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Preface
This textbook. is the first to carry the title Unit Operatimu, but it is not the first
to treat the suoJect. .
Modern practice anrl equipmp.nt are emphasized ILl! well as ma.themlltica1 inter-
. pretations, as only by properly designed, oollStruei.ed, and operated equ ipment can
mathematical treatment yield usefu l result/!. The object is to build the student:s
knowledge and power progrcSfJiveiy and continuously until he has a. reasonably
clear concept of how to approac~ the problem'l of design and operation of processing
equipment. The unit operations are grouped according to similarities in action or
in methods of calculation and presented in ,sequence according to iDereMing diffi-
culty. . .
By gJ:ouping similar operatiollil and using a common nomenclature in similar
theoretical discussiollfl. we find that the titudent makes more rapid progress, less
effort is required to master nomenclature, and a better Wlderstanding is gained oC
the rel&tionships among the different unit operations. The ~iation and com
plI,rison of similar opemtions from different industrinl processes is the essence of
unit operations and the major factor in developing chemical, metallurgical, or
process engineers capable of sucttSSfuJly designing new plants for conducting new
processes. The full advantage of the study of unit operations can be realized only
if the unit operations are themselves associated and compared 80 the engineer may
more skillfully seled the most suitable operation and equipment desired for each
step in the process. The tendency of -the specinlist to treat each unit operation lUI
Ito specialty having its own peculiar re>uI ~. rationalization, and nomenclature is of
questionable value in any suatained edu.cational effort and is to be resisted by all
means in an undergraduate curriculum.
The arrangement in oroer of increasing difficulty rather than in order of assumed
importance continually presents new advanced intriguing problems to the student,
maintains his interest, and encourages him to continue his awn development
beyond the limitations of the book. The treatment of those operations covering
solids in Part I requires little more preparation than is ordinarily given in high
school, whereas the treatment of mass kal18fer in Part JV is suitable for 1', p08~
graduate course and is presented with a critical attitude tending to develop the
research point of view.
The inductive method is generally folluwed, relying upon observations from
experience rather than upon deductive rationali~tions. This method is:L powerful
tool of the pmcLicing cngineer and has been Cound moet satisfactory for under_
graduate st udents. However, kinetic explanations are not neglected and receive
increasing emphasis in the last part on energy and mM8 transfer as an important
means 10 a. thorough understanding of the mechanisms involved.
PhY$ics, calculus, and a beginning course in material and .e nergy balances, or
thermodynamics, are assumed &$ pren>quisites to unit opera.ti~ns. Even with this
background the student may be confused regarding dimen!lions and energy balances,
and these subjects are treated rather fully . It. is hoped that .all chapters have
"ii
PREFACE
received sufficiently extensive treatment to meet the requiremenu of any under-
graduate curriculum so tha.t the desired emphMia mAY be obtained by omission
rather than addition. Alnut 180 recitations should be required to cover the
entire material in an adequate manner with undergra.dua.f.e students, allowing 8
to 10 for the first five chapter! and 50 to 60 ea.ch f~ Parte II, IU , &lid IV. In &.
postgraduate course for studenUi who have completed an undergraduate COUl'8e in
unit Operatiollll, this time could be redueed by one-third or one-haiL With appro-
priate omissions the text has been used euooe8llfully for undergraduate courses
of three qUllJ'ters with a total of 117 clas8 meetings and of two seme8te.rs with ..
total of 105 claN meetings, as well as for a singl&-eCmester short course of 60 clase
meetings.
References to the literature are included for the purpose of attractin,g the stu-
dent's attention to other 8OUl'Ce8 of information a8 well as to acknowledge eources.
An effort. bas been made to give credit for 'all material used, but 80 many workers
have contributed so much that 'it is impo8lllbie to recognise the contributions 01
everyo'ne. Indebtedness to previous texta and handbooks and to manufacturers of
equipment is freely, acknowledged. Tbe apecific belp and ~OD8 of L. F .
Stutzman and George '111od08, Associate Professors, Hdlan. A. Dahlitrom, Asaiatant
Prolessor of Chemioal Engineering, at Northwelltem Univeraity, F . Charles Moeeel
and Cedomir 8liepoevich, Assistant Pro(ef!80~ of ChemiCal ~gineeri~ at The
University of Michigan, Dr. Joseph Allerton, of Sayville, L;mg Isltt.nd, and Verne C .
Kennedy. Jr., of. Chicago, aDd the frank criticisms of .tudents who have used the
material &II mimeographed- notes have been invaluable. tolerance and your 00-
open.tion in helping to eliminate erron and .ugert improvements at they may
appear are requested;
'l'K: AUTHORS
Contents
~ ......
1. lrttroduewlD too the Uni~ OpHaUon'
CIt.\.P'l'J!:.
I t. Transportation of Fluids I-Pipet and Fittinp 122
.
Unit ()pf.n.tiODa ClaI$fifld, Ii PTacl.ie&l Opera.-
- ~ '; Fundamental CoorepL&, 3; Application of
TbreadOO CoruieoctioDll, 123;"Fittinp, 124; Vllves,
124; BeJI-..ad-Spignt Connections. 127; Welded
"
.. SiN Reduction of 80lkk 25
meters, 152; Manomet.er, 1M, Pitot Tube, 156;
VeDtun Met.er, 156; Flow NouJe, t57: Ori&e,
1 ~7; Area Met.e .... 161; Problftms, 163
Objedivee,' 25; 8tapBol Reduction, 26; OperatlDt;
Varlt.bIe., 26; Couae SUe Red uction, 27; Intu- 14.. Pum~ina: and Colnpretlliog 1M
II'Iedi.ate SiHo Redudioll. 32;.:ijne SUe Reducliou, Reciprocatilll Pumps and CoIllpl"'ell8Ort, 167;
37; Enerv Requirelnenla, 42; Prob)eme, 45 Rotary Pwups tor>d BIowera, 174, eenWupl
Pumplaod Com~ ITl; Special PuJ)l.PI and
5. lUndlil1l of &6dB. 49 Blowe.... 19".(: Problems, 197
Port&ble Power-Driven Mft.chinea, 49; Permanent
I.n8tallAtions, 51; FJilht ConVf)Yo1'll, 53; Belt Con-
15. G... Flow at Hi&h Velocity I,.
veyon; M; Weight lXlternUlUotion, 61; Problems, Nol.IlM. illS; PipeB, 2Oa;':Proolema, 209
54
Pari II.
6. .PropertioB of Fluids
F"".,. "
67
16. Flow of Fluid3 throUCh Porous Media 1-8inale'
Fluid Phalle 210
Compu tatiONl, 216; Equatione Ueed for anililu
Flow throu&h POI"OOII Bed.. 217; Problelu, 219
, .'
V~ty. 67; Relative Motion betll'een Fluid5 aod
17. Flow of FlWds throu&h POrollll Media 2-TWiJ Fluid
Solids, 68; Problems, 71
"'- Z2II
7. The F10w of Solids I.hrough Fluids
Maximum Velocity, 73; Two-~ MOo
72
_228
Rmi.dual Sel.uRtion, 223; F'Io:ri of tba WetUoa
Fluid, 224; Flow of Nop.weuilll FIuid,~; Prob-
tiou, 79; Problem!!, 83
8. ClNIificat.ion
"Equ&l Falling" Particle., 84; Equipmeat, 85;
. 18. Filtra t.iob
Gravity }'ilt.e.... 229; PIst.e-.ad-Framo Filtan,
231; Batclll-eaf Filteril", 233; Continuo.. Rotary
JiainI, 91; TabliDa:, 115; ~dC) ClaNiJica.-
Vl.;C"um Filten, 235; Ope~tion, 241 j &1eetJoo 01
tion, 96: Problems, 97
Filtenl, 242; Filter Caleul&t.ione, 242 ; Blower Re-
9. Flotat.io;ln W qui_nUl {or Rotary Vaeuwn Filters, 263; ProO-
\t;mt,2M
Jolot.atioo Cella, 100; F~t.ion Aplw., IOf; Cal-
culatiou fOJ' It. Flot.&t.ion ~ 107; Ptolmms, 19. Ceotrifuptioo 258
k"
'09 Equipmeat., 258; Cak:u1atioos, 266; Probleo:w, au .
to. Sedimea\&Uon 110 20. Fluidi&ation of SoIXiII
t..boratory BaUh 8edimentaUot:!., 111; Equip. P&rticulate FtuidiuUon, 269; AlWt'Ptino FlWdi-
-t. ml; C<lnt.i.nUOllll Sedimentation, lHo; Sepa- u.t.ioo, 270; C&leUJat.>ou of Requil1Kl. ~
raUoIl from G-. lUI; Probiflrrll. IlIO Drop!!, 270; Criteria Jor' Pa:rtieulate aDd Agrtp- '
, CONTENTS
CH,lP'I'li:Il OIl AP'n:R
live Fiuidi l&tion, 272; Traneportation of Fluidi~od 2!). He/lt Tranllfer 2- Transftr Coeflicien~ between
Dil!pereed Solid8, 273 Fluids and Tubctl 438
.1"ids ioollo Tu bes, 438; Fluids ool.aide Tube.,
r.,. " '. ~,...,..,i"'." M .... TralU/~r: 443; Problems, 0144
rlt. l<I.eal Sf.,. C_eJH 275
30. II lmt Transfer B-Conde!llling Vapors a.nd Bollin,
21. Solid-Liquid Elltraction 277 Liquids 448
Equipment, 277; Mp,thods of Operat:"'n, 282; F'i lmw ise Condensation, 448; D ro pwi$e Condtn-
Method of Calculation, 282; Gr.phi~1 l[ethod~, 63tion, 4~1; Boililli Coefficicn l4, 463; Probkuw,
286; ProblemA, 294
22. liquid-Liquid Extrar.ion
Equipment, 298; Methodll of Operation, 301 ;
m
.56
'1. Hent TtlWSfer ~T4diation
mack Bodietl, 4~7 ; Goometric F~tonJ, 461; Allow-
.,
Method. of Calculation, 302; Equilibrium ReI&- ance for Nonbla.ck Surfacl'fJ, 464; Radiant Heat
tionllhips in T ernary SyatemA, 303; Graphical Tra.nafcr to Banks of TubeS, 464; Gt&phiea.\ Solu-
Methods, 3OS; Continuo~ Countercurrent Multi- tion for Radi.tion in a Funmce, 466; Radia.ot
p-Coo\aet OperaUoo, 31; Intermediate Feed, Jleat Ttanal'er Coefficients, 467; fUdiation from
308j ReBu.x. 312; M. . or Maio Ratio DiacraJn, Nonluminous C--. -468; Radiation from Lw.ni-
316; ProbJem.s, 320 nOW! FI&me., 471; ~JeIIlll, 473
...
CON'I"ENTS
~~
ef'FluidII and Gran. &l:idl, 638; Fluidized Beds,
539; Probkml, MO
37. Simu....'\aneouI Reat ami M. . Trantfer I-Pay
.
A_
CJrAnJ:.
NOme.DclatUle
~
...
NaiunII DnI\. 663; Meehanica1 Draft., S66; Cool--
iDe PODdIJ, 667; epr.y Poruk, 5057; ProbI.!un.,.
,
of lCquidt and Vapon. 586; Specifie HM." of
Uquidll .ad VaJXd, 587; E Dtlalpy 01. Pardin
Hydrocarbon Liquids, &88; EnthalpY Of Pan.IIin
Bydrocarboa. G_. 689; Itot.hermal Dec:re_ in
38. H_ t and M . . Truefer 2-Dryioc
I>JoyiDt: Equipment, 569; Tny Drier'll, S59j Rotary
'" Enthalpy of G_ Accompanying &II. Increaie in
Pn.ure, 6QO; Comp,.bility Factor for 0 - ,
~ 669; Spray Drien, 1160; Drum DrlerB, "5/54; > 691 i EnQWpJ-oonOllQtratJOIl Dlt.c:ram. Ammonia-
Vaouum Drit!I1I, 566; MechaDUIm. Of 'I>t-yiq; Solids,
56&; Calculatione, 66Q; ConUnI1Ollll Drier8,672j
:r..tiIutbJi; Dryiaa,Rau.. 673; Prob~ 67.
w.w,m
...
------:... ------
~
---
(11) MASS TRANSFER ..'
"",..,.. "',
;f... '
lntrqduclwn 10 the Unit Operatwns
'.
N geoeral.,there are two different approaches to cept of unit operations was first crylitallize<1 h,v
. .'
2 INTRODUCTION TO TIlE UNIT OPERATIONS
or phases treated. A f)hast is a homogeneous and in a sugar plant, a crusher in a cement pla.nt, a diItil-
mechanically distinct or separable mass. Thus sand !ation column in a petroleum refinery, aDd. that the
and water are two mechanically distinct masses, and important requirement in each case is a aati:lfact.ory
each repr~nts a separate phase; whether the sand workable overall operation. It makes no difference
ig separate from 'or slIspended in the water makes no whether the result is obtained by exMt mathematical
difference. An oil phase Aoating upon water, or calculation, by empirical approximation, or by a
emulsified with the water, is a homogeneous mass good guess based on the application of sound judg-
mechanically disti nct from tlll~ wider whetber or not ment, provided it is a satisfactory, workable, ec0-
it is continuous ; and it is, therefore, II. separate nomical operat.ioo in its entirety.
phase from the water pbase. Similarly, a copper The unit operations are the best available meLhods
ore contail18 the miner-oi l chalcopy ri"tc tl.S tl separate for classifying and formulating the combined expe-
solid phase from the surrounding gnuguc or rock, ~ce of engineers as a guide to the operation and
no matter how finely t.he mineral may be dis- de;ign of industrial plants. But these data, although
",.,."j. of grea~ help, are inadequate in t hemselves to insure
The phases present at anyone time may he one or successful operations. The successful engineer must
more solid phases, and one or more fluid phases. develop sound judgment by his willingness to try,
. Sand and water represent -one solid and one fh;id to recognize failures, 'and to keep on trying until be
phase, oil and water are two fluid phnl:lC~, and the arrives at a satisfactory result. Seldom if ever does
mineral end gangue are two (at least) solid phal:\es. he have the opportunity to assemble either on paper
A mixture ot .solid salt, ice, water, and water vapor or in physical form the ideal or perfect operation.
cont.ains two solid and two fluid pho.ses. Oases are Engineering operations require approximations and
flu ids. Ordinarily there will-exist ooi).- one gt\.SOOUS compromises. If made too nearly perfect, they may
phase. cost too much and last too long. Many pJ:ww be- -
The order of treatment begins with unit operations come oOOolete before they wear out.
that treat solids alone, such as mechanical size sepa- All the information no..... available started with a
ratic.n, size reduction, and conveying of solids. single observation. As additional observations were
These are followed by operations involving fluids. made, the engineering mind began to draw conclu-
Since all fluids must be confined to stClre them or to sions which cou1d be presented in the form of an
direct their flow, a solid boundary phase is always empirical tabulation, such as the power requIred to
involved, whether the solid particlee are flowing operate crushing and grinding machines. Frequently
through the fluid as in clBssi.fication and flotation, these tabulated data could be presented in the form
or whether the fluid is flowing through a solid as in of & graph as a more satisfMtory basis for extra.-
fluid transportation or filtration. The operat ions in- polating and interpolating the results. The next step
volving transfer of material from one phase to an- was to derive an equation for the line represeotin&
other are next treated by the method of equilibrium the plotted data and to indicate me&n..B for estimating
stage!! or contact!. These include leaching (solid to how the corutants in the equation would be affected
liquid), extraction (liquid to liquid), gas absorption by different conditions. These equatiOM miahi then
and distillation (vapdr to liquid), and adsorption be rationalized or sometimes "derived." However,
(fluid to solid). Heat transfer and evaporation fol- the student and engineer should always keep in mind
low. Heat transfer deals with the rate of energy that these conclusions are drawn more or lese &OUD.dly
tra.ruofer a.nd serves 88 a meMS of leading directly to from a series of more or less reliable observatiollB
the concept of rate of ml:l8S transfer as applied in that have been empirically correlaU!d; also, they
crystalli&a.tion, drYing, absol'ptioD, distillation, and should remember that the practical operator in the
the more complicated operations involving eatal)'llts plant who may never have seen the equatioo or
and "'tea of reaction. -beard the tenn "unit operation" has probably made
more observations himself than an those involved in
deriving the equ,tion. But it has taken the practical
PRActICAL OPERATIONS
operator a. much longer time to acquire his skill with-
In the study of unit operations, it must alwa)'ll be out undenotanding than it has the modem student 01
remembered that a unit operation is simply a lUlit of unit operations to acquire his comprehensive under-
a more oomplBJ[ operating pl.a.nt: a heat exchanger standing.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS a
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS As long &::I the reaction is chemical and does Dot
destroy or create atoms, it is proper and rrequcDtly
Certain concepts or conclusions drawn from many very convenient W employ awms as the basis for
observations are regarded as runda.ment.&l because, the material balance. The material balance may be
the more carefully the observations a.re made, the made for the entire plant or for any part of it as a
more closely do the data conform t<l the previous unit, depending upon the problem atl hand. It is
conciUt!lion. Perhaps the most important of these to most conveniently mn.de by adopting as a bll8is for
the engineer is the law of conservation of mass and calculation a fixed quantity of materia! which pa..!:IfIe8
,",,,,,. through the opera.tion unchanged.
Operations involving awmic energy have e~pha-
Ped the cOncept that mass and energy are dll~tJy 2. The Ener&y Balant:e
re1&t.ed. The quantity of energy equ.ivalent to a Similarly, an energy balance may be made around
unital mass is so large, about 3 X 10 1& ft--Ib of energy any plant or unit operation to determine the energy
per pouDdmass, or the lJla3S is so small, a~t required to Cll.rry on the operation or to maintain the
2.6 X 10- 1' poundms,ss per British thermal umt desired operating conditions. The principle is just
(Btu), that ordinary mean~ of meas1lTement..are in as importailt a.s that of the material balance, and it
capable of detecting any increase or deerease.m m~ is used in the same way. The important point to
accompanying a chemical p~. In engmeermg keep in mind is that all energy of all kinds must be
operations, when nuclear changes are not involved, included, although it may be converted to ~ single
the mass of the products equals the mass of t.he re- equivalent form such &8 Btu's, calories, or foot-
actants. This is in accord with engineering ex~ pounds for the sake of addition. A balance cannot
fience over many years and simplifies calculat.ions, be made of heal or electrical energy alone, since all
sint.-e material balances ('an then be made inde- energy is convertible and all forms must be included
pendently of energy balances. in the balance.
The following four concepts are b[l8ic and form lbe
found ation for the calculation of all operations. If 3. The Ideol Contact
nuclear changes are involved, the energy changes be- Whenever the materials being processed are in
cOI1le ~ great that the first ami second concepts are contact for any length of time under speciAed condi
not independent and a combined energy and mass tions, au.h M conditions cf temperature, pressure,
balance must be made. chemical compo&ition, or elect.rical potential, they
tend to approach a definite condition of equilibrium
1. TIle Materia' Balance which is determined by the specified conditions. In
If matter may be neither efea-ted nor destroyed. mauy cases the rate of approach w these eq\Li~ibrium
the total mass for all materials entering an opera tion condit.ionlS is so rapid or the length of time is suffi.-
equals the total mass for all materials I('twi ng that cient that the equilibrium conditions are practically
operation, cxcept for any material thn.t may be re- at l.;lincd at ench eont.act. Such a contact is known
tained or accumulated in the operation. By the as an cC"juiliorillm or idc!\l contact. The caltulation
application of this principle, the yields of a. chemical of the number of ideal cont.acts is an important step
reaction or engineering operation are computed. required in undcn.t anding those unit operations in
Ir. continuous operations, material is usually not volvinp; transfer of material from one phtwl to an-
f>Ccumulated in the operation) and a material balance other, ~uch as leaching, extraction, ab~rption, and
consists Bimply in charging (or debiting) the opera- distillation.
twn with all material entering and crediting the
operation with all mau-.rial leaving, in the same 4. Rate. of an Operation
manner as ust:d by any accountant. The result must In most operations equilibrium is not aHamed,
be 8. ba\a.nce. The a.cco.mt&nt uses dollars as his either because of insufficient timc or because it is not.
unit, IUld the engineer uses pounds, tons, etc. In desired. As /lOOn !l8 equilibrium is attained no
making a. material. balance, the engineer should not further chtlllge can take place and. the. pr0ce88 etope,
attempt w use units that may be Crea&.d or de but the enginr.er must keep the prOCl!'88 going. For
Btroyed during the prccl'Sil, snch as nnits of volume this reason rate operations. such as rate of energy
or moles, or cubic feet, gallons, barrels, or moieeulcs. transfer, rate of mass transfer, and rate of cbemienl
INTROQUCTlON TO TIlE uNIT OPERATIONS
rea,etiOD, are 0( the greatest importance and interest. TB ' tempeI'lLture of m&88 B.
In all such ea8efI the rate 'and direction depend upon a -fJ.T - the tempera.ture drop.
d1ft'erence in potential or driving foroe. The rate R - resistance to heat tr&n8fer.
usually may be expressed as proportional to a poten-
t.i&l drop divided by Ii resistance. An apptieation of In solving rate problems as in heat transfer or mass
~thi. principle W eleetrical energy is the familiar
transfer with this simple concept, the major difficulty
Ohm's law for steady ,or direct current. is the evaluation ,of the resistance term. In pract~,
the values of the resistance term are generaDy com-
HI - E, -6E puted from an empirical correlation of many deter-
1- P. - - R- mmataoJ18 of transfer rates under different conditions.
The blU!ie concept that rate depcnc:h directly upon
where I _ fate of electron transfer or current of elee- a potential drop and inversely upon a resistance"maY
. trieity' (coulombs/ see. or amp), be applied to any rate operation, alt1lough the rate
,
~. g ' _ electrical potential, and t1i _" the increase
. in potential between points 1 and 2
may be expressed in different ways with particular
coefficients for particular cues.
(volts).
R _ resistance (~hnls). I,
APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS
In b~t:transfer un~ similar conditions for steady
Bo~, the time rate of heat transfer from mass A in These principles, used' singly or in combination,
contact with I1l88S B is and the coordinate<l knowledge of the unit operations
as presented ill this textbook, the handbooks, and
--
dQ
. dt
dQ
TA-TS
R - -(Ta - T A )
R
-AT
---
R
other technical literature c(lll8titute the 8Ctence or
lhCOl"y of the unit operatioll8. Practical engineering
consists in applying the undel"'ltanding of t.hMIe
where - - the instantaneous time rate of heat operations &lid practical Imowkdge of the many
. fit transfer or the quantity of beat types of equipment that may be employed to the
transferred per ~nit of iime from design and operation of a commercial plant tha~ will
8.
mass A to m 888 show not only a material balance but &lao a favorable
... TAO. temperature of ml\S8 A . dollar balance.
, ~ "', .
PART I
Solids
T
HIS section deals with those operations which treat material in the
. solid state only : screening, size reduction, and handling of solids .
Before discussing these operations the properties of solids should be
reviewed.
CHAPTER
" . i. ; '
Properties of Solids
..
MONG the many properties of sulids, those of Mobs'-scale, which is ba.!lcd on a serip.! of llJ.inerals
,
I Talc
' Gyp8UIll
6 Feldapa.r
7 'QuartJ
defined 88 the mass per unit vQlume. The units are
usually poWlds per cubic foot, or grams per cubic ,
3 Calcite
Fluorite
8 ToPfiz
Corundum, I!SIpprure
centimeter.
Speci% gravity is the ratio of the density of the
Apatite 10 Diamond
._-
'or .. '
....
0.-""
~ ""
.....
1~1 - 1 1l2
{~:}
On.<e! 100-111
u
, H_
".,.
1.1-1. 7 Cw.bi.
........,
..... 1 ...... 0 OoM
plastics may be defined as resi!;tance to indentation.
8sMI<ri", WI
iIeoo.<ot._ ... ...-..Iooo.. W
.......
~~
- ~
I
....
8 PROPERTIES OF SOUDS
penny, 3.0; tooth enamel, 5.0; penknife, 5.5; ordi- break apart, they simply deform.. Wood and aebe&-
nwy """" 5.8. toe are fibrous, do not posseB8 cleavage planes, and
BriUlen.uI or friability refers to the ease with do not crush readily, but must be tom or shreddld.
which & substance may be broken by impact. The Friction is the resistance to sliding of one material
hardness of a mineral is not. a sure criterion of its against another material. The coefficient of friction
brittleness. Hom, some plaStics, 8JId gypsum are is the ratio of t.he force parallel to the surface of
soft and tough and are not easily broken by impact. friction in the direction of motion required to main-
Coal is 80ftana also friable. Friability is the inverse tain a CODlltant velocity, to the force perpendicular
quality to toughness. TlnlfIhJU83 is the property of to the surface of friction and normal to the direction
metals and alloys called impact resistance. of motion.
The crystalline structure and crystal size influence
the friability. The structure also detennines the omUOGRAPHY
shape into which parlic1es na.turally break: when 1. Nurm, E. H" W. F. BUNT, &nd L. F. RAlIBDzLL, Miner-
subjected to a crushing operation. For example, aI.ov!I, 3rd ed., McCr..w-Hill Book Co. (1936).
2. WII.Lu.JIa, 8. R. t Jlani_ and Hard_ M~
galena, PbS, breaks into cubes; miea into plates ; and
Ameri.....rl Sonety lor Metals, Cle~hwd (1942).
magnetite into somewhat rounded grains. ThOlle
crystalline planes which are easily broken are tenned
cleavage p14nes. The quantity of work necessary to PROBLEM
fracture a unit area of cleavage plane can be deter-
A copper t ube, 1 iD.. I.D. and 2 It lon:, iIIlilled with steel
mined by experiment. When metals and allo)'B are balls of J-in. di.8 mcter. The llpace between the baI.. is 6UN
stressed beyond their yield points, Ii simillU' e1eavage wit b 1'fater. The _pcciJic gravity 01 . teel ill 7.8. What ill
takes pla.oe in the crystals; but the crystals do not tho bulk density of the contents of tbe tube1
CHAPTER
Screening
T
HE separation of materials on the basis of wil"e mesh: Screening consists in separating a mix-
size is frequently important as a means of ture of various size8 of particles into 1,\\"0 OJ" more
. preparing a produd for sale or for a subse- portions, each of which i8 more \llLiform ill ,,;ire of
quent operation. It is also a widely used means of particle than is the original mixLl1rr..
uMiysis, either to control or gage the effectiveness Dry sereening refers t.o"lhe t l"eatment. of a material
(If another operatinn, slich as erushing or grinding, containing a nat.ural am()unt. of moisture or a male-
or to determine the value of a product for some rial that has been dl'ied before screening. \Yet
sJX~ific appiicatiflO. screening refers to an operation in which lI'alel' i~
10 the marketing of coal, for example, the size of adde<.\ 1,0 the maferial heing treated for the purpose
t.he particle!; is the basis of its 'classification for l;8.ie. of \V~hing thl;' fine matcl:ial through the I:lCreen.
Certain equipment such as st.okers reqlfire definire The material t hat-fails to P(\::iS thrl)lIl;lr the i;creen
limits of size for slll'ce8l:lfui operation. In the case is referred tll ll.S bV~~iz(', or plu~ material, ami that
t.f sand and gravel for concrete, on thtl other hand, which pa.s&'s through the SC1"C('n opl'nings 18 referred
only a properly blended serres of sizes will insure the w !\.lj IIm\ersire or_minns mate'rial. \rh~nihorotlmn
most dense packing, requiring the minimum of one screen is lIscd ( ~I\d more than two sizcs arc pro-
cement and securing the greatest strength and free- duced, the vario\l"; frar-lions may be JesignalN
dom from voids. according to the ofx~nin~s employed in mr..king the
It has frequently been observed that the rate of a separations. Fur example , 'fahle 2 shows three
chemical react ion between a solid and a fluid II:! different. ways of im\i('lIting s ize~.
roughly proportional to- the surface involved. Since
the sury-ace 'areas may be computed from a knowledge TARLE 2. THREE :\IETHODS OF INDICATI:-l"G
HIZE FH \CnONS
of t\!e sizes of the particles, a sizing operation is of
particular value in controlling the !"ales of reactions Thin!
1 in.
involving solic,ls. The combustion of powdered coal Ovc",izo' +{ in. +1 in.
illustrates the desirability of conl.rolling the grinding Through I in. nn ~ in. -l+ { in. lil in.
operation to proriuce material of definite ~ize limit.; Thn,ugh: in. nn twin. -~ + r'1I" in. ~/n in
in order to control the rate of combustion. Since the t.:nd"r.;il", -h :O in.
setting of Portlu.od Cl;'mentmust take- plnce within a
specifie<.l time, it hws heen necessary to specify certain
INDUSTRL\L SCREt::\i:"G EQUIP:UENT
size limits. The hiding P9wer of a pa.int pigment is
indicated by size since it depends upon the projected GI"uziil'8 are widely uscd for screening large lSizes,
area of the particles. particula.rly of I ill. unci O\'CI". They eon:,;ist lSimply
Screening is accomplished by pws:,;ing the material of a &'t of parnlld Imrs >;(1H1nttcd lJy spacers at the
over a surface provided with openings of the desired endlS. The hars mny he laid horizontally or inclinN
size. The equipment may take the form of station- longitudinally 20 to 50 dl'gll,('" from the horizontal,
ary or moving Lar~, punched metal plate, or woven depending upon the nature of the material treated .
10 SCREENING
The mrunl crOSll section of the bars is t.rapezoidal with
the wide base upward to prevent clogging or wedging
of the particles between the bars, Inverted railrood.
rails are frequen tly employed. Owing to the wear on
the bars, they are frequently made of manganese
steel.
Grizzlies are usually construeW about 3 to 4 rt
wide with the bars from 8 to 10 it in length . TItey
are freque ntly used before mat~rial i.o'I sent to a
cnl~hcr to remove the emllllcr particles from the feel
to the crusher.
In some grizzlies, a cam arrangerne.."lt causes a
slight lengthwise reciprocal movement of alternate
bars, permitting better fiow of material through
them and preventing clogging. Ehdless chains pMS-
ing over sheaves may rcpJactl the bars, constituting FlO. 2. Triple-deel:ed mechanital1y vibrfltl !SCreen. (W. S. '
Tiller Co.)
Fw 7. (:roil .o..'P\ i'''1 (If ilrdl'Ofll" 1<''''1 ip ''u""tO!' or Fig_ 6. The hand"'hpP\, I, tldju~t~ tne ~pring ten..ion an d 1imit~ the leogth
of strok(' ""wo,d hy til<" .. lr(-lr(,n"'IC""I, 'l. O]",,,,lml': on the armu tu rc .Jiro~t.ly eo",I('CI~~J to the IloCro..~,n, 6. (II'. S. Ty&r Cu.)
INDUSTRIAL SCREEI\,]NC EQUJPl\tEN~ 13
The undesirable particles flow oVl'r the end
or ~ iCl"Hn into II separet. conuinl'r
in a fixed frame (Fig. 6) may eause fatigue failure circular orbit. ~'lany of these devices cany a coaree
of the IIcreen near the clamps. If the screen is sup-- screen directly below the e<:reertJftg cloths on which
ported in a vibrating frame this limitation docs not rubbcr balls arc confined to limited areas and are
apply but a greater energy is required to overcome caused to bounce against the lower surface of the
the inertia of the mass of the frame, The solenoid screen cloths as the device is oscillated.
is UIlually caused to strike a block or anvil, thereby lltciprocati1l{J 8CTten3 (Fig, 8) are driven by an
suddenly halting the upward motion of the screen eccentric under the screen at the feed end. The
and thro\\'mg the material clear of thc screen, This motion varies from gyratory (about 2 in, in diameter)
U! particula rly desirable in 'the handling of sticky at the feed cnd to a reciprocating motion at the
:nat.erlala, . These screens arc om-mally used for discharge end. These screens are UlIually inclined
material from about 8 mesh down io 100 mesh or about 5 degrees, giving the screen a motion normal
finer and have been lIuccessful in wet screening, The to the cloths of about h 0 in, Further vibration may
frequency of vibration is determined by the fre- be caused by including rubber balls as shown con-
qucncy of the alternating current used and vsries fined to locttl &reM below the '}Clive screen surface.
from about 900 to 7200 vibrat-ions per minute, This type of !!Creen is popular and widlJly used for
The lower frequency is used for coarser screening screening dry chemical::! down to about 300 mesh.
(8 mesh) and the higher frequencies for the finer Trammels, or revolving screens, oonsist of a screen
screening. cylindrical or conical in form rotated about its a.xis..
The capacity of a vibrating screen varies widely
with the character of the material trea.ted from 2
tons/fIQ ft of surface per 24 hr for materials such as
damp eay f)f powdered soap, up to 30 tons for dry
materia) such as coke on screens of about 6 to H
. . .h.
Oscill4ting lICNJetI.a are characterized by a. relatively
low speed (300 or 400 oscillations per minute) in a
pla.ne essentially parallel to the screen. The riddle
ill a screen driven in an oscillating path by an eccen-
aic or other mechanism attached to the sole support
of the screen, usually a vertlco.l bar extending from FlO, 9. Compound trammel. (C, 0, Barlldf olld 8nmtl Co.)
the top of the screen box. It is the cheapest form of
I!;roen OIl the market and is used for batch screen- Simple trommels may be arranged in series ,vith the
ilg. undersize of the first passing to the second trommel
A lIifter is a box-like container holding a number of and the undersize of the second passing to the third,
1Cmen cloths nested on top of one another and O!!Cil- etc, Somctimes the trammels ar!! built with screens
Jared by an eccentric or oounterwcighbJ in a nearly of different sit.e8 throughou t their length, the feed
I4 SCREENING
FIG. 10. Tandem-type trommel. The feed entenl at the left end and passes Qver ~ueeessh'cly eoane r IICreens M it worka it&
Ivay to dit;eh&rge of the oven;ize at the rar right. (C. O. Barlldl and S 'IOII! Co.)
entering at the end of the finest screen (Fig. to) . In to cause the particle to fall to the centr ifugal force
this way it, is possible to collect materials of different te nding to carry the par ticle amu nd.
s ize ranges from a s ingle trommel. But the opera.rion
is not so efficient /l8 that of a series of simple trom- mg ~
2mv 2
-- 0- -
2,'
0'
mels, or a compound trommel. D D
The compound trommel (Fig. 9) contain!! two or where m - mll.!!S (lb) .
morc concentric screening surfaces mounted on the g - sccdendion of gravity (ft / S(!c 2).
same shaft. The coan!Cr screening surfu.ce is lhe II -velocity of particle, or of trommel, in
innermost, and the finest the outermost, with inler- circ\llar path (fp,,).
mediate sizes arranged between the two limits. With D _ diameter of trammel (ft).
provision made for the separate removal of t he over-
size from each screening surface, the undersize of When N = nurnUer of revolutions of trammel J}(,r
each screen becomes the feed to the screen of the minute,
7I: DN
next smaller aperture. , ---
GO
Conical trammels have the shape of a t.runcated
cone and are generally mounted with their ax(l3
horirontal.
Trommels aTe quite effident for coarse sizes. The
g - ~e:Y
inclination of the trommel varies from about ~ in. 2 oo'gD 6Q2g
(for wet screening) to 3 in./ft of length, depending N - -- ~ -
2(TD)2 'i.7I: 2n
on the nature of lilt! materia] to be processed.
The capacity of the trammel increases with in-
creased speed of rotation up to a point where N~ - 2-
Jr.,02g
blinding occurs due to crowding of material through 271: D
t he screen. If the speed of rotation is increased still At sea level g - 32.17 ft/ St'cll and N .. 76.65/"";1;
furth er to the critical speed, the material no longer With compound trammels the speed of rotation \8
cascades over the screen surface but is carried around nAturally governed by t he diameter o( the outside
by centrifugal force. The best operating speed is screen.
usually about 0.33 to 0.45 times the critical speed. Tr')mmcls are usually about 3 to 4 ft in diameter,
'I'he criticol speed oj rolll/ion of a tromm!'1 may be ' from 5 to 8 ft in length, and driven a t 15 to 20 rpm
computoo h.\ Cl:jIUlting the force of gmvily l!'luling with 2M- to 5-hr motors.
lNDUSTRUL SCREENING EQUIPMENT 1.
The trommel is best SUIted for material from ~ Collecting terms
to 2~ in. in size.
F(xl' - XR) - P(xp - %R)
Rem are revolving $CreeM driven at relatively high
speed. They are used in the flour milling industry
and for other light, dry, t\OMbNlsive material. The
screening surface eonsista of silk bolting cloth sup-
P
-F - (ZT - XR)
(Xl' - XR)
xp(XI' - l'R)
the oodersised particles outward through the bolting Recovery
cloth by centrifugal force. The surface may be Xl' (xp XR)
cleared by brushes inside the reel. Reels are gen-
erally 24 to 40 in. in diameter and 5 to 8 ft long, and . ,
RejectIOn - 1 - -;:
,(I:---"",,~)(;:z,'----_'".'C)
they are rotated at speeds that may vary from 100 (1 z,)(xP ZR)
to 200 rpm. Effectiveness .. (recovery X rejection)
TM effectivem" of screens is based upon both the
recovery in the product of the desired material ill _ xp(ZI' - XR) [I _ ~(I:--_X"'~)7(,,,,,_--,Z,,,R~)J
the feed and the .exclusion or rejection from the ;C,.(zp - 'XR) (I XI')(zP XR)
product of the undesired material in the feed. For
example, the specificationa for hycira4lic hydrated These equations permit the
desired calculation of
lime (ASTM Cl41-42) require that the product con- recovery, rejection, or effectiveness of any sizing
tain not more than 10 per cent by weight of material operation from size analysis of the streams, without
coarser than 200 mesh. knowledge of the quantities.
Rapid feeding or too steep an angle of the screen
If Xp _ mas,s fraction of dealred material in
gives insufficient time for complete separati()fl of the
product, fine and coarse material. Excessive dampness in
x, _ mass fraction of desired material in feed, the feed may cause cOOtlll.ion of small particles to
XR - maas fraction of desired material in reject,
fo rm larger masses, or the adhesion of small particles
P _ total mass of product,
to large particles. Worn screens with enlarged aper-
P _ total mass of feed,
tures will p8SII more oversize material into the under-
R - total mass of reject, size fni.ct.ion.. Clogged screens (blinded) retain more
z,P undersize material in the oversize fraction. Tbe
Reco"ery - - - effectiveness as defined above is a numerical expres-
z,F
Ilion for the effect of alJ these factors.
Rejection (1 - Effectiveness of recovery or Capacity of ICnen.! and elTectiveDe!18 are closely
(1 - xp}P related. If a low efficiency or effectiveness may be
undesired material) - 1 - (1 xp)F tolerated, the screen may be operated at high
capacity. The ability of the device to prevent
FJiectivencss (recovery X rejection) blinding of the screen surfa.ce is probably t.he mOl!t
_ -,,_P(I - .c(I,---_"'C)-ooP) important single factor detenninillg capacity of the
screen. In dry screening, the greater the amount of
xTF (1 - xp)F
moisture or dampness in any particular material, the
Weighing the en,tire feed and product is not prac- Ot.her expreMioJU! for effectivenel!l!l are uaed, meh &II the
tical, and it iI3 deBirable tQ express ttlC effectiveness rec:overy, or rejection, till defined above, or the product of
from the analyses of samples alone. A material recovery &nd enrichment.
balance around the screening operation gives
~p(~, - :Ill) (~)
x,F - XI'P + xRR ~,(zr ZR) I -:I,
0.0116
0 .OW4
0.0138
0 .0116
0 . 351
0.295
"
42
48
0 .0122
0 .0100
0 .0092
0.1 in. minilll the diameter of the wire. :vIesh is 0 .0097 0 . 248 00 0 .0070
0._ 0 ._ 0.2118
therefore II. nominal figure which does not pennit
accurate computation of the screen openings or 0 .00\8
0 .0009
0.110611
0.175
0.147
"
OJ
100
0.110'12
0 .1lO66
0 .0042
aperture without knowledge of the wire sizes used 0 .0049 0.124 115 0 ._
by the manufsct.urer.
