should include
fuel consumption rate at full load. the following.
Refilling can be accomplished by Fill line - Located above the
gravity, a hand pump, or with a high fuel level, with outlet
motor-drive pump. Motor-drive baffled to prevent agitation of
pumps can be either manually or sediment in the tank.
automatically controlled. For conven-
ience and safety, automatic control is
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Delivery line - Located near pump, and the return line, carrying
the bottom but not so low as excess fuel back to the tank, should
to pick up collected sediment be no smaller in size than the
or condensation. respective fittings on the engine.
Return line - To carry excess Larger fuel supply and return lines
fuel back to the auxiliary tank. ensure adequate flow if the fuel tank
Should have its outlet baffled supplies multiple engines over 9 m
for the reason described above. (30 ft.) away from the tank or when
Overflow line - Allows excess temperatures are low. Consult
fuel to return to the main tank general dimension drawings for the
in event of overfilling of the sizes for each model.
auxiliary tank.
It is important that the fuel return
Vent line - Allows air pressure
line is sloped down to the tank with
to equalize as tank is drained
no traps or obstructions in the line.
or filled (vent cap should be
If this is not done, the fuel system is
located away from open flame
prone to air-lock with consequent
or sparks).
hard-starting.
Drain valve - Allows removal
of condensate and sediment. The auxiliary tank should be located
Sight glass or float-type gauge so that the level of the fuel when the
- Provides a positive check on tank is full is no higher than the injec-
fuel level. tion valves. Static pressure would
To prevent damage to the fuel allow fuel to leak into the combustion
filter housings, the return line should chambers in the event of injection
have no valves or restrictions to valve leakage. The tank should be
allow dangerous pressure buildups. close enough to the engine so that the
total suction lift to the transfer pump
Flexible rubber hoses, used as fuel
with the fuel at low level, plus the line
return lines, should be supported to
loss of the supply line, is less than the
prevent closing off over time due to
fuel pumps maximum suction lift
weight of the hose and fuel. Hard
capability. This figure should be
fuel lines prevent this problem, but a
minimized for better starting. A float
flexible connection is still required to
valve or solenoid valve in this type of
isolate vibration between the line and
day tank regulates the fuel level to
the tank.
keep it below the level of the injectors.
A nonflammable tank mounting will
Note: For C175 installations that are
maximize fire protection.
set up such that excess fuel from
The overflow line should be at least the engine returns to the main tank
two pipe sizes larger than the fill line. and also require the fuel supply day
To simplify engine maintenance, a tank to be located higher than the
shut-off valve in the supply line is main tank, a check valve may be
useful. required to be installed in the return
The delivery line, carrying the fuel line to prevent fuel drainage and loss
to the engine-mounted fuel transfer of prime. Reference REHS4726.
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Typical Fuel Head Limiting Tank
Figure 5
Fuel Head Limiting Tank Base Mounted Tanks

If overhead mounting of the Base mounted day tanks are some-
service tank or day tank is times used to provide a convenient
unavoidable, or if existing tank and close source of fuel with
locations in a re-power application adequate capacity for four to eight
dictate, then a small fuel head hours of operation. While minimizing
limiting tank may be required. This the floor space needed for fuel
tank fulfills the same requirements storage, the height of the engine will
as the service tank or day tank, but increase significantly with this option
stores a much smaller volume of designed to ease maintenance.
fuel. The fuel head limiting tank is Fuel returning to the main tank
installed between the engine and the may, because of its volume, aid with
service tank or day tank. Its only cooling, but returning to the day
purpose is to limit the head of fuel tank is permissible.
on the engines injection system.
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Fuel Tank Design the danger of ground water

Considerations contamination.
Underground tanks allow the earth
Fuel Tank Sizing
to work as an insulator, limiting
The fuel tank is typically one of the
radical temperature changes which
least expensive items in an installation,
can cause flow restrictions,
and it is wise to provide too much,
condensation, and possible power
rather than too little, storage capacity.
loss. Seasonal settlings are also
However, while the minimum required
avoided when burying the tank
capacities of fuel tanks can be
below frost line. In underground
estimated, as outlined in the previous
tanks, the water must be removed
discussion of fuel tanks, some
by pumping through a tube placed
applications may need to meet the
down the fill pipe.
requirements of outside organizations,
such as the U.S. National Electrical Regulations governing the installation
Code (NEC) or National Fire Protection and maintenance of both above and
Association (NFPA). below ground fuel tanks may apply.
Fuel Tank Material Locate storage tank fill tubes for
Fuel tanks made from low carbon convenience and safety of filling
rolled steel are best. operations. Vents are necessary to
relieve air pressure created by filling
CAUTION: Zinc, either in the form and prevent vacuum as fuel is
of plating or as a major alloying consumed.
component, should not be used with
diesel fuels. Zinc is unstable in the Fuel Tank Drains
presence of sulfur, particularly if All fuel tanks should have easily
moisture is present in the fuel. The accessible drain connections. Water
sludge formed by chemical action is and sediment that collects in the
extremely harmful to the engines bottom of the tank must be
internal components. eliminated regularly. Provide clean-
out openings for periodical removal
Fuel Tank Installation of sediment and trash that settles
Large capacity storage tanks allow out of fuel tanks.
bulk purchases and minimize dirt
contamination. Maintaining full tanks Well-designed tanks have large
reduces condensation, particularly if enough clean-out openings so the
fuel is seldom used. lowest part of the fuel tank can be
accessed with cleaning equipment.
Tanks may be above or below
ground level, but high fuel level Fuel Tank Grounding
generally should not exceed the Fuel tanks, both bulk and auxiliary,
engine injectors height. This prevents need to be grounded. This is to
possible fuel leakage into cylinders. improve personal safety and reduce
the fire hazard of sparks discharged
Above ground tanks provide
from static electricity build-up during
accessibility, allowing for easy
refueling operations.
draining of impurities and reducing
2012 Caterpillar
If the auxiliary tank is mounted to growth. Consult your local fuel

the base of the engine, it will be supplier for recommended additives.
grounded at the same time as the In warm climates, large bulk storage
engine. If the fuel tank is placed diesel fuel requires full filtering every
away from the engine, the tank six months to one year.
must be grounded separately.
Every two years the fuel should be
Fuel Tank Maintenance completely changed to remove water,
Fuel has a storage life of approx- scale, bacteria growth, oxidized
imately one year. This period may gums/resins, and minimize filter
vary widely depending upon initial clogging due to fuel separation into
fuel quality, contaminant levels and components such as asphaltenes.
storage conditions.
To remove water, scale and Fuel Transfer Systems
bacteria growth, periodic exchange Note: For C175 installations please
of fuel and filtering/treating is review REHS4726.
recommended to extend fuel life. The diesel engine fuel supply,
Water contamination of fuel during delivery and governing systems are
long-term storage provides a medium designed to deliver clean fuel in the
for bacterial growth, forming a dark precise quantity and time needed to
slime which: produce the required engine
performance.
Plugs filters
Deposits on tank walls and All connection lines, valves and
pipes tanks should be thoroughly cleaned
Swells rubber products that before making final connections to
it contacts the engine. The entire fuel system
Sulfur compounds are natural external to the engine should be
antioxidants, so low sulfur fuels flushed prior to connection to engine
(0.05 percent by weight) degrade and startup.
quicker in storage. Caterpillar supplies the engine with
Diesel fuels oxidize and form gums a transfer pump and the secondary
filter. The customer must provide the
and varnishes which can plug fuel
filters and injectors. primary filter and, if needed, an
auxiliary transfer pump. The auxiliary
Because microorganism growth transfer pump is required when the
occurs in the fuel/water layer, the distance, vertically or horizontally,
tank should be designed to minimize between the day tank and engine
this interface, and water bottoms exceeds the requirements discussed
should be drained regularly. in Auxiliary Fuel Tanks. An example
Microbiocide additives, either of a fuel transfer system is shown in
water or fuel soluble, can be added Figure 6.
to fresh fuel to inhibit microorganism
2012 Caterpillar
Typical Fuel Transfer System