The screen interval is the relationship betwoon the
O.O()U 0 .0011
0 .1\036
0.104
' .1\811
160
'70 ......
0 .002Il
0 .002\
......
. 00(1)
0 .002\
0 .0'14
0 .061
' .01l3
200
~
271J
0 .0021
0 .001&
0 .0016
~ screen openings are 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 in.,
for cxample. The weakness of such II. system is
that there is 1,\ large relative difference between the
0 .0015
0 .0017
0.0015
0.043
'.008 '"
400
0.0014
0.0010
SCREENING
vary in a geometric progression, and the factor or sharp tap or blow being given at the top of the
screen interval is 2. If closer sizing is . desired, an screens for each revolution. Shaking is continued
additional ~reen is inserted between each two screens for 15 to 20 min. Other machilles employ vibratol'$
of the previous series and t he screen interval becomcs or other motions.
0 . Thc standard screens used in the United Factors which militate against accurate resulta
States employ a screen interval in which the factor are overloading of the screens, which may result in
is v'2 although V"2 is sometimes used for careful blinding which is the wedging of particles in t.he
work and research. openings; or electrOlltatic force:'! causing small part.i-
The first commercial laboratory screens using t his des to adhere to one another or to farge parlicles.. A
system were the Tyler Standard acreen.1. This series small amount of moisture may also cause adhes.ion
of screen., is baaed upon a 200-mesh screen with or oobesion of particles.
wire 0.0021 in. thick and with an opernng of 0.0029 Wet-and-dry screening is suitable for very precise
in. (0.0074 om). The other siZl;:s vary by a fixed screen analyses since it avoids the dangers of adhe-
ratio of 0 . A supplementary set can be purchased sion and cohesion. T he weighed sample is placed
for intennediate sizes 80 that the oomplete set varies in a beaker and pulped with a nonllOlvent, frequently
byV2. water, and then decanted over tbe finest screen in
The United States screens introduced by the the seri~, for example, 200 mesh. More water is
N ationa! Bureau of Standards differ but slightly added; stirring and decantation are repeated until'
from the Tyler series, being based on a I-mm no fines arc in suspension after stirring. Water from
opening (No. 18 mesh) and varying by V'2. & wash bottle is played on the screen until the drip
The British stAndard SCreeDS are similar hut. have is clear. The water is decanted from the undersize
wires of different gage. fract-ion , and the material is dried. The oversize
Method of Making a Screen Analysis. In is also dri~ and put over the entire series of screens
making a screen analysis, the individual lOCrI..'Cns as usual. The Dew - 200 fraction is weighed with
comprising the entire series, varying for example by the fractil?n obtained by wet screening. This pro-
the ratio vrz from 3 mesh to 200 mesh, are cleaned cedure gives morc accurate resulta since the cblWcc
with a brush and tapped free from any adhering of fine particles clinging to large ones is minimized.
particles. Tbey are nested together with the coarsest Method of R eporting Screen Analyses. The
- or 3 mesh at the top and the {mest or 200 mesh at customary manner of reporting screen analyses is
the bottom. A bottom pan and top cover are put shown in Table- 5, in which the mass fractioIlB re-
in place to complete -the BE!t . A weighed amount tained on cach of the serecns are given.
or m&terial is placed upon the top screen, and the
T ABU: 5. TYPICAL SCREEN ANALYSIS
cover is replaced. The 8I!Bembly may be SlJpportai
and rotated by one hand fi1Id bumped against tlle I
AVCI'1IIIC Diam-
other hand at intervals to set up a jarring nction. M_
eter of P"rtieiell, M_
Mter a period of time, the fines, - 200 mesh, are re-
moved from the bottom pan. The pan is replaced,
Tylo-
""".
Mesh
D (or Wei,ht)
Fraelion
' .......
J<'r&c\ion
""'b
and shaking is resumed to see whether ally more
fi nes are revealed. When no ncw material nppeal1! om io. "'-,
in the bottom pan, thus indicating for all pradicnl
purposes that the screening operation seenll! to have - 8 + 10 I0.2007 0 .0191 0.03 1.0
been completed, the sieves are disassembled and the -- 1014 ++
14
20
0 . 1410 0.055S
0 .100 1 0 .0394
0 . 14
0 .25
0 .97
0 .83
individual fraetiona are weighed. The material, for
example, which passed the lOO-mesh screen but was - 20 + 28 0 .0711 0 .0280 '.20 0 ."
- 28+35 0 .0.'i03 0. 0198 0 . 14 0 .38
retained on the ISO-mesh screen is designated the -35+ 48 0 .0356 0 .0140 0.00 0.2<
]00/150 or - 100 + 150 fraction.
Since the !:lhaking of the screens is a rediou!:l prQCC&j
and open to error, mechanical screening u. desirable.
- 48 + M
- " + 100
-100 + 150
-150. + 200
I 0_0252 0 .0099
0 .0 118 0.0070
0. 0126 0.00l96
0 .0089 0. 0005
0.06
0.04
0 .03
0.02
0 . 16
0 .09
0 .0>
0 .02
In one of these machines, the Ro-Tap, the screens -
are fastened into a vertical framework which is ToW 1.00
given an elliptical motion in a horizontal plane, a I
SCREEN ANALYSES 19
.,.
/ 1\
02<>
,.20 /
f ~ 0.15
5 <
~ 0.10 /
, I
~
'.05
If ' 1\
0
u" a g S2
" B
8 ~ ~
/ \ o 0 CJ 0
" " " ""
,o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
A_age Diameter, in~ D.,.
Flo. lB. FraC\k>nai plot of 1I<:ret'.1l au&lysie of Table 5, &holriq
Average Oi.amelat, in. the Ill8S!I flllction retained on !lCf"l)eIlil in the Mlries interval
V2 pioltod IIgllilllll. too iog&rithm of the averl.C'J ptlrticl~
Fm. 11. FractioJl8.1 plot of !:<Creen analy,is of T&ble .5, show- diameter retained in each irn.etio n.
ir.l& the rn&/!IS fraction (oolumn 4) retained on 1ICrt'e1Ul ill the
!lentil in~rv81 v'2 all a function of the average particle di-
curves for dilierent SCft!Cn intervals an~ are thcrefore
""lOIter retained in Mcb fraction (column 3).
specific t o the particular screen series used 8J! in
Table 5. This limitation does not apply to plots of
Th(,'!!e data. may be presented graphiCl&lly by any
the cumulative da.ta. (lo'igs. 12 a.nd 14.) which give
OIle of l>everal meLilOds (Figs. 11 to IS). But most
t.he sa.'l1e values regardless d screen interva.ls. The
of the resulting curves are valuable primarily as
cumulative plot docs Dot requ ire the computation
pictures of the size distribution of the mixture. Sucb
of average diameter but rather the addition of the
pictures tell a great deal to an experienced obtierver
but are misleading unless the method of plotting fractiOn!! passing through the screens.
Ordinary rectangular coordinate plota crowd many
and the materittls com~rising the mixture are not
changed from curve to curve. FrQ.Ctirmal plD~ of points in the small size range into a narrow section
tIle mass fraction rctain('d on each screen versu!; of the curvc. A better picture is obtained with ihe
average screen aperture (Fi~. 11), or cumulative plo~ logarithm of the average of screen apertures (Figs.
of the m8S8 fraction pass;ng each screen versU8 13 and 14), all this spreads the points for the small
particular screen aperture (Fie:. 12), may be the particles along the dimension scale.
basis for comparisons of different mixtures of the Still furUltr use ean be made of a. plot of the loga..-
same materials, indicating changes with tiRK' or ship- rithm of the mass frartion retained on each screen
ment. The fractional data (Fig. I I) give different against the logarithm of the arithmetic average of the
! ,.
1 08
.
!r',. /
Jio. 12.
t: o 0.02 0.04 0.06 o.os
ser-n Apertn, in.
CWlIulative pl<Jt d scmen 'analysis of Tahle 5
0.10
"
ooCJ
5(;reen Aperture. in.
~"a~
ClQ
:.::;:
,,000
".000
~
20,000
~
10,000
<000
~~ ~
MOO
...,.
'.000
2.000 ~~
-
E
, '.000
800
600
~
,
"" ~
""
200.
~" "'-
"'-~ ~
' 00
80
..." II
I<,;
20
10
, :: :! 2 Ug
'"
A~ Diameter.
Flo. 16. ActU&l lpeci lie -.ui_ .. a function of .vert\~ diameter D...c for quam, e.leite. Iphalerite, pyrite, and ~
22 SCREENING
'j'1lc dime[ll!ion of the part icle I".ootrolling its fllr the ratio of specific 8urfo.ces n are shown in
rctention un Ii S(:reen is called its " diamflter," D. ,.... Fig. 17.
"'01' irregular pm'tides usually encountered in SC I'een*
ing, this so-ralled "diamet.er," D. vl , is usually the RIBI.IOGRAPIlY
>4CCond hu'ge:4 dimcm.ion of the Jllirticle und mwst I. GAUDIN', A. 1\( , Primiple' of Mi" NYiJ. ImMing, M,:flr.lw-
not be con fu~ with the diameter of a sphere. Hill ltonk Co. (1939),
2. GftOIM., J OHN, "Crushi ng and G rin.linK," 1I. S. Hllr, M inl!it
The specific surface of particles having a Imown B..u. 402 (1938).
ratio of actual sllrfu.ce to the calculated surfoce of Ii 3. R iCHARl1&, R. R ., and C. E. T.Q<": KI:, T t zlbool.: "f ()rt Ik t .
~phere of the same "diameter" (Dne - D for sphere) inv, 3rt! ed.,
McG.,.w_HiII BoIlk Cu. (1!14()).
4. TAaaART, A. F., Handbook Ilf Millmu /)rt!.;,,g, John
i", (injpD.
v" where n i8 lhe ratiQ of lJ'fJf'.Cijil: Bll/faces Wiley a nd Son~ (1945).
IUUJ becomes UTl!ty for spheres. 6. W. S. TY).~;JI. en., 1'''t Prrofil4J,fe Uu of T,*i,,(/ Si~,
.'--_.
<':iI!vclnnd.
(Spceific surface)
G/ pD .,.
I. ,CalculAte t he ~urinClP. per unit volume in "'Iuare oent~
Since Ii mixture of particl~ contains many different meters per cubic ocntimH(.or of gillen.. huring t h" L'CI'een
sizes of particles, the basic definition of specific SUf* luul.iyeis below. 1J.'!e t he methool of cxtrapoiRtion for -200
m ""h, and R&'IUme that tlw two points between 100 a nd 2()0
f:1.Ce is tlle totul surfnr.e area divided by t.ota\ muss.
me!h I~t('r,nioo tim ~trai Kht Hn<l in ,\ l<lg_klj( p\t)t. ~1M!(:i.6r.
Tile tula\ s urface urea is I!:r.lvily "I !C>~le "" _ 7.U .
l'et'OIollt " I:\'
MOO, 1t' \JI.iIl(~ 1
3
4+
+ , 1.0
4.0
nnd !:mi is the totul mWlli, if m, is tile Ina&! of the 6+ 8 8.1
8 + 10 1I . S
rruction i.
10+14 16.0
The specific surface then ,i" 6 (L (D.,.,). 11;m.. ) j pT.m, 14 + 20
20 + 28
14 .8
13.2
ur ~ L , ~. 28 +" 8. 1
+48
p Du,
Figure 16 s}J{)ws the- actual specifiu lI\lI'face as
"' +
~8 !l5
6.2
4 .1
!l5 + 100 3.(1
det.ermined by rates of go\ution t as a fun ction of-tb~ -100 + 100 2 .2
average "diumeter" D. ~, for. quartz, calcite, ~phu\- " - 150 +200 I.,
t'x ile, pyrite, lUlU galen/j,. The l:iJrre:sponding val~ -roo 5.3
PROBLEMS 23
2. Gatamle thlfspee!6e .urf~ in !!Quare oentimetenl per ~ P""'dered coal ,dth tbe aereen a.na!ysi.\: given Jx.1o,,' lI.II
~'TI.m (jf pyri te IL'lY!nl , thc_ lICn.'(In a~ly.is b.'low. Specific "1~c~..:f" 1s fed to a viurat ing 4S-meSh sen:..,n in an at templ. to
~ IJ'svity Of pyrite - 5.0. rt.move t he 1..uxle$ired fine IT\Il.l erial. \'Io'hen- the 8CJ'Ct!n WAIl
ne ..... {he "versize and undelllire sn.al1flell "'ere l1.li listed under
. Pt:tl:cntll.JCl!
(",JU" "L~ IL."ltl"d "N.. ",." Afwr 3 IlInnths' opel'll.lion, the
""'"+ ,
H.,t ll.in.,d
"o"ly_ "n' ,,~ 1"',,010"1 "(lId." What .. t he "ff~ LiVf'n_ Of
3 II", "'n..,,, (<l) ,..I",,, I",W "IM I (I.) ",I ..." ..1,11'
" "
+
+ 8 '"
7. 2
+
8
10 + ,.
10 12 .0
17 . 6
Ovc,.,.il(~
~ . --
l' +20
20 +2R
IG. ~
12.1)
:\1,...1.
3
+
1<'... 1
11.1110
Nell'
0 .012
Okl
O . Ot~
N~,,' OJd
0:067
0 . 344
0.2\19
0.042 - 100 + 16(1 0 .062 0.005 0.02. 0 . 237
0 .014 -Joo +200 0.020 0 .001 O.OO'l 0 . 11
.U
e. Ooa
taD per t.our of dolomite .. produoed toy IlI'UIIbiI'll yftfd,k1 s..,en, 111 "I:~/Br..(~ a% KuiMN)
aDd. ,bell --. ,~ a 14-meih , I!ICreeIl.. Al'lI'din
kt t.he _ ~ bekrw. cabi.te (II) the t.ot.al k.d In fbo If &.apia Weicht.
____ ud (') tJ. .eet.i~ 01 lobe 8CftIeIL +K in. 3825 pamI
J.(" X 8 m.h 1(108
"'"'"'
U......
..... ...... 6X 14
14 X 28
m'
303
Tyler MMh
.......
F-''''
%
""-
PrOOuct., Cireula.tinc
% ,_%
28 X 48
~ XO
219
S!m
7. The data bebor W'tll'e obtained on the operation of :& Underflow frtlp, &=cD, 9.8 T6a1/IIr (Dry 800dB)
e-u-h (eq,uare) h\llMll8l' _ n at the tipple of .. oot.l mine.
n. _nine ... done 't o.eparate .. TeTy fine r$fl*l from. Sise 8ample,%
' - ~.uearn 10 tt.t i' eouId be~. Caleulate (II) J1 X 6 mesh 11 .3
the _'ftI'y and re)eetioD. of Neb ... fl1lodion and (II) the 6X8 7.8
_eI'eet.ift-. 8 X 14
14 X 28
28X48
~XO
a.
6.9
8~
.'
' .
,
,
..
~
',.
f
,
CHAPTER
,.
Size Reduction of .solids
N inrlUHtrie$ that p rc.eess raw material in the From this, it might appear t hat,the best method
........'
I
-,
D ....... r~ Sol,; .... III.
."".."..
<m"" "'",
'" Jaw .~ M_ w....,
, ," , I "I,
H_
"
,.,.~
)( Oope, iK,
'" I I
I 0
" u
"
..
-
:u x 15
'" " n""
" "
0
" ~
~X~
42 !ic: 40
0
.. ,n ~
'00
w
IIOT
ml
,~
" , r ,wr
'" " ro,""
140,000
0
'" '00
'"
'" '" '"=
,~ 197
"
tl)( :to U. ,,.
0
'" '" '" 14$ .000
-
,~
'"
n,
,,,
~
... ,,. ,.
4& X .2
110 )(
0
0
,ro
,~
'"
'" '"
,,,
~
,..r
,~
,~ ~ n. .... 1/10,000
2 16 .000
,
-- .
U,
'" '" '" '"
"' x.. ." .,r "'T
.....
~, W <&2'11 ,000
... .
," ,., "
0 ., 00 ~ , .."
. '".
"
"
.ro
" .
...
"
"
.
.
,.
'" 4110 .000
TARLE 7. CAPACITIES OF DODGE CRUSHERS There are many different designs of jaw crushers,
(AIJi5-Chalmel'll Mfg. Co.) some of. which combine shear with compression. The
.... I
TO< Diooehaf n St11itl1. I ~ .
..... "'''''.
Uruv..aal jaw crusher (Fig. 20) combines the prin ~
cip1es of the Dodge and Blake crushers. It gives two
crushing strokes per revolution because the pivot
......
Oponinp,
, ". ~ .""
Motor
"~
"'~Ibt.
"
is above the bottom end of the jaw, causing the
bottom of the jaw to move forward while the upper
'"
xG.pe, I
" "
~.~
..
OX. 1.100
OX> . =
12 X I
UXII ,". ," ='" "" ..~
lS , m
developed later to supply a machine wj~ greater
capacity. Actually, the crushing action of gyratories
is similar to the action of jaw crushers in that the
.. !' .. to ... 1"" hour. moving crushing element apprOHches to and recedes
from a fixed crushing plate.
chines with gape!! .. above II in. The constant open- Figure 21 shows a $U8pendtd~ndk type of gyra.-
ing or the jaws at the discharge end gives the Dodge wry, consist ing of an outer frame carrying an in-
,crusher an annoying tendency to dog which is absent verted conical surfl1.ce known 8.8 "concaves" and an
in the Blake crusher. inner gyrating crushing head. The conical crushing
lil!.IJOJ ito Ih" ltI'Ctlh:llt distance het"~"Iln the jl!.W$ or crush- head is supported on a spindle which hugs from It
illl eurfllee$. 8Hitabl~ bearing in the upper portion of t he ml\Chin~.
COARSE SIZE REDUcnON
Flo.~. Sectional drawing of UnivcrMl ttmlmli,nOO roller. I Flo. 21. Sec~ional drawing of gyratory eruslU!r of sutpended-
oo.rin&:;aw ertll!oor, (lJ"i~ Engi1ll!Q1'1I4 t!mp.) _ aplndlo type. (AUU-Clialmoa Mfll. Co.)
2K X 10
X,. lli " li
", ., 700
.50
3 700
,000
"" 1a.-25
10 X 40
13 X 45
16 X 1>6
'"
2
3 "
120
'"
3%
,
4
93
128
17'
'00
375
300
25-10
50-75
">-l00
30,000
45,000
62,000
2OX68 3% l52 246 330 75-- 125 94,000
OOXOO
,
4 235 '% .50 325 125-175 169,000
36
42
X
X
126
132 '% '"
475
6%
6"
''""
300
300
175--225
200- 275
263,000
286,000
."
."'''''
50 X 162 6 1li 2.50 22a--300 675 ,000
-
54 X 162 6li lO5O ';0 22;;-,..'>()() 630,000
lO
00 X 6li
""
22;-JOO
174
00 X 182 ')< 1420 IO.K """
1900
250
250
,
125,000
1,000, 000
" ' 1'1.23. P hllll l0m oirnW lnll: of R,"'a\l[on! lm:uktr . Run_of_mine eonl !!IlI<'I'1I throu gil II .., " hule .... . hE" lar IlntJ, iil liflod , fa lls,
fin'" is hroklln I,), the impn.et, ~jnl<: thn.ugh IK'rfor.Llions inl" II", rhme bel" ... ; rod.; an d refU!ll' !Ore 1'1<"';00 <>tIt all indie"t(~1
in tbe fOrt gl"OU:x!. (l'w'~!lll.'an;" ("ru~/.~r Co.)
12 SIZE ItEDl"CTIO" OF SOLiOS
:\ loo/ill'(/ (fill UIW!("r' for coal, g,vpo:<um, it,*" or other speed ....;thin IL BtUn:iy boulling. Tbe hammers deJiVl'T
!!Oft. mate-rials (Fig. 24) accom plishes llTf'llkinR by heavy hlows t.o the feed ml~wri81 while it is in 811&-
r l'P'!.'SlIl'1' of jhe tef'th Ilgainst the Jar~r l1\mp~ of the penB;on, driving it against a. breaker plate until it is
fin e enough to pass through t,he openings in the cage
b!lr~ a .. the bottom oCthe mill constituting the screen.
Some of these mills a re bllilt in cxtremely Ia.rge sizes,
the individual hammers wf'ighing IlB much as 2.50 II .
Ye ry !:Itumy housings are req uired for such halTU'l'klf'
mill,;. The same type is ILli:IO adapted to fine pHI-
Vl:'ri1.ing. the size of the proouct being controlled by
t.he ",iZ(1!I of t.he dii'K:hargf~ III:r()Cns. The httmmer
mill i ~ p r,)hahly thc must versat.i le type of crushing
dCl'j l1P, cu rrt'.l\ tly availl\blc. For wet material the
cagt>:> for ~'I"'e Ii S arc rcpla.ce<.l with c orrugnt.cc.l grind-
ing pla t,eIi.
A sv-called lffjuirn-l-cflge dUinlegraror (Fig. 2f) is
'll~f\l l in te-uri[l~ apart fihrou~ material sllch as wOod
hllll:ks and n~bclltos. The device COMilll;; tlf two 01"
mm" concentric cages T()tated in opposite directions.
The fct.'" is introdueoo in Iv the inner cage. Centrifu-
.'.';.2:-,. R.c..,tKm,,1 111,,\\" ill~ ~I ~, ... illjt o''''l'IItion of 1\ bamrner gul foree rlrivcs the material into the sptK.'eS between
mill. rA/!i.-Cltu/"'f7>< Mfg. CtJ.) the rotating cages where it is torn a.part , and thence
into t he outer ca.sing from which iJ: is diBCharged to
material, d;~illtcgntlmg it in much 1,11(: Rarne manner
a conveyor or st.orage hin.
iee is brok ~n up manually with an i,:f! pkl.:.
Iii;
Ex cc~ive prodllct ion of fine;; is thus prevented.
Knl)hl~l and :mwoth rolls (Fig. 30) arC nlw widely INTERi\lEDIATI: SIZE REDUCTION
for coar;;c crushing of soft materials.
W!ef.l
A hammrr mill (F ig . 2,) may he used for coal or CVII/! crU:dIl'TS, developed sill(.'e the 1f'2O's, have
even fihrous material. 1leavy bl{K~ ks of steel are gained such wide R.CfCptW(.'t' that they may be re-
athu:hed by pin!; In 11 tIL,,1.: IIr d isk;; rev(llving at high garded a.~ s tandard in the intermediate talIge. A
I
INTER'IEOlAn: SIZE Rt:OUCTION ..
cone cnishN. The spherical head fw;i lila tf..'>S dis-- T he diamd c r a ud spac mg of rIIlJ,. may be varial
chargc of the crushed prwuct. o ve r ra.ther wide rangc:>, allowing considerable var'-
Crushing rol~ consist of two heavy cylinJurs rr. ations in fl ize of feed and product.. This flexibility is
vrilving toward each olher, the feed being ni pped l!.nu a favo rable r-haracl.edslic uf crushing rolls, which,
pulled downward through the rollll by friction. As cumbined wit h t he low initial oust, has encouraged
slwwfI in Fig. 30, modern cruSDers drive bUlll J'fllls t he wide adoption of rolls fur moderate size reduction
positively, breakage heing prevented by moun I.ill;/; of all si u~:;. The proper diameter and spacing of the
t h.e bea rings of ona of HlC rolls agaill~1. nCijIi> of heavy rulllO, the capacity in tom~ per hour, and lhc rnt"llIired
comprell8ion "pringiS. Since Ulerc ill IL l:un~ itlCl'd hlfl horsepower fo r crUBhing rolls may be computed !\II
amount of wear on the roU~ , t he cru~hing !Surface fHI10W ~.
consillU! of a tough steel ~lt.'cvc \rhich ill IIhrunk 01\ The coefficient of friction of the mineral against
to the mnin cylindrir-,J ('u.~tin)(, makinl( possihlc LiIl' t he ;;~l SUrrl ll:t:S o( the roUs incorporated with Il
replaf..'ClnCflt of worn t'nlshing l:Iurfa(:eg, The weuring rdatiml>;hip l>ctwecn tile oim('n~ ion of the "material
of grooves in the surface of t.he I'OH ~ is largely pro- tu be crushed and the dia.meter of the rolls determines
INTERMEDIATE SJZE ltEOUCTJON
whether or not a particle will be drawn int.o the rolls J),. = maximum dimension of the pnJllut'l (lI1 ini~
and crushed. Figure 31 is a line diagram showing the mum diMancc between ro ll.;).
outline of R spherical particle in position to be fi'r = tangentiul force on the part icle.
crushed between a pair of rolls. The vectors Fr and F N = normal force on the particle.
PH represent the fo rces acting on the particle at the FH = result"nnt of Fr and P....
point of contact with the roll and may be represented
J FH i!:l at a negative angle (poinling downward)
iJy the l"e!>ultant force FH~
with the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 31 , the particle
A .. - ringle of nip (the value for angle A in Fig. will be drawn betl\'een the rolls. If PH is nt II positive
31 corrt'::lponding /.0 PH hr.ing horizontal) . :mglc \vith t.be hOl'izolltnl, the jJurtid(' will ride on t he
Dr "" dinmctc.r of the I"olls. rolls or be thl'OlI"ll up and out. und will not be cl'\.lshed.
DI - diMrncter of the feed purticle, The angle A between the two tangenh at the points
36 SIZE REDUcnON OF SOLiOS
of contact of the particle with the roUs indicates The limiting vaJue for the angle Aj2 at which the
whether or not. the particle will be drawn bet.ween resulting force is horizontal is called the angk of bUr
the "'Oils. The fheoretical capacity of rolU is the weight or 0.
The definition of the eoofficient of friction is the ribbon of feed having a width equal to the width of
ratio of the force tangent to the surface to the force
normal to the surface. In Fig. 31 , this is FT/ FN.
I i---- -D.- -H
D,
which is equal to the coefficient. of friction . the rolla, a thickness equal to the distance between
If the particle ill a sphere, the rolla. ADd a Iebgth equal to peripheral velocity
, D. D, ' of the roll! in linear unita per interval. of time. This
- +- may be expre98ed in tons per hour:
A 2 2 D. + D,
""--
2 D. D, Dr+D, T- -oo._~LD:c"::
-+- 2000
2 2
The value for tne angle A. corresponding to tbie where T _ capacity (toIl8/hr).
limiting case is called the angle of nip, A ... " - peripheral ve10city (fpm). For rolla up
For lImooth steel rolls the value of the angle of to 72 in. in diametei, " is ullually
nip A. is usually about. 32 degrees for ordinary approximately equal to :100 + 84D .
rocks. In industrial operations general practice is L _ width of roll! (ft) .
to dep!rmine the theoretical minimum roJl diameter D~ _ distance between rolls (It).
Dr, add 1 in. to allow for wear, and selec~ the Dext p - density of material (lb/ cu It).
largur industr.ial roll. The actual capacity is usually from 0.10 tu 0.30 of
If the rolls are operat~ on a slab of steel (or a the theoretical.
particle of similar shape) aa indicated in Fi~. 32, With the increasing use of cone crushers for inter-
Dy D~ mediate size m1uetion of ores, the application of
A ae
-+
2
-2 D~ + D~ rolla in this field is being limited to the sise range
008---- - between cone crushers and fine grinders.
2 tiC D D
~+bc Dr+ I Gra;JitJj ,tamp'. The oldest method for size reduc-
2 cos (A/2) tion of solids is undoubtedly a husky human being
Dp(I - 008~) - DI-D, swinging a heavy hammer. When man began to
devise mechanical methods for industrial operations,
FINE SIZE REDUcrION 37
. he naturally thought of a rock~rushing device in- and a surface rubbed against the stationary surface.
_volving a weight to be lifted and
dropped on t.he The upper ind nether millstones used for grinding
material to be broken. For tPjs re8.'!()n the gravity flour from grain are t.ypical. Such a machinf' CII.l1>;("1
stamp is the oldest recorded method for size reduc- disintegration mainly by the appliCftion of !:!hesr
tion in the intermediate and fine size ranges. Gravity loads. Most recent devices in 6ne size reduction,
stamps are stili used to a oonsiderable extent because s uch as ball mills, depend more Ofl impact than .m
of the ease of oonstnlction in the field, especially for shearing forces. The division of the operations "f
crushing gold orcs when the gold is to be amal- size reduction into crlLShing and grinding is no longer
gamated with mercury, in spite of the fact that descriptive of the operations used in coarse size
capacity is low and the costs are relatively h igh. reductiOll, a8 distinct from tine size reduction .
Figure 33 is a modern type or stamp min. The
stamps are vertical shafts raised by c:ams operat.ing
under oolllU'8 fastened to the u})per PMt of the shafts.
. . The lower end of eaeh shaft is equipped with a In the transition from the old-style shear-gt'inding
heavy cylindrical metal block which strikes on a sta- device5 to the wldespread application of hall mill!!
tionary hard metal slab. Since & stamp miU has no and rod mills, iSCveral mar.hines appeared in whirh
means of clearing itself of the crushed proouct, the the material is reduced in size ootween rullpn!, ur
operation is usually carried out on suspensions of heavy balls, rolling agajn~t a crushing ring. In t!lc
solids in water, which pass slowly through the crush- Chilean mill, the horiwlltal axes of t.he roll!:! are
ing lonP , usually stationary, and the flat pan cfJ.:rying the
The reduction ratioe in stamps may be as high M crlt.3hing ring revolves. The bowl mill (Fig. 34) may
150, making them one of the mOllt flexible types of be I'egalued as it$ modem d evtJIopmcnt.
machine!! for size reduction. The Raymond roller mill (Fig. 35) COll8ists IIf
rollel"l! !!uspended all balanced jounlals from a rapKlly
rot.sting spider mounted on the upper end of the main
FINE SjZE REDUCTION
shaft. The revolving rolls exert prC!:'!0'3 ure on a sta-
Sise reduction in the finer ranges has usually been tionary confining ring by centrifugal force. A plow
termed fine grinding. This is due to the fact. that mounted on the apron or slec\'c revolves with the
mMt of the older devices for reductton in this range shaft to throw the material into the crushing zone.
eoosisted of two main pari.&, & statiooary surface ~ mill is usually provided with a sizing feature
.. SIZE REDUCTION 0" SOLIDS
whereby the material cannot leave the machine The length of the cylinder is usually aoout equal to
until it is fine enough to pass through a screen of the diameter. Most ball mills are continuous in
given mesh or be lifted by a stream of air of constant operation, feed entering at one nnd and discharging
FlO. 36. Cutaway a nd sectional diagram of Raymond roller mill with air cb.iiiifier or R pe.llItor. (CQmblllliDn BIl/Ii-".., Co.)
velocity. The so-:called whizzer consists of vertical through the opposite end or through the periphery.
vane!! rotating rapidly in a bori~tal plane to knock They may be oPerated either wet. or dry.
oversillC particicH out of the rjsing stream . In cylindrical ball mills the product. may be dis-
Bail miUtJ are horizontal rotating cylindricaJ or charged by overflow through a hollow trunnion (Fig.
conical steel ch.unbers, approximately half full of 36). The smaller particles are IIUSpended and carried
steel or iron haiL!. or flint stone& The aiae reduction out by the circulating fluid, such ILl! air or water.
is aceomplished by the impact of these balls as they The.Hardinge mill (Fig. 37) ill typical of cylindro-
fait back after being lifted by the rotating chamber. conical ball mills. The larger balls and larger pa.r~
FINE SIZE REDUcnON
FI(;.3G. &Il mill ~ho,,-ing feeder.nd hollo ... t runni()/l. (AUu- FlO. 38. Interior view of em"ty ball mill showing grale lind
Challll~1'3 Mfg. Co. ) roUed ateellinc~. (AUu-Chalm.tr~ Mffl. Co.)
tides of feed arc supposed to segregate to a certain V!l.nes on the inner periphery of the cylinder, and dis-
extent in thp. cylindrical port ion of the mill with the charged from the hollow trunnion by which lite mill
greatest. diameter. 'Vhether or flOt t.his supposition is supported . If the mill is supported by pcriph~ral
is true, there is a definitc relationship between size tires riding on rollers ( Fig. 40), the materilll simply
of p3rticles and size of baUJS fe(juiN>d for effe(!th'e Rows out through the grate and through the open
size reduction. In any casc the lifting _ cct 0 11 the cnd of the mill.
balls i!! greatest. at the greatest dillmet.er, and the CumpoUlld ball mills consist of two to four cylin-
large r balls willlJC most eITective in size reduction at d rical eOffiJ)(lrtmcnts separated by grates. Each
this poin t. successive compartmcnt is of smlliler diameter and
In "grate mill!:l" the product p~ out th rough the eonLains balls of smaller sizes for finer grinding.
openings in a vertical grate or diaphragm (Fig. 38).
In the trunnion mill, the proouct may be raised by , .-
:-adiat plates or scoops on the otltside of the grate
(Fig. 39), p.lshed away from the grate by helical
"
.,
.
~
j
Comlllfitiw} 5-ln. b.a!!
rtlttion of c:tusflina:
. j
1IiI:, of ~tI$ 2-1n. materilll """-",,~~~:u:03
ID II'IIIa"iaI -15.6: 1
Fl o. 39. Out.side view of IratA: IIIIOWin, radial plall!!' which
FlO. 37. Cut4way diaP"Bm ind ieaLing ideto liled opcrMLion of mille the product and eau..<IIl iL w be dilM:hargal through the
,,"nieal ball mill. (llaroinl}fJ Co.) hollow trunnion. (AUi~-CIW1>U1'3 Mig. Co.) '"
... SIZE R EDUC'flON OF SOLIDS
FI Q, ofO, Gr.-Ie mln 10th opt.O-f':nd d ischnge. (TAt: .Hi"" find oSmdt(T SI'Ppili ro.)
Such a mill is e8-'lCntialty iI. ileries of mill~ operating :111(1 thel'..fol'e IiI' ill the mill pnn.Hl'l tv the axis" The
COllI iUlloll::lly . impm't of the rvds is l'cf.. ived 1ll!linl.'" by the la.'I(Cl'
The lincl":! of ball mills are "'!lIlaceable and u.'!lIally pill'lidC>!, callsi!!,,; pl"t'fele."ial 1'{'C.iUctioll VII t~ .e
made frum alloy ~teel. Uther matcriald such :"...i> e .oar.sc:;;t It.rtid~ and I~i \'ill g :l mvre clVOiC" sized
ru bber, Cl:I3t iron , ceramic, II.lId I\JCk pI'Oducls are fm.xluct. Rod mills are m()n~ c:pcnsive to operate
sometimes used. The wear on linen! i8 usually frum than ball mills, but their liS(' iii indicated wh.m 9.
0.1 to 0.5 Ill/ ton oj product. The balls introduced -"mull proportion of fines is de~ in...u in the pr~)lhl('t.
into the mill vary from 1 to 6 in. in diameter, and Fip;urc -11 . WlI the inside of a typical roo mill and
the wcar is from 1 to 3 Jb/ ton of product. It. I!!. indi,c ates the w~ar and replacement of the rod;:; by
customary to compensate for ball wear by introduc- thei r different diameters" Whe n the rods become
ing one or more fu ll-si.red balls to t he roili at least badly worn they mil!'!] be removed before they bend
on~:!. day. or hl-eak; if they become shortr than the diameter
R()d milu are similar t,) 1)1111 mills except that the of ] he mill they may become wedged in such a posi~
grir.ding media arc steel rOl.b~ 1'8t:,er th&.Ll halls. The tion as to be beld ap;ainst the lining.
nods are always longer than tbfl diamete.. of the mills Tube mill is a term used to identify a long cylin.
drical milt (usually about 22 ft long) utilizing pebbles
of flint and ceramic linings 'lIld usually opcrq,tcd
intermittently on Ii hatch of tnllterial. Tubc mill"
havf' lnrgc!y 1J<!(:u replaced by hall mills e:ccpt in
cu,..'s whcTl" iron in the P~lIct eannot be tolerat.OO,
Opel'u1jn8 Condition.
The rate cf rotation of ball milill ~hould be Icss
than the sJ)CC(\ at whic;l the ch3rge is held II.gainst
th(' in",iilf' s{jrf~~ct' by ccn trifut!:u l for(.'C , S ill v'e no size
l\!llu<'t ion ,,"ould tll kc place unless the h:ilb fall UpOIl
tiU'l malerial to be crushed. At low s~" wl.ere
thf' balls simply ron over each other and are not
cU1'ried up and dropped, only the ljm~lIest part iclflS
~U'e atTeeted. The ;".riti('al ma:imum speed may be
determined in the same rr..mner as d~ribed for
~1". H. ".L.
I,,"ri..... vi... 01 ..... 1 mill ........inlt ill v.ri"y,. lrommel ~recll!l" With a correction malic for lilt"
o<ta~ of W~ r rrom "",.vicc. (A.Ui~Chal""," .\fl , . Co,) diameter of the ball, the eritiul rate at >!C8. lewl
n~E S11.. REDl:C:TION 41
.lUl~ be IU\("('rt"inM fn)fYI fhf' f'xpl'f'R..'1ion 0
i 6.65 i I I
,
N - ----
v:o=d ., I I I
,
whlre N - !"f'\'ullllion..d per min.n t'. I ! I
I
/) = tliume tcr uf the mi ll (ft ). : A- I
I
d = tli:' m('f(' r '"If the l)!lll,. (rt) .
.0
V , ,
I I
C,
where C,! varill>l rrom (j t() 3 for mor;t normal opera-
tiollS.
The normal capacity of cylindrical ball mills in
v
tH:l.~ per '2'1 hr. may be estimated as
V
V
Volume of mill (eu It)
0
V
C o 5 10 15 ro ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
where C uJ';ua11y varies from About I to 2. KikIe'Im-CentimeteBper Gnlm 01 Q\grtl
Flo.~. ReiatWn d enerv i'!Put to !lUrfare prod uced in
crushinc qUArt. with & iJrop weight erusher.'
ENERGY RF..QUlREMENTS
Although most of the power required for driving plotted in Fig. 45, show a constant energy requi:-e--
crushers IUld grinders is: used in O\'ercoming mechan- mcnt of I kg-cm for each 17.56 i:IQ cm Q:f new surface
ical friction, the actual eucrgy used in !Size red uction produced for this quartz, or, as U8Ual1y exp~ ,
i.g an important eOllSideration and theoretically is 17 .56 Bq em of new 8urface procluccd by the applica-
proportional to the new surface produced, as there tion of I kg-em of mechanical cnergy.
i.~ no change in the male rial except lIim and the RiUinger's number designates the new surface pro--
duced per unit of mechanical energy absorbed by the
material being crushed. The values vary forrlifferent
materials, depending on the elastic constants and
their relation t.(l the ultimate strength and on the
manner or rate of application of the crushing force .
A few values of Ritiinger's nwnber as determined
by (I, drop weight crusher are given in Table 9.
Rittin&Cr's Number
Mineral eq in./lt-Ib eq cm/ lt.-Ib sq cm/ q-cm
Quartl (Bi0z) "'.7 2<3 17 .56
Flo. 44. Qia,gram d drop wei~t I:nI8ber."
Pyrite (lo'e8t) 48. 7 31. 22.57
Sphalerite (ZnS) 121.0 780 66.'
creation of new surface. This principle was first
recognized by Rittinger.4 Rittinger's law was first
Calcite (CaCO s)
Calc!... (PbS)
163.3
201.5 I'"
1300
7.5 .9
93.8
eoofirmed beyond doubt" by the U. S. Bureau of
The energy absorbed in crushing mixtures of these
-The prineiple known .. Klck'l) Ia.... that "~he e~
required to produoe alllllogowJ chtlnll'l'l of ooofigunLtion or rriinflrals can be calculated by addition if the propor-
geometrically similar bodi08 v"riuIJ all the volunll'lll or II18Me:!! tion of earh mineral is Irnown in the various screen
or thei!e bodie8," W88 at 01\6 time Af.l'Qneousiy II.pplicd in the fractions before and afwr CMlslling. The most rapid
theory of erushinl!. It Ietl to \.be ialee ooocJusK,n that the means of estimating the new BUrface produced is by
coerX)' l'ieq'lirod in crt1!!hini: ...... prnportion&! to the dec:rea8e
the use of IICreen analyses as discussed in Chapter 3.
iD ...tumc or ,,... of the partk-kol. Thill principle in now
f'I!COgIIized l1li .. ppliQ&bl,e only 1.01 pla>!lic deformation or par-
Other mel-hod~, l:Iuch Ill! the rate of ijQlution, IU'e more
tides withiu tllo! elwltic limit IUkl Hut to crushi"". prto(:ise but more diffir.llil to execute.