(Distillate Fuel Supply System)
Figure 6
Fuel Transfer Pumps To determine if a pump can

perform the required lift, the
Engine Driven
following items must be considered.
Cat engine-mounted transfer
pumps are positive displacement 1. The vertical distance from the
gear-type or piston-type pumps, with tank to the pump. The distance
a limited prime and lift capability. should be measured from the
inlet pump port of the pump to
The pump lifts the fuel by
the bottom of the tank.
displacing air from the suction pipe
to the discharge pipe. Low pressure 2. Internal piping system losses
(vacuum) develops in the suction reduce the lifting capability. This
pipe and atmospheric pressure is based primarily on the size and
[101 kPa (14.5 psi) at sea level] the total length of the pipes, but
moves the fuel into the vacuum. also includes the various fittings
However, a perfect vacuum cannot and valves. As the temperature
be maintained, and the maximum goes down the resistance goes
that a pump can lift is about up. The internal losses can be
5 m (17 ft). estimated using the Piping
System Basic Information section
Cat fuel pumps prime and lift
of the Application & Installation
capability is 3.7 m (12 ft), but pipe
Guide.
size, routing, and ambient
temperature will impact this 3. Elevation has a big impact on the
capability. pumps lifting capability. As
2012 Caterpillar
described above the atmospheric Note: For C175, primary fuel filters
pressure is helping the fuel into are standard.
the vacuum, but as the elevation In many cases, the auxiliary pump
gets greater, the atmospheric will be driven by an electric motor
pressure decreases and the and therefore needs a regulator
available lift will also decrease. valve so that the fuel flow can
Refer to Table 3. match the engine speed.
Note: This table does not apply to Example:
C175. Reference instructions in A power plant with one (1) 3516B
REHS4726.
diesel generator set, rated for
1145 bkW (1560 bhp) at 100%
Atmospheric Available load. The fuel rate for the engine is
Elevation
Pressure Lift 284 L/hr (75 G/hr) as found in TMI.
meters feet kPa psi meters feet
The time between tank refills is
0 0 101.3 14.7 5.18 17.0
based on weekly fuel tanker truck
30.5 1000 98.0 14.2 4.87 16.0
deliveries, so refill time is 168 hours.
61.0 2000 93.8 13.6 4.70 15.5
91.5 3000 90.3 13.1 4.57 15.0 The fuel tank for this genset is
122.0 4000 86.9 12.6 4.40 14.5 located 22 m (72.2 ft) horizontally
152.5 5000 83.4 12.1 4.26 14.0 and 2.5 m (8.2 ft) vertically (below)
183.0 6000 80.7 11.7 4.10 13.5 from the engine. This situation
exceeds the fuel system
Table 3
requirements discussed in Auxiliary
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks, therefore, an auxiliary
An auxiliary transfer pump is pump is needed.
required when the service tank or Solution:
day tank is located further away, TMI indicates that the fuel flow at
horizontally or vertically, than the rated speed is 1260 L/hr (333 G/hr)
engine driven pumps lift capability. @ 1200 rpm.
Special considerations must be The auxiliary transfer pump
given to the auxiliary transfer pump required for this sample installation
when dealing with electronic engines must be able to deliver fuel at
and the 3500 engine family. Refer to 1260 L/hr (333 G/hr) at a pressure
technical data for the engine's fuel of 34.5 kPa (5 psi).
pump capacity to determine sizing
Emergency
auxiliary fuel transfer pumps.
Many marine applications require
A primary filter must be installed the capability to connect an
before the auxiliary pump and as emergency fuel oil transfer pump
close as possible to the tank. into the engines fuel oil system.
Cat engines can be provided with
these optional connections when
necessary.
2012 Caterpillar
This is a specific requirement of is specified in the supply line, it

marine classification societies for should be timed to close after the
seagoing single propulsion engine engine stops rotating.
applications. The purpose is to Pressure
ensure fuel oil supply in the event of The pressure measured in the fuel
an engine fuel oil pump failure. The supply line should be kept below the
emergency fuel oil pump allows the values shown in TMI.
single propulsion engine to operate
and the ship to reach port for engine Fuel Return Piping
repairs. Fuel return piping should normally
enter the tank at the top and extend
Guidelines for emergency fuel oil
downward, exiting above the fuel
system operation:
level. Inlet and return lines should be
1. Keep pressure drops to a separated in the tank as far apart as
minimum by using short, low- possible to allow fuel warmed in the
restriction lines. engine to dissipate excess heat. Fuel
2. Use a line size at least as large tanks can function as a radiator of
as the engine connection point. sorts, especially in engines that are
3. Install a low-restriction strainer in not equipped with a fuel cooler or
front of the emergency oil pump. engines that use fuel to cool the
injectors. Placing return lines and
4. Install a low-restriction check
suction lines as far apart as possible
valve between the emergency
provides the most opportunity for
pump discharge and the engine
cooling. Return line placement is
inlet connection.
particularly important on smaller
5. Use a pressure-limiting valve in tanks and day tanks where the fuel
the emergency system set at the volume is allowed to run down.
maximum oil pressure limit of the
The fuel return line is under
engine.
pressure, although not as high as the
6. TMI contains flow rates and supply line.
pressure limits to fulfill minimum
Note: Shut-off valves should not be
engine requirements for full
used in fuel return lines. Engine
power at rated speeds for Cat
operation with the valve closed will
engines.
cause damaging pressures.
Fuel Piping Design Pressure
Considerations Engine fuel pressure measured in
the fuel return line should be kept
Fuel Supply Piping
below 27 kPa (4 psi), except for the
Using shutoff valves in the delivery
3300 engine family, which is 20 kPa
line may pull air into the system
(3 psi), C175 engine family, which is
during shutdown and cause hard
60 kPa (8.7 psi) and the 3600 or
starting. The engine control system
C280 family, which is 350 kPa
provides adequate shutdown
(51psi). The location of the day tank
options, but, if a shutdown solenoid
2012 Caterpillar
and the design of the pipes should the fuel. The sludge formed by
accommodate these requirements. chemical action is extremely harmful
Purging to the engines internal components.
Purging should take place both in Pipes, hoses and fittings must be
the supply and the return line. mechanically strong and resistant to
deterioration due to age or
Siphoning & Check Valves
environmental conditions. They must
Siphoning can occur in full fuel
also be airtight to avoid entry of air
pipes when the one end of the pipe
into the suction side of the fuel
is placed in the fuel and the other
system. A joint, which is leak-tight
end is below the level of fuel.
to fuel, can sometimes allow air to
Siphoning is a flow of fuel in the
enter the fuel system, causing
pipe without the help of pumps. It
erratic running and loss of power.
can occur in supply and return lines.
Siphoning is most likely to occur Sizing
after a fuel line failure, which can be Sizing of pipes, hoses and fittings
due to corrosion, fire or a cut from must be adequate to minimize flow
foreign objects or collision force. loss.
The consequences of fuel line Sizing for a particular application is

siphoning are fuel loss and the determined by the supply and return
creation of a fire hazard. If the fuel line restrictions. This can be
ignites and the flow is not stopped, estimated with help from the Piping
the fire will be more difficult to System Basic Information section of
extinguish. the Application & Installation Guide.
The maximum allowable restrictions
The fuel supply line has a fuel are published in the TMI.
transfer pump. To avoid siphoning,
the pump must be equipped with Generally, the supply line carrying
a check valve. This is in case the fuel to the fuel transfer pump and
pump has been deactivated and the the return line carrying excess fuel
fuel supply line is breeched. For back to the tank should be no
certain C175 installations, a check smaller in size than the connection
valve may be necessary. Reference fittings on the engine. In addition,
page 15. the return line should be at least as
large as the supply line.
Material
If the fuel tank supplies multiple
Black iron pipe is best suited for
engines over 9.14 m (30 ft) from the
diesel fuel lines. Steel or cast iron
tank, or ambient temperatures are
valves and fittings are preffered.
low, larger fuel supply and return
CAUTION: Copper and Zinc, either in lines should be considered to ensure
the form of plating or as a major adequate flow. The overflow line
alloying component, should not be from the day tank (or, if no day tank
used with diesel fuels. Zinc is is used, the engine fuel return line)
unstable in the presence of sulfur,
particularly if moisture is present in
2012 Caterpillar
should be one size larger than the The service life of the fuel
supply and return lines. injection system, valves,
Routing pistons, rings, liners and
Fuel lines should be well routed bearings.
and clipped with flexible hose Even when fuel is handled very
connections where relative motion is carefully, foreign particles will find
present. Lines should be routed their way in during handling or
away from hot surfaces, like storage. Foreign particles could be
manifolds and turbochargers, to paint flakes, dust, sand, rust or
avoid fuel heating and potential microbiologic particles.
hazard if a fuel line should fail. Clean fuel is necessary for depend-
Fuel lines should be routed to avoid able engine performance. Engine
formation of traps, which can catch filters protect the fuel injection pumps
sediments, or pockets of water, and nozzles and should never be
which will freeze in cold weather. removed or bypassed. The compare-
ison in Figure 7 demonstrates the very
Whenever possible, route fuel lines tight clearance in the fuel system and
down low, so any potential leakage the size of visible particles.
will be confined to the fuel tank base
or floor space. Leaks from overhead
Sizes of Particles
fuel system components may fall onto
hot machinery, increasing the
likelihood of fire danger.
Route fuel lines to avoid crossing
paths and walkways. Protect fuel
lines from abrasion and damage.
Whenever possible, route fuel lines
so they are visible for leak checking.
Fuel Filtration Systems

Clean fuel that meets Caterpillar Figure 7
fuel recommendations provides
outstanding engine service life and Primary filters will extend engine
performance. The use of lesser fuels filter and transfer pump life. Water
is a compromise and the risk is the and sediment traps can be included
users responsibility. Fuels not upstream of the transfer pump, but
meeting Caterpillar's minimum pump flow must not be restricted.
specifications as described in Filter Micron Ratings
SEBU 6251 will adversely affect: Caterpillar specifies actual filter
The perceived performance of capability, rupture strength, the
the combustion system and capacity for holding dirt, flow
fuel filters. resistance, filter area, etc.
Caterpillar does not specify filter or
filter paper by micron rating. Micron
2012 Caterpillar
ratings are easily confused for the What is the difference

following reasons: between nominal size and
The test for micron ratings is absolute size filters?
not repeatable at different For example: A nominal 10 micron
labs. One manufacturer may filter media (paper) will pass some
give a rating of 10 microns particles up to about 50 microns in
(0.00039 in.), another at size. Theoretically, an absolute rating
2 microns (0.000079 in.) and of 10 microns will stop all particles
a third may rate a particular larger than 10 microns. In fact, filters
filter media (paper) at with absolute micron ratings of 10
15 microns (0.00059 in.). will pass some particles larger than
There is no consistent 10 microns due to the irregularity of
relationship between micron the paper weave. New filters may
rating and actual filtration pass larger particles than they will
efficiency. The entire filter after only a few hours of use.
needs to be tested, not just As a rule, Caterpillar fuel filter
the media (paper). media (paper) is about 3 microns
The micron rating does not nominal, 20 microns absolute. Oil
show what happens to a filter filter media (paper) is about 10
over time. The test provides microns nominal, 50 microns
no information about how a absolute. These are approximate
filter will stand up under values only.
continual use. Filters are not effectively compared
Micron ratings are overemphasized; on the basis of micron rating alone.
a 10-micron filter will not always stop Evaluate filters on the basis of their
a 10-micron particle. Many reputable ability to collect foreign material as
filter manufacturing firms are drifting a whole.
away from micron ratings to more
conclusive tests. Smaller micron Primary Fuel Filter Element
ratings are not necessarily better. Specification
The specs for primary fuel system
If all other factors (area) were elements are as below:
equal, a smaller micron number
media (paper) has a severe draw- 10 Micron Nominal Filtration
back: it has less capacity before For additional information see
plugging and needs to be replaced SENR9620 Fuel Systems -
more often. The size of the pores in Improving Component
the paper needs to be balanced Durability
against the costs of the filter Duplex Fuel Filters
replacements. Many Cat engines can be equipped
Common questions are: with duplex fuel filters as shown in
Figure 8.
What is the maximum particle
size which can pass through
Cat filters?
2012 Caterpillar
Use pressure gauges to

determine when filters must
be changed.
Avoid mounting filters near
the radiator fan, because
a fuel or oil leak during
replacement could create
a fire hazard. (As either
substance passes through the
Figure 8 fan it can be atomized, and
therefore easier to ignite.)
These filters may be serviced Plus, coated radiator fins trap
(change elements), without shutting dirt which can diminish
off the engine. There are two types: cooling capability.
the symmetrical type, which has Water Separation
two identical filter sets and the Water in the diesel fuel is absolutely
main-auxiliary type, which has a unwanted as it will cause damage to
main filter set and a smaller capacity the engine and its components. Water
auxiliary filter set. A special valve appears in the fuel because of con-
connects the two sets of filters in densation, handling and environmental
each type. The valve routes the fuel conditions. Environmental conditions
to be filtered through either or both relate to the humidity of some
sets of filters. climates. Water in the fuel will be
Both filter sets can be used more prevalent in humid climates.
simultaneously to extend running Water can impact the fuel system
time in an emergency. in the following ways.
Duplex filters for fuel and If water appears in the injection
lubricating oil allow extended system, the fuel will not be able
operation without interruption. to lubricate as it is supposed to
The main and auxiliary filter and it will lead to early wear.
systems allow changing either Water together with diesel fuel
the main or auxiliary filter will form microbiological growth
elements with the engine which will build up sludge.
running under load. Sludge will cause wear of the
Generally, the same elements filter system and influence the
are used in both systems, and injection performance.
are capable of providing Iron will oxidize when in
adequate filtration for at least contact with water and can
100 hours full load running infiltrate the fuel. The iron
time with reasonably clean oxide will cause injector wear.
fuel and oil. Engines using high injection
pressure fuel pumps must be
protected from water and sediment
2012 Caterpillar
in the fuel. It is extremely important effective. It is used extensively in

to maintain water and sediment marine, offshore and power
levels at or below 0.1%. generation applications where a
Note: Water and sediment collecting continuous power supply is essential,
in fuel tanks may give the appear- and the continuous supply of clean
ance that poor quality fuel was fuel cannot be left to chance. A
delivered to the site. typical distillate fuel centrifuge
schematic is shown in Figure 9.
Several methods can be used to
remove excess water and sediment A centrifuge manufacturer should
from the fuel system: be consulted to determine the proper
centrifuge type, size and flow
A water and sediment
requirements for a specific
separator can be installed in
application.
the supply line ahead of the
transfer pump. The separator While Figure 9 shows a single
must be sized to the handle centrifuge schematic, many
the fuel being consumed by applications will require the use of
the engine as well as fuel two (2) centrifuges, with one of the
being returned to the tank. centrifuges acting as a standby.
Coalescing filter systems work The required flow rate of a
effectively to remove sediment centrifuge can be approximated as
and water. If the level in the follows:
day tank is not maintained at a P x b x 24 x 1.15
consistent level, install them Q=
Rxt
between the main tank and the
day tank. If proper day tank
levels are maintained, a smaller Where:
system can be used between Q= Flow required, L/hr
the main tank and the day tank
to clean only the fuel being P= Total Engine Output, kW
burned. These filters can plug b= Fuel Consumption, g/kW-hr
and careful attention must be R= Density of fuel, kg/m3
given to fuel pressure levels at
T= Daily separating time in
the injectors to guard against
automatic operation: 23 hr
misfiring.
A centrifuge system can be Or:
used, particularly if the fuel f x be x 24 x 1.15
quality consistently falls Q=
Rxt
below the defined limits
discussed in this guide.
Where:
Centrifuges
The centrifuge represents the most Q= Flow required, gal/hr
expensive and complex method of P= Total engine output, bhp
water separation, but it is the most
2012 Caterpillar
Be= Specific fuel consumption, The centrifuge manufacturer

lb/bhp-hr should assist in the final
R= Density of fuel, lb/gal centrifuge selection.
The centrifuge flow has been
T= Daily separating time in
increased by 15% as a safety
automatic operation: 23 hr
factor for operational
Note the following considerations tolerances.
for configuring a centrifuge.
Typical Distillate Fuel Centrifuge