L~RGY
... ,,-
MENT'... ",F BALL MILLB
balls in the machine whiltl vinding equal weights of.
{Iua.rt&.
TABl,!:: 10.
:~WRt'ACE
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF NEW
ytlODUCED PER UN IT OP ENERGY
.--
........,
- ........ ,. . -.....
-x
.x>
... .. .-.
'.-
.-
....
""'. a_
"' "" "'
~A_
' ~IJ, -.rt4"
'"
~;.,.",
,~ -
FOR QUARTZ x< '.M " " " 1%- 16
. -...
'x<
"
M
c..IcuJat.eJ hy IlUbtnoclinr; ~be energy required to driv(I the 'x< '.- N
~
mill containing ballll but no IlUIterial from tho! total ODe...,. 'x<
.... n
,.
.... .. ......
requi ..... 1 to drive the operating mill for the same le~b of OX> ~
time. .X>
:X I
II,,*,
I!,CIIO
." ~
,. ~
,.
'" ,
...
Total Wei&ht
oi ;:~:: :n IX 12 N." ... m
.Ball Mill, Ib sq in./ft-Ib eq c.m/ ft--lb IIQ. emJkc-4'.ID
36
71
5.'
10.1
36
'"
2.'
4.6
ox.
'x<
OX<
21,10,
".-
7~ ,OOO
D
" "
'"...
"00 . ....
...'" ......
110-1_
1<2
17.
'"
12.7
14.6
12.1
62
94
7S
5.'
6.'
5.' I X" ......
,....
~M"
,
~
,."" "
I X~;
,. . ..,...
Drop ""flight
............. ....."
x>
"
.. "
m
~""'" 37 .6 17 .00
,
OX>
The new surface proo.uced per unit of energy sup-
plied to the material. being crushed in 8. ball mill is
much less thall for the drop weight cfUllher. Thill
OX>
ox.
ox.
12X O
....
110.000
"
"
.. .. .
,..,oo
'''' ,~ '" ,n.
~
,~
Mesh
Food, feroon,
wei&ht % v.eiiht % ....eight %
,,~~
M_inMlII
Produel ])ot.
~ ..
Dlltribu
4 + 6 1.0 0 0 Calculated SiN D;"tribotion 100 Ib 01 Ii<)n.
Oy.roI.., M_
6 + 8 1.2 0 0
M~
~
M 0 ............. %"
8 +
10 +
+
"
14
2. 3
3.'
0
0
0
0 ..... % ;n
(ho""; ..
% in
,
Undenoi ..
(Und<roI ..;
1.o1O!>\. lb
''''~
M lU
,,,...
14 20 7.1 0 0 - 'nI + U 18.87 la .~1
'.m
20 + 211 15.4 0 0 -85+48 M." '2 .011 18 .(10
18 .5 13.67 -" + 0.5 27. 12 27 .1 2 14 .cr:
28+" 0 - r,.; + 100 20.70 ~.M 11 .112
"+48 17 .2 32.09 0 - 100 +1l1li ' .M If. I!! I1 .U '.m
48
f!.6
+ tI5
+100
15 .6
10 .4
Tl . 12
20 .70
0
2.~
- 150 + 200
-'" ,' .m 13.M
0.02
It. n
M .M
" ...
' .Q
- 100 +100 0.' .4 . 3.~ 14 . 12
100 .00 100.00 1113.13 100.00
- 160 +200 1.3 2 .07 13.54
- 200 0 0 70.02 M&SII %in mill product ,
- MIWJ % undeni ...
100.00 l00 .OCr 100.00 ~1II.911 % OV~i";ze + 1.0705
H13.33
Snlution.
Tht; distribution of material I!IIllIl1er thM 200 metlh in mill
lOO-mesh w'''ne ween product from an ext... pola.t ion 00 II. plot of
M'M produet Joe (n)UII retained, per oeD') \.!I'Ilq los (DoYa )
Bell mil
ill given be low.
200 tans/
A..,... M~ ,11:1\1J1
6.98
%i.n
Under-
,;"
-14.46 1. 65
-
D
0.378
eree.ted per unit time is ca.leulated, then the minimum ell(!~a:Y '.00 0.'"
re<!wred for the formation CRn be CRleulRted. "
:J1.8 ' .00
12.22
10.34
1. 60
1.03 O.4{17
In nrder to evaluate the new surf&OC of the product, the
minUII 2OI:MneI!h fl'llclions may be evaJmkd by the !!tl1light-
22 .'
15.9
4.24
3. 58
8.78
7 .41
I."
1.45
O.Ss.5
0.676
line plot. 8I.Ieb u Fig. 15. This method ill valk1 only foc the 11 .2 3 .03 6.28 1.42 0.""
pI'O(!uel. 0( 1\ -r-hanical enJllbina: device a nd not for the 7." 2." ' .58 lAO 0.""
ebuJlliliod product. There'ore the ajq distri but ion of the ' .59 2. 19 4 . 54 1.375 1. 117
mill product m ....t be computed and extrapolated lor the 3.84 0." 0 .41 1.35 0. 144
DlI\$IJ fractions retained beIo.. 200 mesh. Tile sum of t hei!e
fractiorla mUlllt!!-qual the minW! 200-rneosh fraction.
33 ." 70 .025.611 - L . -
~ m.
The fraetiorlll of mill plt.'duct below 200 meeh...-e then C:>n- D.n
wrted to f"'eli.oM of the undersize stream . The surfaeee SutfMee arcl!. fot this fraction of the undenize IItre&m
of the fl'Mtiollll~ calc,u1ated either from thfl actual specific
turface_ in Fig. 16 or from the I'Illatlollllhlp (p. 22): .5.611X1Q4X6 4 '2150 '/7002
- ---
7 .'-3-- " ~' aq em IilI"lUlll!
6 n;m,
Total. IIWfIlCl,! .. - L - - M_ SpociIi, ",.w
,.
.. is evahuted from the data of Fig. 17.
(Dn.)1
"""'.
Mel!h
% .0 Surface, SurflC&;
1)nOOfllUe S<i cm/ grnm oq=
- 55 +100 2.32 85 .8 109 . 1
Theoretical eft'cc:t;VCOO$ll of Oal l mill
- 100 + 150 14 . 12 115 .4 1,629.4
Minimum pow "" required to _a~ ...." . eurf_ - 150 +200 13 .M 155 . 1 2 , 100.0
Power in,-,reaeo due to t. hll./'KI!
- 200 70.02 4.5 ,250.0
~ver&ll "nerBY etlecti.,enes!! c.f ball mill 100 .00 ~9 , ISO tq em lJUrfaoe
are_f lOO
M : nimum energy I'Ilqui red to o~ate new surbJe gramlll of
Trw (loorlD' used Undnrlllizlll
PROBLEMS
FEF..!) SURFACE CALCULATIONS PROBLEMS
M""
% in
F""
Swf_,
lit! em/ gam ...
eq em / IOO
~
of pyrites pel' hom. On limilsr materia.la, ~he o~rall eoerJY
j,'fficicooy h!UI t-n found to ~ 3. 1 ~ per etIl'It.. 11w! raw feed
is to be ~ by a j&w oruaber, . hoE,product. ~
, + I.'
+ 7.' 7.' the feed to t.be CODe cr\III!hu. ~ oone cruaher opera'" in
- " ..
11.9
h + I'
1.2
2.3
12.S
eloaed circuit with a 14-me8li IICI'8eIl. 11le cone auaber ;
prOOud and n.eyclo IItream aDair- ""' gi~n heklw. OD.
10 +
14 3.' 16.4 67.4
:.M bMia of calcula\ions and of &D1 8IIISUDlPWJona wbieh :roo.
14 + 20 7.1 21.1 149 .8
lI13y find JJOOeIR.Ij', /!elect _ ~~",Je elUIlher ,hAt will
-20 +28
-28+SS
IS.4
18,6
26 .'
35.7 .,..,
U4 .6
do too job.
TIle surface ratio (n) IDII.)' be OOfUIIdered to be 6..6 oLbo'ftl
-35+48 17 .2 0(7 . 2 811. 8
3 mesh. The full 'oad ene'1O' nKluiremellt for the ~
-48+65 IS.6 63.' 082.' oone CfUflber ill 5 hp. The r ..cycle MI';'" (n.,<:yc)P, stream/prod-
- 65 +t OO
- 100 +150
10 .4 ''-8
116.4
892.3
750.1
Ue\. stroam) ill 1.
'.5
-ll!O + 200 1. 3 166.1 201.6 Prod.", Reeyele Stream
Mesh Mai.! % Mesh M.,. %
4,968.8aq em ~tal
-14 + 20 29.8 - 3 + 4 3.8
surfaoo/IOO
- 20 + 28 30.2 - 4 + 6 10.0
.N_ lIlIriaee treAted _ (49,180 - 4968)
&n1Illl of feed
-28 + 35 26 .0 - 6 + 8 19.6
-35 + 48 9.6 - 8 +1 0 26.0
.. ,212eqem/ 100cram- offeed -48 + 65 S.H -10 +14 36.6
-65 +100 1.6 - 14 +20 4 .6
. . (44,212)(0072)(200)
100.0 100 .0
'l'!lore?cal eft'eetive_ .. (6.462)(1.98)(1()i)(24)(201.5)(5)
."",
%, .. 0.0907 + 0 .0762 + O.33lJ) .. 0.1i049
...1 Reeycle; " . Produ...-t,
Scn"'lD
~JI .. 0.0642
effOC'tivcneM
Mill
mll88
...... .,..,...,
' Cla8lifw a...m.,
% mMI%
.
-%
[
1 _ (0.0232)(0.4407) ] _ 0.914
(0.41l51)(0.9126)
Tyler Screen MetIb
0.525 in. - 0 . 371 in.
0.371 in. - 3_h
~l.ained
' .7
20.1
PetAined
'6:3
""'"""
3m.... + 4meah 17 .9 7 .
'BtBLIOCRAPHY
6
+ 6
+
12, 1
'.6
'.2
'.3
1.
I. C\tJl)II'f, A. M., Print;il'lu 0/ MiM;r(d DnMin(J. MeGraw- +10 5.5 3.0
Hill Book Co. (1939).
2. GftOlIft, JOHN, "Crushing and Grindina:;," fl. S. Bwr. M inn
B"U.402 (1938). ContailUl oompiet" hibli"llTllphy. -20
.. + "
+ 20
+28
. .7
2 .7
,.
3.'
16 ."
...
! f! :g
20.7
.,
.
3. RtCH.UID8, R. H., and C. E. Locu, Ta;ibooI< '" ON: Drus- -28 + "
mg, 3m 00., MeGraw- RilI Book Co. (1931l).
4. VON RrrI'lNOEH, P. R., Llr.rbovA "" A ,ifbnllit"ngd:ImM,
- 35
-
+ IS
+ ., I.'
2.'
2 .'
I.<
i';. 7
19.3
Berlin (1867).
S. T.l.OOAIn'. A. F .. HandbooI: oJ MiMrtJJ l>raWIg, John -"
- 100
+ 100
+150
\..1
1.7
1.2
13. 7
11. 7
Wiley and 80M (1946). - 150 +200 1. 5 9.S.
'.6
6. DAVIa, E. W., "8&\1 Mill CTUihinc in CIoIIrd Circu it .nth -200 3.0 . :lR.1i
' .5
Screeru.,' BwU. U...,. &i...... ta, No. ~ (IDU).! BoJL 10,
&ItooJ. of It/i>ul Bq. && Tot_ 100.0 10&:0 !OO.O
.. SIZE RJo.:DUCfION OF SOLIDS
3. A Clement plAnt ia pind.in 10 toM/hr of a bani rock S. QuMta: from the mll)ll jllelI t oyer a piuly with &.ilL
(8pecifie pvity, 3.8) in a h~ disk pinder operatin3; 8pa.cinJ and then to a B"ke at.ndard ;'W' C!'Ullher with
in a cIoIed circuit with .. 6S-rnesh ICteeD. Re&uIar cbecb a 4O-i.1L by 42-in. foed openlnJ and a ~ dilclu.rgc eettin&-
upon the poIIeibi.1ity 01 o~ part)elel ~ throurh the The ertI$her operatel!l at 190 rpm and IwKIb 130 tonB/hr of
ICftJefI .bow that all material in tbe unden:ile Itream from feed. Screen ~ of t)lo felld and product are liven
the _ 0 win ~ throuah .. ~meeh IIereI!JI,. beloW'.
Drop weicht laboratory te8tI upon tbe ~l.erial beiq (a ) What arc the thooreti~ po'A'er rcquiremenla.?
t:nIIbed IDdieal(! thac. the abeotption of I ft.-lb of _.tID' will (b) What me motor reoommentled? Why?
ftft1It in eruti<ln of 110 8q em of new 1IW'f_ and that the (In the &i.e ranv- iooita t.ed the a veJ'lllll SUrfllW ratio may
8pI!cifie lIW'faoe r.tiOll are ideut.ical lrith tbolle of Iphalerite. he &!IIR1IDIld to he 8.0)
(0) If the enel'l)' elfideney of the ,"oder is 18 per oent
.m tbe knotll'n 8trtamll ha:e the ana.iyeell PftD belo.... wh3.t F"'" M_
ln.oo.I~t
M_
ill the bo~r required by the IJinder! I'rne- 8cl't'f'n F_
S':nJCn
(&0) What ill the eft'ecli nl_ 01 the IIIlrnen!
,- -
"eud to from from -28. 1> +2-1 .0 0.343 - 4 , 2,3 H OO o.m
Grinder, Grimier, -24.0 +20.3 0.220 -2.00 + 2.11 0 . 167
-20.3 +J7.0 0.165 - 2 . 11 +1.49 O.IOS
M~h lraetion f raIltioli - 17 .0 +14 .3 0.064 -1. 49 +t.~ 0.008
-14' .3 +12 .0 0 .037 -1.0.5 + 0.81 O .~ I
3+ 0 .0.\
- 0 .81 +0.67 0 .04<>
+ 6 0. 10
- 0 . 57 +0.403 0.039
0.20
- : ~ I~ 0.30 -0.403 + 0.28.5 0.0:33
- 10 + 14- 0.20 0.04 0.05 - 0 .28.5
-0.201
+ 0 .201
+0 . 142
0.028.
0.025
14 + 20 0 . \0 0.08 0.10
-0. 142 +0 . 100 0.023
-20 + 28 0." 0 . 16 0.20
- 28+35 0 .2< 0.30 -0. 100 + 0 .0707 0 .0 18
- 36+48 0 . 17 0. _ -0 .0707 +0 .0500 0.016
- 48 + M 0.10 0.0075 - 0 . 0600 +0 .0353 0.010
- 66 +100 0.08 0." 6. In an a~tempt t.o eyaluate the efficiency of a 24-in. by
-100+1&1 0.'" Il)..in. Blake jaw c~r. a \let of eo&I'IiIOJ analytical _ , .
- 150 +200 0.04 ..-...s oonst-ructed from welded atee! roda. The 8landa.rd
- 200 +270 0.02 Tyler v'2 relt.t.ionahlp between acreen apert.uma Wall main-
- 27'0 +fOO 0 .01 ~ in UliB ~ of I&rp_,..
Ca..\cite WM fed t.o the e~r at the rw.te or
60 tonafhr.
4.. A feed of 1&1 toni/ day of pyri lell moo be l)OlllIUi.nuted The di8charge !leltint; of the jall'l W'M 6 in. The CI'Ulher ....
hom the rnatuialsiKe pven below .. feed (the product front .. driven by .. 35-bp motor. ije~n uaI,,- of the feed and
aontrollin _ 0) to tbe me ranp pY'eD helow .. product the product r.re liven in the tt.ble below.
(the feed lo .. reduetion pr.-). A ball min is to be Il!!ed. (0) Calculate efficiency of the cruaher, ...urninl the motor
II. will be 1o.ded with ballII to operate at .. erushi"l declive- ,,'M opcllltinl at an averap of U ila. rw.~inJ.
~ of about 32 per cent., tb) HOOI' many toN per hour of p}ena ouuld be fed to tn.1
(a) What IIisc cylindrical mill Ihoukl be ee\t!eled1 CTUllber and reduood over the same aill) I'llJlIC with tbo flame
(b) What llise motor will be needed to drive it? IlOwer?
(el What ill the overall ene-iY efficiency! (c) wtw.t it! tho capacity MCQrtliug w Taggart'! ronnul&?
M~h
3 +
Feed, JT\&I!IIII
fraction
0 .036
Product,
fraction
III&III
Aperture of - -
Fool,
fraction
Product,
fraction
Spedfic SurfIlCC
Ratio ..
Averap Diam
rOl'
-"
+ 8 Scn:.en, M eter of Mate-
8 + 8
0 . 111'2
in. '" rial on Screen
~-"
0.""
8 + 10 0.284 0 .010 22.S 0.0 0.0
10 + 14 0.123 0 .072 16 .71) 0 . 11i o.n 10 .0
14+20 0 . 228 II .11.... O . a.~ 0 .0 ' .7
- 20 + 28 0 .29.\ 8 . 40 0 ." 0 .0 !I."
- 28+35 0 . 170 '.03 0.15 0.0 !I.O
-35+~ 0 ."'" ' .20 0 . 10 0.05 8 .S
- 48 + ~ 0.072 2.1/7 0.0 0.20 8.0
- 6.'i + 100 0 .04<l 2.10 0.0 0 . 46 7 .2
-100 +1&0 0 .000 1.48 0.0 0." S .S
- I~ +D) 0 .002 1.05 0.0 0." 8.2
PROBU:MS
7. A grinder .. to be tilled to ..n- ...il.kleooo! oce 01 the willreeult in the (RAtion 0( 110 IIq em of new surfaae. on-
lood abe !lho\Ion below. I.aborat.ory t.elta: 01:1 IIbnil&r equip- teo!b al80 indica.te ;h&t. the surf~ area ~lioB for the cnakrial
IDtIIlt indicalAl ~ba~ the product I!izc IIwn beki ,....m be sati8- are identical ..;tb t holle 0( sphalerite.
l..etory, and that the &rindcr b apprmlimate1y 8 per cent If the eoorcY effiti.-;ney 01 U>e grindN is 18 ,oet oenl and the
efficient in oon'ftrtin inpUt enerxY into Bir.e .. ~fnctton III! kn,,"n 5trelI.~ have the anal)f1'C'8 given below, ... hat ill ti)Q
evidenced by an incn'aae in '''.Hfare. hOnICp<>wer roquin..'d by the winder? What. ill ttlO ctl't'CtiVQ-
I t is eet imatoo t hat . enJllher to handle 10 ~h(l~t tons/ht IICI'O! uf the ocrocn?
will ()()lIt "boot t4OOO. If the crueher (lperlliel! (In /I. 24-hr n..w Di.w:h/l.rlC Ovcnsl"O
bMis for 300 dJt.Y!i!yr, it is estimated that main/.(:mmt~' 0061.11,
- -
fo'ood to from {"nn
o~rhead, -.nd ordinaryn>pi800IlYmt 008t.8 wUl be ",bout 50 per Grinder, Grinder, Screen,
cent of pnwer ()()lltI!. F,J.erlric po....er rostI! 2 or.n11l/kwhr.
If this rua.ch ine depreciatee on a ~traiKht.-li<le 1>IUIie lind its MMh lradi<lfl { tACtic'lt f raction
lire is ee~ima.tOO d 10 yr, ~.hu.t is the p ~nlt r.(V!t per ton
or ore? + 0.10
, + 0 .20
........I.m:""" 1'",,1\1"1, mlU!6 + 0 .<0
Ty k,. .\It"'" I.... <:ti<lf. fr:u:liQn 8 + to 0 .20
Ii + 8 0. 143 10 -+ 14 0.10 0.'" 0.03
fI + lU 0.211 14 + 20 0." 0 .06
10 + 14 0.2JO "'+28 0.00 0.09
l4.+20 0.186 0 .008 28+" 0.25 0.35
20+28
28+35 1'
0 . 120
0 .016
0.'"
0.277
"+,,
48+65
0.30
0.20
0.30
0.08
ar. + 48 0.034 O. J4!l 6.5 +100 0 .06 0.05
48 + 65 0 .101 - 100 +150 0 ." 0."
65 +100 0.068 -160 +200 0.03
- 100 + 150 0 .044
- 150 +200 O.02'.t 10. QuaTU IOC'8 IhmICh b-o IIUCCCIIIiVII g illooll orr tbe
IMII'" oshaIt which dnt.wI a total 0( 20 hp. Tbu feed averace-
8. A roll crui her is to be IlIICd to crush nlL'<lium hanl q uartz :I in. in diamuter and ..... allllriaoc I1I.tio n of 10. Tbt. criOOe ...
(specific gravity, 2.65). TIle produet from the crutShec iII"", running tmpty require 2 hp. Their capacity is 3 \o../ b.r.
be 1M tc. a number of rod mill~ (6 ft by 12 ft) itJ. lh" rate 0( T he analyBel of their produeta aro &:lYen below.
8 toNl / hr to each mill. The power DClfl8Umption 01 each I"Od (II) Calculate tho bonIepower UIled In eaeh grinder.
mm Ja 160 hp. with &n overall e!".erg,Y cl'fectiv~lIe"" ur efficieucy (~) Cak'UI~te the effiMeucy of the ,;rindetll if Rittirlier'R
of 2.0 per !lent. number (new IJUrf8.Ol) produced por unit of ~nergy) it 37.6
The 'rod milbt oPCl'lLtt, in p,m".,J cir~uit with /I. 4S-mcsh IIQ lll./ft-.lb.
IICrnI.!n. 'I'hI:I ratio of recyd.., to po:xluct iII l : l .
Primary Grinder
If the IlUrfaoe ratio n for quartz iIiI to for all sizeII .boYe
3 meth, determine the 'leUing (distance bet"''()Cn the J"Oi\s) MeIlh %
in the -ro1l CJUIIher. - 4+ 8 20
- 8 + 14 30
C\Msit;er Product ~d" 1$1'-"1 - 14 +2R ao
~I - M_ - 28 + 48 15
~
M'+" 48 Fnw:tioll
0.05
1\1ceh
-20 +28
Jo'ract.ioI!.
0.05
- 48 +100 .5
J.'inal Grinder
~8 + 56 0."' - 28 +~ 0.10
M +100 0.10 - 35+48 0.80 "~h %
- 100 +150 0.05 - 48 +66 0.05 -28 + 48 10
- <8 +[00 20
O. Jo'ivo toM of hard rock (~ptlCifie Jl'l\v\ly, 3.8) are foo - [00 T200 00
.. very ""'.... r (,<, 8. rone crusher ill el.....'<l circui t .... ith a ~g.lllI:tIh -200 n~h + 0.001 in. 30
...._rnP.Il. Refllw ~.oo.,k>t upon the JlO"'I'ibili~y "I over:.iw
puI,i~'" r--ing through I.br. >Ir.n!fln I<hQw ~hll' ... 1 mllk-n..]
- 0.001 ill. + O.CJK13 in. 10
% -
0-
tile.
%
,-
{Tuder-
IlUe,
%
Hi X
1 X '"
Mx~
1 6.77
1.76
1.44
1.04
:'.10
16 .~
18.84
21 . 14
-
-
8
+ 8
+'"
.. .1
13.2
' .1
.29.3
!" "
"Xl<
Jl.
0 . 42
0 . 21
8.02
' .43
-
)( X
-00 +48 L4..1 31.4 Nothlnc M.xO 1.13 14 . 10
-48 +OS 20.2 23.'
-OS . . 00 24.3 6.' 1.... J{. X tI mesh 2.83
-"100
-DJ meah.
+:100
+ O.OCH In.
16.2
7.9
48 ....
2.09
ooald be - - ' per)'eV t,y .. rlo8ed cim&it. if f80 t.c.. fA pmd 28X48 1.28
eli.D.br ... poo.!'.oed cIail:r. 365 da,. .. yeKf 48Xn 2.18
CHAPTER
Handling of Solids
ANDLING of material!! deals with their 0.03. Loading uno unloading time varies greutly
..
cluding loading. unloading, and return. The rolling GMOline-pouw.red indrl./riDl trmh are similar 10
eoeffieierat of friction usually will be about 0.02 to the electri~ truckS! but. have speeds up to 15 mph .
50 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
paved surfaces, whereas tractors with caterpillar
treads arc used over rough t~rra.in. J n rough ter-
min I!kids often replace trailers.
'rraclor$, which in themselves carry no load but
draw truii<'r8 or m al~iul on 8kids, are extremt'ly
valua ble gcneral-plIrJ)IJtIe muchincg nnd are livtl.ihlble
in Il large runge of l!.iros.
Pawer 8ho~'('18 are widely used for h!lJldling large
quantities of solid materials with portable equip-
ment. Open-pit mining. excavation, nnrl the hlUl-
dUng of open-air stumKC pilCll are examples. Steam
shovcl1:l am economical to oppratp, but, becauSf' 0;," the
Fill. 46. F:I~ttie-AtOl1tlCl!-battery j,rur.k, ti~wl'h.trorrn type.
e.'I(tra man hour~ requiN!d to get, \ IP ~tcam and ot.her
(1',,/.0 ,uld T _ MIg. Co.)
disadvantages of the tx,i icr, til", gllSOline and diesel
In general, l,he gasoline trucks ure better adapted power shovels ha\'e gllined great favor. Electric
for longer hauls OUldoora, whereas the electric trucks shovels ure uften uSl'<i where ample pleetric power i~
are ideal for silorl hUllls indoors. uvuiluule. Puwer shuvels opel'at A 011 a tumtll.b!e
Truiicr& are frequently used in conjunction with and have a boom which may be mi:iCd or lowered.
industr(u.l trucks. The larger trailcl'S tuoe generally The materinl to be handled is pkked up by a thru1:It
drawn by tractors. Rubber-tired traetors are em- or drag motion, elevated with the boom, and rotated
ployed for hauling across relatively smooth and to the point of discharge by the turntable. DillChargt-
PERMANF..NT (NSTAI.LATIONS FOR HANDLING SOLJDS 51
is by gravity and occurs when the scoop is inverted The angle oj 8lUk is the angle of minimum sJope
or a gate at the back of the scoop is opened. Power measured r....m the horiaoota.l at which any looee
~hovels are generally u~ in conjunction with com- solid material will flow. The angle of TtpOIt ia the
mercial dump tnlcks but are often employed to load angie of mlUimujll slope mes.sured from !.he hon-
}'ailroad Un! directly. The flewer shovels have cater- :r.ont.a.1 at which a heap of loose solid material will
IIi1l0.r t ..etti.L:I and cun be movtiti frum place to pla<.'e stand without &diding. approximately 17 degrees for
untie!" their own power. Power shovels are expensive wet clay earth, 27 degrees for anthracite coal. 31
nnd fCquire skilled operatore. Their purchase is degrees for fine sand, 35 degrees for bit.uminous cOal,
warranted only when large quantities of bulk mate- 39 degrees for dry earth, and 39 to 48 degreet!l fOl'
rials are being handled at changing locations. A gravel.
10ClLi contractor can often supply thib equipment for Vibrators m.a.y be ul!ed to keep gravity .didos free
Mort perioo>:l IIr will (.'1mtrnct to move a lluantity of by giving the slide a vibration in Ule ~ireet.iOll Of
material. How. The most common type is the magnetic v ...
Oanity or I;rKlge cranes ("'ig. 47) are often IUICd brator, operating on alternating current with lhf!
for IOLU.ling and unlOH.ding rll.ilrotW C8.T>:l or ships. wme frequency of vibration as thecurrcot frequency.
'l'h{J!;fl machines oonsil>t of two support.ing towe~ The di8placement of the slide is small, U$u~lly les!i
with a bridge between. A trolley moves back and than 78 in., but th~ frequency of vibration keeps the
forth across the bridge; the entire crane is on wheels slide in motion relative to the solid material because
und CUll be moved along a track. The trolley hWJ a of the inertia of the solid.
grab lJucket or lift. This type of equipment i>:l widely If a heavy spring is employed with the magnetic
ul!ed in the Great Lakes area for htuldling are and vibrator, the forces o! the spring and magnet become
;oal. Electrical drive i8 the general practice. A a.dditive in one dircdion and opposite in the other
skilled operator is required who generally ridel! in a dir"Ct:tiofi, caumg a slower mot ion of the slide in
cab on one of the Lowers. In the larger and newer the direction of the s.maUer force or accelerutlOn.
tlC!ligns the operator's cab il, placed j. the trolley. The material on the slide tellds to ride with it in
tile directioll of slower movement. With this aT:
rangement, gra.vity may be overcome and a solid
PERMANENT INSTALLATIONS FOR
material m.9.Y be conveyed up an incline (Fig. 48).
HANDLING SOLIDS
MaU!riai that lli being moved from one fixoo loca-
tion to another fixed location continuowdy or at
frequent inU!rvals usually can be more economically
handled by some type of pem18nent installation.
\vh"'n. the material must pass through .II. aeries of
operations, gravity feed can ofU!n be used to advan-
tage, the raw material being bmtlght to the top of
the building or structure by a conveyor or elevator
and passing downward, operation by operation, until
removed tiS product at the bottom. In idea.: situa-
tions the cnly power requirement is for the original FIG. 4.8. Di ll./i:r~mmati.c ropreaent.....t.ion of magnetic 't'ibrator \
elevation of the raw material. Loose material is f""ding up an innli ..... to right. The spring and eleotrio mal5Jlet
work tOi'-'tho:or to give a flLllt rolum to the left and 110 slower
usually guided by means of a chute or slide. The moVtlm~nt to the right.
dlUteli may be straight or spiral. The angle of the
slide wiLh the horizontal must be suffi cient to over- Vibrators Me oflen used to obtain uniform feed from
come the frictional resistance. The coefficient of a hopper having an adjustable gate at the bottom.
friclio!) varieR with different materinls but is about A great adv.nltige of the electric vibrator is that. it
0 .3 to O.(j for most dry 8'lIKls on steel slides. Mate- obtains motion of the alide without any mechanical
rial often ))eeomf!8 wedged betwoon the sides of the parts requiring IlIbr;1)ation, resulting in low main-
<:illite, crenting additional re8ilSt.a.nce", . ~ that an tenance coslS.
:Ul~ll' of -15 dC'KIl'('S or s\..('f'per is desiralJle for Ole A mecha.ni':/l.1 feedf'r pla<.'Cd inside th~' tank 01
:;lidt'. IWIJvvr is iIIu ~tl'atol'" in Fig. H!. Lumps of material
HANDLING OF SOLIDS
AU
..........
[.urn. . 2U '"
l~ m ... in.
:.u PO' - .1
,, " ," , " '"
" "" "" '". '"
~
, ,
'" '" ,"
.
fin fli!:ll{med to the shaft and rotating in a trough Screw convpyol'lS are used to handle a wide range
without tollching the trough, SO that the helical fin of materials, such as gra.:Jl, asphalt, crushed coal,
pushes the material along the trough. The shaft iOl ashcs, gravel, lind sand. A special typc, the riubon
driven by a motor through gcurs or a chain. The conveyor ill which the centcr portiun of the tLclical
COl! veyors are made in sections from 8 to 12 ft in nn is ah!lf'ut, is suitable for sticky, gummy liquids,
lellgth that may be joined together t.o obtain Ibe such as mO!u"'lC'lI, 11I)t. t.ar, and ~ugar.
desired length . The tor5ionul ~t.re$6 devdopcci in Lhe T Il'': hor.~cpO\\f'[, req\liremcnts of ~crcw conveyors
sllUft usually limit<; a single drive to about 100 ft. and of ILl! conveyoN! operating with tl. 1:ICraping a.ction
Diameten; vary from 3 (,() 24 in. may be cstimalHl WI the SUOl or thc power to run the
Screw conveyors are compact, requiring little head- equipment alone, the power to overcome the frictiOD
room and no return mCChWli$.fl\. They urc Ci!o- of the matedu! bcir.g moved, and the power to lift
nomieal ill original cost and muintcnanee. Thc mate- the m ate rial uny vertical height. For screw con-
rial is also mixoo as it passes through the conveyor. veyors t.he hOl"llCpower to run the equipment alone
Thit; i!:l often an advantage. The tendency to crush is essentially thnt required to overcome bel!ring and
friable mate~-jals mayor may not btl an advantage. The bibl'oKr.. phy for thi s chapter appilQllI on p. 64.
FLIGHT CONVE\'ORS
TABLE 13. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM CAPACITIEB
OF HORIWNT AT. SPIRAl, OR SCREW CONVEYOR$I
-
rJIlhl N<III.abrui_ H....,. N...... bno fl .,. ,\brui ...
o; __ ,,"r
or 11<.......
.....
~h<eri&l. ~,E-, ... ~ M.terial,
e .... Coal ,-
101.wloJ.... E-
iD. M.,.i_
M_d oM ...i
CtopKity,
ow IVIt.
mOm
,~,
Ct.p"oity.
-
... II/h, mum
R_
C_p"oity.
.~ II/hr
....
m_
,
...
" ""
= .""" r2.\
,,
,,
'"
oro
'"
......
,,~
,oro
""
~
''''
,~
175
""
,., .',.,"
2.\~
' 00
' 00
"" .00
00 ... .
'" "
~,
"
,." ,,.. .,"'"
M
'"
""
"
""" ,w '00 '''''
,,'..'""' '''' ...,
'"00
U;oII
~
M
00
.
'"" I ,"", "w
2100
..
" I '"., I "
'''' ""'
'"" '''''' '"
F:!o.61. Flight eon wyl>T wi th flilhta.upported on the trouch.
gear friction IUld is prop!'ftionuly small. For hori~ (LinkRelt Co.)
___ ~ntal movement the total horsepower may be esti~
to 30 degrees. The conveyors are widely ul:lCd for
- - mated ws follows. t
loose material til/lot is Ilonrll)fl\.l~ive, ~uch as grain,
Horsepower food waste, garlmgc, and coal, but Illcy are not !!uit-
able fol' friable al.)rlll; ive material, such lIS clillkers,
(Cocfficient)(Cupncity, Ib/ min)(l.ength, ft) gravcl, or crusl1ro ore.
33,000
flight
where coefficient .. 4.0 for ashes .
., 2.5 for coal.
= 1.3 for grain.
~
Inclination with R orir.ontai S W 25 ' 30" 35 40 W
Anth",eite 0.343 0.42 0.60 0 .586 0.66 0.73 0.79 0." 0." 0 . !i45
Bituminous 0.00 0.69 076 0.83 0.88 0.% 1.02 1.08 1. 13 1.15
,.... 0." 0 .62 0 . 12 0." O.. &'.i 0.00 0.97 1.03 1.06 1.10
-
b
1"light.IJ and chain supported on bloelul
... h~h slide di.-ect.ly 011 the lr&ck 0.03 0.03 0.03 0 .029 0.028 0.027 0.026 O.OU ! 0 .023 0.""
Fli,:hta supported by 3J+in. roller\! 0.004 0.004 0 .001 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0 .003 !0 .003 0.003
I
Redhr oorwtyOr3 (Fig. 53) Me a special type of used for conveying loose material such as chi ps, saw~
flight conveyor for dry and iooec material. The dust and refuse.
conveyor (Fig. 53) coosi!d3 of a metal duct which The simplest Conn of t.he drag conveyor is the drag
may be circular, rects.nguiar, or St"jUare, through chain, consisting of simply one or m ore endless cilains
-
which a chain passes carrying f1igbta _ The flights running in a trough, generally of wood.. No flighlll
I' ln. 1i.5. Dmg =-onveyor for 1lO! /'ement clinker w.ing cuI .tool
dOl, chili". (r,\Q"~ B,-.u en.)
depth of material conveyed depends on whether the FIG. 56. ~ed belt conveyor. ((.'ilai" Btli Co.)
ffiaterill.l is tine or lumpy. The capacities when mate-
rial is being carried to a depth of 4 in. at a speed of The loaded belt. (Fig. 56) is carried all gnlUJl"I ot
30 linear fpm vary from 400 to 800 ell ft of material !:lmaU idling rollers (Fig. 57), so arrlUlgcd that. tht
per hour for chains of 46 to 54 in. in width. The belt forms a trough. The widt.h of the belt variC!
capacitieR are directly propurlionni to the spet.'<i, but from 14 to 00 in., and Ihe number of idler~ variC!
~I>CI!ds IIhnutd not ex(:t.'ed 30 (pm for Il.brWliw matt"- c'oTl'Cllpondin (Iy. The kllers must be IIplu:ed !>O Iha'
rials. there will lx no sagging of I ht' belt bel.ween them
56 HANOI.ING OF SOLIDS
'This ISPlicing varies hom about 5 ft for nafl'OW belts Unl00iiillrJ th e wnveyvr offers more of a problem
down to 3 ft for the widest belts. The return idlers unless the loud is discha rged by gravity where the
are cylindri<ml rollers, spaced at greater intervals belt passes II.round the head pulley. If discha.rge at
than thOHI'! cun-ying the loaded belL The idlers may an. intennffiiatc point is required, one of tllrt.>e
be equipped with "nntifriction" (bull or roller) bear- methods may be followed.
ings or ordinary bushed bearillgl>. Power require- I. The simplest method is to arrange the support-
ments are considernbJy lower for I:I.Iltifriction bear- ing idlers horizontally so that the belt runs f1a.t, and
ings, but original C06t.s are higher. to iDlltai! a scrape at an angle of 45 degrees acr088
the belt, at the point. of di~harge. The bad features
of thi,; method are incN!ll.<;eQ belt wear and the
tendp,ncy of the loud to spill over the sides of the
belt before the semper is reached.
2. The belt may be rUIl over groups of idlers set
obliquely w tip the belt !!O that the load spills over
the edge of the bE:lt. Tills dot:;;! not deliver the load
at onc definite spot but the method does have some
app\iCll.tions.
,
FlO. 57. l:mpty belt conveyor, showin& supportinc a.nd guid-
ing itl k!r pulleys. (Lint.RtlI Co.)
FlO. 59. Belt conveyor tripper that may be !lelf-propelled and revel1!ed, -Ioaa; tripper track f(W di&t.ributing diIeb&rIed material.
(StcpMv-Adameoa MI,. Co.)
power required to drive the conveyor, but this is 4.. Total (sum of 1, 2, and 3):
offset by the convenience and flexibility of the unit F(L + Lo)(O.03WS) F(L + Lo)T T OZ
in unloading the belt. hp-
900
+ 090
+990-
Capacitiu of belt conveyor8 are indicated in Tables
15 and 16 on p. 68. F(L + Lo)(T + O.03WS) + T .Z
PfJtO(T requirel'\".enU for beU CQnt>eyor8 involve a 090
number of variables and may be estimated by means
of empirical fomtllias such as the following. where bp = horsepower required.
L For empty belt conveyor (minimum value): F = friction factor, 0.05 for plain bearings,
0.03 for antifrict.ion bearings, depend.
F(,-L_+,-:L~.):-(O_.03_W_S
_ --,-) ing upon iWJtallation mailltena.nce.
he - 990 L = length of conveyor between tenninaJ
2. For material (excluding belt) conveyed hon- pulleys (ft).
IOntally: Lo .. 100 for plain be.rings, 150 for anti-
_F"([''--c+'-71~",)-=-
T frictioo bearings.
hp - - 990 S "" speed of belt (fpm).
T = maLeria! (tons/hr).