System
Figure 9
Centrifuge seal water and control Sample Points

air requirements must be specified The centrifuge operating efficiency
by the centrifuge manufacturer. is checked by drawing samples from
both sides of the centrifuge.
2012 Caterpillar
Suction Strainer Operating pressure - to suit

Install a simplex strainer ahead of conditions of piping system
the centrifuge supply pump and use Operating fluid temperature -
a stainless steel basket with 38C (100F)
perforations sized nominally at Viscosity for sizing pump
0.8 mm (0.03125 in) to protect the motor - 500 cSt
pump. The strainer body is normally
Centrifuge Fuel Heater
manufactured from cast iron or
The heater is sized using the pump
bronze.
capacity and the temperature rise
Centrifuge Supply Pump required between the settling tank
Mount an electric motor driven and the final centrifuge. The heater
supply pump separately from the should be thermostatically controlled
centrifuge and size it appropriately and set to maintain fuel temperature
for the centrifuge flow. The to the centrifuge within 2C
following pump characteristics are ( 4F). The maximum preheating
provided for guidance: temperature for distillate fuel is 40
to 50C (104 to 122F).
2012 Caterpillar
Miscellaneous Fuel System Considerations

operating below the fuel stop limit,
Fuel Temperature
the governor will add fuel as
The fuel temperature supplied to
required to maintain the required
the engine can affect unit injector
engine speed and power.
life and maximum power capability.
Reduced lubrication capability due to Fuel Coolers
high temperature/low viscosity fuel As mentioned earlier in the Basic
may result in component scuffing. Fuel System description, Cat diesel
The minimum allowable viscosity at engine fuel delivery systems are
the injectors is 1.4 cSt. A maximum designed to deliver more fuel to the
fuel temperature limit of 66C engine than is required for
(150F) to the unit injectors, combustion, with the excess being
regardless of fuel viscosity, prevents returned to the fuel tanks. This
coking or gumming of the injectors. excess fuel, on many engines, is
The maximum fuel viscosity to the used for cooling and lubricating of
unit injectors of 20 cSt prevents the pumps and injection systems
overpressure damage to the and in doing so picks up engine heat
injectors. and can raise the temperature of the
Maximum fuel temperature limits fuel in the tanks.
to the low-pressure fuel transfer As previously specified, engine
pump for Common Rail Fuel systems power will be reduced if the fuel
vary with engine model. Values are temperature exceeds the maximum
listed below in Table 4. limit because of the expansion of the
fuel (low viscosity). With very low
viscosity, the oil loses the capability
Maximum Allowable Inlet Fuel
to lubricate and damage to the
Temperature to the Low Pressure Fuel
Transfer Pump for Common Rail injection components will occur.
Applications Proper considerations regarding
fuel tank location and size will help
C175 70C (158F)
temperature control. If the tank is
C7, C9, C15, C18 80C (176F) properly located and sized so the
accumulated heat will not be
Table 4 objectionable when temperature
stabilizes, then nothing more needs
The engines are power set at the to be done. If the stabilized fuel tank
factory, and higher fuel temperature is high, the returning
temperatures will reduce maximum fuel should be cooled.
power capability. The fuel stop
power reduction is 1% for each The following factors affect the
need for fuel cooling equipment.
6C (10F) fuel supply temperature
increase above the maximum fuel
temperature limit. If the engine is
2012 Caterpillar
Length of periods of A plate type heat exchanger may

continuous operation; If the be used with titanium plates for
operating periods are short, seawater cooling or stainless steel
the amount of heat returned plates for fresh water cooling.
to the fuel tanks will be Refer to Sea Water Systems in
relatively small. Fuel coolers the Cooling Systems Application
are not generally required for and Installation Guide for proper
engines used in applications installation and maintenance
requiring intermittent procedures of fuel cooler in sea
operation. water applications.
Length of time between
periods of operation; if the Fuel Heaters
time between periods of Just as the ability to remove
operation is long, the heat will excess heat from fuel is an
have an opportunity to important design consideration in
dissipate. some applications, so is the ability
Volume of the fuel tank; If the to add heat to fuel in applications
volume of the fuel tank is involving cold environments. Diesel
large (larger than 11 000 L fuel must not be too warm or too
[3,000 gal]), it will accept a cool. Both cases will reduce life.
great deal of heat before the With mid-distillate No. 1 or No. 2
temperature of the fuel diesel fuel, cold weather can cause
leaving the tank increases wax crystals to form in the fuel
significantly. systems, partially or completely
Note: Day tank sizing is critical to blocking fuel flow. The addition of
maintain the desired fuel supply a small amount of heat to the fuel
temperature. Fuel coolers may be before it flows through the filter(s)
required. For a more detailed can prevent wax problems. The fuel
discussion of required fuel tank will flow through pumps and lines
volume, see the Day Tank Sizing but not through filters at
(When Serving as a Heat Sink) temperature below the cloud point
section in Appendix 1. (where a cloud or haze appears in
Ability of the fuel tanks to the fuel).
dissipate heat. In marine At temperatures below the pour
applications for instance, fuel point (the lowest temperature that
in contact with the shell fuel will flow or pour), fuel will not
plating, where at least 10% of flow in lines or pumps. The use of
the inside surface area of the fuel with a pour point above the
tank is shell plating, the heat minimum expected ambient
will be easily dissipated and temperature is not recommended.
the stored fuel temperature Fuel heaters will often solve cloud
will remain within a few point problems but not pour point
degrees of the ambient water
temperature.
2012 Caterpillar
problems unless applied to the entire Maintenance responsibility of this

fuel storage volume. type of heater must be clearly
Consider the following suggestions defined.
when applying fuel heaters to Cat Fuel heaters offered by
engines. Caterpillar use engine coolant
Fuel heaters should be used to heat the fuel and prevent
when the ambient the development of solid wax
temperature is below the fuel particles.
cloud point. Many types of When any fuel heater is used
heaters can be used; and ambient temperatures are
however, the fuel should be below approximately 0C
heated before the first filter in (32F), the engine should be
the fuel system. Fuel heaters started and run at low idle
should not be used when the until the engine temperature
ambient temperature exceeds rises slightly. This allows heat
15C (60F). Under no transfer to the fuel before
condition should the maximum high fuel flow rates at high
fuel temperature at the outlet power output are experienced
of the fuel heater exceed the by the system. This will
limit specified on the previous reduce the possibility of wax
page. plugging the fuel filter shortly
Heaters used should be after a cold start.
capable of handling the
Partial Load Operation
maximum fuel flow of the
Extended operation at low idle or
engine. The restriction created
at reduced load may cause increased
should not exceed published
oil consumption and carbon buildup
levels of the engine (published
in the cylinders. Carbon buildup
values for fuel flow and
results in a loss of power and/or
allowable restriction can be
poor performance. When possible,
found in the TMI).
apply a full load at least on an hourly
Coolant may be taken from
basis. This will burn excess carbon
taps on the engine when
from the cylinders.
using the engine as a heat
source. Care must be taken to Burning Used Crankcase Oil
assure that coolant shunting With legislation and ecological
to one system does not pressures, it is becoming
adversely affect another increasingly difficult to dispose of
system, and that both have used oil. The burning of used
adequate flow. crankcase oil in 3600/C280 engines
CAUTION: Failed water sourced fuel is not recommended due to the
heaters can introduce excessive detrimental effects on exhaust
water into the engine fuel system emissions. However, if ancillary
and cause injector failure. methods of reducing exhaust
2012 Caterpillar
emissions to acceptable limits are Adequate mixing is essential.

used, or if emissions are not a Lube oil and fuel oil, once mixed,
problem, burning crankcase oil in will combine and not separate.
3600/C280 engines is possible with Mix used filtered crankcase oil
the following guidelines. with an equal amount of fuel,
It is necessary to collect, then add the 50-50 blend to the
store, and dispose of used supply tank before new fuel is
crankcase oil from engines added (maintaining the 5% used
correctly. It is not acceptable oil-to-fuel ratio). This procedure
to dump used crankcase oil should normally provide
into the oceans, rivers, and sufficient mixing. Failure to
harbors from vessels or achieve adequate mixing will
offshore drilling and result in premature filter plugging
production platform by slugs of undiluted oil.
installations. It may be Note: Review SEBU6251for fuel
necessary for engine specifications
operators to consider burning Filter or centrifuge used oil
crankcase oil in their Cat before putting it in the fuel
engines. This can be done, tanks to prevent premature
providing the precautions fuel filter plugging,
below are carefully followed: accelerated wear, or plugging
Only diesel engine crankcase of fuel system parts. Soot,
oils can be mixed with the dirt, metal, and residue
diesel engine fuel supply. The particles larger than 5 microns
ratio of used oil to fuel must (0.000197 in.) should be
not exceed 5%. Premature removed by this process. If
filter plugging will occur at filtering or centrifuging is not
higher ratios. Under no used before adding the oil to
circumstances should gasoline the fuel, primary filters with
engine crankcase oil, 5 microns (0.000197 in.)
transmission oils, special capability must be located
hydraulic oils not covered by between the fuel supply and
Caterpillar recommendations, engine. These will require
grease, cleaning solvents, frequent servicing.
etc., be mixed with the diesel Clean handling techniques of
fuel. Do not use crankcase the used crankcase oils are
oils containing water or essential to prevent
antifreeze from engine coolant introducing contaminants from
leaks or poor storage outside sources into the diesel
practices. fuel supply. Care must be
taken in collecting, storing
and transporting the used
crankcase oil to the diesel fuel
tanks. Diesel fuel day tank
2012 Caterpillar
sight glasses may become oil is centrifuged and directed to the

blackened in time due to the clean waste oil tank.
carbon content in the Centrifuge No. 2
crankcase oil. Ash content of Distillate fuel/oil mixture daytank
the lube oil added to the fuel is continually centrifuged.
may also cause accumulation
of turbocharger and valve Metering Pump
deposits more rapidly than Adds up to 5% clean waste oil to
normal. the distillate fuel (from the main
supply tank) when the daytank low
Continuous Blending level switch calls for more fuel.
If the installation warrants, used
lubricating oil can be blended and Static Mixer
used in the engine in a continuous Runs when the metering pump is
manner. The normal method uses a on to insure a proper homogeneous
centrifuge module similar to Figure mixture of the fuel and clean waste
9. The following information oil.
describes this system. The centrifuge module is
Centrifuge No. 1 electronically controlled and includes
Engine crankcase oil is the components within the dotted
continuously centrifuged except line as shown in Figure 10. Size the
when the clean waste oil tank is system for appropriate fuel delivery.
low, at which time the dirty waste
Figure 10
2012 Caterpillar
Fuel Conservation Practices

Fuel costs typically represent the Do not increase fuel settings
single highest operating cost to obtain more power.
associated with any diesel engine Make sure all air hoses and
application. This has promoted connections do not leak.
various fuel conservation practices Leaks keep the compressor
that can usually be applied to all working unnecessarily.
applications. Make sure the turbocharger is
Avoid fuel spillage. Do not turning freely so that proper
overfill the fuel tank. Fuel air-fuel ratio is maintained. A
expands when warm and may clean burning exhaust should
overflow, especially when indicate these items are
tank is not designed correctly. functioning correctly.
Operate the engine with a Operate the engine with a
good electrical system. One thermostat all year; cold
bad cell in a battery will engines consume more fuel
overwork the alternator, and wear out more quickly.
consuming more engine Keep air cleaners clean. Use
horsepower and fuel. A poor an air cleaner restriction
electrical system can also lead indicator to avoid guessing at
to hard starting, which air cleaner condition.
encourages excessive idling.
Size the engine or generator
set to the job. Engines operate
more efficiently at relatively
high load factors.
2012 Caterpillar
Appendix 1
surrounding environment due to the
Day Tank Sizing (When Day temperature difference between the
Tank Serves as a Heat Sink) fuel mix temperature and the
ambient temperature. This
The fuel supply temperature must convective heat transfer then
be within specified limits for determines the resultant tank
optimum injector life and maximum temperature. The fifth step evaluates
power capability. the impact of the final fuel supply
Fuel systems without fuel coolers temperature on the engines
rely on the day tank to dissipate the maximum power capability.
heat of fuel returning from the The included example calculations
engine. Day tank temperatures are should only be used to provide
affected by the following conditions. general guidance. If the day tank
Day tank wetted surface area size is marginal, use a fuel cooler.
(including tank bottom) To simplify the following
Engine(s) fuel consumption calculations, it is assumed the day
rate tank walls are surrounded by free
Day tank replenishing level moving air. If the tank walls are
Storage tank fuel temperature contiguous to the shell plating, heat
Ambient temperature transfer from the day tank will be
Spaces contiguous to the day enhanced. Conversely, if the day
tank (void tanks, cofferdams, tank is bounded by void spaces and
vessel shell plating, etc.) cofferdams, heat rejection from the
Return fuel temperature day tank will be retarded. Typically,
Tank temperature calculation are most day tanks are located with
performed in five [5] steps. The first various combinations of the
determines the fuel mass in the tank preceding boundary elements. The
at each time interval. The second individual performing the evaluation
step is based on a fuel mix must be familiar with the installation
temperature resulting from the as well as the fundamental
engine driven transfer pump flow engineering concepts of the formulas
rate to the engine and the return used in the calculations.
flow rate to the day tank. The third
step determines the day tank fuel Day Tank Calculations
height for each incremental time The following information is
element. Typically, the calculations required to perform the calculations:
will be based upon a 30-60 minute Engine model
iterative time function. The end Engine developed power (MCR
point for the calculation is assumed or CSR)
to be when the day tank is refilled. Engine speed
The fourth step approximates the Brake specific fuel
heat transfer from the tank to the consumption (bsfc)
2012 Caterpillar
Initial day tank fuel Assume that the day tank will be
temperature replenished from the fuel storage
Storage tank fuel temperature tanks when the day tank level falls
(Make-up) to approximately 50-55% of normal
Ambient air temperature operating capacity.
Day tank length, width, and Some of the data above must be
height converted to other units prior to
Typical full day tank fuel beginning calculations. The following
height (assume 95% of tank formulas can be used:
capacity)
1. Engine Driven Transfer Pump
Engine fuel transfer pump
Mass Flow Rate = Mxfer (lb/min)
flow rate (see TMI)
Assume: #2 DO with an API
Fuel heat rejection from the
gravity of 35 (7.1 lb/gal)
engine (see TMI)
Mxfer = qxfer x 7.1 lb/gal =
Incremental time element 19.0 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal =
Day Tank Thermal Capacity 134.9 lb/min
Calculation 2. Engine burn rate under full load
Example: conditions:
Application: Single main a. Burn rate (gpm)
engine
Engine Model: 3612 bsfc x bhp x 1 Hr.
Rated Power: 4640 bhp (CSR) =
Fuel density x 60 min.
Rated Speed: 900 rpm
bsfc: 0.326 lb/bhp-hr
0.326 lb/bhp-hr x 4640 bhp x 1 hr.
Initial Day Tank Fuel =
7.1 lb/gal. x 60 min.
Temperature = 85F
Storage Tank Temperature =
85F = 3.55 gpm
Ambient Air Temperature =
95F
Day Tank Dimensions: b. Fuel mass flow burn rate
o Length (L) = 12 ft. = MBR (lb/min)
o Width (W) = 8 ft.
o Height (H) = 8.42 ft. = 3.55 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal
Fuel Height (@ 95% of total
Capacity) (H) = 8 ft. = 25.21 lb/min
Engine Fuel Oil Transfer Pump
Flow Rate: qxfer = 19.0 gpm
Heat rejection from engine to
fuel oil: Q = 1252 Btu/min
Incremental time element: t =
60 min.
2012 Caterpillar
Step 1
3. Engine fuel return rate under full Calculate the fuel mass in the day
load conditions: tank at specific time intervals:
a. Fuel return flow rate Day Tank Fuel Quantity = MDT -
= qrtn (gal/min) (MBR x t)
Where:
= Supply rate - burn rate MDT = Day tank contents at a
specific time step (lbs)
= 19.0 gpm - 3.55 gpm
MBR = Engine fuel consumption
= 15.45 gpm (lb/min)
t = Incremental time step (min)
b. Fuel return mass flow rate Assume the day tank is replenished
= Mrtn (lb/min) at 55% of initial quantity of fuel.
Prepare a table of volumes as shown
= 15.45 gpm x 7.1 lb/gal below for this example. Refer to
Table 5.
= 109.70 lb/min
Incremental Tank Fuel Capacity
4. TENG of fuel = (Tsupply - Trtn) Time (Min) Quantity (lb) (%)
0 40258.6 100.0
Q 60 38746.0 96.2
TENG =
Mrtn x Cp 120 37233.4 92.5
180 35720.8 88.7
240 34208.2 85.0
1252 Btu/min 300 32695.6 81.2
=
(109.70 lb/min x 360 31183.0 77.5
0.5 Btu/lb-F) 420 29670.4 73.7
480 28157.8 69.9
= 22.83F 540 26645.2 66.2