3. For eievllting material (excluding belt which
AZ = increase ill elevation of material (iL).
balancea itself): W - m~ (lb) of movin,; parb including helt
T.Z ond idlcNC per foot of dil;itmce between
hp _ - - (negative when travel is downward)
900 oenteu of terminal pulleys (both runs).
51 HANDLING OF SOLIDS
TABLE 16. MAXIMUM LUMP 81ZE AND SPEEffi TABLE. 1M. APPROXIMATE WElOHT8
FOR eoNVJ;'YOR
" BELTS OF OONVEYORS
M __ FliJi:ht con~yol'l
"".,
1
I- 4XIOto 6XI8 0.6 Ib/ ln. of width per runnin( foot
..
M lm"", ~J' SI>"I"do. rpm
..... ,- ......
d
""hilll,
.
DIIi_ With FI,,"';',. A_ Abrasi"" Actu....l dinl(!r\l!i0Il611lui weightR are AVlr.ilab1e 11l mll.nUfllctUTens'
M.~ M.~
cataloguefr,
Io<m
"" ~.
...,.
M.~
""
..,'-
..
rlRlt
o.
.. ... -
..
Power requirement6 for tripper!! "",y be computed
, ,
"""
,.'"
,
'"
'" .. ...
..
'" .... ...
,
...
... -
0.11
-
0 . 14
0. 111
~
'.n
~
.00
~
=
=
n,
1~
Il.II follows .
bp = YS +ZT
where S - belt gpeed (fpm).
T - peak capacity (tonll/ hr).
.....
'" "
.. .... ."....., .. .....
0.78 ~
""
,, ,"
..
M
""
""
Loo
IS ~ H M " U q U
0.0001 0.0030 ' . 00211.0lI2\l 1.0031' 0.0041 1. 0010 O.OOM O.OOU 0.0100
O.otW a.CIOIfi 0. 1IOiII 0. _ O.OCHO a. ~ 0.0010 0. 00&5 ' .001 O.omr
....
-_..
~ iDd"..L. """" materialo ... .,a1" ond ~ ."tb......., An interesting modification of the be1t conveyor
au'" ....
.......
t A _ _ I0<0I.... kIrido ... *. ~ - . ...d. ...d is the zipper conveyor which is essentially a. belt con-
t ,,1>< ...... 'lid..... wdo ....1eritJo .. lOOk<. -""'" ho"" ""*- &1'11'" veyor with the edgP.s tripped qether to fonn an
endless tube (Fig. 60). In Q?er&tion the tube is
TABLE 16. MAXIJ\1PM CA?ACtTIf)3' FOR closed after being loaded and is lipped open at the
CONVEYOR BELTS point of discharge, remaining open until the loading
point iB reached. Because the tube is flexible and
Mllx:mum Capacit.y with Materials of completely encloses the' material, it may travel .
"".
Width,
Cu Ydj
Hr 3t
JOO
Various Bulk Densi ti es. ton~/hrat l00fpm around corneN!! at any angle and in any plane.
Apron fXlnveyor, are similaT to belt conveyors in
I . that solid materials are cllITied in a moving trough,
Fpm 25 50
100 " I 1"1
lb/ Ft' Lb/ F't.' Lb/ Ft' l.b/ Fr' ! Lbi Ft'
I but the trough is fonned of articulating sections of
woOO or metaJ instead of a continuous flexible belt..
. 2:1.' 8 .. 24
., "
I
"'"
Apron conveyol'fl are frequently employed when the
material to be conveyed ill lumpy, abraaive, hot, or
" 31.1 10 21 31 42
otherwise injurious to flexible belts. Their weight
20
"ao
18 39.6
49 .3
72 ..
1l6.7
13
16
24
39
27
"
49
..
73
118
"
00
US
81
fI!)
147
restrict6 apron conveyors to relatively !hart hauls
and much lower speeds, but they are capable of
carrying much heavier loads than belt conveyors.
79 '58 237 The only discharge point is at the head end of the
.,
..
36 173 . 3
242 . 2
324.4
57
82
110
l11i
Ifoii
""
.72
24 7
330
, .
230
1 330
.,
'15
of!);;
000
conveyor.
Aproo conveyors may appear in several types of
con~truction, but the usual form, shown ill Fig. 51,
.
..." 422 .2
"'-'.3
..
142
. SO
I """'" "".
m
i
I " . ""
I
1
:;70
."'"
(:(Il).Sists of two endles.<! strands of roller chain whict>
arr ~(mOO(~ted hy dnnblf'-hrarl/'rl ~1 4\f' 1 paM. The
idea of the beadiDJI," iI! til maintuin a cfmtmuol1S
trough to prevent leakage in tran",il, tt.nd to prevent
Operating capaClt_ ()f flat belt eot'Ivuyul'tl an: taken llt
material from being wedged between the aprons
one-half of thO!!e Ii!rl.ed. Capacit ~ 01 incliDt.'<i oonveyol"$ IU'I.!
6 to 10 pe r ""nt m than lilllN!. Fo r mll.terial weif;htR a.nd when the load is being dischargoo at the head end
8pt....'c.IS ulll",' tlHm shuwn above, UI!O direet. proportion ror of the clJllvoyor. The !JoI'adiug also pl'Cve.lt~ nul.h..'-
thnnag.l <1Il.lculatioDS. rial from slipping backward when the conveyor is
PER\lANF.Nl' INSTAI-I.A nONS FUR HANDLlNG SOLIDS
Jo'IO.OO . Druwing inoJl~l1ting the ~'>llli lructlon und opcl".ll ioll r:/1i llper encklllCd-hdt ronveyor-o!ievl!.tor. (Sl~- I\damf(ll\
Mf,. Co.)
t
Flo. 63. Drawing'i11ua- Fla. 64. Drawing illua- Flo. 66. Drawina illW!trating
tratinll; & oentrifugttl-di8- tll!.ting the "poiYtive- the oontinuoWHiiechargl'l buck-
chArge bucket elentor. discharge" buclcet ele- et eleVAtor. Buck~b a r e
The bucke\.6 ate alliubly vator. The buckets II.m mounted elOlle to one anoLhur
spaced on & chain or l.>elt "end-hunK" bet.WOOD two to fonn A oontinuOWl row of
.... hich ie driven with suf st~18 01. dwn aDd are bucke"'. High CApacity is o~
ficient ~peed to discll&rgo inverted as they pw!S tained by the ~ numbe~ of
the bo.''lketA over the Over the head sprockets buckets &nd not by speed.
head wheel by CCntrifll- a.nd behind the idler Theile elevators ma:' be in-
Ral foroe. It. may be .... hocJs, thereby effeo- dined ~ well AS vertical, and
U&i'J {or alm(.Jo!.t My ma- tiV'eiy diaclt&rging mat&- the~ cpc;"te MtiafACk>ril:r at
terial tha~
i, di9Clut~ rial!. not ~1l handled by 4.S or more ~ rrom the
r~ly from t he buckets.
(CMi" /kit C'q.)
oeDtm ugal <.fuc~ el&-
vatora. (C""",,, &ll Co.)
boriaonlAl. 'MfA Bd# Co.)
Wt:IGHT DETERMINATION 61'
The Cl~itie6 of apro!1, pan, and ' bueket oon WEIGHT DETERMINATJON
veyon and bucket elevaton vary from a. few tona
The OOIItrol of material as it .Rows through a plant
up to IWPut tQO tons/hr for material.e: ha.ving a
is essential for i!lOOounting, for"inteJ:plant records, or
density uf 50 Ib/cu ft. The capatity varies approxi-
for control of the operation or p~ Measuring
IIl.II.teo/ dil'!'l'ltly wjQl ~ denaitr of the lOad.
weight is an important methl In the selection of
The power reciW'ed fQr ~rivin8; these aproo and weighing equipment not only mU9t the process or
bucket COIlV~~ Pl3Y be estimated by tbe exP,re8- method of manufacture be coDsidered, but vari()U.!,
mODI
.. (GrQ88 turning eff9rt)(Bpeed, fpm) outBide !;Iogencies,
, .laws, and reKuIatioos. must fre.
pp - . quently be corurulted.
33,000 A scale is a device which measures the fon:e of
The l'fJISiatanoe \0 turning RI in pounds at the pitch gravity OD an unkll()wn mass-by balancing a known
radiul of the I:!eacf or driv~g sprockets may be ' force agaiD.l!t the ,unknown force. Except in small
ealr.uiatOO : scales the various elements of the scale reduce the
f(lr bucket elevators applied force: 80 that a relatively small balancing
force Dl&y be applied. '
R,-!tfL+C
If the balanciIm force is supplied by the force of
For hori!llootaJ apron ~ bue~t conveyors grayity on any mass, such as a weighbeam or pendu-
R, - '(M " W)(LJI,l 14m weights connected to a'dial, any change in the
gravitational field has, .... similar IUld proportiooal
For indi!led apron and bqeket conveyors
{
Ht - L(M + W)[(R, toe a) + Irin al + WL[(C08 aRI) - ain al
where At of mal-erial conveyed per foot
= mass (lb)
effect on the unkno",'U weight and .t he balancing
of conveyor or elevator.
weight, and the scale correctJy 'measures the un-
, W = mass (Ib) of chain and aprons or buck:eta
per foot (both runs).
known mass in any gravitational fi2Id. If the bal-
ancing foroo is supplied' by a spring, the scale does
L == length of conveyor or elevator from
not measure the unknown mass but ilie force 0&'
head abut to foot shsIt (ft).
gravity on the unknown mass which varies with the
1:~) + (0:)
-.
RI = (,rolling friction) == local aooeleration of gravity.
Generally 8(laies and other weighing devices are
.t: _ 0:33 for metal on metal, not composed of three essential parts; the load-receiving
elemen~, the load-bearing members, and the indiCAt-
= 0.20 for metal on metal, greaseg. iDg element. The indicator may be a weighbeam, a
D = diameter of chain roller (in. ). dial, or an automatic recorder. The selection of the
d '# diameter of blll!hing or pin upon indicating device depends on the application, the
which roller turl'.S. operating per8(lnnel, and the cost. of the ins~
/1 coangle of inclination of conveyor or ele- tion.
vator (degrees).
C - force (lb) rcqujred to drag the buckets Load-Reccriuili& Element
of a centrifug9.1 discharge elevator When an object is weighed it is usually nec:eesat)
through the material beiDg loaded. to support the weight on an independent e1emeJl'
It need not be included in oomputa- entirely supported by the load-bearing members
tiotul when the elevator is loaded by a In nearly all large scales this indc~ndent elemen1
feeding device. Even when uSed its consists of 8. weigh bridge supporting various super
value must be estimated. structures such as railroad tracb, a platform rOl
The turning n...;istanoo HI calculated in this man- trucks, a hopper, bin, or tank perma.nenUy built or.
ner should be increased 10 per coot for friction of the weighbridge. On smaller scales the load-receiv-
head and foot shafts; and 15 per ce'nt for eaeq pair ing element may be a IIJIl8iI platform or pan, or the
clsear reductions to obtain t he gT068 turning effort. objeet may be bung directly on the lood-bearin,
62 HA:\DU NG OF SOUOS
Fill. Ma. CutllWtly Yiew of Iypicll j r:,il roo J h,,~ k ~.. l(!. i'our.......:t i"n I<Nlle, 4.... ""i~li nll: of Inu T &:I ~ nl m." n l.. vcn\. TIle I.N]
iIs ddi vcreo.l to the j",lie5t<>r h.\" lt1c lra"~vc"", IcYe. {'x , .,ndi ,,~ ou t at the " .w:llt of t he Jl',;l ure. (J-'aiTwmh, M"r.t u: Cu.)
clement. Variol1s types nf conveyors are frequently buil t into the ",all:; uf lhc scale pit, or they may be
platl'(i directly on the lood mcm\:lIm . horizmltai rnemOerti between the weigh bridge and
the wulls or the l'cule pit .
Lotl(J.B~!fIri"g Jl!embers P ivots and bearings of bardened tool steel arc used
The irnvlwbearing members generally CUn!:!ist of in rnUl:!t scales 1,0 cnrry the load, as they are prac-
!!everal interconnected levers. In simple systems tically the only parts of the lever system t.ha~ are
only two levers may he required to carry t.he 10&1 suhject to wear or damage. They nre frequent ly
and reduCfi the ballUl-cing force required. III heavy- inspected and must be continuously protected from
duty railroad sr.ales there may be as many a!i thirtt)en corrosion. In ~ales tha i. are sUhjected to heavy
or more levers (Fig. r..sa). Thp. lwul from the weigh- tI;;ug<l tJlf~y mu~t. be repiar;e.:l or resha rpcned period-
bridge is transmitted through lillks to the mllin levers, ically. f 'U:ture plate, arc lrequently utlCd in place
which reduce and transmit the lood to the end ex- or
of the m9ft: conventional pivots knife edges. They
tension levers, \vhieh in turn t~allsm i t the load to the consist of relatively thi n plaWiJ of meW restrained
transverse lever and fina lly to the indicating device. in a vertical position so t hat they are subjected to
The conncction between the wcighbridge and the nearly pure compression. The slight amount of
lever lJystem is important lot accurate weighing. angula r movement is pro ...ided by the elasticity of
Only the vertical comJ)Qnents of the load must be the metlll. Flexure plates are gcnernlly COt nd in the
delivered to the levers. Any horizontal fo~ due largest ty.pes of sca1e:; but are also used in laboratory
tn impact, temperature, ()t similar factnrs must be and small capacity s(,IlIf!~.
r.iimiuo.ted. This is gene.rally accompliMcd by sus-
pension .Iinks) or by bnlll'J or rollen between the lndicotillg Eknl flnl.~
bridge and the lever system. It ill also necCSSilry to The indicating element inc\udel:! the method of
rest rab the weighbrKlgc from cxce&\ive violent dis- appl ying a calibrated force \.0 ballUlcc the applied
pl.wcment. Variolls "checking" systems nrc used load and m ust. indi(~ate by vlsUa.l or ut.her nlf~ans the
to limit horizontal motion... These may be bumpers magnit ude of tile balalwing f!)l'Ce.
WEICHT DETUOIINATION
scale a.re replaced by a hydraulic system, ba,l- mat, (II) Screw eonve)'il'.
(b) Flight OOD7tl)'ilr.
"',c,
anCe8 the applied load .. The force or weight is indi .
(el Belt conveyor.
c8~tedfby.. a ~i,Jor rec~er. Hydraulic scales have
been ~ul in small compact crane scales, wbere the .. 'For' the conditiON of problem 3, ospeeiIy the typl! of
conveyor an4 i$B .ue that 'Jill -reQuire tlU! minimum power.
load on me hook of.. a "rane D).U8t be ,q~~f1nined. Th{:
accurate dead-weight tester foc measuring higb .p~ . 6. A belt conveyor is rcquirtld to dell,.",. eru><hood Wmt>fltoDe
sure aDd calibrating p~re sages is a form of having a bulk. denaity ol75lb! eu ft at the",~ of ~ toBllAu".
hyaraulic scale. The oonveyor d; to be 200 n bP.tween ~nterl Qf pulleys with
II. rile of 2'5 ft.. The largest lumpo! are 4 in. &Ild OOMtitute
15% of the total. TIle conveyor -.rill d1!.cbarce QVW lhe end..
BIBLIOGRA,PHY FOf a bel~ ~ of 200 rpm, what ill !.be minimum width of
belt tbat can be U>Ied? Calculate the hmiW!PQwer fQr the drive
1. CliAIN BEl.T Co., Catalot!: ~6 (1945), Milwaukee.
motor.
2. HAWLlGJ:, R. 8., M~ H~ a'l f.Ii'r T,~
~. UlrIch 'a Book Store, AII-n Art-- (191 1). 6. What is the ~ty of. rl.ight OOI1ve)'Of of 12 by 24 in.
:J. l,IIU.-Bt:l.T ~., Ca1.4ol ~
f,,? _.-
ctuc:aco.
iI
tra~ling at ,100 rpm and handlin, the crW!hlld limestone of
I.roblem 6. '
7. A Bel"f!W ooo'Y'llyor is to be ;nsl&l\ed to convey 800 bushela
',~ of whe.t per hour QVeI' . distance of 80 ft. Determine the
!lise (diameter), speed (revniutiOM per minute) aIM! honJ,r
.power requiremen\e for the u.t&Ilatioa.
.., .; ;.. -
j.'-'c- "
..,, ,
PART"
Fluids
Properties of Fluids
F.NS'TY, specific gravity, Rnll other simihtt (force)(time}/ (length}2. TheI;e dimensions of vlflOOli-
-.
grams m ass/(cent imero r)(<:!CI.'OIld ) and the unit is
Visooeity i8 Il unique and rn08t important property
of all aetual Rum. It is 80fllewhat anaJogous to
resistance to shear in 801m The principal re&IIOIl
....yerDof_ A
for the difference in tlie How ch8[&Cteristics 0( IVater ReialNe wIocity .w
and of mol8l:lHeti is tha molasgefl has a much higher
villCOlJity than water. The analog;- to, shear fftlu:;t-
anoe in solids may be referred 1.<1 in establishing the
units of viscosity. Assume two parallel layers in the
flu id. a.g indicated in Fig. {if)(l, ('ACh hu.ving an area
of A SQuare cent imeters and with a diAtance of dy /
centimeters between them. One h~yer is oon.-;idered
stationary ; the other layer moves at a constant ,t I--------,y/
/'
velocity rela tive to the fi rst layer of dv centimeters
per seeond. A force of F dy nes is req ui red to main-
tain this relative velocity of the moving layer.
F or the general case, with II. number of layers,
-
Velocity, It
tOO.O
.."""
0._
metrically timilar unless multiplying the length of
every edge of the lWl:l.1ler one by a constant factor
will yield the lengths of Ute colTC8JKlnding edges of
Glycerin 14.3
20.3 ...
1387 the larger one.
Dyntlmk SlmUcuity
Air
0.0175
Dynamic similarity is ~ property of having
'"'"
100
0 .0182
0.0195 motion of the same form and differing only in size
arid JXII4tion. It, therefore, also requirea' geometric
0 .0218
'.036 similarity. Two flow systems possess dynamic simi
Slul'f'ioe or Cl\,~ "'" lan'"J' it the streamlines of fluid flow, or the fluid
in Watl'lr (PartieiCft" AWrtlxilUltte Bulk flow pattern, of one system may be superimposed
.lJlJut .5 Microns), TeffipOll'. ViloooIity ..... directly upon the streamlines of the other system
% by weiht ...... 'C cenupoilBl with no change other tJ:J.an the equal magnification
20 I.. in all directions of one oC the systems. C0Q3ider the
20 1. 11 r~ passage of air past two spheres of different di~
10 20 i.~ ametel'5. If the velocity of the air id the same past
"
OJ '"
20
20
un
2. 7\1
both spheres and a cigarette is held in the air stream,
two d.ifterent Row patterns of the BIDoke around tbe
'.7
"
Seoe Apllffidix r"r .. JJi\io.oIw.l vi ..."""ity dlltll.
spheres are apparent. If the velocity past one of
the sphcl'ClI is varied, a particular velocity is found
RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN FLUIDS AND cOLIDS
. at which the 8Illoke fl ow patterns appear to be sim- sponding points in each of the l>imilar systems may
ilar, If photographs are then made of the two smoke be expressed in terms of two forces, one normal to
patterns and the negative of the smaller system is the direction of motion (FlO)' and one tangential
~laced in an enlarger, it is possible to adjust the to the motion (F ,) (Fig. 67).
en~r 80 that a print OdD be made which wilJ be The fluid is assllmed to be a continuous medium.
identical to the print made from the negative of the This assumption is valid except at very low pressures
larger system. In some How pat-terns which oscillate where the mean free paths I;)et.woen the ffiolecu"lei
with time, it is necessary to take the pictu res at become large IUId the fluid no longer behaves as a-
col"1'ePpODding times. eontinuous medium. The gravitational and elastk:
It is apparent that fluKl How patterns cannot be forces are abo aSsumed to be negligible in eomparison
dynamically similar at points adjacent to solid with inertial and vislxlus fOreel!. These assumptions
boundaries that are not geometrically similar. and are valid when there :11 no f~ 5urfat-e for wave
that geamdrn rimilaritv ia a pri11U requiBiIe far motion and the vclocitictl &.re con!>iderably 1e88 than
dynamic rimilarily. If dynamic similarity exists the velocity of sound in the fluid and lead to the
between two systems, the radii of curvature of the following relations.
flow lines or paths at corresponding points in the
two systems occur in a fixed ratio, regardless of the
path or point selected. At t.hese corresponding
8y~tt'm
I ,
8}'!<tem
points tl)e velocity ratios are constant, regardless of Any linear dimeru!ion chuuteriJin& the
whll.t particular point is selected; and the ratios of
the accelerations at eorresponding points are fixed
and independent of tbe poeition of the points se-
lected. The directions of the velocity and of the
S iOO of the S)'$wm
A Iinear dimel\.!!ion of the l!JtIali element
MM$ of the BmAli element
Radius 01 path of the snall element
Velority 01 the smAlJ element
L,
IL,
1m,
"(IL,)'
.." ,
r.,
.r.,
..
~
Similarity
Consider the motion or Row of fluid in two ge0-
Uemity of fluid in L givp.n II.)'8to!nl
Villco8ity of fluid in ci ~n ayltem
"" ~
Sub6tituting (1Ir!1)2) dll2 for du" (I' I/ I"l) dL, for d/~l'
u - the maximum velocity to which the lIojd
is liCCC1emtOO by the action of the
(L.!Lt) 6L, for 6LIJ "nd simplifying,
moving solid.
.
., ".f ' ...
,.
;.,.
"
CHAPTER
HE direction, upward or downward, of the of the fcathers, causes the water to wet the surface of
T {low of pW"tieles of solids through a fluid d~ the feathel'll, and the duck sinks.
pends upon the density of the solid relative to Conversely "flotation agents" may be added.
that of the fluid. This principle is the basis for the These are selectively adsorbed on one of the BOlidl:l
separatton of solid partic~ according to their densi- prestmt a nd enable these solids to adsorb, or cling
ties, an operation known as lK1Ming. If a fluid of 110 to, hubbies of air whi(lh give those solid particles an
dewity intermediate t.o the densitie;!! of the solids is elTective density less than that of the surrounding
available, the solid particles may be sorted by simply fluid, 88 the solid particle plus the adsorbed flotation
introducing them into a body of the fluid . The agent and air is the effective particle. Operations
particles of a density less t.han that of the fluid will of this kind are identified e.s flotation operations and
rist> or float, and the particles of a den8ity greater are of great indUl!trial importance in the sorting and
than that of the 6uKi will fall or sink. If no simple recovery of valuable minera ls and in many other.
fluid of the required density range is available, a separations.
"complex" fluid or s suspension of very fine (through Even if the particles of both solids to be separated
325 mesh) solid particles in a fluid having the desired are more dense than the fluid. 80 that they both flow
bulk density may be used in a manner similar to in the same direction, downward, when pla.ced in
that with a simple fluid having a density equal to the fluid, separation can be accomplished if the par-
the bulk density of the suspension. ticles flow through the fluid with different velocities.
ID8tea.d of a suspension 88 the means of obtaining For ~aw ple, " mixl ur(j ul galena (PbS) and silica
a fluid of the desired density, the surface charac- (8 iO,) rock are to be seJXlt8.tcd. The particles are
teristlea of the solid and t.he addition of material reduced to a uniform size of about 1 em. By u
adsorbed on the 8Urfacee may be um to cause one laboratory test it may be dc.t ennined, or by calcula-
material to float and the other material to sink tion it may be estimated, that galena particles of
independent of the density relationships of the simple l-cm size fall through quiet water at a velocity of
IIOliW! and fluid . We have all observed dust particles 13 fps 8lId that silica particles of the same size fall
floating on water, in.seet<! walking on water, 8lId with a velocity of 7 fps. Then if the mixed solids are
):>O$Sibly the demonstration of a. steel needle " float- introduced int-o a vert ical stream of waler rising with
ing" on tile surface of water. These phenomena are a velocity of less than 13 fps and greater thnn 7 fpi!
possible because of "surface tension" of the water the silica particlCll will be carried upward" and dis-
or the water not "wetting" the solid. If the dust charged. at the overflow, and the galena will .sink
particles or the insect were thoroughly wet., they through the rising fluid and discharge at the bottom.
would !!link, and it is only by placing a dry needle ThilS continuous prooess, oalled elutriatwn~ uses a
carefully on the surflWe that it can be made w float . . cyiioder with fluid Bowing upwa.rd at a. constant
A duck float<! on the water. But the addition of a known velocity. The solid may be introduced till
"weUing 8gt."Ilt" whit'h j... :uL..urhed on the surf!U'e such or a.'S a dispers;un ill the flUMl llw ,uZ& at tJw.
72
~IAXJi\IU:\1 VF.I.OCITY 73
largest part iel~ carried upward by the ri:iing fluid TIlt' pl"l'tiCIICC of allY 8uid such as air \,Ir "'aler intro-
(after Bowing for some time) is the size baying a duce!; two additional forees, the buoyancy effed.
maximum settling velocity just less than the upward resulting from disp~acement of the 8u)d by the saM,
velocity of the fluid. and the frictional re!!islilnoo from relative motion of
Cla.!Jllf~ion is the tenn used to designate the the solid and the fluid. Friction inereases with
separation of solid particles on the basis of their increasing velocity untit the accelerating and resist-
velocities of flow through fluid s. These velocities ing forces are equal. Then the solid continues to
depend upon the properties of the solid (density, move (or fall) at a constant maximum velocity
size, and shape), and the surface or interfacial con- (also called the terminal velocity) unless additional
ditions between the solid and fluid. The relation- forces upset the, balance.
ships hctwC!ln these variables are complex, and the If the following four assumptions are made, the
int..rffU'i&l conditions are generally unpredictable mathematical treatment is relatively simple.
without experimental determination, frequently mak- I. The solid is a nonporous, incompressible spher-
ing ea.lculation impossible. ical particle.
The experimental determination of the maximum 2. The fluid is incompressible and of sufficient
ve10city of settling of small particles can be made in extent to eliminate the effects of tlle confining wall,>.
a simple manner with a deep beaker or, better, 3. The accelerating force is derived from a uniform
a large graduate. The solid is dispersed in the fluid gravitational field.
in the graduate. The dispersion is allowed to stand 4. The particle is freely moving, that is, other
for a known time interval. The upper part of the particles are absent or, if present, do 1Iot lUliCt the
dispersion is then siphoned "off down to a chosen motion of the particle under consideration.
level. All particles whOlie seWing rates are greater The force causing the particle to move may be
than that settling rate which would carry the parti- expressed in absolute units as the maM of the particle
eles to the depth of liquid removed in the known times the acceleration. Since the forte is rell.lly a
time interval will be at the lower depths and will swnmation of several forces the re.; ult.ent /orctl lend-
ntlt appear in the dispersion w:ithdrawn. If the i"fJ to mouf. th" pnrtirh dmtmwaT'd is
largest sille of particles in the decanted dispersion
is determined, the maximum velocity of that I>ize F' - rna - 1719 - wg - FR.' (11)
of "article may be estimated by dividing the depth where g _ acceleration due to gravity.
of fluid decanted by the time interval. m "" mass of the solid particle.
to = mass of fluid displaced by the particle or
having the same volume 88 the particle.
MAXJ:\lUM VELOCITY
mq - gravit.u.tional force on the particle.
Where the shapes of the particle!! cau he defined 1119 - buoyant fome on the particle.
and surface- (!tmditions are of rginor importance 110 I-'/t' - ff'Sisting force due to friction effects or
that the other variablCII preduminate in determining fC(luired to 8C(~ler!l.t.e ftuid being di..
the Bow characteristics, the rate6 of free scttling lllllY plaoed.
be estimated with satisfactory results.
The basic theory of the flow of wHds through fluids The terms in equation 11 are readily evaluated
is derived {rom the concept of freely moving (or with the exception of the resisting force FR'. New-
falling) bodietl of cOllBtant mass under a constant ton 4 '" developed an expression for the resisting force,
acceleration. already given, as follows.
v= a~
to the initihl position, & is the time intel"V& after For a ~ the representative area A may be Uae
starting from rest, under the constant p.cceleration o. projected &rCa TD7. j 4 and
In the case of falling hodicli. the acceleration is , Tl)'lP'"
due to the force of gravity repreeentcd by the lIym- J.'R "'" (fD) - - (12)
8
hoi g. If no other foree ill 8(!ting on the body, g
may be substituted for 0 in the above equation. T~e biblioiraphy for this <)ru..pter appeal'S on p. 88.
THE FLOW OF SOUDS THROUGH FLUIDS
whl'l"f' fD i!:\ the frict,ion flWtor for thil!l "Pf"t'ific Ilppli- fluid becomes leeR important, beeomin& neglisiMe in
cation of eqUAtion 10. detemUninK the resistance wbeo the 80w condltiOll8
U this value of Fr/ is subatituted in equation 11, become C!lDlpletely turbulent.
the IIteruJy-tltiLte mflximum falling velocity may be: Por vi:otu (JIf lamino:r ftqw (Fig. 68-1), Btobe it
l:<Jmputru. --. showed that the force ~ the motion of a sphar-
teal partide is
d,
m - _mg _ wg_PI,' (110) (16)
dl
where D _ diameter of the ~pheril.J parttcie.
(lib) p ... viscosity of the fluid .
II - velocity of the particle relative to the
fluid.
(13)
F.quation I1b Cor a sphere ma.y then be written
of)'
(-
)a. of)'
P. - - - g(p, - P,) _ 3TDp&I
6 dt
By dividing both side!! of' t-he equation by TJ.:i3 P1 16
(14) --
dv
dt
(p, - P,)g
p,
18~v
Flo. 88. Flow 1;1ltlS 01 lIuid pa8lli.ng II. eyllnder. (Il urtleT Ro_, "Eh~rtlar) MAanica /If F'lu;/k," Jolut Wiky altd s-t,
1946, p. 40, Plah XIV.)
The frict.ion factor in lamina r flow ill then l-epre- cOUlltercd with spheres 01 must mineral!:> if the di-
sent~1 by a straight llne with a slope of - I un I!.mctcr is les.'1 Ulan 50 microns, and turbulent flow iii
logarithmic coordinates when log J is plotted fl.'! a lUmally f'.lleOI.llltf!reU with sph"!res of I mm (1000
function of log Re, lUI in Fig. 69 or Fig. 70. This con- micnI") or more in diameter. Moot oi the s.itt):;
dition exists up to a Reynolds number, Ue, of abo ut involved in commercial sod i m~nt.ation or classifica-
3 when the eddies or turbulence begin to have some tion II.M in lhe range of 0.05 to 1 mm where t he values
effect which incre~ 88 the values of Re becomc of the friction factor In clln be best obtained. only
greater. from the plot, }<'ig. 70.
In the turbulent jfqw region (He greater than As indicated in Fig. u9, the transition from laminar
about 300 or 4(0), the value for the friction fa.cWr to turbulent flow is rather indefinite, there being no
becomes neMly constant, independent of Reynolds sharp break from the Irt.raight sloping line repre-
number lUI indicated by the horizontal part of the senting laminar flow (Ctluutioo 19) to the horizontal
linea on Fig. G9. At II. Reynolds number of ILhuu t line of completely turbulent flow where it) i~ pTa&-
200,000, the friction f!lttor decre~ IShllrply. Thill litally constant. A part.icle always tends to move
ill explained by tho fluid forming immediately in t.hat mlWner which offers the greatftlt resistlUlce.
behind t.he particle an eddy which travels with thc In that region where the friction factor in turhulent.
particle, therlclby constituting a streamlined hody fl ow is not significantly grilUowr than in laminar flow ,
composed of sphere and eddy. any loc.u irregularit ies in r.onditions would tend to
If the fluid is water, laminar flow is usuallv en- causc a ehange in type of How and the flow would
THE FWW OF SOU])S THROUGH FLl'IDS
1-
76
~ Crushed silica
~
...
1000
600
Cru$hed plena
.i .
200
....0::. '100
~I
~ OJ
20
I0
6 ,
4
2
,
I
.,
0
0. I
001 0.01 1. 2 4 6 10 100 1000 10,COO 10 10'
_ _" " " '''_ D ..,."
"&~,, umber, Blsed on Average reel! - . I'
Flfl.'69. Friction facior, or dmg coefficient, vel'5Wl Reynold!! number for crushed IIOlids and spherell flowing through fluids.'
" II
1000
600
400
200
oJ- - 0.125
1JI .. 0.220
6
4 "'''0.600
I- I I I
2
"iOft
.
02
0. I
I
6 . 'Ji'" 1.000
FlO, 70. Friction factor, or dr~ coefficient, venIWI Reynolds number for p&rticlefi of different BllhericitiefJ.1I
MAXl1\lUl\I VJ:o:LOCITY 77
be' expected to be unstable. Although there may be readily determined from the rlata in Table 18 if tJ-oe
such an unstable region in ~e CMe of an individual particles happen to conform to one of the regular,
particle, it is not evident in data obtained on a large shapes listed.
, number of particles which indicate the relationships
J shown in Figs. 69 and 70. TABLE 18. SPHERICITY A~D THB VALUB OF D.
RELATED TO SCREEN SlZl-:
of Particle SIui,.
The FJ!fJCt
The maximum velocity ".. of IPhtrictJl panick3 has ....... Sphm; city'"
0,
'0:;;
been determined for spheres of widely varying sizes Sphere 1.00 1.00
and densities through many different fluidll.l,l,"I!.11
The results oi these experimental data when plotted
Octshedron
Cube
0.847
0."" I.,.
o.9tI.S
1 - r/iO
r/ 3
0.858
0.8Zl
0.594-
0.""
1.00
0 .90'J
0.630
0.422
-~- --
D, - ,,- r / 15 0.254 0.368
Multiply ecreen sile D.... by the factor indic.tI to pt
where n - the ratio of BpeCific 8Urfacee, the n of eon-ect value for D. to be ueed in the eqUlitione.
Fig. 17.
D.. v. ,;"
average screen ~se.
D. _ diameter of sphere having 8I:U1le volume
U the shape is not regular, ~ would be true for
a mutilated cube, the sphericity and the oorrect '
1108 particle (lor a spherical particle value fOf D. may be approximated ' by interpolating
D. _ D).
between tbe ~r basic ' crystal form and the
The above equation is derived M follows: IIphere, provided extreme care and judgment are
used. The actual shapetl of particles encountered in
Specific surface of pa.rticle
industrial operatiolUl can usually be eatimat.ed only
n - Specifie surfBQe of SPMnl of same diame\el'
by microscopic examination. The curves of Fig. 70
Surface of p&rticle are based on a "diameter" D., which is not the same
MUll of particle dimension as the aize of a particle determined by a
Swiaoe of ~ of _me diaDlilMr screen analysis (the average of the apertures of the
MUll of aphere of 1I&lOO diametef' cooliniog screen.s). The screen size approximateB
the second largest dimension of the particle. For
_ ('rO;'iN) ( ..D.....P~) example a prism a by 2a by 3a has the effective
'rD, ,v6 rD .... dimension 2a 88 its "size" in screen analysm, but
.--D"D,~ the diametef of a sphere having the same volume
(D.) is 1.127{2a) - 2.254a. A cube having an edge
~fore,
The value of D.
.--- D .... I
D,
'"
lOU2<l-.n
)'
This reiat.ion:mip tu.H heeD developed for t5pberieal.
Flocculat.wn
part.idel!.' Since the hulk density is also a funotion
When many part.ides are prceent. thflre h~ a I,end \If l.he riI:U1le volume rraction X and t he derulilw. of
t'_n~y for individual partkleit tu agglomerate into I.he 80Iid and fluid, tL eonvenMmt way of estimating
chl!lters or floos: Each floc then behaves milch 81> a t.he velocity of hindered IW!ttling i~ to apply the factor
Kingle particle of larger size and different shape thM F. to the velocity caleulated for free l!ettling. This
the individual particles constitilting the Roc. For factor p. is given 88 a function of the volwne frao-
Ihis rea&on the obgerved rate of settling is frequently tion of the fluid (X) in Fig. 71 and may be used !L8 a
many times greater tban that computed for the
tlJDall individual particle. F1occulatioo agenta which
increase the tendency to fonn BoCa are frequently
added to increase tbe speed with wbich a suspension
settles to produce a clear thUd. Dejocculating
agents which reduce the tendency to form 1\008 bave
the olJPOlllite effect.
Hindered Settlin.8
When many partkles are present there is mutuaJ
interference 'in the motion of particles, and the
velocity of motion or rate of set.tling is considerably
leM than that computed by the equations derived
on the assumption of free motion of the solid par.
ticles. The particle is actually settling through a
slurry or suspeosion of-particles in a. fluid rather than
lhroug)t the simple fluid itseU. Therefore, the bulk
densit.y of the slurry Ph .calculated by dividing the Volume Fraction of
lJl888 of the fluid and lIuspertded matter by the
FIG. 71. Settli", fac:t.or' F. for hindered II81.tling vcou<
volume occupied by the slurry, shoukl be used in- volume rra.et.ion of fluid in !!Iurry fOf BIJOheri.-al particl~ in
stead of the density, of the clear fluid In equation 17. t.millllf flow.'
- Likewise, the bulk vtscusity of the slurry I' ~, as ma.y
be determined experimentally, may be used instead multiplying factor ' in equation 17 for eetimating tht':
of the vifll"Ollit.y I' of the elear fluid. velocity of settling when many particles are preeent.
With thetle ~ubstitution!l equa.tion 17 beeomee (I'. - p, }gJJ2
fiN - F, (171/)
(p. - I'~)gD' 18",
"n - v_- 181'~
(l7a)
The value of F, M pven in Fig. 71 for viaoous
where'6 - bulk density of suspension. sedimentation or nonfloceulated spheres may be 0b-
. ~. _ bUlk yieeoeity of 8U8J)(>D8ion (Table 17 ). tained from the equation
fJH - hindered settling maximum velocity. X2
The bulk vieoos:ity ill frequently a function of tOO
P. ---- - liN
~u IOI. S2(1 X I
rate of shear in the C8Be of 8uspensione: and therefore If X is not. greater than 0.7, the following mmpie.-
an indefinite and indeterminate value in 80 far All relationship may ~ qsed:.
equation 17a is <loncemOO. HowevElr, the. inter-- lIH X,
fereDee C&UfIIld by the pn:tlell.t:e of many particles i~ F. _ - - 0.123-- -
a function of the volume fraction of the slurry (X) "-" 1- X
TIlE GENERAL CASE '9
The eft'eet. of particle concentration on rate of IIl't.-. and
tlin: is ~el'ftlt for angu~ particlee f..tian for sphert'S.
Apparently tlle angular ~ides ca:rry with them a (fu) 1,
volum~ of iiq!lij:l which is proportional to the VOI!lmC
fA the lOti!! ' ~ .. flJnctip~ of particl~ IIhape and Thc' intR.l'1'Ie(lt;on of ,the straight line ,,{ ~Iul\t,il)n
degree of fIooculMjon. ThilJ liquid is rmt ad~)rhed 22 when plotU!d on Fig, 69 ' IIr Fig, 70 \\ith thr.
on the I!IOlid but simply held relatively stagnant by proper linc giving fD as a. function (If Re ill f.h"
t.tte anpIuitiM in the particles. The effect of thil! d&lired v"lu,. fur Reynolds numoo!' incorporating
I!Jt.apa.at liquid may be' incorporated by modifying thp value of ". ""limit is the required *1ll1t10n. 'I1w
~ above equation i:IB follows. value uf ". it! then computed directly from ,the value
--
dv.
<It
--
loPtAVIJ,.
2m
(26) ~4 t _
2Dm
i R
Re
.. d(Re)
ID(Re)t
de. _ g (Po - PI) _ fDPtAW .
i
(27) ~ d(Re) iR'~ d(Re)
dl ' P. 2m - Re ID(Re)' - RIO/b(Re)' (29)
Equatiom 26 and Xl are too complex to solve in where Re~ "" Re at any arbitrary reference base.
AMeral Conn here.... But for special cases solutions In Fig. 72 the vfilue of the followipg integra.l
are available.'
Few lominor jIqw, equations 26 and Z1 may be rXI~ d(Re)
Bimptified and integrated directly. lao JD(Rei
c C, is plotted sg:a.inst Re for spherical particles. In
ID - -He - -f),p
using Fig. 72, choose a value of v and compute the
corresponding value of Reynolds number Re.
C c, The right-hand side of equation 29 is evaluated by
UD)' - -(He),.
- - -DIlIIP,
- adding the respective integrals 88 determined from
c c, Fig. 72 wit4 due regard for the sign. The value of
(JD) . - (He), - Do .., the elapfledl time (') for the WOllen one-dimelUlional
velocity (II) can be .calculated directly. The time-
vlD - v.Un) . - V.UD ). diKtanoo relation is then readily obtainable by
graphical integratJon
I'-0-
For lamiMT /lot
,- vdt
-- -
mlo
dt
PtA(fD~A".2
2m
(26 L)
GraphUxll . inkgmtion is readil~' and accurately
,
dlf. _ 9(Po - P,) _ PrA(fD),p. .
(ZlL) accomplished by plotting the values of v as deter-
mbed as a function of t, a.e: indicated in Io'ig. 73u.
ell P. 2m
drawing a IImOOth curve throngh the points, and
J.:guatiOll8 26 and Z1/~. which apply only \..0 laminH.1' determining t.he area under the curve by .the follow-
flow ..how that the velocity or motion in one dime- ing procedure. . ..
IB independent. of the motion in a -direction Draw horisootal liDeS connecting the ordinates,
.,erpt'1KIieuJar to the first. motioo. 'J'h<>l'1'foro th(' ~11~h as linel' a~!, c-d, r-I, c1Al., I:I() tha.t the areA above
trajectory of ,t\1e particle will be that of one motion each horizontal linc and below the CUl"V'e equals the
TW'()"DIMENSJONAL MOTION R
Reync.lds Hurnber, Re _ ~
. - P.D'
- - In ("')
- (31) Por eotftpl.ele4, turbulent JiJW, where fD ill ~almOllt
IS", 1/ eODBtant :
Pur completely turbulent nwlion, ,I)
is almOflt con- For downward motion, Positive valUf!8 of He and Reo.
stant, and equation 29 may be integrated directly to
t _ ~(~ _ 2)
~.
2Dm
__
2~
'_In [('- + ,)(.. - ")]
1/.. - "1/ + 110
(39)
(32) 11...
iDP.A 11 "0
For upward motion, negalive values 01 Re and Reo.
For spherical parlicin, 111 i~ ahout 0 .-1 and
~
One.Dimttn.donGl Motion in G,.,.ricotiof&al 2g{P. - PI)m
Field
,--
p,p.foA
For II. falling particle, equation Z1 becomes
or as given by equation 14 for spherical p&rticJes.
<Iv _ (P, - PI) _ JDP,A.,r (34) When a particle has an initial downward velocity.
equation 39 may be 1.1IIed directly. When the ~itia1
dt p, 2m
velocity is upward, equation 40 lIbould be "wted,
By substituting &",j Dp for II, during the B.BOent, and equation 39 applied there-
after to the deeoent with &to - o.
.... dl _ ."(lIe) (35) For further treatment of this pro:blem IUld for tw~
2Dm (29PI (P,
,
-PIlml)2) - ID(RI'l )
, dimeMiooal motion in centrifUgal fielda, the oriinaJ
p",A reference 2 should be eoosulted.
The gen"eraJ equations for motion of a partick in II
29',(9, - p,)m[)2 jtuiIl atrt.am undnprotng 3impk rotational motion. IU'&
4> "" , - ma.ximum value for ID(Re)'
A
p",
tor the falling partiele..under oonp;jdernt.ion.
Integra.ting between' limits
:--(';') [, -C:::)] -(Pif:'''') (41)
.....
2Dm
- f.~
a.. 4>
d(lIe)
fD(Re)2
(36) -dlld
e ""'~ [PtfDAII(VI -
- l--+
, 2m
III)] (42)
p()'r ~inar jWw, ID ,"" ei Re, and equation 36 can where u, - tancential velocity of the ftuid.
be integrated directly to IIi - tancential velocity of the parlicle.
'. _ nodi&! velocity at the ..........
' II _ V 11,2 +
(u, - 111)' - velocity of the par-
ticle relative to the 8uid
PROBUUIS l\3
(~)(U')'l -
2 I. By me~ of equation 17, cmnl>utc the nlll~imum v~luohy
dv, _ vJ [, _ IS."v; (41L) at which PArticles "f ~lli"n (Si(~) O.oo.~ Gill ill tl inl llf)l~ r .... ill
(It r P. VI p.D {lOll t Iorou"h 'I";"'t ... ,,1 (''' :
(a ) W llI.!u I I., "IUIr), i",;o <lilute thai [,n, ...lIlilll/: I',,,v .. ik
do,
(42[.) (to) Wh.lO tloe UUlN< roiL.., or w.. le.. t n ~i li.-.i it! 2,
dt
2. With dau lrom Tablee J and 17, compute vaJOCII fUI"
When the tangential velocity d the partiell' I'J j,; F. fu. calcite Ilnd oompun: t llCiC valUe!! with lb.o1;c "il"<11 in
about !:Qual w the tangential velocity of the fluid HI Fig. 71 for RpherieBI panici.eo.
alld V. il:l relatively smali, equation -4 1 may I~ rc- 3. Air it being dried by being bubbled (in very small
duced to 1mblok."II) through oonoon tl"ll.l<.'11 ~ulfuri" .. eitl (SIM~:ifi" "mvit.y,
2 2mut(P, - PI) 1.84; vi.!lonMity, 15 ccntipoitu; l.t!mptlnLtul"f:!, 100 ' Fl. 1'h"
II, - - (43)
sul{uric acid tilt. a 2+-in. LD.U, Z-in . ID gb..'<I; tubo: 1(1 a depth
PIP./DAr
tor 6 in . lloe dry air 1Iix.Yl.: t he aeid is a t a press"", u( I Iltm
For spherical particles equation 43 becomes BAd ut IOU F. If the dry air rate ill 3.5 ..tm, whllt ill the
m.xill\um ;Iiamel-cr Qf II sulfuric acid IIprn)' dml'let ",hi.i.
u/(P. - PJ)[J2 might btl CIIorrieo.l. out of till, uPl'Ul"lI.tw! by entrui.ru\lot!nl .j"
(44)
'.... the lIir etrearn.
Classification
S
EPARATlO-X of materials into two or mors be obtained from Table 18, p. 77, and used in
frHctions depending llpon their rates of flow equation 45. '
through fluids is called c/a8Bification. When Solving for the spherical settling ratio,
ttie different fa tts of How are used to separate mate-
rials of the same denl:lity according to their sites (and
D.4 _ (Ph - p) [(fD)A]
shape) , t he operatioll is known lUI sizing. SiJ.ing is a DB CP..-I - P) {fD)b
poss.iblc substitute tor screening. When materials
of the same equivalent size are separated according - (D..J' 0, (0",)8]
[ -- ~- --- ---
(D.... )8 (D.... )..-I Da
(45)
to their densities, the operation is called 80rli1l!'.
Under turbuknt C()nditio1IS, the value of in for each
Since it is impossible in actual operation to obtain a
solid is COTlBLant over the range of conditions in-
feed of absolutely uouann size, sizing is always in~
volved, and equation 45 may be readily solved. In
volved to a greater or JellS degree ill every sorting
many cases, as with particles of the same sphericity,
operation.
the values for in are the same for each material and
UD) 4/ UL )B - I .
"!!:QUAL FAUING" PARTICLES' Under laminar conditions, in varies inversely with
the Reynolds number Re, from Equation 18.
The effectl'- of size and delll!ity of particles can be
considered in combination to compute that l'aOM;e of 24, 1
sizes of a mixed food that can be sorted .... r separated In = - --
V", p D
aeoonling 1.0 density, This is done conveniently by
For all materials having tbe same maximu::n
the concept of the "equal falling" par liclc~, the sizes
velocity v'" in the same fluid in laminar flow! equa-
of pMtieles of the tIVO different materials to be S(jrtoo
tion 45 may be written.
whieh full through the fluid at equaJ. velocitie;;.
Prom etluat ion 14 , t.hc two different maleria ls, A
and B, will have t.he ~amfl maximum velocity t'", when -- D.t
DB
In the
(PR - p) Ds
(P A - p) D.4
re,jUlI
., D,)2 PH - P
( -Da - - -
P" - P
(46)
same maximum settling ve,l ocity v.... may be called .pulldiIllt solid on Fiil. 70 OVl!:r the nwge cove~ by oper-
the qJ>uica/ aeUling ratio. The IlI.tio D/ D ..v, may atin, conditions.
84
EQUIPMENT 3S
The ratio (D.v.)A/ (Duc)B, 88 obtained from equa- of the 8uspen.~ion Pb becomes the effective Jensit,y
Lion 45, may be called the MUiing ralio and represent.':! to be substit.uted for " in the equation. Similarly,
the ra~io bet ween the ~ maximum and minimum as the concentratiun of the muterial being separated
"screen diameters:' of pm:ticles that may exist in a builds up in the fluid , the hulk d en~i t.y of the "uid
bCfrened or sized rni.xt.ure ol, U~ rnatcri.a.b .1 and B. if approuchcs t he dell!:lity of the 801id m a terial and t he
a clean separation between these two materiall! is to selt.ling ratio inere:ll:ICs, giving a sh arper sorting of
be made by.cl. fication, using the fluid in ,quCI.tion. the t wo m aterials. This principle i,. lI :$Cd in hindered
A large sdtling ratio is dceirll.ble to JXlrwil. separ settling.
ration of material having wide Ilize limits. One way
EQUIP:\lENT
of &ccomplisbiDC-tthis i.s the use .of a fluid of high
detlllity. M the ~ity of the fluid approaches that The simplest form of c\lISSification equipment is
of one of the 901id materials the settling ratio ap- the 5O-rolled surface oolocity cla.~,~ifie r which, in. it3
Pl"OOCbfts infinity "od particles of any size rallge can elemental. form, consisti:I of. a tank pro vid ed witl)" an
be~_
_ . ~"'11 of I~gest partie],,) _
H the Size ratio 18
.... of smallest particle
equal to or less than the settling ratio, a complete
separation can be made.
The density of the auid may be Increased by add-
ing solutes such as' salt or calciu m chloride to water,
but this expedient introduces oorl"O$ion problems.
The effective density of the flu id may be increased
by suspending fine part.icles of a hcavy solid slIch
118 galena. in water, in which case the bulk d en~ it.y
-~;;:..
~~
CLASSIFICATION
inlet and an outlet opposite each other at or near inlet and a solid outJet at dle bottom and a feeding
the top of the tank. The feed, corusisting of a pulp device and an overBow launder /a t tbe top (Fig. 75).
of Solids 8Ul:Ipended in water, enters with a relatively By adjusting the fate of flow of fluid (hydraulic '
high horizontal velocity. After it. enters the enlarged water) into the tube, any predetennined upward
er<ll'W section of t he tank, ita horizont.al velocity is velocity of the fluid may be obtained. The feed
decreased and gravity lendis to cause the solid enterillg the rising stream of fluid teoda to fall;
particles to sink. The path of each. particle is a particletl whOlJC termi nal velocities are greater than
resultant of the su,.f'aoe velocity in the horiwnt.a1
direction and the velocity of settling.
If the tank is provKled with perpendicular parti-
lions placed pormlLl to the direction of How, several
fradions of solids e&n be oolle(U!<i, particles having
the greatest settling velocity collecting behind the
partition nearest the feed inlet, and the exceedingly
fine or 5lowttling particles being carried out in
the overflo\v. F;quipment of this type is also fre-
quently used {or eeparatiilg or dewatering slurries or
suspensioIlll. ....... . ....
A commercial 8daptatiOQ-of the above surface flow
principle takes the form of the Spilzlrostm. in ita
original fo"fm, 8.9 used in !>re d~g (Fig. 74), it
consiata of II. series of connected ,wooden pyramidal
boxes of increasing size pla.ced in thc"""stre&m of the
pulp. The feed enters the smallest chamber and
overflows from the I~t. Each Kasten or chamber
is provWiOO with a sp.q,;ot at the point of discharge of
the solids; too spigot is extended upward in the
form of a gooseneck in order to reduce the hy~
static head. at th"! point of diecharge and hence the
velocity of the discharge.
Modern Spiukastens fr:equently consist of a series
of welded or riveted steel shee~ cones. They serve,
for example, to classify the polishing abrasive WIed
in polishing plate g[alII:! where the polishing abrasive
is recircula.ted and reclassified du ring t-he operation.
FIG. 75. Di~rarnm&tJc lepreeeut.. tion 0( 1e.bonltory f"",
All such ijurface velocity cllLSSifiers are limited W ~tttlinl dusifier.
sizing operations. They are not adapted for sepa-
ration of one minoral from another, and they have the velocity of the hydraulic water ~11 sink to the
the following di~~ vllntag('s. bott~ of the device; those whose',tenninai velocities
1. The fr.aclion~ nrc not sharply sorted. are less will overflow into the launder.
2. HelatiVf'ly lurge quantities of water are re- The feed to a free settling device may be dry, but
(juired. usually it is a "pulp" or suspension baving a solids
3. The fractionl:' withdra.wn from the spigots con- volume concentrl!.tion. of about 10 per cent. The
t.ain large amoun.a cl water required to prevent rate of feed must be 80 adjusted that the volume
plugging of the spigo~. concentration of the soJida in the suspension is not
Free Id/.lng chullijic, accomplish sharper sePIV over I or 2 per cent in the tube or analyzing column.
rations as they make \ll:Ie of the natural falling veloci- A free settler may be used 88 a si&ing device to
ties of the soI:iJ partie~ without tbe complicatioo sep/l.rah~ a given material into two size fractioll8, or
of the horiwn tal or surface velocity. A simple as Il lIOIling device w sepllrate twu or mo:e different
e..uulIlJle IIf a free )j('u ling ci&:silier ill a verl iedl tube ffill\erillill by virtue or the differenl'f!>! ill their dens.:-
called t ile lUutl.vitiug ',,[UIIIII (lrll\'id.:d wilh :t flui ..1 lit">!. TLetUlloUut or Huid required per too 01" ltOOd.tI
EQUIPMENT ' 81
the height of the inner C<olle p.nd COIltrfll of th~
amount of hydraulic fluid rletennioes the velocity of
fluid in the space between the cones which functions
&8 the analyzing column.
The operating characteristics of a dO\lble-eone
dassifier are determined by the minimum C!"OdS-
sectioo&i area. of t,h.! annular space between cones.
From this minimum area A and the volumes of feed.
and hydraulic fiuid introduced per unit time, the
significant velocity of the anslyring column and the
volume fraction of solids Y can be oomput.ed, The
capacity of the classifier in tons of solid per hour
muy he estimated as follows~
--- """" I
Y - volume concentmtion, - - - -- - .
v - velocity (fPl:!).
volume total
surface velooity classifiers. Thizs item may be a The double-cone classifie~, as well 118 the free set-
major consideration even when the fluid is water. tling eiutrial.or, is also operated with air or other
Many air classifiers are in service where the cost of fluid . Since air is much less viscous than water
operating them iii less than for competing methods a nd also much less deJll:le, the particles have much
IICch as screening. greater settling velocities, approximately one hun-
Elutriation is the name given a sizing classification dred times !\.ll great, in air than in water.
Ilperatiun conduc~ in a similar devil:fl of laboratory The GlJ"gro pllellmalic cl.aMijier (Fig. 78) , although
lIise for the purpose of determining the grain !lise di[,t- having the appearance of a cone clll8Sitier, operAtes
tribution in the range below the finest screen size. on a different principle. The dry w lid feed enters
By melW8 of a t1er)es of free settling tubell as ind}-
cated in Fig. 76, the weighed sample originally placed N,
in ilie first tube of smalle.,st diameter il! cl~ified int.o _____L.."."."'__,~AdjUStlblt
'\ iMer cone
fractionl! according to their settling vducitics. The
fractionl! are collected..in thP. successive tubes 11m.l
may be dried and weighed. Care mllst be taken
that the pu rticl~ are no t agglomerated but well
diiJpersed in the fluid if reliable results are to be
obtained.
The doubkame clmsifier (Fig. 77) con:;ists uf a
fixed external cone provided with s. source or Auid
(hrdruulic water) , a spigot at the tip, and a ~riph
era! overfiow launder around the open end. A con-
centric inner truncated cone is so :;upported that the
height of t!lis cone reiJ.~ive to the outer cone can be
u.djl,sted as uy u ho.ndwheel. ',t he feed flow s down
within the imler cone lind out of the opening lIogIloi u,;t
:~ ~IHe, The hyJ nwlic wttlf-r or lither .fluid ttnd I he
h"f'1.1 ttll' mix('1.J ill I.ht' viduity "f tue tmifte Itnd ri'll' ~'1I.1. 17. 1)iHtr;no,um"ti(" "'j!!"""""t~\.io!l "r dUIlLI&.~)1 1('
ill tllt~ !!lJl',"t.' t... ,,,,'11 tl,t! t W\I " Ollt::;. AJ,iU:!tllltlDt. "I" cL.!Isitw .
CLASSIFICATION
through a hollow shaft and falls upon the rotating which the fine material which does no~ settle flows
feeder pla~ which distributes the particles across the in a continuous stream, The coarser materiall3inks
cylindrical classification section. The circulating to the bottom where the rakes gently move it wward
fan causes air to circulate upward and 'outward the upper or coarse discharge end. The upper end
throug}. the inner cylinder, carrying the fines into 'of the tank hl open and frequent.ly extends far enough
tht; outer cone w)l.ere they setUe.out and are removed above the' water line to provide drainage space if a
from the botrom. The circulating air ret urns drier coarse pulp is desired .
.,
\
1<'10.78. Cut.away view of Gayoo pneumatic classifier. (Un-.v~nal Rood Madoinn-y C.j
through slots in the inner cylindrical section. The At the beginning of the stroke the rakes are
oversize material settles down through t.he circulat.ing dropped t-o [he bottom and slowly drawn toward
air into the bottom of the inner cone and is separately the UIJPer end. Aftu movement of about a foot or
removed. two the rakes arc lifted clcar of the floor ant! moved
The rake clasgifier consists of a settling tank whose parallel to thc bottom toward the fine discharge end.
bottom is pl~ at an incHDe' and in which are sus- At the completion of this part of their t.ravel the
pended movahle rakes (Fig. 79). Feed in the form rakes are dropped and the cycle is repeated. The
of pulp or slurry enters continuously through a feed movement of the rakes stirs up the solids. The
launder placed about a third of the length of the heavier or fru;ter settling particles collect on the
tank from tl16 l(>wer end. The lower or fine dis- bottom and un~ (:arried along with the upwa.rd
charF end is provided with an overllow liy over movement of the rak..:>. The. filler particles are
I::QUU"'tI::NT
th rown a.bove the r8k~ and travel in suspeltsion eOll",i;;l,; of a. trough uf scmicylimlri('sl :Shape, set at
t.oward the fine discharge end. nn incline of about 2}i in.jft. Revolving within the
Classifiers arc built with one or ml)re I3CtS of rll.kes trough is a shaft carrying a helix. Feed is introduced
si d~ by side. For closer :;izing of the fines &. IIpray !Jolow the watf'r level. The ht>nvit'r solids sink ami
of water may he added at. I.he fine d ischnrge end, are "arril'ti li p the slope hy the hciix. TIlI'y are
diluting the pulp and pt>rmill.ing the operation to di."lI"hlll"g('(i lit. the ttpfX'T rnll thrungh an op"lling in
approach free settling ; or the fine (Ii:<charge may be tho bott.om of the trough abovo the water level.. The
furt.her ela.ssifil.'<.i in s 00wl cWSljijU'r built. as an ex- fine materiul ovorHo\\"s at t.he lower end.
tension t.o the rJ;I.ke classifier (Fig. SO). The l/arJi/Uje cowtlerC/trrcnl clamfwr IS Ii simila r
The CY088-flow or A kinlJ clauifU"r (Fig. 8t) jW'r forllLS clevicc con .~isling of a ~lowly rcvoh-ing drum, tJl(~
in much the &line manner rd~ the rake cla.~sihcr. It inller surface~ of which earry IL helix. ;\iotjon ilS
FiG. SO. Bowl cJ:.o.!;l!ificr wurki"ll '''' uv"rrl"w of r"kc d"""ir~r. (I)."rr Co.)
90 <':LASSIHCATlON
Imparted through a trunnion, thereby eliminating For Clauifying Fine Material
any submerged bearing. T he bt>wI. da88ifier (Fig. SO) consists of a short
Power nnd operating cosls on t hcsc classifiers arc cylinder with a bot tom sloping toward the center.
n'latively iow. A rake clas.'lifier 18 in. wide by 15 ft The feed enters at the center through a loading well
long requires about 1.5 li p on light service, and 25 I1p and haffle- plate placed ju:;t below the surface of the
is sufficient fOT a elll&'ific r 16 fL wide and 30 ( t long. .Iiquid, direeting the fceJ radially oulwaro. The
The sizc or mesh of the &,puratiun point , i.e., the tines overflow into !' launder !It the periphery of the
largest size in thfl fines or overflow and the smallest bowl. The oversize material is raked to the centcT
:size in tlle coarse frtLction, il:! cuntrolled by the by the slowly rotating vanes and discharges in an
operating conditions. A finer separation point is annular opening. When the classifier is operating
obtained by (1) greater dilution of the pulp, (2) lower on the fines from a rake classifier, the uv~rsizf' from
tilt of the tank, and (3) slower speed of the rakes. the bowl is fed back to the rake classifier. The howl
For a fcod of constltnt quality the capacity of t.he classifier is designed for more dilute pulps than the
c1as.'iifier is decreased by those changes in operating rake classifier. The large overflow permits the
conditions whi~h givf\ a fmer separation point. For handling of large quantitk'S of water with low
this rca.',on other types of classifiers are generally vclocitil!8 as required for the more slowly settling
rmployod whf'n 'a line Sf'paral,ion point is ro- small particles.
(Illireci. The spiral-uanc r./1VI8ijirr (Fig. R2) is a device
These sloping c1!L~i fif'f"loi have a prneti(:al advan- cons isting of a. cylindrical tank , a ~ntral ahart, and
tage since they elf'valt> tl,e oversize in the act nf spirnl or radial arms which sweep the bottom. Feed
da.'I.'iifit'Ation, thpN'hy fl~IIlN ( l ly I'lim inating thi' is pllml)('(1 in :1>< II. )jlllrry. The ~()I idi!. ~f.t lc llnd Itrt'
1lt'(.'t'!,ISity v a ~pm:I I,t! (Ievatvr \\"llcn udOd with a :!-wel'L 1.0 !lIe center und removed conlinul)ol.llsly. Tile
mill in dOlOed cirouit operation. fines overflow into a. launder as shown.
JIGGINC 91
When it is desired to de-8iimtJ ~'. to remove very of different. densities by repeatedly affording a vcl'}
fine part.icles sach as clay from the coarser sand thick suspension of the mixed particles an oppor-
particles, the feed in the form of R suspension is fed tu nity to settle or fall for short periodli of timc IIlld
to the center of a.n inverted cone. The sand settles tben removing the stratified layers.
out, and the water carrying the fine~ overflows into a In the clBSSification equipment mentioned above,
peripheral launder. The feed is supplied at a rapid the maximum or te rminal velocity of the particle ii'l
fate, and the vertical velocity of the water is rela- the significant characteristic which determines the
F lO. 82. Spinll VAne el:t.llllifie.r a nd adjusta bJe.strokc diAphragm pump. ( ~JlVU Eq uipmmt C".)
tively high anrl will carry in suspension moot of the separalion of particles. If t he particles arc lll10wed
&.>lids of ?OO mesh and smaller. only very short settling periods, hey will never
These cones are generally of 6O-<Iegree a ngle, 9 to develop the maximum velocity and the separation
10 ft in diameter at the top. T he sand is discharged is made on the basis of the initial settling: velocities
through a spigot at the bottom, either by manual ur of the part icles. At the outset of settling the velocity
automatic means, depending on the type of device. is extremely low and no resisting force due to friction
A typica.l cone will handle from 50 to 100 \.ons of effccts has heen developed. Therefore, since FR' is
solids per 24 hT. The feed will contain about 90 practically zero, equation 11 becomes
j>Cr ccnt water, the spigot discharge 30 per cent, anJ
F' = ma - mg-ux) - O
the overflow about 95 per cent.
On the basis of the same standards as in I'II:reenillK,
the effecti venes;; of JO;u ch Ii device can be alxmL 70
per cent, wi th recovery around 90 per cent. a'" (,n - ,,)g = (" - ') u - (1-;:') g
-~;;- - ~,-.-
(,) (b)
F .IJ, S!i. Di"K... mmalic repre!!Cllbliull nt a Ii%OO-$Croo n dinphragm jill. (I~ EquipIMIII. Co.)
The adjw;tment between the WIIter vll ive and the openllion of t he diaphlUjtJl1 may be varied to pJovide dil'ferenl intenllitias 01
jigci ng Ill! inoJic:o.t'-".l in <I aoo II. I .. <I t he ovat~r vllive is ,.d jU9l.00 to ....ork against lhe diaphragm, giving a m il d aetion, and in
b the tu.ljWltm~1lt iIIlSUeh as to Il.(j(I the effoot of wllter fio";" to that of the dillphmgm.
All. shown in 11 the wa ter valve opelll! 118 the diaphragm begill8lo rise, and the lIow of WAter into the hutoh neutralize!! the
action of the dii\phmgm, provi ding a quil't jig bai. The ovater .....Ive clol!et< as t he diaphraa:m desoondB, givinc an upwaru fiow
through the bed.
With the tu.ljustrncnt indicated in II the w'lter "lIlve dl,llleS lIB the dia phl"llllil ri- . and wllter is d",.n into the hutch from
lhe jig bed. A.s the diaphmgm de'lOends, tbe water valve opell6 a nd the enterio,g ovater augment.!! ~he el'fe.::t, of the jig stroke 01
the dillphr.tj:m, increasiug the velocit y of water up.IIM through the jil bed.
lleries, the tailings or overflow of one compRrt.ment 85) exemplifies this type and shows how the hydraulic
passing as feed into t.he ne.xt compartment. The water may be autom8.ti('~ly cont.rolled.
am~! itude of jigging is greateit in the first cell and Power requirements vary from about 0.1 to 0. 15
least in the last, making a coocentra.te of heavy hp/ aq ft of &creen area, and capacities range from
nmterial in the first and middlings in the others. about I to 4 tons/(aq ft)(24 hr).
Varial.jbns in the pulsion (upward flow ' of water Moooble acrem jig., &8 the name impli05, move the
through screen) and suction (downward flow) ampli. screen in order to get the jigging acti()1l. The motion
~udes 'are controlled by removing mawial through is usually not only reciprocating up and down but
the hutch valve or admitting extra or hydraulic also fore :,....d aft, with greater acceleration on the
water to the hutch during pulsion or suction. In return stroke 80 M to cause the bed to move forward .
hutch jigging the dense lower layer is drawn through The Hancock jig has 8. capacity up to 300 to 600
the screen and discharged through the hutch valve. tons/24 hr for a ~reen 25 ft by 4 ft 2 in., or aoou~
FixedKrun diaphragm jig. are similar to the 3 to 6 t(llUI/tq ft.
plunger jigs except t.ha.t the plunger is sea1eJ to the Heavy suspensions may be used in pla.ee of water
frallle' by a rubber diaphragm which pl"event.B leabge when jigging relatively c.oa.rse ~clea with all the
of water arou nd the plunger and gives more positive advantages of a high density fluid.
pulsion and suction. The Denver mineral jig (Fig. Air is also used in pneumatic jigs when a dry
TABUNG .5
product is desired or the matelial cannot be tt1'a!cd the !look, the particles are impelled forward h~ri
by warer without damage. The separation ill always zonl3lly (from right to left in Fig. 86).
inferior, due to the lower density of the fiuid . Materials of low density have a greater tendency
to be carried in suspension downstream with the
water than do particles of higher densit.y which
TABLING
tend to settle into the grooves or riffles and respond
The "panning" nf the gold miner to separare the to the motion of the table.
more dense gold from the less dense rock or gnngue AB a result, the material of high dewity ~ravels
has de,,-eloped into the modem ~1I{J kWk. The forward toward the left and is discharged over the
operation is the separation of two material:! of differ- left edge or lower left comer of thtl table, and the
ent derulities by p8l!8ing dilute pulp over a table or material of lower density overflows along the lower
deck (Figs. 86a and 86b) inclined about 2 to 5 degrees margin of the table into suitable laundors.
from the horizontal. It is given a reciprocating Provision is made to alter the degree of tilt or the
horizonl3l motion or shake at the rale of ISO to deek. The drive bas a variable speed mechanism,
375 per minute, with a slow forward motion and a and the coupling t.<l the table provides a means of
fa.st return, causing the material kl move fonvard incrcELlling or decreasing the length of the jerking
in the same manner a.s for a movable screen jig. stroke from a fractional part of an inch to somewhat
The feed and water are supplied to a launder at ovcr 1 in.
the right upper &ide of the deck. The surface of the Although tables are used for sorting materials from
table is covered with canvas, wood, linoleum, cement, about 6 mesh to 3O(l mesh, sepa.r:'.tions of particles
or otherwise roughened, and usually provided with of below 48 mesh are usually mor" economically
grooves or deaLs kl form riffles which may be parallel accomplished by Rotation. Successful tabling is
to the direction of table motion or at an angle therckl. dependent upon a wide difference in densities of the
Cleats ~ to ~ in. wide Me fri" (0 to ~ in. high are minerals fed.
usually spaced >i to 2 in. apart, covering most of A small table about 15 in. by 30 in. will separate
the deek a.s shown. from ~ to 2 tons of ijQlids in 24 hI'; a large table
The net movement of thc particles is the ('('sult.ant about G ft by I.') ft will handle 15 to 00 tons of solids
of two foreC/:l applied kl them. Under the influence in the same period of time. HOhlepower require-
of the tilt of the table and the velocity and thic.knelltl men ~ are low, in t.he neighborhood of ~ to 2 hp per
of the film of water flowing over it, the partides of table. Water requirementg vary from about 3 to
solid tend to be wrulhed straight down the KI!/pc over 30 gpOt per table.
tbe lower edge but are irrllxlded in t1li.~ flow hy the A dry taille opernt('ll by a blast of air pl\llHing
riffles UlL(l~r Ute influcnoo of !.tte jerkin!!; monon of upward through an indinoo. perforated tahle or
CLASSIFICATION
;,creen. The feed is introduced near t he top 01 (he thllt lbe te;ulting mol ion cau!<CS n decrease in the
inclined table. The less dense particles are sup- llnfl'ltV of Ih e system. The for<."(,'S are due either to
ported oy the nir above the ~urfacc of the tablp. and an f'lectric charge 011 the pa.rticle or to a dilTf'l"e nee
flow down ward to discharge over the lower end. bet.ween the d i~l~ckiu coniltall t~ of t.he partide nnn
The table is gi~'en an otosdlllLting motiou similar t.o the surrounding medium.
that described for Fig. ...8 which call~!I til(> mort.' Forces due lu an electric charge tHO parnHcI 1(, the
dense particles contacting the surface of the table field . rorcc:s due to dilTerences in dielectric conlltnots
to move upward -and discharge over the higher are pftnlllci to t he dirt:etion of maximum varilttion in
end of the table. Dry tables are used to remove field intensity and are zero in uniform electric fields.
stones and other dense materials from light prod- In conductance separawrs a conductive particle
ucts such asSl'eds with capacities of % ton/hr !lcquires a r..harge by cominl!: into eont.nr-t with a
for tables about 1.!1 by 3 ft up -to 16 tons/ hI' for char.cd surface or screen. Forces ereated by such
taMes ~t 3~ by 7 ft. The power required is chrges are relatively large and ea.sily produced.
about one hO~J:-owcr per ton per hour. Such r;ep"ratorS may be (:onstnlctoo a.'l 8hO\\'n in
Dry tables nrc also used to remove a rtilative\y Fig. 87.
large quantity of light material from a nerl AA pnxiud. A ig t1lf~ initial material, B the loss conductive, iLnd
(,' thc more conduct.ive. The devit'c8 in Figs. 870
and 87b arc repTfflented as having roll" beneath
ELECfROSTATIC CLASSIFICATION
hoppers. In somp CU$t'li these rolls are replru'fld hy
Small partic1~ of different 8'Jlids may be separated inclined chutcs. The attruding electrode, indicat.ed
on the basi ... of I.heir different l*ha"iur~ in nn electric a.~ hcing dlargcd negatively and of cylindrit!al form,
field. The>le 1Oe1P.!!live forces act. in such a mann~r iR r;ometimp;; of nl hllr shape and polarity hut is
PROBLEMS
ah\':J.}'s the opposite or the roll polarit}', In.;;te.tu.l of 11 d ipped ill a liquid bath to clean the m. Such equip-
d ividing edge to !lCpan.. te the ehar~'(j Hlid nn('h~ me nt is from 85 to 100 per cenl cffcctive in SE!pa.rating
particle:;, the formcr may be collected ~IO'(:t i \'ely by _ the s,lIspended l)art icieS f runi Ihe gas .
adhesion to a surface, Simpk ehargi!tg hy conduct- Contact polential separator, act in mtl~h the same
ance is iIIU.':itruted in a, Fig, 87, whereufi ill b addi- way bill dilfer in t he method of charp;inl!; t. he solid
tionAl churging hy ion:; rrum a pinpllint ell'drlKle i~ pUI't.idl~s. Thi!! ill d"n~ hy :<lII'{:f'Sf!iw) cont u.ct be-
"hown. This cau'*lS_thc nonc,mdlletorll to auhere tWl'i'n !.Il() par!ir:lf1K ami ;~ .~!lrft(,(:c of c1~ctri~ally
more firmly to the rolk l:ondlldiv(\ nla1t'wi,,[ wl1o,",(' (onl:I.I'I 1)()t.~nli!l.1 liell
In Fig. 87e mawrial i.~ movC'1 mt't.:IHlllilu.i!y frum ]1f't.wPf'n !he enntad pntenliab of the c (ln~litllent.
I to II on a Ha.L-surial'e, such a... a ~rOlilldt!d vihrl1.t ing particl{,; tu be ~Iul.ra ted. Thc ~urfllce or plate is
1!;;1)1e or a moving Ix-It., A ;;\lpcrim,~~J el~ t. rode po.:;iliw! to one l,mstil1tent and nC,l1;l1.tivc toward the
l'8UI!CI:I the mol'C tondueti ve mll.leria l to he IC\'ilaled ot he r. The c/JRla~tif(g may be done by a llowing the
'-~
/
lJ
lH
(oj ('J (,'
Fl(;. R7. Uiugl'anul\a11<: n"retiCllla t io" ..r .." ... loct.. "..., :;oo'paralo....
a nd alTf!eh:d Ie;:,; uy t he mechanical move ment. With particle:; to How over tl.n inclined SlIrface which may
proper tilting thitl more c onduct ive materia l is re- be vihrated.
mo \'OO at tIt. Pyroelectric Pjfecl8 may "Iso be utilized in which the
The applied potcnt.ial in Fig. 8i c may be constant heated material is fed onto a roll, the drop in tem-
!n ml1.KTJitude and polarity, CO(l;;tll.~lt in polarity but perature after depo;;ition on the roll causing electric
intemlittentiy reduced to zero, or a lternating in polar'ization t() appear on some minernll!, such as
polarity . .Interruption and altcrm~tion of potential quartz, I which then adhere to the roll and may be
cause ma.t.erial to be repeatedly IIJvit.at.oo fIJId re- separuted as B in Fig. A7b.
dpposi~l on the table and l'Psulta in tI. numhl'r of Eloctrostntic method~ are not so widely used for
succeAAive separation!:! durin g one pMlmge over ' the separating d ifferellt solidt; as the other methods
table. The altemations and interruptions m~y a.lilO described . But tlley luwe proved effective in pre-
besynchronir.cd with the table vibrat ions. The effcct cipitating o r ijCpa rating fine partide:l from s uspen-
of t.hese repetitions i:>; to give higher select ivit.y and Rions in gases.
hi p;her efficiency of separation. Tho ~Ieetivity of
the separator! just described rlelltl~Ja not only on BIDLIOGRAPHY
conductivity difTerenp,p;; of the cOnlltituenta but aIM
I . Dn:f\, Ff\t:D 0., "The Scope for Rcvcl'!Ie Chl.9l1ifieation
on differences in t.he densit.y, particle Si7,c, and par- loy Crowded Settling;' E"g. Min, J., 12'7, 1030-33 (1929).
ticle shape. 2. FRAAS, .... , f.nd O. C. RA' 05T1JK, "F.ledl'Of!tatic Separation
Some separators or precipitators for the removal of HotitllJ," Ind. Eng. Cllnn ., Ii, 600 (l940).
of ~spentlcd solids (smokes) or liquid (mists) are 3. OVEAATIWM, G. A., U. S. PBtcnt 1,679,739--40 (AUi. 7,
1928) .
so constructed &II to cau~p the sUilpen ~ion to pass
through 0. &":teen charged with either positive or
PROBLEMS
negative polarity, which ehnfKeS t.he particles in t he
g8ll, and then through a ma7.fl of me tal bafHps I. A mixtore of silka li nd ga lem. pMticb (u eruebt!d)
charged with the opposite polarity. The p.!irtides ranging in ei~ from 0 .0074 ~m I<> O.()6.!i2 dlI is Iw.p&I'a Ced by",
rising stream of I\'a te r a t OO~ F.
are attracted to the platR.s from which they are (0) Wbllt velocity of wlfl,tcr flow will givp an uneootaminat.eri
remlJ'ocd IlIJri<'"iitally. OIW typo< (l t"qllipmf'nt \If'(';< pm<iud of 1i:"It'DIlt
It sluwly mo ving endles,..; dlUin of hltffle ~ wbidl :lrc (I,) Wh,,( i~ the nl .. ~i,"um size ra"gu 0; this !,nxlo\Jt~
.. CLASS[FICATfON
(e) If benzellC (apecifie gno"ity 0.85, vW:oosity 0.65 ce nt!. The discharge from Ule crusher ie to be ~"'oed with 810
poiee) ia subetitut.ed lor d ie ...lIttr, how .viii this separation O.08-in. scrocn. llnd" both t he ovmtise snd UDUeI1!i~ f~
be~f . to
a.re be IICnt to lroo 9Cttli~ hydl'1l.uli!l e\ll89i.fierll.
(!l~ Thtimate the rated. hOl'9CpoI';er of the motor roquirod
2. A mi:o<turo d ~ru~hed l!:.. k~I\Illlhd Hilk./l flinging (t<>ln 28 to to tlrive ttoe" cru.~hcr.
200 mNh ill 10 be 8Il~rat.ed cleanly lind completely hy 1!oC~11- (h) Will t l", rmpor;cd serwwr anti clllSllification opcrati.."
iIll> aM dlll'Olifi.cat.ion. Calcub.tc the """~II aiM:!! !lilt! the
""WI" velocities (at :zoe C) fn t vertical cllUll'lificrs \.,hi"h will
clfce~ oomplctc I!eP&f1I.tion 0' tungsten oxide and silica! If
80, ""hat waler vdociti<J!l are required in the clait!Iiflers! H
accomj)lb!h t his l!epi'r .. tion . . 1'I<Jt. ~pecify SCl'I:!en aizcs and eL'.!!flifier conuiti{'llUl which. will.