600 25132.6 62.4
660 23620.0 58.7
5. 95% Capacity of Diesel Oil Day 720 22107.4 54.9
Tank, (lb) Refill 40258.6 100.0
Weight density (p) for #2 diesel
oil = 52.42 lb/ft3 Table 5
MDT = L x W x H x pDO = 12 ft x
8 ft x 8 ft x 52.42 lb/ft3 =
40258.6 lb.
2012 Caterpillar
Step 2
Calculate the fuel oil mix temperature (Tmix):
MDT(t -1) - [(Mxfer x t)] TDT(t -1) + (MRTN x t) x (TDT(t -1)+ TENG)
MDT(t -1) - (MBR x t)
Where: Values for the example calculation:

MDT = Day tank contents at a MDT(t -1) = Day tank contents from
specific time step (lb) previous time step (lb)
Mxfer = Engine transfer pump Mxfer = 134.9 lb/min
mass flow rate (lb/min) T = 60 min.
T = Incremental time step TDT(t -1) =Initial day tank
(min) temperature is used for
TDT(t -1) =Day tank temperature for first iteration, 85F
previous time step or MRTN = 109.70 lb/min
starting temperature (F)
TENG = 22.83F
MRTN =Engine return mass flow
MBR = 25.21 lb/min
rate (lb/min)
T ENG= Fuel temperature rise
across the engine (F)
MBR = Engine fuel consumption
(lb/min)
[(40258.6 - (134.9)(60))(85)] + [(109.70)(60)(85 + 22.83)]

Tmix =
[40258.6 -(25.21)(60)]
Tmix = 88.9F @ t = 60 min.
2012 Caterpillar
This calculation is repeated for Step 3

each increment (t). Calculate the height of fuel
Prepare a summary table as shown contained in the day tank at t =
in Table 6 for each increment (t). incremental time step. Prepare a
summary table for each time
increment (t) as shown in Table 7.
Incremental Mix
Time (Min) Temperature (F)
0 85.0 MDT
H=
60 88.9
pxLxW
120 92.9
180 97.1 Where:
240 101.5 H = Height of fuel in the tank
300 106.1 MDT = Fuel contained in the day
360 110.9 tank at each incremental time
420 116.0 step
480 121.3 p = Weight density of #2 DO
540 126.9 (52.42 lb/ft3)
600 132.9 L = Length of day tank (12 ft)
660 139.3
W = Width of day tank (8 ft)
720 146.1
Refill
Incremental Time
Table 6 Height (ft)
(min)
0 8.0
60 7.7
120 7.4
180 7.1
240 6.8
300 6.5
360 6.2
420 5.9
480 5.6
540 5.3
600 5.0
660 4.7
720 4.4
Refill 8.0
Table 7
2012 Caterpillar
Step 4
Calculate the heat transferred between the fuel in the day tank and the
atmosphere, the T of the fuel in the day tank due to the heat transfer, and
the resulting fuel day tank temperature.
a. Heat transferred between the day tank and the atmosphere:
(TMIX + TDT)
QTK = U x [ (H x (2L + 2W) + (L x W) ] x [ TAMB -
2 ] xt
Where: b. Temperature change in the day

QTK =Heat transfer to/from tank resulting from heat to/from
atmosphere (Btu) day tank:
This considers 6mm (0.25 QTK
TDT =
in.) steel plate forming the MDT x Cp
tank boundaries, and the
film coefficient for air and Where:
oil. The air side film
TDT = Temperature change of
coefficient is predominant
fuel in the day tank (F)
when compared to the oil
side film. The tank thickness QTK = Heat transfer to/from
has a negligible effect. atmosphere (Btu)
U = Coefficient of heat MDT = Mass of fuel in day tank
transfer, (0.0424 Btu/min (lb)
ft2F) CP = Specific heat of #2 MDO
L = Day tank length (ft) = 0.5 Btu/lb F
W = Day tank width (ft)
TAMB = Ambient temperature (F) c. Day tank temperature resulting
from heat transfer to/from day
TMIX = Mix temperature of return
tank:
fuel and fuel in tank (F)
TDT = TMIX + TDT
TDT = Day tank temperature
resulting from heat transfer
to/from day tank (F) Where:
T = Incremental time step TDT = Day tank temperature
(min) (F)
H = Fuel height for specific TMIX = Mix temperature of return
time step (ft) fuel and tank fuel (F)
TDT = Temperature change of
day tank (F)
2012 Caterpillar
These three calculations are TDT is then used to determine TTK.

interdependent in nature. First, QTK is This process is then repeated for
determined for the first incremental each incremental time step.
time step. The resulting value for QTK
is then used to compute the TDT.
Example a.:
(TMIX + TDT)
QTK = U x [ (H x (2L + 2W) + (L x W) ] x [TAMB -
2 ] xt
(88.9 + 85)
QTK =0.0424 x [7.7 (40) + 96] x [ 95 -
2 ] x 60
QTK = 8283.6 Btu
Example b.:
QTK
TDT =
MDT x Cp
8283.6 Btu
TDT =
(38746.0 lb) (0.5 Btu/lb F)
TDT = 0.43 F (From atmosphere to day tank)
Example c.:
TDT = TMIX + TDT
TDT = 88.9 F + 0.43F
TDT = 89.3 F
This series of calculations is then repeated
for the subsequent incremental time steps.
2012 Caterpillar
Prepare a summary table for each time increment (t) as shown in Table 8.
Incremental Time Heat Rejection to/from Temperature Chg. in Day Tank Temperature
(min) Day Tank (Btu) Day Tank (F) (F)
0 - - 85.0
60 8283.6 0.43 89.3
120 4069.7 0.22 93.2
180 -4.0 0.00 97.1
240 -4022.0 -0.24 101.3
300 -7966.3 -0.49 105.6
360 -11818.7 -0.76 110.2
420 -15561.4 -1.05 114.9
480 -19257.8 -1.37 120.0
540 -22802.6 -1.71 125.2
600 -26253.3 -2.09 130.8
660 -29655.5 -2.51 136.8
720 -32973.6 -2.98 143.1
Refill - - 116.9
Table 8
The last part in Step 4 determines the day tank temperature after refilling
(TDT refill):
TDT refill [ (MDT full - MDT tn ) x TMUF] + (MDT tn x TTK n )