3. tn the miniog of sllh&lcnl.c (Z,'.';), II part ieul:u- ennoom Slate aoo explain any MSUmpu.:m. lut are made.
eepante8 the ore IMJD .Lhe q\Ulrl a gangue by a hytll'1U.llie 6 . A 0081 oompt.lly wlM:Mlc rePutation h&e boon built UI'''f1 a
cl:aeeificalion 00 one Nile 'fl'lUltion in freo) IOIlttling ciasRifie.... ]"",-Mh ~Jean product plans to open .. new mine. All 00111
using an upward current velocity of water of 50 f"m. Suit- from the new mine is to be Wa.f!hed to eliminate froo IlJ!h.
able oonOllntraLKm ia ubtained fU! J.on,: II!! tho si.e rnngc is 'fbe mine-ron 00Il1 will be firl!t seroelM)(\ OWl' a 6-in. scr:.cn,
be!d \O~' in. by X .. in. It" propollCtllo tIP4II a heavy m..'tlium Mol the oversit.e will be pMIICtI to " <:l'\I!her ..nd eruahOO lu
I!IeparattoD. in oroer to obtain hirulcnxt .!!et11ing ooodilions. too following Mr.c ,malym.
The medium being oonsidcrod ill a 61urTy oontainin,; 6b per
ee~t by "-eight of finely ground magnetite. Magneti w may
be usumed to h&ve dePsity approximatinlt that of tho!
beavieT fOlTl'l8 01 hematit.e. MUlC Rur" c.,.bod
' (a;) What "ill be the maximum !lCTeen size that may be Size, in. % Coa~ %
UIled with the new rnuJium!
(b) Eetimale tIM! upward velocity of dense medium that
8boukl IJo: .-I.
St.a.\c and explain al\ &SiIWJIl>tioD8 made.
-.-,-. +6
+.
+,
+I
I.
I.
.,
20
I.
20
20
4. Soap ill to be I[rQund t.o produce !l Ci/<!l) IIOIIp pb .... oor - I +)4 20 40
which it a a::ranular produet "'ith a IlllOximum perm~bJe -~ 10 10
size of 14..--h. It ill proo;:eo!I!ICd in a 1\lI .... mer mill run in
eklaed circuit .,I'i~h a ,louble-ooM Itir clMeificr '1IIiol[ 0001 air. 'I'he crusher product is then blended IMck in ""ith the 6-in.
The analYling :zone of tIM- clBNlifier is the annular zone be- undersize and double-8Cmened to three eiJC8. The tW{) larr;er
toreen the <.IUter and inner ones ,,"[,ich have rna ~imum diam- sil()ll are 10 be I\'B.8hOO by meBIl.'! of hydl'1l.ulie clMaificatioo.,
d en of 48 in. and 36 in., ~tivcly. Tho " ir in t his ~me . 'hik the uodel'Oli-e from the fmeet acroon (1\"bicb baa M-in.
oontai.ne 0.2 per cent. of lIOiida hy volume. The dcnai t) of boleoo) ill JlW'Sed t.o .. filii.! ooal launder.
the _p is 1.3 linlms/ cc. . 1'1(lat-a"d-$ink tcStl\ on the /'0111 indica.w tluLt an average of
Ho,,' much air in ~ubic feet per miuu!!: U\~I, be 8uppUcd? !t~ 1"" oonl of the mine product ill co&l of 1.5 epecific gr.... vity
m lil(l' I('I', and ]5 per ~nt is free ash of 1.711pC>.,ilie II'l.Ivity or
5. A ao&d millin, rompany is installil\& " plant for II...
aepan.tiou 0' l.unp\cn o:ri\le (density 446 ]bf cu It) I.mll ,.
iM , ~ ,;"r. ThUll, "'ashill,; should be 00nA In tu!O~r all the
] .51!", vity or Hghter and eliminate the 1.7 or ocAvier.
mixtul'l:l of 15 per oont by "'eight sili~a and 85 per ccnt IU'II(- (II) In t,he uo uble lICreI!!nlng of the - 6-in. coal and ash, a
steu ,,:oiid,. Fif ty toM / day of tliiR mixtul'lJ (o.vCTagc ~ixn i~ M-i n. fine SCrt.'l ln has been "fIl'<!ificd. What &lould be the
2 in. Ih di&JIlll't,oCr) loll to be cr'l~h"d t o til(! following lICret:n !II!I'J~'" ~i:oc or I."" OOIU'IICI' IW!TOOII which will a llow oomplcl"
....".., C\i,.,inll.liOll uf '1'00 asb ill the hydl'lluli~, dMsi6er, at lit<, SIlme
Scrocn Ma&'< .. (hol,h I" .. "",h", tinlC permitting as larw & weight fI"l\Of,ion "" poI!I!ible ill the
SilW. in.
- 0.32
- 0 . 16
+ O. IU
+ 0 .08
, Fraction oxiuc and ~i1 i' :a)
~.2
0 .3
8.7
li . 7
medium .... ized highcr-pri<:eoJ ('00.1 product?
(10) If 300 to ... of mi f'll."-run ~ I a n: pruoo_>d I." hour.
hUll" much of ncb !Jl t he fin.'li l lln.", Ki~ l.rutlue<.8 a'ld (rw
- 0.08 + O.Ot 03 ~.5 IIIIh an.' I'rllduo:o....1 pcr hour!
-0,.04 + 0.02 0.'2 3.' Stll.tt: ,,"d t~ p"Ull 1I11l11!1lUI!l(ltlon~ mwc.
{;IIAPTER
Flotation
LOTATIOX includes any operation in II'h i('h pl)!;l~ of the conditioning tank il:! to hring about. t.IIt'
"
100 FLOTATION
the waler alii is remo.ved from the bottom is called The mineral concentrates are generally subjected
the tailings. to sedimentation, filtration, and drying prior w
Since tbe tailings from the rougher may contain smelting. The tailings a.re fed to a tailing pond
8UlDe material desired in the concentrate, they are where the solids settle out and the clear water is
, frequently treated in another cell called the scav cycled w the milling and flotation units.
enger, as indicated in Fig. 89 under condit ions that
...
favor the flotation of the maximum quantity of
mill
FLOTATION CELLS
A flotation unit or cell is the equipment. in which
the material is actually separll ted or floated from the
residual tailings. It consist5 essentially of a v~1
or tank provided with a feed at one end, an overflow
for froth removal, and a discharge for tailing5 at t.he
opposite end, with a pruvision for introducing air for
frot.h fonn alion and agitation. Pneumot~ cellA
depend upon eompreK.'Sed air for agitation , give a
relatively mild agitation, and produce a clean frotb
relatively free from gangue. In general, about 50
filtill
per cent longer contact time is provided in pneu-
matic machines, and the pulp must be fully condi-
tioned before flotation . Mechanical cell8 incorporate
a mechanical agitator that draws in air and beats it
into the pulp. Bei:ause of the more violent agitation
all......... that can be obtained with mechanical cells, they may
give more thorough flotation, and tailings more
1'1<.1 IN. J:!j"lple flow d~ showing eeparaLion by Botalion
ueing roucher, IICIlvenger, and cleaner (or finisheT) cells. nearly free from material desired in t.he concentrate,
but t.he concentrates then contain more gangue than
material desired in the concentrate even if a large those from cells with less violent agitation. At high
amount of tailings is alsO floated . The floated prod- altitudes auxiliary air under moderate presSure is
uct from the scavenger is returned or cycled to the frequently supplied to mechanical cells. Mechanical
rougher with fhe feed. The tailings from the cells have a greater capacitv for the same volume
scavenger are the final tailings. and also ' help condition the pulp, giving greater
The product floated from the rougher may contain capacity to t he conditioner.
more gangue than is desired. This may be reduced The Callow eeU is one of the oldest and simplest.
by feeding the overflow from the rougher to a third but is now practically obsolete (Fig. 90). It. consists
flotation cell called the cleaner, 1:10 operated &8 to
give the desired quality in the concentrate. Under
these conditions the tailings from the cleaner contain
material desired in the conCentrate and a.re cycled
with the feed w the first cell or rougher.
Under f$pecial conditions extra f5eavengcrs or
cleaners may be used in serie5.
If the oro contains several valuable minerals. a
process of consecutive or selective flotation (Fig. 98)
may be used to recove r the minerals separately. The
Fla. 00. Diapm repreeenting the I5i mple Callow ftot.lioa
feed from the first conditioner is treated ,,;th the .:en in aect.ion.
proper reagents to float one of the desired minerals,
leaving the others in the tailing! with Ihe gangue. of a t rough 24 to 36 in. wide and 18 to 22 in . high at.
These tailings are fed to a second conditioner and the overflow level, and as long as required. The feed
treated with the proper reagents for floating the enters at the high end, the tailings being removed
second cI{'~il"l.'d mineral. lrom t.he ,other. A " blanket," frequently several
FLOTATION CELLS 101
layers of canyas fMUlned to square open-topped cast- sides of t.he trough into a launder. The feed enters
iron blanket frames or "palUJ," covers the bottom at one end of th.p. trough and receives successive
of the trough. ('.,ompressed air is admitted below treatment as it pru..'tCi:l along the trough. The non
the blanket to each frame by pipes projeding floatable particlelJ settle in the rela.tively qubt zone
thr.)ugb the solid bottom of the t rough. The small aiong the sloping sides of the lower part of the oell.
bubbles of air passing upward from the blanket in- The method of fceding and discharging the tailings
duce a mild agitat.ion and become adsorbed or at- is :;imilar to that ulled in the Callow ~ II .
tached to the j>Articlcg to he Hoated. The froth, The rur supply ig conI rtdled hy a mai n valve to the
uBUally maintained to It, depth of 8 to 10 in. in t he header, which may he di vided into section!! a.hout ..
tank or trough, overflows in to the concentrate ft long, each one having a.n individual valve that
launder surrounding the cell. can control anyone section. If the air supply ls
The air consumption ave rages 8 to 10 Cli ft/ (min)
(IIQ ft) at A pr6S8Ure of ahout 4 psi until the blanket
OOeor,lCS blinded when higher pressures may be
nfleded. Horizontal Clt,nvas blanket!! have the dis-
advantage of clogging due to sands and to precipi-
tates of calcium salts in the fibers of the cloth.
Carelessness in cleaning with a shovel may rip t.he
cloth . Neverthelesl>, Callow cells have been satis-
factory for many "res, especially those thatare easily
floated without great ugitu.tion.
The Cal/fJw...1 / (lC l lltush ('.ell, Fig. 91, carries a
hollow revolving rotor made from a steel tube about
9 in. in diameter and perforated with ~-in. holes.
Canvas or perforated rubber sheet is fastened to the
surface by means of steel bands. T wo scraper bars
made of 2in. angle iron are bolted the full lengtb oC
the rotor.
This machine does not. blind easily and can hand1e
heavy slurries with a wat.er-to-oolid ratio by wright decreased slightJy at the feed end or tbe tank, the
of 1: 1. These cell~ are usually made 10, 15, or 20 ft concentratE> can be made to overflow in large part
in length and 24, 30, or 36 in . wide, ret!peetivcly, but nPAr t.his end. Air is usually supplied at 2 psi at
larger ijizes Ujl to 30 ft long and 48 in. wide are the blower. For roughing operation.e, 75 to 100
availabk, provided With two rotors. cfm/ ft of tank length is used. For cleaning a lower
The '1uanti~y of air necessary tor: operation varies quantity .45 to 70 efm/ ft will hve a gentler action
from 4 to 8 cu Ct/ (minHsq ft of rotor surface) at less liable to raise gangue into the frot.h. The app rox-
2 to 2~ psi. A ~hp motor is generally capable
of turning the rotor at 10 to 15 rpm. TABI,E 19. POWER REQUIREMENTS OF LOW~
PRESSURE BLOWF:RS"
The "air-hll" cell is pneumatic but does not
employ a. blanket and is free from moving parts. Appro:dm.ltu Horaepower
It consists of a V-bottomed. trough divided into Ai. at PT1l$6YreI! of
Iklivered,
;!!lctions by vertical baffles, as shown in crvss section om 2"; 3 pili 4 psi 5";
III Fig. 92. Air is supplied from a heade; running 500 6 0.5 13.5 17 .5
:.he entire length of th~ trough to the air connections 1000 12 18.& 26 33
at the top of each a-II as shown. The air flows down
w the bottom of the vertical air pipe within about
6 in. of the bottom. The air bubbles carry some
>m
0000
"""
"'"
.
"
34
38
"
76
54
76
10/;
70
'"
135
..,
pulp upward through the perforated apron, thereby
agitating the slurry and fonning froth which is
0000
1000
58
70
63
"
120
13,
125
168
1110
100
...,'.
dcfJec!-ed by the do~ against. the sloping bafBes. 0100 96 16, 225
Ute froth ()v~rftow~ over the overflow li!)K along the The bihliosraPby for t loi <:I.......... -.:.. _ .... 0<' p . lOB.
102 F LOTA TlO~
imalc power required to dcliv(\r air at. titese ],,1\" titatuT ...".;(!mbly for Il.git.ll.tiulI !tnJ aeration of the
pre58UrC!:I i~ indictu<.'<l by the datil of T!lh!e 19. pulp. The stator com.itit.:; of cylindrical spaeen;
The mechanically agitated machilllJ. (Fig. 93) con- mounted between two rinp;~ rigidly fasten6ld to the
sists of A. square C!'08!1-Sf!clioned tank provided with tank. The rotor construction is 8imilar to that IJf
an impeller which violently agitMes the pulp, the stat.or, eXl-ep~ iM upper and lower bladed im-
effecting some cond itioning. T he rolation of the' pellers mounted within the rings. It i" suspended
impeller suck!;' air downwaru through a sleeve sur- on a short drive ghaft and fOla\e~ within the stator.
roundi ng the impeller shaft and urenk15 it oJlP into Tbll pulp enters directly i.lto the tank through a
fine uubble:;. Figllre 94 shows !'he frot.h OVPl'Aow suitahle opening. The pulp if; drawn by the im-
ur1d adHal aPPclIrun<.:c of olle of th('.-;c ~~ll~ in opera- pelle! hlarlCti intn the ml.r)r. Rapid pulp displar:e-
lion. The feed enters at ono end of the battery ( )f ment create" n partial Vat;lIum whie:, causes air lo
cells and pal1SC8 through the desired number of {.~II,., enter into the rotor through the !;tanrlpipc. Thc air
to tailings diS('harw':\1 the Ollpo;<ilf' f'nd. is d ispcrst>d throl.ljl;h the pOll) in t he form of fine
Ai lull" phs,.un",. 1'1\\';. li"",,, abm"(' 8000 ft., hnhbll':l. In pll..;'...;1I1( 1"'\\\"1'1'11 the (ylillllri('t\1 "'I}:l{"crs
a tieflua l e ,lir j.; sup plied ulI l,v h.\' 11id of a b lower. of the roto. nn,1 slat.n, the pulp_waler_nil' mixture
T he Fuyervren I1Il1Chine (Fig. 96) features a rotor- is high ly agitated, giving effective actation.
----'--1
J
-'1 ~:::
1
.,i
F lo. \r.\ Cr~tioool ro ..... lng of UK.' lknver mechll.ui",,1 flotat ion Jllilcl.tinc, intli..,.:;,,!> il.; pet ion. (l~lr: K~ J.'-J IInIl CQ.)
"" I. :l
1. 1
1 8- 2.0
"
40
2.'1
:.I . ~ ,
:I.:, 1.0
;;0 1.2 'J
70
,
""
"'1<'. !I I. 0<>0"'-. !lot" ti(>n m"d.i,,<, in aN "'n. (",.mY"
I?q!llpmn,/ c.. .'
,., FI.OTATION
FIG. 95. St.-<:tionai tlro"ing 0( Fagcrgron IIoWtiun IlWchine. (Weat_ M!ldtirwk Co. )
1<10tl1tlOn depends upon the relative ad80rptioo "tS(I "" "(Sf., + "(I.() (COH 8)
or " wetting" of the solid surfaces by the fluid. This where"( "" interfacial tension "$ indicated.
in tum i~ controlled by ~urface O!" interfacial energy 8 ., contact an.ll;le.
of which interfacial tension is the inten ~ive f::.ctor.
Any surface lOuch as lhat between water and air The cont.act !:lngle may be dctcnnined by placing a
reSists extension and behaves exactly w; if it were in polished specimen of solid in the bottom of a flat~
tension. It is this intctfadal tension which tends to
make !'lnuil ffi!1f:1&l!! uf water in air take on a spherical Gn
~
GG~LoUquid
SL ... ~u.
shape or l)fll:omfl drf)r~, find ~mfLll masses of a ir in
sa
water t.ake on a spherical shape and become bubbles,
as the sphlJre hlUl the le&.'\t, swface per unit volume.
FIG. 96. Diagram ()f ~urflj.(.c
!.elISions involved in Ihree-ph8.lle
The inIRrfnciaJ tension Cdn be measured as the force oontao1.
resisting the ext.ension of the interface. Its J1!btivc
values may be determined by the angle fonned be- sided vessel, as indicated in Fig. 97. The ISUrface of
tween surfaces or interfaces when three or more the solid may be clean, or it may carry a film of
pha.o;es are in contact Itnd a.t equilibrium. adsorbed material, depending upon the conditions
In general the 6um.of the components of the int.er- it is desired to measure. The liquid to be investi-
facial tensiOI1!l equals zero If one of the phlijle8 is a. gated is poured into the v~ until the solid is at
IIlllid Im-.;(nlinjl; It rigid plant" !It:rrace, 8M- indicated least 1 in. undcr '.he liquid. A flat-endcd capillary
ill lo'ig. ~i, mId lht! vtlter iwu ph_ are ttuids, the hi introdm:ed I'CfI.II'ndicula rly uve r lIle :!Sol id, 11.nd
FU)TATION AGENTS lO..,
air is cautiously blown through the capillary lIntil Since
the bubble inakes contact with the solid. "(00 - "(SL + "(w(cO!! 8)
'If the solid is easily and completely wet.ted by the
liquid (lig. 97a), the liquid exists as s' skin between "(51.. - -raG - -"Yw{c(88)
the solid and air and there is: no point of contact of -OE
the three phases. The angle formed by a tangent - - - "tw(l - 0(88)
"SG
at the apparent point of contact between the three
phases is zero.
This loss in energy ( - tlE) is a IDC8.'lure 'of the
If the surface of t.he solid is not complewly wetted, wcttability of the solid phase by the air and there-
the liquid is forced to recede to an equilibrium pot!i- fore an indication of t.he f1otability. It represents
tion, as indieatOO in Fig. 97b, where the forces of the the work required to separate the air from a unit
surface of sOlid.
CoIb.dors and promoter8 are reagents which are
adsorbed on t he surface of t he sOlid as very thin
films nnd which because of t heir properties thereby
",""
phase increase the contact angle. The tenn promoter
is particularly applied to agents _forming fi lrrs
.......
one molecule thick, such as sodium xanthate,
NaS(CS}OR, which is adsorbed on lead sulfide and
oriented with the xanthate radical (---8CS-)
toward the lead and the hydrocarbon part (R) out-
""'pbow
'.J ward. This gives the surlace of the solid a char-
aeteristie appii->aching that of a hydrocarbon which
Flo. 97. Diagram repretlCnting contact an,l" between 8 is not wetted by water. If t.he adsorbed matel'ial
liquid And Ii solid.' (a) Solid completdy Wilt. by liquid;
(b) I\(.lUd Il.u.rtially wet by liqui,l.
fornu! films several molccuies thick it is called a
colleetor. Petroleum is an example of a true col-
three interfaces are in balance. A tangent to the lootor. It has the d iiW.Ivantage of making IL gl"'C'&8y
gu-liquid interlace at this point forms !.he angie 8, froth containing a st.icky mass of bubhles difficult
defined as the contact angle (always measured to break down in the sUbsequent sedimcntativn
through the more dense phase). The angle muy be operation, and in some C9J'AlS a t race of oil in the
measured by projection of a magnified shadow of the concent rate is undesirable. Pine oil, generally
bubble on a screen. cla.'IFIed WI a frut~ing agent, also acts 8.<; a collect-or
In flotation a .><>lid p8J'ticle is attached to a bubble and is not so sticky WI cresyJic aci.d and petroleum.
in the same way sa the solid and bubble arc in con- Thc more commun pl"lJmoters used if!. minp.ral flota.
tact in Fig. 97. The only difference is that the solid tion are tllp. xantlliLtcs, the aerofioats, HS(PS) (OR)2,
i.e extremely lImall and the air bubble is relatively and thiocarhanilide, HSC(NCeHt,)(X"IIC6 H 3 ) . The
Iarr;e. The force of gravity and the agitation tend quantity of these reagents used is about 0.05 to
to dislodge the solid particle from the bubble.. If 0.15 Ib/ ton of solids treated. Somewhat larger quan-
the contact angle is small, the liquid will advance tities of collectors, up to about lib/ tun, may be
over the surface of the solid, and the surface fornes used. The greater the length of the nonpolar or
holding the solid and bubble together are weak. hydrocarbon ptlrt of tbe molecule, the more the sur-
A large OOIltac.. angle means easy flotability. When face approaches that of paraffin and tbe greater thl'
a lJOlid particle attaches itself to a bubble, there is a eonta.et. angle. The R group in the xanthates is
loss in surface energy - 11E per unit area u[ Sllrf~ tT, frequently the methyl or isoamyl group. In the
equal to the 1088 in aurface tension or aeroffoats cresyJ or phenyl as well as the methyl
radical is frequently used and the hydrogen, H, may
IlE .. 'Iso tMtSG + '18L f.qSl.. + "(w /lgL(] be replaced by a metal.
/lgSL - -/luSG - tMtw F rothi1l{} agen18 are required to prevent coalescence
-OE of air bubbles when they reaeh the surface of t he
- - ., (-'Is.'. + "(LO - "(ao) water, thereby maintaining a pcJ"1'.lIrtent frotil . The
"SG
agent mus~ be sparingly soluble in water without
HJIl FLOTATION
apl'rt,t'i:lhle i'lilizalinn Hnd 1)(' 1U1"'lI'bfld in Ihl' ia lt'r- k-t'tnr!lr prnmol{'r). ThE'Y n:'acl. 1\;l h the tjurfare of
f:u't' 11('11\'1'(>11 waif'!" IUlcl air I(,lltiing III n'C1U(~' HI(' Ih(' ,<ulill. E'iltiPr iI.v (' llI'm i('Il I I~' lion or hy adsorption,
surface It' nsion uf \\'stf:'r.. The heavy alcohols 10 change the chal'l\der of the lIurface of one or more
( b('x~'l alcohol e 6 H 130H) possess these properties. of the solids, thereby preventing the adsorption of
If two air bubbles ct)llidc, the "skins" (interfaces the collector or promoter on the solid. The addition
I;tJllt:lining water and alcohol) stretch but do not of eopper sllUatc (CuSO~) act ivate; the surface of
!Jrt. ak ann tlw bubbk'l> do not conlCt>Ce, because at zinc 8ulfide (ZOS) 80 that the latter is readily 800ted
if a small quantity of copper sulfate (CuSO() is
added in the conditioning tank. This may be due
A Rouaher
B~~
to the formation of copper suillde (CuS) or perhaps
c. ae.oer metallic copper (eu) on the surface of the zinc
sulfide (ZnS).
The acidity or pH of the water is an important
fact or controlling ur modifying the ease of filming,
and in many easeg flotation is possible only within a
narrow range of pH, Fl)r t-his reason sodium
hydro:,;ide (NaOIl) or hydrated lime (Ca(OHh)
ma.y act as either activatoI1l or depressants, depend-
ing upon condit ions. Sodium I;yanide (NaeN) is a
depressant for iron sulfide (FeS 2 ) if the laUer is
present with lead sulfide (P bS). Hut, after the PbS
Conditioner
is floated, an increase in concentration of xanthal.e
will floot the FeS:t.
&:.m tok:. The ~Dt pI'O&1Wll for the Opcnal.i<ID Q/
Fill:. 9R '" indi CAted .. follows where the num bers correspond
to the numbered ~trealIll! in Fig. 98.
L 1'0 gliadin" cireuit
NatCOt 2.. .( Ib/ ton of eoIidil
t~""
:x..nthate (oon,~tor) 0 . 06-<1.15 Ib/ ton
"2. 1'0 PbS conditioner (5-15 min)
:-laCN (depreIIIIEfJ FeSt) O,I-(),.( Ib/ ton
ZnSO~ (depreseea Zn8) 0,3- 1.2 Ib/ ton
FIIi, 98, ,,'!ow , li"I':f'J m of llelllCLivc flotation fur rt',',wNing Cresylic .. cid {frothed O.. 02--0.16Ibft,on
f'b,'-I, z~q. And F<'8t. Xantw..tA! (oolleetor) O.02-(), IOlb/ ton
4. To znS nooditiooer (5-15 min)
the point or contact strel.ching of the film 1illows
water molecules t.o come into the interface, increW:ling CuS0 4 (a.ctiVllte8 znS) 0 . 5-2,0 Ib / ton
C.(OH), (depree!!el FeSt) 1-4.0Ib/ ton
the surface tension ILt that point.. Alcohols !.lelow
amyl are too soluble, and those above octyl are too 5, To znS rougher, "U 8.()-9..o
insoluble to make satisfactory frothing agents. Pine oil or ~l'(!IIyli~ AL-id (frother) 0.M-() . t 5 tb/ ton
Cresylic acid produces an unsatisfactory brittle Xantw..te (ooUeetor) 0.10-0.20 Ib/ ton
froth unlCllil used with a trace of petroleum. Pine Naaeroftoot (ooU ector) (ifnocell'l"ry) O.02-O. IOlb/ ton
oil, a mixture of compounds, and eucalyptus oil are If it '" tlo:siretlw 1!'.,~UI'll FeSt. uw..lly unw .. nLetl . N ..!CO:. mUll~
good frothing agentt! requiring no additions. About be U IM:d to ..."'" the pi t. Anuther cycle is then ruquin;tl .no.!
0.05 to 0,3 Ib of frothing agent is uJOed per ton of t hem is IUld,!tl
solids treated . G. T" Fe.% ,:<>"uitilln"r
Modifyinfj agenl& ma.y he used to "activate" (Ir to N ..rC<h (JIU ,,,,"1,,,1 ) 0.5-2.0 Ib/ ton
" deprt'!llll" the ~ption of the filming agent (1;01- x.""t,h,.I .. (....It...<"I.or) 0.05-0. 15 tb/tao
CALCULATIONS FOR A, FLOTATION PROCESS 107
~MIJlU su ch a.s sodiulIl .. iiicat<'. !\I..Hum ml't3- _Y'I'Jl!il"r t'('lb wi~h " 'Iurn "r II'R'<t'ng,-r ''9fIl'ftlt.rat~ to tJ.e
phosphate, or soluble starch may he actctE'li Id)t'n nlUgMr .
neee&eary toO break up agglomc~tion8 of minerul and 1..abol-lOtury findings indicII.l\, t hll\. if wRi~lid8 I"IItio
L/S - 2, and the contact time i~ 8 min in the rouaher, and
gangue. In such caseS the mineral becomes coated L/S - 4 fOf 15 min in scavenger, with mechanieally 65itated
\\'ith a slime of silicates and becomes unfloatable. mll(lhine.s 01 the Denver type, tbe following oompoeit>ona will
tJe found (or the Vari0U8 product8.
CALCULA~TlONS FOR A FLOTATION PbS s;o,
Feed, Q 10% 00%
PROCESS Concentrate, 6
TIle faetori:'-'-t;OntroIling II. tiota.!ion process are cOln-
plicatfm ' and noi readily susceptible of calculation.
Rougher tailings, r-
SoavCD(eI" concomtraw, d
'"
2
11
20
98
89
fjlllli tailings, t 0.' 99.'
Sufficient data to serve a.s a guide in the computa-
Tho; dcnsitieti ..r PbS and SlOt lin! 1.!"; Mtl 2.65 m/ ce, ~
tions may be obtained. by laboratory tests on stand-
tiv",ly.
ardi&ed laboratory equipment, either at the plant. or
in SQ-CAlied "ore-testing Iaboralorie!!" conducted Solu tion .
comrneMially by equipment and chemical companies. A . Com lht/.cllion of dewm " J ufl lolilU.
When the best combination of operating condi- In feed ; PbS: 10 &rams - 1 .33 ee
tions haa been decided upon, the following pertinent SiD,: !lO illam8 .. 34,00 cc
data will be obtainable for each flotatidn1unit. 3,5".33 ee
1. Densities of both minerals,
L 100
Avcrage ", IMI~y,. .. 35.33
2. Pulp density of the material in the flotation - 2.83 prniI/ cc "" 176,5 111/ <:\1 It
cell, expressed either as the volume f~tioll of solid,
or as 1./S, the \\'ater-VHIoiids ratio by weight. S imiIMly , " .. 5.5 grainIs/ cc co 30 lb/ cu ft
' . .. 2.682 gra.rm;/ cc co 167.31b/ cu f t
3. The oompo&\iOll of the feed and of the prod- ,,~ - 2.8M gl"ll.lllll/ cc co 178 Ib/~... ft
ucts. P. - 2.679 gI'\l.JIlI'I/ oc ... 167 lb/cu It
4. The reagen"bJ and quantities of reagents to be
B. CompwuliO'll oj 1M mUM oj prollil.cU by maunu! l.cUOl,ICt.
utted, determined by experiment in each indi\idual
problem. Onnlll lJa.laInCCi ba.sis: 100 lb of nd foecd
S. Too contact time, usually expressed as too a - b + e- IOO
average time in minutes thal the puJp is in the flota- b _ 100 -
tion eell.
6. The type of flotation cell, mechanical or Q .. nOO - t} + t
pneumatic, in which the laboratory test WIlB con- All overall P\.I.~ balllJlOO :
ducted. "'.
(0 .1)(100) .. (0.8)(100 - t ) + (O.OOw_)
To these data mwt b:i added:
7, The desired"eapacity, ususlly expl'e:llted in tuns 10 .. 80 - n,s,. + O.~
per hour or tons per 24 hr of 90lids to be htUl(Ued. 0.7'.1;'"... - 70
8. The type of flotation equipment to be 11IJCd, e _ 88.1 II.> b .. II.~ It.
" lit!
"'' rom this information, one may compute :
:. 't he capacity of the cell banks and the number
of individual machines req uired. PbS b.hu~w "n.H.lntl t he 8CtI.vellJtt'r:
2. If pneumatic equipment is used, the amount of '" e _ d+e
compressed air required and the borsepoI\'er for the
comjJressors. (O.02)(,/ + 88. 1) - (0.1I)(d) + (0.005)(88. 1)
3. If met:hanicul equipment is 1l9llCI, til" h/)~ 11.02<1 + 1.702 .. 0 .11" +o,44Qa
power 1l!<luired. 1I.0000J .. 1.3115
1I1t". lr .. ljv~ E"'''lnpl~. It if! Ue.<irod to nmoVllf ),*,1 from d .. 14.57 II) ".d c .. 102.67 III
lin ore ~"'" llOjning 10 FJIlf co'nlletid !IIlifide (Pb.'-I) lind Lloc lJ.lIOnt'Ol . '(0.8)(11.9)
lll1>UlneU to lx, miiCII, 500 wlUlof ore being tfl!.lltcU IV 24./lr day, y...,w .. "i"0 , 1)(l00) .. 95.2%
It ~ ...l.un...J Ih,,~ tho: l... n~fltr&t<l truru IL ";nlille l'l! l! i~ of
_VWiIe I>Urity ... u~ Lilt: l.ooilinVII lin: to be n;treIOl-tU in Purity tJl Nncefll r& Le '" !It%
108 FWTATION
C. COIrIputation o/l4nk WIlu"",.. D. Coml'\d<diDn of n!lm1w o/~.
Rovaber \auk mUll. bokl. and d.:llid.: AaHume Denver No. 24 macioinot .. hich have 50 cu ft ut
.o/ume ami nJquire 4.2 hp per o:t.," t.u ope!ate.
100
II" 100 lb 178.5 '.. 0 ,5650 cu It For rouaher I: W - 4.82 Uee S OC)U.and21 IIp
The average deMity PM for this mixture of (I an~ d .. 178.8 Air-Lift Ma.ehinc. l1li manufaetured by tbe SOUth ...(lStcm
Ib/ cu ft, ..... ith LIS .. 2/ 1. 114.67 Ib of BOUd feed require Enginoering Co. have .. standArd ~_ 'etional t.reIL or
m .141b or 3.675 cu It of ..aloer. 9.% 8Q ft Ind , o.l'ing to the gentler action. UllUa.lly I'/lquim
t.bout 50 per cent longer OODtact time for operatioo.
Volume fractioll of 801ids in pulp .. 0.6468 .. 0.14.92
. 0.6468 + 3.615 241 X 1.5 _ 36.7 rt Iooc
For rouper II :
Capacity per 1 cu It of rou&her lank volume: 9.85
, X 0.1492 X 176.8 X 60 X 24 752 X 1.5
For _venser II : .. - 114.2 ft long, prefert.bly
9.
"'" X 8
.. 2.378 toIIlI per 24 hr IkilidB handled
brolum down into '"0
uni t.!!
The buiB for all computations waa 100 Ib of net feed; if The amount of ~r required may be &I!I!IlIIIOCI to be 75 cImJft
!.he ooL feed is 500 tons/24 hr, the rou&ber lank muat bandle In ~ and 100 cfmJ ft in _venger iLt 2 psi.
114.57
100 X 500 .. 572.8S I.ons/24 hr. Air for rouaber: 75 X 86.7 - 2 , 750 elm
Air for _venger: 100 X 114.1 _ 11 . 410 elm
Required capaeity for hAnk of rougher oe1lB:
14 . 160 elm
572.86
2:378 .. 241 eu it of tank voIUIXIe The powtz for the air com~ m...y be mad from Tahiti 19.
Scavenaer oolla:
102.67 . BIBLIOGRAPHY
c .. 102.67Ib - .. 0 .613 cu It of IIOhdt
167.3
1. #'lotati(m lftda, Grea~ W(!fttem Division, Dow Cbemieal
410.68 Co., Sau Franeilco.
at LIS .. " HtO .. 4.10.681b OJ" - , I .. 6.690 cu ft of water 2. GAUlIIN, A. M ., PWWion, McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1932) .
6 .1
a G.!.llDIK, A. M ., Principla of Mirurnl ~, McGraw_'
Hill Book Co. (1939).
4. RAlIOKr., PHILIl'. PloI4lWfl P/(Jn.! ~, Mining Publica-
t.ioooI Ltd., Lor.doo (1939) .
c.r-city f .... 1 au It of _V. '''IIl'' tank : G. RAUI'I'OH, OLI n a C., "FIotatinn and AQ:lonvrate Con-
oentration of Non-Metltllic MillO,.... "" .. (I . :So Bu.r. Minn
I X 0.0841 X 167.3 X flO X U &pl.. IIWUl. 30m (1938).
UIO X 16 6. WAJU[, I. W. and A. B. Cox, Tnma. A .... lfUl. Mi,ai...
.. 0.682 tuna fIOlid6 handJed/ 24 hr Md. Hn.gn. 111, 245 (1934).
",. _..:. 102.67
.........-...ty required .. """"iOO X 500 .. 513.35 tons/24. hr
(0) lot . . of wei. ooneentrate produced per hour when 8perifie Water_I .... ("()ntaet
10 toIlS of ore are fed to the cell V"'" 24 hr. Gno.Vlty S..lid Ratios Tim... , min
(II) Total water required in pounds per hour.
(e) The fraction of lead in 01"11. in tailings.
SiOt
CuB
265
' .00
Rougher
Seavengtr
2/1
4/1
Rough!'!
&avenger
12
(cO !lAtio of liquid to IIOlid hy volume in l'lOIloootrate. B", 1.0 C'OODC!' 0/1 Cleanl!l' 10
(~) Ratio 01 liquid to.olld by YOI_ io IaiJiDcII. Conditionct' 8
I
CHAPTER
10
Sedimentation
HE separation of n suspension into a SU~)I" natant clellr liquid (zone A) and the slurry (zone B)
:Ii; Crt/iut
POIl'lt -'"'--
, ,"
,m !:-:' I :Ill
Time, min
/
tling of particles in sedimentation. But ~ther varia- onl.r whf'n ha..~ un nut\mJ m('tururcment l!- ur fhe rate
ble& are frequently of great importance. Small par- of ~imentaliun under cart-fully controlled cundi-
ticles m&y be di!lPflnsed or agglomcralcd intu larger tions.
particles. The effective size and ooo.sity of the par-
TAHLE 21. 1:'X I'EII[ :\lt-:NTA t , 8~; ])Ji\l~:NT.<\TtON
tides may aJso be affected by adsorption of or from
the fluid. These changes in the effective size (D) and 1)a'a on pulp "lInlain.["1; 7.44 1)I~r l'Ilnt, <If C,,~ ()( "n av..n...,
uen!iity (P.) may change the sedimentation rate by a sUI! ,.s:I,jma"~1 t.O II<: al)lR,Lt .~ mil-rolll! in di.'!.mo."~r and 2.26
I'Bm8/ ee dcMity in n,o at 20 C.
relatively large factor. For example, Table 21
repGd.s the observed data on two batch sediments- HI~jlht nf In Wrf/I.CC, em
tion3 nm on slurries of the same material uf the same
Time, min "'~
WMN
0. 1% NMCOIlIII
Freshly A.. rlt~1
concentril.tion and starting from the !!arne height.
0 30.8~ 30.88
The only difference is the addition of a amall amount
01 \\"cHing agent t.o the second test,.
4 21J." 27 .21
8 29 . 10 21 .!\.~
'11lr. pret<en(',e of t.he I!-mall amoun t. of na.('('onal had 12 2l! .>' Iii . R!;
II prullullnt'('ll I'ff~t, nn the vel,~il,y of settling, in- 16 Z7 . .'"4) 11. '111
27 ..... . 2\1 IZ.1l7
1'l'f'IlIling the nilll I)f lit!diment.atiun during t.he fin;t 37 23 .34 12 .2a
third of Ih(' d;~t nlu.."Il and retarding the rate during
compll(linn as wt'll a.'" pn>wnling d oec compaction. "n 20.3<
16 . 48
11 .-18
II .42
IO. H
9 .\12 .
'I'h,' t<In't' 1i " il'A ..f l h, .Ir.\' l'I<>lill (1:41' . id, ~ ii< ill~uffi .. jt'nl '02
!}.Iln
infurlllatioll 'I, J cllrmiliC ~It lillg \'docitil'l:l. :\d-
sorptiun on the par' id~ may Ctl.1I1!e agglomerution
"'
'SI ,.'"
o.iJS
!1 .62
W. 13
8."
Il2 SJo;Ull\IENTA'rtUN
Ell.....,.. From th<! datIL of Table 21, prepare .. plot ~ereiee, C<lmp6l1!l tM pb!erved oooetant-ra.te aettliD,
ahowifll the velocity of eettling In centimetel"l )X:f minute vdocitieB reported in Filt. IOQ with ma.ximum 8e1tlin&: veloci\\M
.. a function of the "fraction l!Ieuled" (t he di~.noe ... ttled estima.1.ed by equ&tion 14 or eqU&uon 17, ulling the bulk
at the indicated time dividod by the diatance uJt;mately density of the Bluny for the density of the lluid, &nd tM
RUled). bulk vi8oo8ity of the slurry (or tho v\eeoo!ity vi the fluid.
Fraction IleUlood .. -
z. -
--Z AIeo, Ol>mpanl t'-e velodtiee with ""'-1118 ealeulated with the
Z. - Z.. facw F. from Joig. 71 .
when! Zo - initi~l hei~t.
Z .. height!l.t t.he indi~.a"~ time. The results of sedimentation of identical ~l\ll"ries
Z., .. ullimal~ hciPlt 11k. infinile time. from two initial heighl:.& are given in TabJr 22.
The m9ul18 of sedimentation of slurries of four These data indicate that the constant rate of sedi-
different concentrations of fhc same ('alcillm car- mentation a t. t.he beginning is the same independent.
bonate are plotted in Fig. tOO, each from the same of the height and also that, the rates of settling are
the same at the same fraction settled.