=
MDT full
Where:
MDT full = Capacity of day tank, (lb)
MDT tn = Fuel in day tank prior to refilling, (lb)
TMUF = Temperature of make-up fuel, (F)
TTK n = Temperature of tank fuel prior to refilling, (F)
Example:
[(40258.6 - 22107.4) x 85] + (22107.4 x 143.1)
TDT refill =
40258.6 lb
TDT refill = 116.9F
2012 Caterpillar
Step 5
The last step calculates the Corrected
Incremental Day Tank
maximum power capability of the Engine Power
Time (min) Temp. (F)
(bhp)
engine at the resultant day tank
temperature for each time interval. 0 85.0 -
A summary table for each increment 60 89.3 4625
(t) is also prepared and shown in 120 93.2 4607
Table 9: 180 97.1 4588
240 101.3 4569
Note: The engines are power set at
300 105.6 4549
the factory with 30 3C (86
360 110.2 4528
5F) fuel to the engine transfer
420 114.9 4506
pump. Higher fuel temperatures 480 120.0 4482
reduce maximum power capability. 540 125.2 4458
The fuel stop power reduction is 1% 600 130.8 4432
for each 5.6C (10 F) fuel supply 660 136.8 4405
temperature increase above 30C. 720 143.1 4375
If the engine is operating below the Refill 116.9 4497
fuel stop limit, the governor will add
fuel as required to maintain the Table 9
required engine speed and power.
Conclusion
[1 - ]
(TDT - Tref ) 1 The previous calculations indicate
Pcorr = Prated x X
10F 100 day tank fuel temperatures can have
an effect on the maximum power
Where: capability of the engine. The example
Pcorr = Corrected Engine Power, was based upon a fixed pitch propeller
bhp application. Typically, a fixed pitch
propeller is selected and sized to
Prated = Rated bhp absorb 85-90% of the engine's name
Tref = 86 (Power setting) plate rating. In this example, this
TDT = Actual day tank fuel would equate to 3950-4175 bhp. The
temperature, F lowest calculated corrected power
was determined to be 4375 bhp. This
Example:
would leave a 5-10% power margin
For t = 60, the corrected power of
and vessel performance would not be
the engine is:
affected.
While vessel performance may not
Pcorr = 4640 bhp x [ 1- (89.3F - 86F)
10F
X
1
100 ] be affected in this example, the max-
imum fuel temperature of 143.1F
will put the fuel viscosity near or
Pcorr = 4625 bhp
below the minimum allowable
viscosity of 1.4 cSt at the injectors
2012 Caterpillar
depending on the type of distillate fuel Aside from the impact on engine
being used. In addition, the temp- performance, maximum fuel tank
erature of the fuel in the tank after temperatures are also established
refill is now 116.9F instead of 85F by various marine classification
as used at the beginning of the societies and regulatory bodies.
iteration. Therefore, continued Their interest is based upon the
operation at full load on this fuel tank increased risks of fire that results
would cause the fuel temperature to from elevated fuel temperatures.
rise even higher than the maximum
temperature shown in this iteration.
To protect the fuel injectors a fuel
cooler should be used in this
application, despite the fact that
available engine power is still
acceptable.
Useful Fuel Formulas and Data
The following information can be useful in sizing fuel coolers and heaters:
Specific Gravity (SG) and Density
API Gravity = (141.5/SG) - 131.5
SG = 141.5/(API Gravity + 131.5)
Density
SG =
998 kg/m3
Density (kg/m3) = SG x 998 kg/m3
1 lbm/ft3 1 ft3
Density (lbm/gal)= SG x 998 kg/m3 x x
16.02 kg/m3 7.48 gal
Mass Flow Rate

1m3 Flow Rate (L/min)
M (kg/sec) = Density (kg/m3) x x
1000 L 60 (sec/min)
M (lbm/min) = Density (lbm/gal) x Flow Rate (gal/min)
2012 Caterpillar
Specific Heat (cp)

Table 10 shows typical specific heat values for two different API gravity
fuels in Btu/lbm-F:
38C 60C 82C 93C 115C
API Gravity
(100F) (140F) (180F) (200F) (240F)
30 0.463 0.482 0.501 0.511 0.530
40 0.477 0.497 0.516 0.526 0.546
Table 10
0.5461 Btu/lbm-F = 4.186 kJ/kg-C

Heat Rejection
Q (kW) = M (kg/sec) x cp (kJ/kg-C) x T (C)
Q (Btu/min) = M (lbm/min) x cp (Btu/lbm-F) x T (F)
2012 Caterpillar
Appendix 2
components and to permit
Crude Oil Fuel satisfactory starting capability.
Note: Crude oils are not suitable for The same diesel power ratings may
use as fuel in all engine applications. not always apply for Cat engines
The suitability of these fuels for use burning crude oil. Reasonable engine
is determined on a case-by-case service life can be achieved when
basis. A complete fuel analysis is proper procedures are followed.
required. However, the greater risks involved
NOTICE: Use of permissible crude make it good practice to include
oil fuels can result in higher slightly higher than normal
maintenance costs and in reduced maintenance costs when figuring the
engine service life. overall economics to be gained.
NOTICE: Caterpillar does not A fuel analysis should be
recommend using any of the heavier performed. Include a distillation
fractions such as residuals or curve. Operation at light load is not
bottoms in engines that are recommended. On occasion,
configured to use distillate diesel operation at 50% load has
fuel. Failure to follow this reportedly caused smoking.
recommendation will result in severe Engines for crude oil fuel operation
wear of components and engine should be equipped with higher
failure. temperature thermostats, bypass
Residual fuels or blended fuels centrifugal oil filter, and fuel injector
with residuals are unsuitable pushrod keepers.
because they have a high viscosity
Pretreatment of Crude Oils
range, low ignition quality and high
1. The crude may contain excessive
vanadium and sodium contents that
amounts of sediment and water
shorten engine life. Such fuels may
that will require removal before
cause high wear rates in the fuel
they get to the engine. This can
system, on the piston rings, cylinder
usually be accomplished with a
liners, and exhaust valves. Also,
settling tank, Figure 11, a
filter problems and deposits in the
centrifuge or special filtering
piston ring belt may be evidenced.
equipment or a combination of
Special crude oil fuel pretreatment these methods. The crude may
equipment may be required and is also contain solid particles of
available from suppliers of fuel wax at ambient temperature that
treatment equipment. Also, it may would plug the filters rapidly. It is
be essential to start and stop the impractical to try to remove the
engine on a better quality, ASTM wax, but the crude can be heated
No. 2-D type fuel to prevent sufficiently to dissolve it. The
plugging and sticking fuel system amount of heat needed will vary
from one crude to another and
2012 Caterpillar
each situation requires an exceed 30% of the total crude.

assessment. Jacket-water heated The kerosene, distillate and gas
fuel filters, available from fuel oil fractions combined should
equipment suppliers, are often make up at least 30% of the
suitable for heating the crude. total because they have high
If this is not appropriate for you cetane numbers.
application, an external heating 4. Another problem created by highly
system will be necessary. volatile crude oils (low initial
2. The crude oil must not have too boiling points) is vapor locking of
high a viscosity. For maximum life the fuel system. This situation can
and minimum maintenance of the be handled by an air eliminator.
fuel pumping and injection This, in some cases, can be an
systems, the viscosity of the crude ordinary float-type steam trap
oil in these systems should be inverted, but it should be made of
within 1.4 to 20 cSt at 104F corrosion-resistant materials. It
(40C). If the crudes natural should be located after the
viscosity is higher than this, it may auxiliary filters. If the engine is
be heated or diluted to reduce it. stopped occasionally and allowed
The degree of heating required will to cool, coagulation may build up
vary from one crude oil to another in this vapor trap and cause it to
and will have to be established in be inoperative.
each case. Another method of 5. The proper oil change
reducing viscosity is to blend the recommendation must be made in
original crude with a sufficient each case. Many crude oils
amount of lighter distillate contain large amounts of material
material. Again, the blending that accelerate lube oil
proportions would have to be deterioration. For this reason, the
determined for each crude oil. standard change period with
3. The crude must have a cetane recommended oils should be
number of at least 40. This reduced by one-half. From this
brings its distillation character- point, the length of change period
istics into the picture. The cetane with crude is determined by sulfur
number should be determined by content the same as with distillate
actual engine test because fuels. With 0.4-1.0% sulfur, the
calculated numbers of crude oils change period should again be
are unreliable. The cetane number reduced by one-half. When sulfur
of a crude oil is a function of its content exceeds 1.0%, still further
composition. Crude is generally reduction is recommended. In
subdivided into fractions by many cases, it may be desirable to
boiling temperatures. The install a larger capacity lube oil
combination of the gasoline and system to avoid short oil changes.
naphtha fractions, which have The use of Caterpillar SOSSM, is
low cetane numbers, should not strongly recommended.
2012 Caterpillar
Crude Oil Maintenance inside the settling tank building