.,
32
:~
The ela.psed timerequiredto obtain a given r~
tion settled is proportional to initial height. too
;~'"
'", II'
26 :'\>, TABLE 22. SEDIMENTATION OF IDF..NT1CAL
SLt'RRIES FROM- DIFFERENT HEIGHTS
2
;1\\-1
22
'''is'i> Data on 2.91 weigh t % Caco, in PU"' water; particle ,ille
20 about 5 mierons.
>...
~I 8 Height of Interf_. em
't~ Time (I), min T.., B
I~
6 TEilltA.
0 48.33 22.00
2 46.17 2:0.63
I2
0 {>'t~ 43.22
40.31
17 . 86
t.~.O I
~~
M.a.'i !1 . 63
12 31.72 7.&1
2
- l.ss~ Caco, "
16
28.7!1
26.21
6 .1;2
0
o 20 40
Time, mill
80 100 IZO 10)_ ,.
21 19.30
lfi.oW
4.57
' .05
3C 13 . 5.'> 3.28
flO. 100. Height of int"rf,,~~ ,Jurin!! hitch .... Um~n l "tJon.
"'"'
77
10. !l2
7.61
ll.21
H"
2.41
original height of slurry. The more dcnoo slurries
settle at a slower rate, .indica! ing the mutual inter
102
f>.23
'.40
,,.
'ferene... of particles:n mOldered settling and the devia
tions to be expected fmm settling rates enimated Exen:i.... Plot t he rate of !leUli"" for I.eIIUI A a nd B
from the behavior of individual particles in free of Table 22 .... a funct ion of the fraction eett.ll'd.
settling.
The inilial constant. rate ill dearly evident in
It has beeP suggctltcd ~ that equat.ion 17 for lami
e8.cb of t.he cu rves of
Fig. 100. Elurries of very low lIAr flow coidd be used to compute the rate of sedi
mentation as follows.
concentration may scUie wit.h a velocity approxi-
mately that of free settling for the first few minutes, dZ klJ2(P. - P6)
but a slower ra te is usuall y t.o be expe(:ted. v. '" - ,- "'"
df ~b
The t.ransit.ion from the initial constant rate of
settling of a KluTTY of the 'properties of the feed Rearranging and intep;rll.ting
J:' "
(original eorustant rate) to tlie compression or thick-
('Ring of the pulp takes pllt.cc rapidly and is followed - -- -- dZ _ k 1)2t (17))
hy t.he ~lativr.ly slo\\" cOlnJlTl..~i()n \X'1'iod, ua indi- z. P, - P~
('lIt!<! in Fi~. Of! lwd 100. 'fh .. l>ihli"l-(r"l'h.l" r""ll,;~ ,h"I,1o'1" nl)I ~':"'" ,," I>. 120.
Il3
wMl'e Pi - bulk density of slurry. for the small-~e laboratory graduate. The tank
"'. - bulk viscosity of slurry. is filled, and the slurry is allowed to settle for the
" - 8. factor whose vsJue depends upon con- desired time. The thickened material may be re-
centration ollloli<J fUld other proper- - moved through a valw in the blllloffi of the lank, or
ties of the systemll. In Hlokes equa- the cl!t.rilied iIOlutioo Inlly lie withdrawn, either by
tion (I7), k - g/ 18, a oonst.ant. lowering a swing siphon or by the su~ve opening
of draw-oll' connections, starting with the uppermost..
nus equation may be integrated over various
When the decanted solution begins to show the
limits 01 t.imf:.. If integrated over the CQIllItant rate
presence of sludge or thc sludge level is expolllld, the
period, the value of k so found may be used for
decantation is stop~.
compUting eed:mentation from other heightt! over
ContinUQUII udimenliltion is conducted in inverted
the COIllItant rate pericxl as the properties of the
CODes, or in cylindrle!U or rectangular tanks or vessels
8USpeIllIion remain constant during this interval.
equipped with slowly revolving rakes for moving the
'!be equation may also be used to estimate changes
to be expected from varying the particle diameter thickened sludge to the cent.ral discharge (Fig. 101).
D, the densities P. and Pb , and the bulk viscosity "'b. In iurge concrete tanks the mechanism for moving
But if the integration is conducted over the time the rakes may be so constructed that the rake arms
interval corresponding to the whole process the value _are automatically raiAed to lift tbe rakes off the
of A: 80 found will be of no value as it does not corre- bottom when subjected to an overload, as might be
spond to the properties of the l:IUsperu!ion at any caused by tl.n interruption to the discharge, and
time and ma.y not be used for any other calculation. automatically lowered again to the normal operating
condition when the overload is passed. The feed is
E~ereI.e. Usin( the data f.". tEl!t B, Table 2'2, for the introduced through a feed. well at the top cen.ter of
!!edimenlAtion of c..ClOJ, OOll.8truct a curve of hcidlt VCl'SW!
time for the _ fIIurry fIl:ullil& from an initial heigh t of
the COIle or cylinder. The slurry settlp.8 directly
-tS.33 ern and compare ... ith data rcport.cd for ~t.1; below the feed well , forming a sludge which is
I. Assuming equ.aJ eettlins: veJoeit;e. at e(jual fr&cl.iowr; withdrawn from the bottom. The clear Huid BoW8
l!etlled. to the periphery and is withdrawn by overflowing a
2. Jntepatma equ.a.tion 170 OVIY' roostant rate period only circumferential weir.
-.
to find .1:, ADd oompuuD( Z .. a fo.uaction of time (I).
3. Inlllgalin equation In over the toLid time interval
A tray thickener is an ill8tallation of ODe tbickener
and ueina the vt.Iue of ,I; I!IO delermino,d in equation 170 for directly above another, which may be operated
. oomputin&; Z M a funelion of t ( not &ood pRdice). independently on the same or different feeds. or in
..
zero time in Fig. 102. Shortly thereafter, the inter- zone B of the same composition as the feed, unless
such conditions are approximated directly below the
feed well when the horizonta.! interface bet ween the
clear fluid and sludge is well below the bottom of the
feed well. UDder these cooditiOnfJ the feed IIlurry
, ~ j-o, appears to settle in a cylindrical column directly
below the feed well. When the feed rate is not
excessive and a properly clarified effluent is produced,
the upper or clarification zone in the continuous
5 process is a region where the d ids are present at
such a low concentration that the mechanism ap-
0
" proaches that of free settling. Immediately below
this clear zone is the zone of sludge compaction.
5
" Figure 103,' run I, indicates the concentration of
0
o " 100
" r-:::: ~ " 1'\
200 300
calcium carbonate as a functioo of height in a con-
tinuous thickener which was producing a well-
Concentration, . .~/1iIM clarified overflow. The high clarification zone pro-
Jo'ICl. too. Concentmtion as a fum:tiun ul !>dltht, at vur;oW! vided plenty of distance for the free settling therein
lime inlervuis in batch eo:dimenlation,' to produce a clear solution overflow.
When t.he feed rate was increased (same composj
fuce settles to a level indicated by the line lit with tion of feed) by a moderate amount with the unde r-
the com:entration throughout the settling slurry flow rate (withdrawal of sludge) maintained approx-
prlictically identical with that of the original except imately constlint, t.here was 8. slight increase in the
at the bottom of the column where the ptl.~ticles are height of the compres;ion or thickening zone with
accumulating to fonn the sludge. The process con- the overflow remaining clear.t
tinues R.\I indicated by the' curves l:z and t3, with the When the feed ru te \\"38 still furt her inereased to
upper interface 'settling and the lower interface 1.<l2 times that of run I, a definite interface or line
rilling until it merges with the upper interface. 'Phe indicating .a sharp increase in concentration rose
single interface representing the level of the compac\.- slowly from the top of the compn::sllion zone toward
ing sludge having the concentration diflt ribution th' overflow. After tlll~ dllYIi Ihi~ interface l"f'A.Chetl
IIhown by the curve ~ I.hen ~tt le:l slowly during final th~ approximute level of the <I\'erflow which t h,,
comp~on of the sludge. 1.I('(llmt" doudy , wit h lilt" Iolu",ntral.i"n uist ributetl
In a continuous thickeller, such !iX that illdi(~att'tl 'l."' iudktl.ll'Il uy run 11 in Fit(. H):! . With .the thitk-
in Fig. 101 , lIlt' feed enle~ through Ihe 1~'l"ltral fet'(i +:llI~r opcratiul!!: in this 101111111::1". giving Il doudy O\t'r-
CONTJNUOUS SEDIMENTATION lIS
flow containing 4.6 gm of calcium r.nrOOnll.te pel' level in the continUOIlS classifier) must be somewhat
liter, from 8. feed containing .J.5 gIll of calcium car- gr('aler than the I'erlicalvelocity of the fluid at that
bonate per liter, \-he appro)o;imate constant composi- level. If the settling velocity is less than the upward
tion indicated by the almost verticnl line of run II ftu id veloci ty, the particles will pass out in the over-
Willi abou t 70 gIn per liter. Under th~ conditions flow and there will be little clarification. If t.ht:
the concentmtion-verslls-height curve hM much the sett ling velocity e<1\lItl~ the upward fluid velocity,
same appeur.mce as that for tl in Fig. 102 reprc::!Cnt- the partidc:; will neither' rise nOf fall and the con-
ing batch eo:I.imentatiOIL. However, t.he practically centration of solidij in the clarification zone will
constant concentration in the eontinuous sedimenta- increase, therehy rcrlucing the settling velocity until
tiqn is not the same M that of the feed.
After continuollll flUlning without further change
"
-
"""'......
in cOlll:entration distribution, the cont.inuous lhick-
emir Wa.!! s'nut down and the hatch rate of seJi~cn ,
tation of the sltspensicn ill the thickener IVa." deter-
mined. The rate of settling W88 eonshUlt but Cb,ifation lOtle A
l!OmeI\~hat letil:l than the rate oilsen'oo in thfJ batch
t!ettling of the foed slurry. This is to be expected as "'wI _~u nU
the concentration of solids in the suspension was
higher in the thickener than in the feed. On the
other hand, the rate of batch llCdimentation of the ,
feed slurry was always leN thBn the rate of free
!:Ieltling in the clarification zone when the contin\lOU~
j,hickener was operating to produce a clear overflow
(nm I) .
,
The capacity f!.f continuous thickeners or sedi /RunD
0
mentation equipment is buood on their ability to
perronn two functions:. to clarify the liquid overflow , R,,, I -:t .-
Con!ptft5ion moe D
by the elimination of slIllpended solids, and to
thicken the sludge or underflow by the elimination 0
o
R.1le acti~nl
100 200
~ 300
,-
of liquid. The area of the sedimentation equipment
controls the time allowed for settling p.articles out of
Concentration. ~/itet "'"
PIO. I03. Coooentration &Sa func lion o:lbeigbt in oon ~inU()W;
the-liquid for a giVen rate of feed of liquid aod is aedimen14tion. ~hQw ing ll~ effect. 01 f-.l I'1I.te. Run II _
important in determining the clarification capacity. rnlio with feed rat~ equal to 1.{2 time!! that 0( run 1.1
Th~ depth of the thicy.;.ner controls the time allowed
for thickeriing tile sludge for II. given ra te of feed of the particles are carried out in the overflow as
solid and is importan t in determinipg the thickening indicated. TIlerefore the !:!ettling velocity of par-
cupacity. ticlCl:l must be suffieiently greater than the upward
The clarification capacity of the thickener is deter- fiuid velocity to prt:vent any increase in OOIloontrttr
mined by the settling rate of the suspended solids, tion in the clarification zone.
This rate may be estimated from the rate of settling Usually the constant rate of settling observed in It
of thc UppIlf interface in a hatch sedimentation test. balch sedimentation test of the fMd slurry may be
By a material balance, 'the total quantity of fluid uS(,'(]. us a reasonably conservative value tor the set-
in H.e reed is equal to the sum of the fluid removed t-liog rate in tbe Ie$:! eoocentraterl clarification zone
as a clear overflow plus the fluid in the thick sludge for purposes of design. But under some OODdition8
removed from the bottom. The vertical velocity of at a luwer level in the thickener where the concen-
the fluid at any height. in the thickcner is equal to tration of solids is so high as to greatly retard the
the volume or fluid passin~ upward at that level rate of settling, the upward velocity of the fluid may
dividw by the aTCa of thp th ickener. For s lI eces;d'1I1 exceed the ra te of settling of solids, even when thill
clarification, lhe >leltlilljl; velocit.y of the part.icles condition is not encountered in the upper zone, with
(or of the uppet interface ill the luoorutory batch rel!\Ilts!lS indicated in Fig. 103, run II. In making
~mentation aL the pulp deusity exi~tillK at any ck~ign C1li('uiatiollJl it ill therefore lIecCHSary to con-
116 SEDIMENTATION
sider the rs.tes of settling at different concentrations t he constant rate of settlin~ of hatch !!ediments.'i"nll
IlIld the corresponding verti('.al velocity uf the water of murriet! of increa.sing L'OI\eentn..tioos.
or fluid to be certain that the area of the thickener
Example . . A feed cont.inin, 6 Ib of w.ter per pound 0(
is adequate (or satisfactory clarification.
I!Olids i5 w be thickened to a ooncentration COTTClJJlUndina; to
When th~ feed rate to 9. continuous thickener 1.12 Ib of "",ater per pound of aoIkis "ith t he produetlon of a
exceeds the maximwn which the thickener ean clear overftow. TeI!Iu should be m&de on slurries eontainin&
handle and produce a clear overllow, the solid par- hi&hcr eonocntlatioM thaD that of the feed to be ocrtain that
licles are unable to settle down out of the normal thl! velocity of ~ttliD& ia paloer than the upward Bow of
fluid at &II COIIccntratKlnl nonnalIy encountered in t he thieken-
clarification zone and tlwrefore build up a higher ing of the required feed. In thiIJ _ the following five eon
concentration therein. This causes hindered set,.. oemra.tions of the IIOlida to be thickened ....ere teIIted in bateh
t1ing, with a. corresponding decrease in the rate of sedimentation "-ith the result. indicated in columna I and 4.'
sedimentation belolV that observed for the feed
2
,
C"lculated
I",r",~,~v1~~~~~~""'~~
...~~-;:r~=l Minimum
.5 60 A_
~.
1 I" M~ Fluid
Required
for Clear
il30 Run IV,,:, l~ .L ''''' "'" Re.tio, R isi ng Overflow,
3 .61
4.8.
3 . 72
2 . 88
2 . 39
6.'
' .96
3 .85
3.19
2 . 180
1. 190
0."'"
0 . 758
' .0
4 . 16
. 31
4.22
FlO. 104. Concenll'tltion aa .. function of height in continuous
3:00 1.88 2.61 0.000 4 . 18
llediment .. tion, showinl the effPet of underflow rate (rate 01
sludge I't:mov..J. The rILle of 8lud~ rernov/Ll decreued from The &roll of 4.31 aq ft/ kln of IIOlids i, the COl'J'e(lt mi nimum
run I to run V.' area to be U$Cd for design purpoees and not 3.0 tq ft/ ton III
caleulaWd from .lIedimcntation tdt of the feed.
slurry. This condition leads to the concentration
distribution indicated in Fig. tOO, run II, which The above data clearly indicate the need of check
shows an in.'ldequate' clarification of the overflow. ing the calculated area against all concentratiOI1l to
The feed rate which iU!lt fails to initiate this hindered be encountered anywhere in the tank, including not
/!eWing is the limiting clarification capacity of the only the clarification zone but also the Lhickening
thickener as it is the maximum feed rate at which zone.
the 8I.ab.. _nded solid can reach the compression zone. A1though the above tests and ('~culations indicate
that all area of 4.3 1- sq it/ kin or solid3 .is adequate
Eaerebe.
to produce a clear overflow with an underflow ol
$ho,.. th. t lim foilOVo'illl relaliorurhip m&y be uaed to eeti- 1.12 Ib of water per pound ol solids fOl' feeds con-
m&te ~IM: required area of clarifier
taining up k, at least 6.00 lb of water per pound of
A_Q (F-D) solids, it must not be assumed that this area is
,R satisfactory for all feeda regardless of water content.
where.A. _ ft) required to thicken t he diecharge
&rea (tq At high water contents the fate of settling is more
.-.
tlurry to consisleney of D.
D - p&rta fluid to one p&rt IIOlids by weight in under-
average c:olicent. ration of the compression zone in FlO. 105. Plot itIu"rrll ring th,.' eXlr:.polnri<\!I of "", lim" nll.ri-ull
curve from data of Ta ble 2'2 I., obtain lImot for Critil-&! ~"Un'
the batch test. d~ribed above at a time equal to the C('nlrali-o...
retent-ion time of the solids in the continuous thick~
ener. In other words, the concentration at the bot- If the available bateh test.s al"e on an initial ~Iurry
tom of t.he thickener is a function unly of the t ime of concentration lese than the c;it.ical, during the set..-
thickening. tling period the oompression zone will be formin g.
This retentio n t ime can be obtained from a single and at the time corresponding t o the critical point
batch tC!!t, irrespective of thickness of sludge, simply (when the two interfaces meet) the ave rage concen~
by observing the hf'ighl. of the oompm:l!lion zone as a tration of the compression zone will be greater than
(llllct ion of time. the critical concentration sin('R. it will be c:om~
118 SEDIMENTATION
of layers that hllve been in compression for varying Rather than apply equation 53 to the whole sedi
lengths of time. A suggested method c.l obtaining mentat.ion zone, more reliable results may be ob.-
the t ime required to paas from the critical CODoon- tained by divid ing HIe compression zone in parts and
tru.t.ion or critical dilution (LIS). to any desired assum.ing average conditions over each part as sug
underflow cOIl<.:e ntration ' is to extrnpoillte the com- gested by Coe and Clevenger. I For thickening of
pm;sion curve uack from the critical point to zero the sludge corresponding to the previous ~xample
time and then locate the time when the upper inter- (p. 116) the observed dat.il. frum a batch thickening
face (between the supernAt.ant liquid and t he seWing operation were as follows .
slurry) is Ilt a height Zo' halfway between the initial
slurry hei~ht Zo and the extrapolated zero-time CoMiliteney F1uid-to-Solhl, futio
compre&sion-wne height Zo' (Fig. 1(5). Thill time Timeol Average <)V~ tlx
t. reprerents, in effect, the time when all the solids Thickening, hr Determ!ned I ndicated Period
were at their critical dilution and went into com-
pression. Acttl4l1y, part we nt into compression ,,
o
i: ro;i~ 1. 70
sooner and parllater. The extrapolation back to the 1.59:1\ l.47
9 1.36 : 1\
time axis !>bould be made on iogarithmic-arithmetic 1.276
1.20 :1
""
plot as the line is then nearly straight, or with the aid 1.16
1.12:1
of equation 50. With this value of t e , the retention
time is obtained as t - I., where t is tbe time when
In order to produce a thickened sludge of. 1.12: 1
the s()lid ~ have reached the desired underflow con
fluid to solida, 19 hr of thickening retention time is
centration.
indicated. Since an areA of 4.3 1 sq ft is required per
The dctennination of the necessary volume for the
ton of solid:; per 24 hr (previous calculation, p. 116),
compressinn wne of the continuous thickener may be
the solids per square foot in the thickening zone for
obtained from a considerat.ion of the time each layer
1 br of retention are calculated as 2000/ (24 X 4.31)
of solids has been in compression.
- 19.4 lb. For 19 hr of retention, 19.4 X 19 or
The vuhmlf' V requirt'd for the compression, zone
368 lb of solids will be in the thickening zone covering
in the contillllout! th kk!'l1cr is equal to the sum of
an area of 1 SCI ft. From the above data a total of
th(' v"llIme occupic<i hy the solids plus the volume
Ig hr of retention is the sum of 5 hr of retention of
occupied by the asso('iaHxl fluids.
each of the pulp coosilltencies averaging US, 1.275,
v _ Q(! - I,) + ('LQ dt (.2) and 1.47, and a 4-hr supply of a pulp averaging 1.7
p. JIo SP, in consistency. The solids per oubic foot in ,'he above
where V .. volume of the compression zone. pulps are calculated or dctennined as 43.2 Ib,
Q .. rna&! of solids fed per unit time. 37.6Ib, 33.7 I:", and 30 lb, respe<:tively. '!'he depth
t - t. "" retention time. of each class of pulp ill then calculated as
L =- m ass of liquid in compression zone. hOllTS X 19.4
or 2.23 ft, 2.57 ft,
S = ma.'>8 of solids in compression wne. pounds solids per cubic foot'
This calculation is based on the assumption that 2.87 ft, and 2.58 ft, respectively , making & total
the time required to thicken the sludge to the desired depth 01 10.25 ft.
concentration is independent. of the tbieknCl:l8 of This method may indicate thick compression
. the sludge in the compressirn zone. zones &8 it is based on the average concentration of
By assuming a constant mea:-. value for LIS so that the thickened sludge rather than the concen tration
equat.ion 52 may be integrated with LIS const.ant, a.t the bottom of the sludge. Also, an increase in
'.hc following approximate relaliornohip is obtained. concentration of the iSludge is brought about by the
The total depth of the thickener may be estimated is similar to the !!IUrface velocity c1assifier (Chap-
by adding to the estimated thickness of the com- ter 8).
pression zone the following allowances. A cyclom!ep(JT'll1.or (Fig. 106) is a vertical cylinder
wlth the inlet stream introduced tangentilllly near
For the pit.eh of the bottom 1-2 ft the top, giving the suspension a spinning motion
For eto~ capacity to cover illtenuptiona or the cylinder. The centrifugal force acting on Ue
ir~gul&ritiell ill di8eh&r~ 1-2 ft particles tends to throw them roldially (equation 44)
For eubn>ergence of feed 1-3 ft to the sides of the cylinder as they spiral downward
! I J_ _
determining the total depth of the thickener, which
involves consideration of the C08t of the equipment,
intereilt on capital represented by the material re-
tained ill thickener, and desired sludge concentra-
-r-r I
near the bottom and the clean gas being removed collecting eledrode, The velocity of these particles
from the top of the interior through 8. pipe extending is much less than t.hat of the ions of the gas.
through the bottom. The effectiveness o! the in- In the ordinuy one-stagc method, corona dis-
verted cyclone separator when working dry is geD- charge is maintained, giving a high-intensity pre-
erally poorer than the normal cyclone desclibed cipitating field which exerts a pressure on the
above. This construction is convenient, however, precipitated material, thus preventing re<iispersion,
when water is sprayed int<! the cyclone. The sug.. It alw causes some chemical activity !Ouch as pro-
pension passes upwam through the spray, and the duction of ozone and nitric a.r.id in air.
soJid5 are trapped in the liquid drople ts as well as The tW()-fitage method USI'S corona-fonning elec-
thrown out along the walls. The sludge is removed lrodes in the first stage only to form tbe necessary
from the bottom and may be recovered or dis- gas ions for charging the dispersoids. The second
carded. stage has nondischarging prccipitating t'l~tr"Je&
lVrt uparator, utilize impingement actit)1l in com- opposing the collecting electrodes between which is
bination with water spra)'l:l or sheets. A bajJfe-pW1 maintained a corona-free electric ficld for precipi-
tcrubber is primarily a tQwer with cross plate5 set tating Ihe partirlM ionized in the first chamber.
one above the other and with perforations staggered The precipit alion or collection efficipncy of an
to force the gas stream to change direction in its electrical pr~ipilator is a function of the time that
upward path. Water flows .down the tower and the lI;as remains in t he active field and can be made
across the plates, and the gas stream must pass to approach 100 J)('r cent if desired. But the size
through successive sheets of water and impinge upon and cost of the e<ll1ipmcnt. usually places an economic
wet platcs. The solids are retained in the liquid and limit at. abe)u! 90 II) !)9 J)('T N'nl.
washed down and out. of the wwer. For any ~iven disJ.l(n;oifl of unifonn size and char-
A ro!ary-,tprayer scrubber is often used before the acter in a ~ivrn prf:'eipitatoT, the precipitation
baffle-plate IICrubber to remove the coarser particles efficiency (ell) is n'lat('d to thf' time / (~ond>!) that
when the ga8 is heavily laden with solids. A rotating the gM remuinfol in the activr field of the precipitator
spray creates a dem;e fog across the tower through by the equation
which the gas p8S8e8, the liquid and IIOlid being col-
log ~ l - rfT) = t log K = tEC
lected and u8ually recirculated through the same
sprayer when several sprays are used in succession. where K _ the ~u-c'ull('fl plwipitation constant,
Liquid droplets in suspension in gases may be w!llall~' 0.0.'5 \0 0.50.
removed by cyclone separators, by electrical pre- E _ the vtlltnllt'.
cipitators, or by simple impingement baffles. Such C - a conslnnt.
devices are frequently built into wet separawrs as
the IMt stage through which the gas passes, thus IUDL10GRAPHY
removinp; any liquid picked up in the wet stages.
1. ("..oE, H . ~ , '1Il<l (:. H . rLl:n:)iGt:lI, TraM. Alii. 1M/..
Ekdricalprrcipitation of entrained solid or li<!'clid ~fi"i"9 Mr!. E"gr., 66, 3fj./i (1! IHiJ.
particles consists in mainta ining a high unidirec- 2. CoMIO/GII, K W ., 10,11. r."IJ. ('M ...., 32, (lI';a (:\"'y 1~).
tional differenre in potential between two electrodes 3. RoI":~ E. J ., "!1l;'-k<>TIillj(-.\ rl Or St-icnre?" MiPliFif
and passing the gas between t t - electrodes. One El1{Ji'-""IJ, 1, til ( :\Innh l!I-I!lJ.
4. R..1BtNSON, C. fi, '",I. Ellu. C~' m .. 18, 8(j!) (1!l'l6).
of the electrodes, the diRCha~ electrode, is of small
5. ScHMIDT, W. A ., " ",\ K .\N"':'''''));, f!lerl. Eng., liT, 332
cross ~tion, !IIlch as a wil"(', edge or point., to make a (1038).
high electncal field at. ils surfare nece;;sary for ionis-
ing the gas. The other e:ieclrode, the collecting PRUULF.\lS
electrode, hall 1f'8S or no cu rvature and servCll to
1. Compull' I.he nrCfI 1"Ci1uil"l.'<i Q( II thi ckener to hsn<lle
collect or precipitate most of the separated dis-
20 t<ln~fhr "I slurry (Tnoll' 22), prooJudng II clellr overflow
persoids. The ions formffi near the discharge elec- and an undcrll",," or ~ludlt~ amt!l.inint( 20 pcr cent by weight
trode are carried throilgh the gM to the collecting of IIOlirb. A..umr. that I.he (l\)1\il~nt rale of ""ttlint( in the
t:-lectrod.e at velocities of the order of 100 fps. When balch eedimenlation is the rat.c of setlling in lhe clarifie.lion
K<)fIl' 01 the coDtmlM)UlllhM:kener.
the gas between the electrodes carries susJ)('nded
particles, (he ions attach themselves to the pl!.rt idc~ 2. Ulling the fbi .. 01 TlIoht., 22 lind II. deMity If\!" water of
which then become charged and are attracted to t.he 62.35 Ib / ro it wilh II ~perific II:Tllvity of 2.7l for e.en..
PROBLEMS 121
eetifl16te the area and dept h of a thickener to treat 4000 Ib Specify the dimensioN!. of the W\k to haodIe tbe ooooitiom
of lk>Iidt per llUUr in lI. f ... ~1 eonlll.iliil\i 33.3 p6rt.I of '/I'ate, pet" stipulated, MSuming a feed COIlClentratlon limi!&r W that
I part. of CII.Co" ddivcrinlll !!, c\e!!', overflow and Rn underflow uiICdiu the bBtch test. H~'l \, 'A1J ,
containing 3 PfUU of water per 1 p.!.rt of C&CO"
4. Two Dorr thickeroefll Iln! t.o be WJed ill pI"f!pa..,.c pit,.
3. A ,,;et slurry of mix to 00 bunll....1 to make cement is to {roe milk 01 lime from 50 !OlllS of bum ira8Bt<ine pel' hOUT.
be t hic kened to 60 pe.- .:ent eolids in a conventional thlckPoner The unsJllked lime Rnniy!cs W! folloW$.
at the rate of 50 tons/ hr of dry ..... Iid~. A butch lIellimcntarK.tu
tcst made under Ilppropritt.' e l:.t:.,r..tory .... nditions pve the Material "'-f __ % ~~
foU"....;ng resul l.ll.
Cir,wuat.., lkmliug, enD 91.5 100% - 200 mesh
Time, hr ml V,>lUUlO SlOt I 0.01
0 l()17 AlAfGrit
F"o, 1.'
1.01
100% +200 meab
92'
-
0,25 ,
~. ().6 >ltl , , 81.5, " \
" 0 . 75
1
700 "
000
:ntet and recycle
milk of lime to Innn II. milk 01 lime lI\I.~ pelllli?1l oonta,ning
16 PI'f cent by wcighL oC lime I!Olio.l8 (exclusive of griLl. Tbt-
1.2.''; '28
BI;lkiuK ill CUfried out in the finL elru.sifier with the overflow
;th ';o90j,;,(l 11.7.5 120
.')8"'
"
"
II. ' .0
4 .71>
6.750
'"
330
310
all the pit "'1
h(lyill~'" ol:>x;OIum ~ 01200 me&h. 'rtic under&.. cro,n,~
U -lb of mapension per pound
JlUIIi'OIS tn tile &&cond ~ where it is dU':!t.ed "I": rniJk.M
or
~
.,
28 em
220 .,
1111.... 'r60\, is discm.lcd; containMI/i 1.6 Ib or !lUSpension pet
'p<JUfld Afl(rit . '. '. '
Drn,.- iI ft"'i" ~hL..!t (,;r the prot'"f!I!I~ ' ilxlielifllll re.t.e a and'
'"CiradUllte height _ 35 em '0' ~090 mL .000IOCnlmliu.,. of :til ""'Illl,lil. .
, Dry ",>lids in 10'" - Z36 l(r.lDl.... {el) C.,..kulntc the perc.:)"'a,;"!' ....r liu,,' I<..t. ~
SJ,II!dfic gruvity of ~ ry 1I01ir.la - 2.09. (b) Specify the dlWJlOwr a.nu rkl'th of ,the t ...o'clasaifiers. ,
.. ".
~ :1
,. "
II
ATERIAL is frequently stored and handled larger than 12 in. is rarely threaded, and the ouuide
, .'~ 1,000
I. 31.5
: 0.113 0 . 154
0.133 0.179
0.824
l .o-tU
0 . 742
0.957
0.5333
0.8639
0.4324
0.71U3
0 . 113
0.133
0.1l4
0 . 12(\
0.157
0.882
'M 1. f>tl0 0. 140 O. !!I I
I."" I.'"
1.278 1.4.95 I.m 0.140 0.187 0 . 146 0. 1114
,
lli 1.900
2.375
0 . 145 0.200
0 . 154 . 0.21S
1. 610
1.939
2 .067
2.03tJ
3.356
I. 767
,.""
4.238
0 . 14.5
O. IM
6.m5
0 . 211
O. 1.50
0 . 150
...J3
0 . 221
'li 2. S76 0.203 0.276 2 .469 2 . 323 4.'" 0.203 0 . 24\ 0 . IS7 0.280
~l in ~laJI:
3 3.500 0 .216 0 .300 3.' " ' .900 7."" 6 . 605 0 . 125 0.300 0 .2<3 0 . 21~ 0.'"
3li
........,.
.000 0 .226
0 .237
0 .258
0.318
0 .337
0.375
3. M8
4 .0"..!G
5 .(H7
3364
3. 826
" . 813
0 .888
12 .73
20.01
8 .8IJ\
II .:10
IS. 1\1
J.l25
O . I~
0 . 1511
0 .318
0 .337
0 .375
0 . 2tH
0 . 328
' .2!.0
0 .2ro
0.200
0 .32\
0.34\
0.375
6.625 0.280 0.4lt2 0.' " .5 . 761 28.89 26.07 0 . 188 0.432 0 . 378 0 . 250 0 .437
to
8.62.5
10.7.50
0.322
0.3115
0.500
0.593
7.081
10 .020
::1 ".03
78.85
45 .00
7I .S!
0 . 188
0 . 188
0.500
0.500
0. 438
0.438
0. 312
0 .'"
O.Mtl
0.500
". I ~2.700 0 .400 0.687 1I.038 11 . 376 Ill. 93 101.64 0 . 188 0.000 0,438 0 . 375
schedule 80 is idf'ntieal with the fonner "extra- CMt-iron pipe is made in t;.' \mi mulds Hf eilhc!r
strung" pipe. 'l'hcre is DO equivalent 8Ched~.J1e baked or green sand, or it may be c~t l.'f.ntrifugally .
number for "doul>k.~xlra~trong" pipe, and. sched- Centrifug'.ll ea:sting is 1Jl.'Coming mure p ....,)ular, <'>Ipt'-
ule-loo pipe iR the only other weight in which cially by mr>an ~ of metal muldll lined with a sprayed
pipe I!mallf'r than", in. may be obtained. refractory materiaL
Fittings for sltoci pipe systems are usually of gray IVrouglr!-irVlI Tripe IS made of iron made by me-
cast iron or m~II('",bic iron. chanical puddling, or of a low-('arl.Jon steel made by
For m/)dr:l"II.i.p.iy high pressure, up to about fiOOO the ByeNl prtlr':Cll.~ in which slag is added to molt.en
pili, stainlc!;li-.'!tCl'i tubing may be used with threaded iron, foll owed l.Jy refining ill a Bessemer converter.
forgcd-I:lteel fittings of heavy walls. Fur higher It is elaimed to have superior resistance to corrosion
pres!!tl~. part icularly at high temperatuTC8, alloy and is used particularly in some hot-\\"nt(' 1" piping and
steels and I:lpet'iul l.'Ompression fitti n ~ and needle underground installations. The dimensions are prae-
valves arc nJ(luired, as iUustTlltoo in Fig. I~. tica.lly ideutical \\; th those of low""1:arbon ~teel pipe.
Ccut-iron pipe is Dot threaded gcne ndly, but it Fittinp arc usually east iron.
may be in some 1:l1Jl.'(!inl applications, particularly 00 BrG3' pipe and copper pipe are empioyed where
high-presiJllre water mains. When threaded, the grel\ter registancc to corrosion is desired. Fabrica-
dimensions are alm~t the same .as th()8e for steel tion is similnr to that of steel pipe, nnel dimC'nsio~l~
pipe, t.he thi,1kness being different ir.. some cases. arc t>imilnr. Sysklms of hmss or copper pipc' 1"mall.\
Fittings BI"C of grl'y ClI.st iron or mullE!able iron. include IJr/1.1:i8 or copper fittinb'l:l.
124 T RA NSPORT ATIO:\' Of FLli lD5-PIPES AND FITTI:\,CS
to a nother fixed point , a /Inion ....'rve:; as a conr 'tOl.
T he two halves of tIl!' IIniO!) ma~' be tighten the,
pi pe ~{'ct ions indepcm\t'n l \y, und the fi nal connect ion
madc by t igh tcning Iht' bonnet of ti ll.' Hilion. If size
reduction is dC!;ired at a InppcJ conzH('tion, 11 rcdllc-
'~'1g bUlfhillg is the !Simplrs t lininI/:. :\ simuhn neous
change ill direction and !'Ollnf'('t ion to u I upped outlet
may be made by u sln ( I (, IJ>I)U' illn-in g male thrcad~
on onc end and female thn>ad", un L:U' other. The
end of n pipt may Ix- closed II il h a cap, and an open-
ing in a pif'('e of cqu\)J menl ma y bc (IOSHI by n p\up;
or, bct t4'r,:1 ('ap pcd nippil'.
~l:iny other special fillings arc normally anlilable
on dcm lUld and ca n soh'I' almost lilly piping problem.
VA LVrs
Flow i~ eontrollrd by v ~ll vp~ . Gule vah"'8 RTf!
shown in Fig. \OS. The b urrier to flo\\" is a di~k - or
"'('(\p;e-!>hupp(i dam sl idillil nt. righ t ltng\('s to the
direction of flow and scnling tightly in the vllive
nrn NGS
Sfoctions of t hn'atlt>(1 pipe lITe joined t~ctller by
fittings suth us illll~tr:\t('d in F ig. 107. Couplings
join s\lecc,;.~ivc ~l n), i ght, lc ngths of p ipe with no
chan!!;c in (iin:,('li un (J1' ~ilC, When th e ~i7.c i~ to be
rt.'d uccJ 01' (,lllal'ged, 1\ rrd!(cillg coupliTlg is llsed.
,rhen thc dirf'diol\ ill to be ch anged, an I'lbow,
eitlLl'r ljI)..{i(gree or ..\5-t.icgree, is avnillible; a lLtl if
hot ll uin'('liml and size atc changed, a (Hiuell/O elbow
iii in oroer, I k>caw~ of t he mechanical difficully of
cutting IIharp IIm'ads on IIhu r l pieces of pipe, nipple8
arc mlul(' fit the fact ur y in H series o f st a ndard lcn gth~
fro m aoout. four pipe d ilunele rs in lcn!l;th t.o ci()l;l;
ni p ph-s, whose thr('atI~ merge from each ellli of the
sect ion.
If more t ha n ~wo branches of pi ping nrc t o be
conncctf'(1 at the i>llmc point, Iccs and CT08!ICS a rc
IISf"1I. They may he !)hlainoo wit h a ny rca..'It.ma ble
1!l)Jubination of ~iz~ of the openings. Since most
pi ping must, be iJrokt' ll at inter valfi for ma int cnance
and since ~talldard pipe thread s a re tight-hand, t nu'$
ma k ing it i ml)O.~:;iblc to use r igh t-ha nd fitting.> 1' 1". 1080. Seetional vi ew or Kille vlllv,, 'wilh nunrising spindle.
c)Cciusi"f'ly in cOIH\t'C'\inJl; pipe fro m one fi)Ced poin t (J ettkilll IJrooo,)
VALVES 12:5
body, When part ially OPt-'Il, thi:; type of valve
exhibits a Cr(',;I't'nt.shal)("(i opt' ning for flo\\' \\'h idl
ch:mgcs in area extremely rapidly wit h slight a(lju"t
ment of thc vah'c handle, thus making thi~ tylX' of
vake rather undesirable for partial-How control
although quite 6uitab\n fol' ordinary open-nnd-shut
control. Jn the largt'r " i 7.('!S t hc J isk may swing
-.....-.
("IU. CA(I.!.
,-.....
... --.-
,,"- ::\Isteriab fur pipe joined in this manner are
A: I.tl
T\kt,_. .,," (W.
Dia<oot .... ioo
i .,
S~oaI-:
loti ...
..
~ " lUG
21
11 . 74
o .~.n
o.....&!
0.74-1.. 1:
G.ff.... .,
O.
r,
.W
I " ~
2(I.Q-2I. "
St . ~.U
I.-U,
'. (11)-1 .
!.IO-'.:&8
."
,..
Ul
' .71
types .
.
WELDED CONNECTIONS
.
17."
44.:10
" " .M
lUI - I .
1.11_1. 11
1. 11--1
'.M
'.n
to. 7HI." I . TS-I. el
." S. 1$
u
The modem trend for pipe in sizes above 2 in . is
I I
I . ....U.
toward more weldt><! ~onnCC I iunl;. Xo threading,
1. ,.1.65 '.00
.. .. .
calking, or OOJt.ing is needetl , and no Kus ket s are re-
D U
en..
FICl. lIS. Sectional dnl."';'ngs of ~ypi C/l.I bell-arul.-spigot fitting;,.
(under lOOG psi) and seamless tubell for higher prClT sheet metal, the flange iii sl imJCd over t he pipe and
sures. Gas welding was univcn>al for some time. but tbc fla red or enlarged end .. of the Pil.IC provide thf'
electric-arc welding ill incfl'Mingly popuillr. compres.<;ion {1tC(l.
Fittings and valves are of stefll and :~re of two
types, bult-weld ami socket-weld. The butt -weld
fittings are of the aame dimeneion as the pipp, and
the socket-weld fi tt ings .ha...oe enlarged end" similar
to threaded fittings, but the pipe slips intQ place and
is fillet-welded. Typienl fittings are ~ilOwn in Fig.