Intervals should be maintained above 70F
Engine inspection intervals should (21C), and the tanks must be
be reduced by 50% when using vented outside the building.
crude oil as fuel, and maintenance A two-day supply of diesel fuel
routines should be modified based should be maintained for emergency
on the results of these increased use. This supply can also be used to
inspections. start and stop engine when the
crude oil fuel is highly viscous or
Crude Oil Settling Tanks heavy with paraffins.
A great deal of sludge can be
removed from crude oil by proper
settling. A recommended settling
system consists of two cone-
bottomed tanks, Figure 11, each
holding a little more than four days
usable supply of fuel.
Sludge in the bottom third is
discarded before refilling. The tanks
must be housed in a heated building,
and each fitted with heating coils.
Immediately after filling, hot water
is circulated through the heating coil
until the tank is heated to 100F Figure 11
(38C). The heat is then shut off
and the fuel allowed to settle
undisturbed for four days.
During this time, fuel is being used
from a second tank. Temperature
2012 Caterpillar
Crude Oil Specification

Specification and ASTM Test Method Requirements
(1)
Cetane number (ASTM D613)
Minimum 40
(DI Engines)
Water and sediment % volume (ASTM Maximum 0.5%
D1796)
Pour point (ASTM D97) Minimum 10F (6C) below ambient temperature
Not higher than lowest expected ambient
Cloud point (ASTM D97) Maximum
temperature
3% - See pages 131 & 132 to adjust oil TBN for
Sulfur (ASTM D3605 or D1552) Maximum
sulfur content that is above 1%
Minimum 1.4 cSt
(2)
Kinematic Viscosity 20 cSt (as delivered to rotary fuel injection pumps)
Maximum
20 cSt (as delivered to other fuel injection pumps)
Maximum 45
API gravity (ASTM D287)
Minimum 30
Maximum 0.8017
Specific gravity (via Standards tables) (3)
Minimum 0.8762
Gasoline and naphtha fraction
(fractions boiled off below 392F Maximum 30%
(200C))
Kerosene and distillate fraction (fractions
boiled off Minimum 30%
B 392F (200C) d ki
Carbon residue (on 10% bottoms)
Maximum 3.5%
(ASTM D524)
Distillation - 10% Maximum 540F (282C)

- 90% Maximum 716F (380C)
- cracking Minimum 60%
- residue (ASTM D86) Maximum 10%
Reid vapor pressure (ASTM D323) Maximum 20 psi (138 kPa)
Salt (ASTM D3230) Maximum 100 lb per 1,000 barrels (220 kg per 200 kL)
(4)
Gums and Resins (ASTM D381) Maximum 5.8 grains per gallon (10 mg per 100 mL)
Copper strip corrosion (ASTM D130) Maximum No. 3
Flashpoint F C (ASTM D93) Minimum legal limit
Ash % weight (ASTM D482) Maximum 0.1%
Aromatics % (ASTM D1319) Maximum 35%
Vanadium PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 4 PPM
Sodium PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 10 PPM
Nickel PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Aluminum PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
Silicon PPM (ASTM D3605) Maximum 1 PPM
PPM = Parts Per Million

(1) The cetane number should be determined by actual engine test because calculated numbers of crude oils are
unreliable. A higher cetane number fuel may be required for operation at high altitude or in cold weather.
(2) The values of the fuel viscosity are the values as the fuel is delivered to the fuel injection pumps. For ease of
comparison, fuels should also meet the minimum and maximum viscosity requirements at 40C (104F) that are
stated by the use of either the ASTM D445 test method of the ISO 3104 test method. If a fuel with a low
2012 Caterpillar
viscosity is used, cooling of the fuel may be required to maintain 1.4 cSt or greater viscosity at the fuel injection
pump. Fuels with a high viscosity might require fuel heaters in order to bring down the viscosity to either 4.5 cSt or
less for rotary fuel injection pumps or 20 cSt viscosity or less for other fuel injection pumps.
(3) Via Standards tables, the equivalent specific gravity using the ASTM D287 test method temperature of
15.56C (60F) for the minimum API gravity of 30 is 0.8762, and for the maximum API gravity of 45 is 0.8017.
The equivalent kg/m3 (kilograms per cubic meter) using the ASTM D287 test method temperature of 15.56C
(60F) for the minimum API gravity of 30 is 875.7 kg.m3, and for the maximum API gravity of 45 is 801.3 kg/m3.
(4) Follow the test conditions and procedures for gasoline (motor).
NOTICE: These recommendations are subject to change without notice.

Contact your local Cat dealer for the most up-to-date fluids
recommendations.
2012 Caterpillar
Reference Material
The following information is
provided as an additional reference
to subjects discussed in this manual.
REHS4726
Special Instruction
SEBD0717
Diesel Fuels and Your Engine
SEBU6251
Cat Commercial Diesel Engine
Fluids Recommendations
SEBU7003
3600/C280 Diesel Engine Fluids
Recommendations for Lubricants,
Fuels, and Coolants
REHS0104
Guidelines for 3600/C280 Heavy
Fuel Oil (HFO) Engines
SENR9620
Improving Component Durability:
Fuel Systems
WECAP
Web Engineering Cataloging and
Procuring website
2012 Caterpillar
LEBW4976-04 2012 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.
All rights reserved.

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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

DIESEL FUELS &

Diesel Fuels ..........................................................................1

Common Diesel Fuel............. 2 Diesel Fuel Selection .............6

Common Diesel Fuel

specifications will result in optimum deposit formations which can cause

Gas Oil components. Kerosene type fuels

Sulfur: Sulfur is an element Flash Point: Lowest

Diesel Fuel Selection

Standard Name Description

Diesel Fuel Systems

Basic Fuel System................ 8 Fuel Piping Design

Basic Fuel System

ACERT Technology produce higher performance with

Fuel System Schematic

Common Rail System Schematic

Diesel Fuel System Design Considerations

Installation Example with Main and Auxiliary Fuel Tanks

Auxiliary Fuel Tanks and operation. The purpose of an

Typical Auxiliary Fuel Tank

Fuel Service Tank or Day Tank usually employed using a float-

Typical Fuel Head Limiting Tank

Fuel Head Limiting Tank Base Mounted Tanks

Fuel Tank Design the danger of ground water

If the auxiliary tank is mounted to growth. Consult your local fuel

Typical Fuel Transfer System

Fuel Transfer Pumps To determine if a pump can

This is a specific requirement of is specified in the supply line, it

The consequences of fuel line Sizing for a particular application is

Fuel Filtration Systems

ratings are easily confused for the What is the difference

Use pressure gauges to

in the fuel. It is extremely important effective. It is used extensively in

Be= Specific fuel consumption, The centrifuge manufacturer

Typical Distillate Fuel Centrifuge

Centrifuge seal water and control Sample Points

Suction Strainer Operating pressure - to suit

Miscellaneous Fuel System Considerations

Length of periods of A plate type heat exchanger may

problems unless applied to the entire Maintenance responsibility of this

emissions to acceptable limits are Adequate mixing is essential.

sight glasses may become oil is centrifuged and directed to the

Fuel Conservation Practices

= 22.83F 540 26645.2 66.2

Where: Values for the example calculation:

[(40258.6 - (134.9)(60))(85)] + [(109.70)(60)(85 + 22.83)]

Tmix = 88.9F @ t = 60 min.

This calculation is repeated for Step 3

Where: b. Temperature change in the day

These three calculations are TDT is then used to determine TTK.

TDT = 0.43 F (From atmosphere to day tank)

TDT refill [ (MDT full - MDT tn ) x TMUF] + (MDT tn x TTK n )

TDT refill = 116.9F

SG = 141.5/(API Gravity + 131.5)

Mass Flow Rate

Specific Heat (cp)

0.5461 Btu/lbm-F = 4.186 kJ/kg-C

Q (Btu/min) = M (lbm/min) x cp (Btu/lbm-F) x T (F)

each situation requires an exceed 30% of the total crude.

Crude Oil Maintenance inside the settling tank building

Crude Oil Specification

Distillation - 10% Maximum 540F (282C)

PPM = Parts Per Million