116.
Hrau and tupper pipe are joined in socket-weld
systems, usually known as "streamlined" piping.
The joints are brazed or soldered. _
Plastic pipe, if thehn~C, is
~a;;ily welded
with eie(;tric l((jt'pla~ . The ends are heated to the
softening ~iit,~tbeh-)Oiried and allowed to cool,
making a strong fUfl~on iO'int.....
Fittines of the tlimpler
types are available for butt:.welding.
FiG. 119. Comp ression fi ttings for t ubing (I!eCti.onai drawi ng!l). I n the fitting ehow n at the left.,." corn pl'I!IJIIkn ring le
pI. ted over the tu be as $hOlm . When t he ap is t igh tened, the compression ri ng is preaed against t he eeat llDti beoom"" wedged
api pst the lube, m-.king a t ight joint. If the ;oi nt ie broken, Il new compre!llion rin,; IIhould be woed 1.0 insure . tip,
joint. In t he t,,o fittin,;9 allOwn at the right the t ubing must be fll\nred or spru.d by a llpecia! tool to the form indicated.
Ko com prcllIIion ring is required.
Ga8keu may'be made of a wide range of materials long and adequate clearance is provided between the
from paper to steel. For PI"ell;Ure8 up to abou t 500 ends of the pipe. The Victaulic coupling requi res
psi, impregnated aIlbestos is common. Rubber is that a groovc be Cllt around the pipe and depends
satisfactory over a wide range of pressures at low upon fluid pressure {(It compressing the gllSket.
temperatures. Lead, copper, aluminum, stl-d, &Ild Com:prus1fJ11 fitting! are widely \ lscd for small-sized
combinations of these with asbestQs or paper are tubing at both low and high pressure. These are
used for h jglu~ r pressures. The holding power of con venient and efficient, particula.rly if the connec-
gaskets depends upon their compression. F or a tion is to be broken. Figure 119 shows typical fit-
tight cl08ure it is necessary that the' gasket be de- tings of this type.
fonned so as t o seal all irregularities in the faces of High-pressure fi ttings for pressures greater than
the flanges. F or high operating pressures the com~ 0000 psi are illustrated in Fig. 120.
pression faces of the fl anges are decreased in area to
increase the comprCSl!ion of the gasket. without in~
creasing the bolt tcnsions.
In iIome designs, such as the male-and-(emale
closure in which the gasket is supported on the out-
side, the pressure of the confined fluid tends t o com-
press the gasket indepe nden t of bolt tension. In F lO. 120. Special Bt.eel fittinp and valwe for bi,h presaure
some special closures for high-p reMure oPeratiQllS, (aeetional dl1lwlng). 'The cone may bo t hreaded on the tubing
the pre8SUNl of the confined fluid alone is depended wit.h II. left-hand thread I!O tha.t it will not be t urned 011 the
upon to compress the gasket, and the closure may t ubina u t he threaded gland i$ turned in ib! righ t-hand threadB
to tighten the joint.
be assem bled with the hands and becomes tigh t only
after high flnid pres&lre is applied.
Flanged closures are particularly important for BIBLIOGRAPHY
closing openings in veI\Sels and connecting piping to 1. A MIe RICAN GAe A S$OCIATION, New York, Standards.
vessels. 2. AMt: Il.lCAN Socn :," J'OR TE8TINO MA"I:EIU AU., Phila.-
Othel IlptCial typa of tQupling, or sleeves are widely delphia, Standard ..
used. Figure 118 iliustrates two types. The D resser 3. A 3oI ll.I CA." S rANDARDS Assoc.'1ATtON, Ne.... York, Standanb.
coupling requires no 8peeial preparntion of the pipe 4. A MERICAN W ATE'R WORM AS!IOCIATION, New York.
Standards.
other than deaning and comprCSI:IC8 the gasket by 5. JENIUNS BROIl., New York, C atalogs.
boI.t tension. This tyt>e of coupling may also be used 6. R-S I'Bonu crs CoItP., Philade1phit., ClI.talop.
as an expansion joint. when the sleeve is sufficiently 7. W AI.WORTH Co., New York , Cat.a\ogB.
CHAPTER
12
HE energy balance is a most imporl anl con- inerea:se in velocity (or tlCeei('ralion) of I fps !':Iel!
T sidr ra l iun in maki nl!; engillt.'t;! ring clli(' uillt ium. , I!Ccond. T hi.; unit is 1 pUllllJ ul. If :l. mn!<6 of I 11>
Tn makir.g 11 balance of energy it is eSl5Cnt ial at mean 8('"3 l('vel :l.t -IS dcgn't", lati tude i ~ J.l1ow('I 1 to
that all energy factors- be cxprel!!ed in the same units fal l u;.dc r the influence of gr:.wit y, its lIocclerul iOli
if the calculations are to be correct. 1f energy ab- will be 32. 17 ft per second per !!CConU. T he force
!!Orbed as heat is mea.smoo in Rtll, and pressure is exerted by gravit y on 1 II.> mallS at sea level ~32. 17
determined in pounds force per square inch with pounda1!) is called " lib force. " It is uL-oo called the
volume in gallons, and kinetic effects are calculated "weight" of the mass of l ib a t sea levcl.
with mass in pounds mass and vclod ty in feet per T he use of the same teno pound to repre;cnt mass
second, the different energy terms must be all and force is frequently confusing. The inclusion of a
converted to the same nnits before a balance can be pound weight is always confw;ing.
made. These units may be either foot-pounds or For example, a mass of 100 Ib under the influence
Btu, for cx.o.mple. The relationship of 1 Btu being of gravity at sea levr.l exclls a force (ma) of
equivalent to 778 ft-lb arid the application at' this 100 X 32. 17 - 3217 poundals Qr 3217/ 32. 17 _ 100
conversion factor generally offers no difficulty. But Ib force ; it is also said to "weigh" 100 lb. 1f this
confusion frequen tly arises when pounds mass and same mass is carried to a high elevation where the
pounds force appear in the same equation. aeeelerat ion due to gra\'ily is 30 f t per ~ond per
second, it exert s a force of 3000 .potmdals or
3000/ 32.17 = 93.25 il) fOI"!'!'. If the matS of 100 lb
Di!'IENSIC"NS AND UNI TS
is now "wcigh<!J " on a sprinlt ""ale (:" lihmt l'~ 1 for
The relationshi p between force and mass may be use at sen. level, its \1C'igll ( (pOllnd hrl'c) I,ill be
p.xpteAAed by Kc\\'ton's Inw: force _eq\lals thc time 93.25 lb. Hut. if a beam hlllmwc i~ u :;lld with stancl-
rate of inc rease of momentu m. a rd " weights" hung on t he l J('llm , t he 100-lh n mss
will "weigh" 100 lb , as this 1.\']"Ie of balanct' compurcs
d(mv)
r--- <it
(7) forces, which are propor t iona l to mass a nd C<llmi for
equal masSes.
T herefore the term weight a.~ di8t inct from mass
Force htu! the dimcnsions (mass)(veiocity) / (time),
will [lot be used in t his le:-t because it is indefi nite
(m){L/ t)/ t, or (mass)(wngth)/ (t ime)2, mL/ f ,
and confusing.
where m _ mas!! in any units, In enginllCring praeti(:(' the uni t (of force is us ua lly
L _ a lin";H distance in any uni ts. I Ib force, and, if the uni t nf m:~ is to be I Ib mass,
t _ ti me in any unit!'!_ n ('ol\vcrsion fac t or mns! Ill) included to con\('rt
p Olln ds fo rc~ to p n1!n ~al ~ ILS foll uw8.
In English units m a.~ is usually expi'esscd in
pounds, Ipnglh in feet, and time in seconds. Then d(mv)
p' "'" g.F - - - (i)
the unit of force is that which gives 1 1b mllS::' an <it
131
132 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
where 1-" - fOfce in absolute un its (as poundals). mass. The dimensions of g. may be determined from
F - force in engineering uni ts (as pounds equations 7b, 7e, or 7d and are mL/ 12 F.
force). When heat effects are included, an additional
gc - conversion factor (32.17 poundaIs per dirnelll!ion, temperature T, must be added, making
pound in English unit!:!). four fundamental dimen:>ions necessary to define
the quantities ordinarily encountered in engineering
Usually the mass is com!tant, and equation 7 may
operations. But the four climemlions chosen ma.y be
be written almost any eombination t hat is motlt convenient at
fieF = rna (7b)
the moment, provided they are all independent. l-or
where a _ acceleration or dv/ dt. example, as iI1~trated in Table 25, ma.&l, lengtl) ,
time, and temperature ; 0 1" force, lel'tgth, t ime, fUld
111e choice of ma.'>S, length, and time I/JI funda-
ikmperature ; or energy, force~ time and Icmpe ...... ture
mental dimensions I("ads to the absolute units for
may be selected al! the fol.r fundlUDcntal dimensiolls
force (pounclal:s) and to the IISC of t h~ cunversion
to express the units and relal.iollships between the
fa('tor g. as indi('atro ul)()ve.
various quantities l i~ted.
Fn'qu('ntiy force, length, Ilnd time arc chosen as
fUTltlumcntai dimensions. In this system , mass has
TABLE 2-5. DIMENE-IIONS OF VARIOUS QUANTITI&s
lilt' thm (' ll il;un~ of (forpe)(time)2/ {Icngth) or Ft 2 jL.
-_.
IN THRF,F. SYSTE:US OF DIMENSIONS
This unit of mass is called a 8lug when force is ex-
S,.."'m I ,h',,,,rn II sr"""" III
prtSl;e(i in pounds force, length in fcct , and time in
secondtl. The coTlvcn;ion facto r g. iI> then a mwti ........., Fo,,,,. I'
r....n.; .... ,.1.
I
For.... I"
F"~Q", 11
plying factor to convert slUg:> mass into pounds mass. n ...... ' T i . ,, ~, Time,'
Quantlty T ......... ~r T ............ (~ ... r T.... p.,..... ~. r
Rewriting equation 7b T ..... pon. ...... (1') r T r
F-~a-m'a (7,)
Ti.- (,I)
I_ ~ ~.~ ... D.LI
, , 8/'
g<
Ma. ( . )
F _ (I')
..LI' ,
1','/ 1.
,"'''
where F - force (Ib). ....., U"
V~I<><i17 (I)
.,11/,'
"'.
TO
"'".
II/ PI
m - mass (lb).
m' .. n::'8SS (slugs),
A ..........", (00)
Dena ly (,,)
L/ r'
...11.'
L
I"I.'/L'
Il/ I"r'
"" / E'
P,,-ure (I") ./U' Pil.' I"'/ B'
mfg. _ mass (slugs). I!url'oe tenolon (y) oj.' FlO I"'/ Il
-...
R.o .. oI hN . ...,..,...
value of a' -is frequently referred to as the number of w,
gees at sea level where the numerical value of g is Co.lllcioont
......... {Io)
..1.'/ "
"",,'T
''''.
'1UT
BI'
11 - pros....,e ot bo,,,,doty 01
pressed in pouncL~. point 1
If any four fundamental independent dimem;.ions V, .........". oj fI..., Ie> 1>0 Jdded
a1~1
are \I~ , as indiclitetl by any one system of d imen- v,. .. - . r _ . ; ".. Ill
bI_a1l111it1t l
sions, no conversion factor is neces&iry. If any addi-
tional dimen~ion is intrcx:l.uced, the ft'IIult is the
equivalent of \Ising an additional system of dimen-
sions for each ~ueh addit.ional dimension int.roduced,
Step 1
and a conversion rador mUBt be included for each
fju;d 10 be odded Ie> flow
such additional dimension beyond the four funda- syUam is l""ki<Ied 'll'itflill tlOw
oyotom 1<> ..... 01 ...,. - . TlIIo
mental dimensiuns of a single system. _ lbo irrtoriuI_1b' U, MIl
IIhl!olute units, ?I" "'iJZ / fi. (mgZ / 32. 17 in foot .. A. HeM q lIb80rbed by the fIowinx material from the 8Ur-
pounds), where Z is the height o f the rna811 '" above wundinpduring flow (Fig. 122) bet ween points . and 2.
the refcn:noe plane, and 9 is. the aceelcl"lltion due to B. Work ID done by the flowing rnateria1 on the 8UrTOUnd-
gnt.viLHtional fol'OO. lnp durin, fl.Jw bct"'een points 1 a.nd 2. Thi, i8
(3) Energy of pn:8llUr1! PV carried by the material frequently called shaft work w. to distln~i!lh it from
beca.u~ of its introduction int.o or exlt from flow the "" ork done by a Btatiooary batch of mal(:riaJ riOt
under prcIiIIUra, whel"(." P is the absolut.e pressure flowin~ thl'Ough a syatem or not trs.mferred from one
e"erted by the mfltcriai, and V ill thij volume of the state to IIInother.
mAterial.
An energy balance around a fiow system, lIuch as
The neCC8Sit.y of including the term P V may I"*. betwccn pui ... ts 1 and 2 in Fig. 121 and the .mrrouno-
i~d iealed by the diagrams of Fig. 121 , which re pro- in g::s, assumi ng D O accumula~ion of muterial l}r ('nerR"
r
134 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
Heal Exchanger
, r-..", I
P ( -dV) ., increase in internal energy due to
compres..<riGn effecLl! between states
or point.~ I and 2.
Point I
r'Y dll - inc~ufle
i,l internal energy due tl?
r-: Z,
surface effer.t.~ between states 1 and
!D_"~
I
Z, "'m, -w 2.
" I where "f - FiUrfncc tCIl8ion of the material.
it _ ~ lIrr8CC area of the material.
\22. Diagram iIIu.,Ir:.t"ng" flo.. ~)"~tem between pointe
.11).
I 8",1 2.. r1 }.l,j drnd. - increase in internal energy due to
chemical effects or ('hanges in com-
iii !l!ly point in till'" sysle,n, expressed in unilJ! eon- ponent or substance A , between
"i"tent with sy:st~m II or fundamental dimensioIIB, is states I and 2.
giyen br the equation
C2 + --
2g.
mll2 2 mgZ2
+ - g, - + P2 V 2
t:.(PV) - r
The energy term 6.(P ~) is a complete differential
PdV +
Combining equations 54, 55, and 56 (inc!uding sur-
t"V dP (56)
By definition
nd
face and c1lllmical effects in the etc. term),
f1
T dS+ tJ.(~ nw')+ (mgz) +
2gc ge
r 1
V dP
_ q _ tD
+ etc.
(57)
tJ.U - r r
TdS + P (-dV) + ~i"Ydll
versibilities \yithin the fluwing mate-
rial.
equations 57 and 58 are cumbined and re-
r
I{
r I
S = aiJs.<liute entropy of the material.
T dS - increase in internal ener'r due
. neat effects between states 1 and 2
or points 1 and 2 in the Bow system.
~ f~ V +f +f +
I
dP
- -w -
1111)
,(I<
dv mg d!.
Igc
etc.
- -w - (lw)
(lw) (59)
(59tl)
THE FLOW l;QUATION 135
These equations (54 through 59a) contain no limiting :-es:istance foree, asthe product of force tim~ distanee
w;."umptiotui other than DO accumul atiQn of material is energy, and, if fluid i~ moving against a m;i~tin g
in tile unit and are unrcstrkted in application to foree , ' there is always un energy t.enn, III), involVl'(!
material flowing or transferred from state 1 to wld ~h is directly proportional to the ("('!lis ting fo''
s\ ale 2. It is ma inly a matter of convenience as to In particula r eases it is desirable to recognize J,e
which e<luutions arc: used. peculiar properties of the material flowing as a m~an8
,Vith reference to equation 54a, tJ.11 is a complete of simplifying the calculations. For example, a
difi't'rcnti al, and its value depends only upon the liquid flowing thro\lgh a pipe II ill usually be f ree
initial 'and rmal states of the flowing material, being <)( ehemical changes, surracc effects, etc., and equa-
independent of t.he path followed by the Aowing tion 59 may be rewri tten as 59b.
mat.eriul. This is an important advantage in the use
.... of equation Mo. llecau!;e there is no term specifi-
cally representing friction and other irrcvel"5ible
lOil.'ll'll in equation 54a, there may be Some confusion
in handling friction losses with this equation unlp.ss - - w - (lwl (59b)
it. is remembered that the friction losses must occur
Writing equation 59b for JJ. uni t ma.ss of matel ial,
either within the flowing material, or without in the
surruundings. tJ.J 9 -
If the rrictio<! Ioeee8 a nti other ineve rsibi lil ieos are regarded
IlII ooeu mng within the fIo.... ing materi&l, t hey &re ineluded in
J 1
2-
VdP +-+- ~Z
2ge flc
- -w- lw (59<)
tJ.H ill the term J:!T dB, whh,h u. included in tJ.H Ill! pa.rt of If the flow is also approximately isotherma.l and t he
fl uid is almost incompressible, us ale m(l$t liljuids,
l!.U. but ~hey an! not includoo in cil"'>1"'" or q. t.he volume of a unit mlUlS may be assumed to be
If the l rictiuo 100<."""'1 a re ",~r&..-d "" o:urriOI': ou tside t he
flowing matcrill..l in the ~ulTOUndillg:s, t hey arc i ..c1uded in w constant und equation 50c may be further simplified
sin ee the enerlO' leaVC8 the lIo.... ing mlLw rilli "" work which to
-M' + -0 ("')- + -lJ.Z
9
is diaU Pfoted into ht."II.l clIL"C11I in the SWTUIIndingll. In t his
~ frictional k:Jeec:s ~ not included in il.H or q. If tllCSO ,. -11;" - lw (60)
heat elf,~u. in the turTOUnd inp caW!'ed by friction "-~ are p 2g. 90
ab:!!urUcd in the lIo.... inl> material &.'j q, lhj ~ UllCrgy ill .. gain in
tlK: ..ystem and iuclud",,1 in tJ./f . In thUs case th., friction 1\11iSe6 Equation 60 is limited to tl. material of appro.'(im~tdy
aro &l9o included in q a nd VI, Cf'nCl~li llg out or the5c t wo !.eons constant densi ty and is frequently referred to tI.S
bee&. ... ., of t be difl'en:nee in ~ign, Tbe",(un! t hey might beller Bcrnoulli'~ equation when w and ftC are wro.
be in cluded only in l!.ll for !limplieity in C/l.lculati()n.
If eqUation no i ~ divided by glo" and pi, the spe-
Equation 59 is applieable whethe r or not tl.''mt is cific weight, is substituted for p(glo.),
tran!d"crred. It is completely independent of q, but
it has u tenn, lw, specifically representing friction oP 0"
-;;- + 2; + ~Z - -to -;
(g,) - lw_(g,)
-; (00a)
losses und irroversibili ties, all of which must be
included in this tenn. This elimina tes any doubt
as to where to ind udc fri ction los.'lCs, but it requires The dimensions of the indi vidual enellO' terms in
that all frictkm IO~l! anti other irreversibilitics be equat ion 60a are energy per un it weight of fluid,
evahmtcd, or that t he e xa(~t path followed by the such as foot-pounds per Pound (or fcet) , or grllm-
incomplete diffClrt!ntiaIs,
V dP, appearing
cent imetef'li per gram (or centimeters), In this fonn
(equation GOa) the. terms havo the dim ension~ (If
length WI of a column of fluid. For this reason these
tenns arc frequently referred to 8.8 " head ," such as
feet or centimeter:> of the fluid. This common
r
Frietion 106.'le! are a form of energy tronsfer terminology, with prcssure head for the term
represented by the term lw in equutions 59 and 59a (t.l'/P' ), velocity head for the term (lJ.v~/ 2g), and
(incl uded in T dB in equations 00 a nd 57). This stat ic head for ~ ~Z) , must be ap plied " 'ilh caution
~ it is frequently and erroncou~ly applied to the
point of view h:l in harmony with the hasic idea of a terms of equation 60.
TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
FRICTION LOSSES 'The factor f depends only upon the Reynolds
number if goometric similarity cxist..fl. This requires
As indicated, the use of equa.tion 59 or 00 requires
the same value for the ratio of length to diameter
a knowledge of t-he frictionallosses,.lw, which e&nDot
(DI D) for the different systems, and cxactly similar
be accurately dctermined except by actual experi-
surfaces as mtly ~ e)(p~ by the ratio .1DJ
ment, as wa.s also true in determining the frictional
wht:re t repTe!lents the height or depth of the eleva.-
resistance to the motion of solKl particles through
tions or depressions in the !lUrface. Under these
fluids.
conditions, '; (T>vpl ll) may be lrubstituted for f in
'l1Ie Aow through pipes is a particular example equation 63, giving
cor the relative motion of. solids and Huids, and
U~ general etluo.lion ,0 for the resisting force,
F' - (f'pAtlJ)/2, may be applied. 'The area A, in
C<luu.tion 10, is any area representative of the solid.
For a pipe filled with fluid this area is logically taken
IUS the insidc surface arca of the pipe (If DL). Dl.\lENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The frictional force exerted by the pipe against If the friction fact.or J in equation 63 were not
the fluid in the pi'pc is known to dcpend only upon the Heyrlolds number
in geometrically similar systems, estimation of
P' .}'p1rDLVl
values for f would appear as difficl1l t as estimation
2 of values for Iw in equation 5nc or equation 60.
The energy required to ov~rcorr:e this frictIOnal force Where all the significant variables are recognized
in moving the fluid in the pipe a. distance equal to but the exact relat.ionship between t.hem is nOl
a/., is the product F' aL. This quantity of energy known, becaIDIC of the difficulty of integrating the
would push out of the pipe a quantity of fluid repre- differential equations or for other reasons, consider-
sentoo by the volume '1fJ)2 dL14, or the m8.S..'l of able help- in indicating ways of correlating experi-
Auid P'1fTP 81.14. Therefore, the ellergy required to mental data to obtain an empirical relation between
overtorne friction (or dissipated as friction 10SI!e8) the variahles may be obtained by means of dimen-
per unit m a.':lS of fluid discharged from (or entering) siona] anuiysis. This is a procedure by which the
the pipe ilf known variables are arranged in a number ...f dimen~'
- 1P'.L 2J'W sionlel:;s combinations or groups. The fund:unental
lw/ ... - - - (61) equation may be expressed in tenns of these groups
P7:Fr aL D rather than in terms of the individual variable<!.
where hO/ is the energy in absolute units dissipated 'l'1l.e resulting equation will be simpler, as the number
as frictiun per unit fTULSIj of fluid . of dimensionless groupe will be less Umn the num-
ber of variables, generally by the number of dimen-
lw/ - g.J.wJ lliollll employed.
'The essential principles of dimensional Imwysis
Substituting fur 'iW in equation 60 witli the assump-
are three in number.l .
tion of no change in velocity, no change in elevation
,and no work done by the fluid, the pressure drop due' I. Each and everyone of the physkal QuaRtities
or measurements may be expressed as a product of
to friction ( -tlP/) is ubtained in the form of the
the powers of a very few fundtUllental dimensions
Fanning equation
(see Table 25).
2j'pLv 2
- tlP/ - - - (62) 2. Equations of physical quantities arc homo-
D geneous in the net dimensiOll8 of all additivIJ tenus.
All terms added together must have the same dimen
In engineering practi~ the frictiun loss is UlIIl811y
sions when expressed in terms of the fundamental
written for energy in foot-pounw force per pound
dimelllliollll selected.
m""",
--
1111/ ., -
fL o'l
2g~D
- -
f' N
- - dL
, 2gcD
(Ga)
3. Any general relation between physic:U Quan-
tities can be expre8l:lCd in a gcnemlizcd ma.-mer inde-
pendent'or sny particular unit~ to in vol. ~ only the
wheref '"" 4/,. The bihli..... phy for thi$ eh5ptu apl*''' on p. 146.
DIMEl"TSIONAL ANALYSIS 137
dimensionless products of all the physica.! variahles three equations. If the three equations are inde-
and the necessary dimensiona.! conversion oonstants. pendent, they may then be solved in terms of three
This principle folloll"s from the others and known is arbitrarily .thosen variables,.such as b, c, and , giving
as Buckingham's "pi t heorem." I t is the key to
dimensiona.! analysis. e "" - n
Th e erwryy dissipated in overooming friction is some a = 2 - b - c - 3 +n - 2 +n = -b - c -
function of the pruperties of the flowing fluid and
the confining pipe and their relative motion. The If t.hese values are subEtituted for a, e, and r in the
signifiC3J\t properties of the pipe may be its length D, exponents of equatiun 66,
its internal diameter D, and the roughness or depth Clw)/ = zD- I, - C- HLbtcmp-n,.."v2 - ..
of its surface irregularities f. The properties of the
fluid are its mass m, its density p, and its viscU'ity 1'. The groups int{l which these variables will he
The relative motion between the fluid and pipe is assembled in the functional relation are inditat.ed by
the fluid velocity v. Therefore the energy dist'lipa1R<i the exponents. The variables are assemblP.d accord-
in overcoming friction is some function uf all these ing to the appearance of ew;h letter in the exponent
variables or to assnre dimensional homogeneity. l'or ('A)nven~
ience the groups are usuully made dimensionless as
(lw)/ = IPI CL, D , e, m, p, 1', v) (65)
follows.
For'a given point cundition the unknown function,
All variables' i1ftving a numerical exponent yield
equation 65, may be written in exponential form.
the dimensionless group (lw)/ /mv 2
(66) All variables having the exponent b yield the
dimensionless group DID.
where th dimensionless eocffiei~nt z and all the
exponents a.re of given values only at. t.he point
All variables having the exponent c yield the
dimensionless group tiD.
condition. If the condition is changed in any way,
All variables having the exponent 11 'yield the
as by changing the velocity, z and all the exponents
dimensiunless group 1'1 Dvp.
may change. Equation 66 is ~imply another way
of writing equation 65. It. is definitely not to be These dimensionless groups constitute a functiOn of
inferrd that the true relation between the variables some descript.ion to express the interrelation of
is exponential. variables
Application of the first principle by substitution of
the fUlldamcnt al dimensions of sYlltem I, Table 25,
in equaoion 66 gives
If exponents other than b, c, and n ha.d been
mL' _ ,L"'L'm' (",)' (m)" (~)' (57) ch~n for retentiun in the establishment of dimen-
t
2 D3 ~t t
sional homogeneity, a different set of dimensionless
By application of the second principle, the net groups would have resulted. Intermultiplication of
dimension of the product on the right side must be the dimensionless groups to yield different dimension-
the same as on t.he left, mD21t 2 , and the summation less groups is permissible. In this way some other,
of the exponents of each fundamental. dimension on function of different dimensionless groups may be
the right is equal to the exponent of that dimension obtained which may be more convenient than the
on the left, as follows. first. '
The best choice of exponents for ret.P-lltion, or the
Form l _ d+e+n
manner of intermultiplicatiori t() yield the m()Bt.
ForD 2-a+b+c-3e-n+r convenient groups, depends on the use to be made of
them. The form of equation 68 is readily adaptccl
Fort - 2 - -n - r
to the computation of friction loss for known veloci-
Here are three equations and seven variabies or un- ties. But in thilS form the evaluation of the velocity
knowns. The energy dissipated.as friction is direct.ly which will result from known dime~sions and fric-
proportional to the mass of fluid transported, and d tion loss (lw), is ell:tremely complex, except by a
i~ therefore unity. This leaves six unknowns for tria1-and-error solution. This may be'" avoided by 3.
138 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELATIONS
more convenient fun ction established by eliminating all values of LI D gree.t ~ r ,than about SO. Therefore
velocity from all ~roups except one, by simply
dividing car,h side of equation 68 by V(lw)// rm?; f - (lw),D'Zg, - - - - - 4>& ;-;;',02g, [(')
-
(OP')]
- (71)
giving mL,} Li? D II-
il
charged from the flow , systC'm JX'I" second by the
crOS8--l>CCtional area A ()f the pipe. Thi" i~ frequently
FI(l. 124.
Lotll Vtlocil)' 01 FlUId
(P ...... , 10 A." 01 I'\rItJ
,.
;l
I%I~
Q.
'", '
N
" _I"
~
I
Z
i'l
.-..
0.004
.il
0.002
~
5
~
i
0.02 0.001 ~
0.0008 -m
0.0006 a:
0.0004
0.015
0.0002 ~
~
0.0001
0.000,05
0.009
0.008
10( X 10 3 .. I Iii X 10 4,
,
_ 1- X 10 5, ~
,
1_
~ X 107. "
.,
~
0.000,01
Z
'"
D,p
Reynolds Number Re = ~
FlO. 125. Friction faowr III! a function of Reynold!! numoor with remtivc roughness 8.!! 8. psrameter.'
fRICTION WSSES
,~
I
~
~
~
,5 ~
o
~o
li 'C
8. .; .:!
,
is: - !
" 0
1<2 mANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERCY RELATIONS
Sin.ilar equivalent lengths could be preeented for
in which 1/ 0, or fJ/ V2g,JJlIJJ,/ L is prt!8l'lllt.ed &8 a
welded' fittings, but the valves, contractions, aDd
expansions would furnish the same lengths as thoSe function. of Re-vj, or (Dp/ /J.)V2gc D&/I'L. This
18t~r term is frequently called the lU.rm1in number.
givl'n in Fig. 127. Welded elbows are usually long-
radius or short-radius, and equivalent lengths in pipe Figure 128 is exactly equivalent to Fig. 125 but is
diameters a.re as follows for 4s.degrce, OO-degree, more convewent in solving for the quantity of fluid
and l8O-degree elbows of both radii. flowing for a known or chosen friction loss. The
friction 1088 !W, may be expressed 8B the product
Equivalent Length (-lJ.P,)/p, if (- dP/) is the decrease in pressure due
. Weklin~ Elbow In Pipe Di!l.melcl'lll to friction losses in pounds force per square foot
45-degrce 1Ql\t;-i-adius '.8 8JId P is the density of the flowing fluid in pounds
~short.-mdill!l 8.' IDiI88 per cubic foot.
00-degrPe IOllg-radiLIII 9.'
9O-de~ &hort-ra.di\lS 12 . .5 lUuUrathe EUD1p1e. Determine the rate ~ Row of
18IkIcgroe Ionli-radiut 12. 1 lIJI.turaJ. pa <,,"hleh rr \;r be _met! In be methane, e l I.)
l~cJ!l:rw sbort-radiUII 16.8 flo,,illJ!: through a et(,(,j pipe 12 in. in diJI.m'~ I~r lind 3 milCOI
long at 70 f, if tbe p~ure d,-"CI" ~ fmlll 7.~ to 00 psi.
The energy dissipated by "9, fluid emerging from a. The. vieco:lAity of methane at 70 e F is 0.011 '''lItiJllli8e, IUld
pipe into a vessel Of space of large cross-sectional area the d~~ty e.t 70 Jo' and .t the sverage l'" '88ure 1.18. peU.s
0.218 Ib/ell !t.
cannot be computod. a{'cnrateiy. In ' no event will
this loss exceed the kinetic energy posi!C88Cd by the Solution, trcatinli: the gIi3 as .. n jnmrrt" nos.o;ihlu fluhl with
tim av~'t'AKC J.I/'Opertit.'8 .... given in the ~(II!'~ment of the
fl.u~ at the exit of the pipe. This kinetic energy may eumpll
be taken 88 the maximum p(BSible lOllS. For. l2.i n .t,..,l pipe, tim value for ~hc l'I'Ia(h" rou&hlle88,
When the conduit through which the material is .I D, it liekrmin.'tl from FiKo 126 l1.li O.OOOt~. -
1t00ving is of a. cross section other than circular, the The n1ue of ftc Vi -
{I>p/ I')V2g,IJI.tlJI L DUly be deter.
use of the lIimple diameter D in the Reynoldg number mined at an a",,'I'Ilgl' pn'WUre 0168 jlIIi.
and friction factor is no longer poI!8ible. However,
D .. 12 in. or 12/ 12 ... 1 flo
if the volume of flowing material in a specified length
of conduit' V is divided by the wetted surface for the p ... 0.2181b ma.... /ou ft.
eame length of conduit 11:: a linear dimension is
obtained ' which may be usea
as D/4 in connection I' ... 0.011 rcntipoisc or (0.0] 1)(0,000672)
with Fig. 125 for estimating friction 106SeII for fluids - 0.00000739 Bvu.
flolVing in annuJi, and, for lack of a better correlation,
for other conduits,' whether running fuJI Or not. This , . ... 32.17 ft,...lb lll.UI/(lb foroll}(eee}(_).
use of 8Uch a linear ~imeD8iOD is not COtUIistent \\ith
the prineiple of dynaniic similarity but is a sa'tisf~ ~I ... 15(144)1O;218 ... 9!JOO ft-lb fotee/ lb II'IMI..
tory proCedure for other :iha~. L ... a rnilN or 3(5280) ... 15,840 h~
For a cylinariciil';-oonduit I'W'Ining (uli, this liniar ~
'I'hI! rate of flow is I'A ... 54( ... / 4) ... 42.7 d , at aD averap
pI'CI:IftUre of 68 prj uYI a temperat.uro nf 70 }o'. Thb cone-
Bponda 1.0 236 lltandard cu ft/&ec as tneaIIUl'fld at 14.7 ~
and 60 F.
FRICTION LOSSF.5 . Ii '43
ll.
,
~.
J?':: p +$!
::--
,'01
,j.' (2 '''-~ --. V
V- I--- l$!
, til
u,
~
rm~
II b'
,!d.
:,
II
,.'"
/ I iI
/ , , I II
X 10 1
... ., .I. , :, . :~. , , ','"
,
. 1
, ,
~vr.. P,t-V2,. ~5
F:II1. 128. Friction factor /!oS & function of the KII.rJruin number.
Weymouth's EqutJtionJor CaHB where, - compressibility factor to ' correct for de-
Ueing equations 59a IlDd G3 in d i!'ierential (onn, parture from ideal gas behavior (see thf'
assumi:lg horiwnLal flow, no chcmical effects, tUld Appendix).
no work done. for a uni t mllM of material flowing R - ideal gas constant.
M - molecular weight.
vdv f~dL
VdP+~+ -- -O (72)
g. .J> 2ri.D Substituting from the above equatioDA in equation 72
Since and multiplying by 2uc/t? gives
vw Zg.,A2MPdP 2dfJ fdL
II - --
A
W',RT
+ - -+ -D -0
II
(73)
M_ ~Iocity _ -
I.
_I'
X 16 ... 10Ib/ _ .
'RTf
- - -dP - -
,RT- In (P,)
- ... ZI - Z2 (8'I) - [
29 (sp. gr.) (Z I - 2 2) ]
P, (""')
AI ! P M PI . J64&.~T
146 TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDS-ENERGY RELAJ.1QNS
BIBUQGRAPHY 4. A vertical pipe 100 ft in "lelllU! ill canyin,; oil down ... anI
Ilt ~he rale 01952 &pm. The ~re Ill. tbe wp ill a\ln08pberie
I. BIUDOMAIf, P. W., l)imerui9nal .o4"o:Il""-, Yale UniV1ll"8ily and a~ the bottom is 16 p8i&. The pipe ill HR. 8Chedute.40
Press (1946). ~teel pipe. The 'o il hall a denaity of 0.85 Jl:ram / ce and & . . .
2. CRAIn:: Go.w:PA~IT, Teck. Paper' 409, Chie..Jl:o, TIL (May ooeity of 8 cent,ipoieee. .
'" 1942). (a) 11 the oil is to be piped botUontaHy in the IWIIe slat
8. VON I{,bud.N, T., Noch. ae...
W .... OIllIIIl,..Il, Pochflr uppt!. I. pipe from the foo~ of the vertical llei:t ion, bo'tI. far I'al1 it be
1,58-76 (19:1) . Translilled in U. S. NOI. AdtUory Comm. ~nt without requirin& a pump, ";'th the oil disehal"llting at
Aero. Td . Mtmfl81J. atmOllpheric pre!l!urel
4.. MooDT, L. P., Trarnr. Am. Soc. Me"'l. gil,,..., 66, 671-684 (b) If the pipe line ill to be ruo. at an angle dU1\'n to the ,arne
(1Q44). level. how fa.r lrom the ha.se of the original vertical pipe will
5. Puav, J. H. (editor), CMmiml E"uiflH.r, lIaltdbook, 3rU bt: the end 01 tlte pipe, with Bow a~ the 8llme I'll.... lind d .
ed., p. 382. MeG,...HiU I!ook 0>. (1050). eharr;ing at altno:JSpherie JXalSUre"
I. PoIIiBUI LLr; J., M~moira da Sam"u tlra~, Vol. 9,
p. 4.33 (1846). 5. A tank 3 It ID and 12 It high filled with l\'fI,ter_at OS o F
7. RAWLINS, E. L., and M. A. 8cIlELL!I~IU)T, U. S. BUT. ill to be emptied through a vertiCAl Iin. standllord'l.i]>(', 2 It
MiMI Monograph 7 (1936). long, connected W the tank bott.om. How long a ti~ is
8. R1A1IA., )1. J., ami D. L. ((An, ,1m. ' oW. Mini", Md. ""Iuired lor the level w drop from 12 tu 2 fl.?
E..,.... TuA. Pub. 1814, Pdrol~I"'1 TedtrwlOfiIl C'hrch
1945). 6. W.. ter is flowing at a rate 0180 gpm through 50 ft of an
9. WBTllIOUTIl, T. R., TraM. Am. SO('. " .M~~A. Enpr ., 3ft, annulf.r condc.Iit mad9 of ~in. and I~in. schedulc40 8t..el
185-231 (1912). (The compn.'j'!/!il>ility bdar hM been pipe. What is the Pre!llllll'(l drop (in pound!! per Iql1llre inch)
introduced in the derive.t lon in Ihill tex, .) in the 60 ft? Aaume, AI! average propertit.... a density of
62.3 Ib/ eu '\ and a viaooai~y of 0.88 rent ipoiBe.
30 A 90 per .... nl by weight ""Julion or methyl akohOl in 9. One of """"cal pwDpII at. a plant for reoowry of bromine
waleI' is \0 \.ov pump(,d ftum a ~Io~ tank 10 :l ptOCilI<III from _ "...... ter if; \.() haVe & capacity of 50,000 gpm. The - .
departrnentthmugh!\ Hti". "landaI'd ilXJU 1,;~ . I450 ft lung. water hIlS Ii epecifie gravity of 1.03 lind a wmpcrlltul'e of
Too 1i~ ' '''mtl'iM 15 I~pdard elbow~, 5 gate vaivc@, 6 Wes 65 ' f . The water Ia pumped throuah a pipe line 420 yd 10"1
Bt r";ght throuxh, and 4 t OO"! thruugh a Bide outlet. The to a to"'er wlKlf!e top ill 60 ft above sea level.
I'''''''''''' c nd o! t he lim: 1011'11 have a ~ure of 8 J)8ijl; and ill (0) What HUe pipe \\"OuIU you rcwmmend!
22 fl above the st.""KJ! tank. T he tempen.ulrn of the line (0) What p"l&lUf'C ~'ould the pump be required 10 devek.[I!
can be \.&ken Ilt .ro" F '"' the IowU'!lt, it, ,dll poMihly a ttai n, (e) With an overall efficiency of 70 per cent, .... bat SllOUkl
and the fin ........ i1l1 be nLlto.! III 20 II:pm. but it may be over- be the hornepowcr uf the elce!,ri" mo tor?
loaded by 60 po:r <'\ml. ll!l.'lumillK no per cent pt:IlT.p cftkicncy,
uk-wale tht: " .. I put n.'fjuirc<1 by the cit.'CtOc mowr 10 be 10. A st.&.tldaro 2oill. pipe ill conveying 'HI oil of """"'I'
UI!ted for I.hit d uty . , Bp..-cilic jl;T&viti of 0 .850 at a rate of 20 1WfI.. At & ""rtai n
poin t in the line the 8t.lic p~re iI; 4;; 1"'ig. foi!li!l1ltte the
stalic pressuro at a point in the \ino wbid, i~ 200 ft of pipe
further along in the direction of flu .. and which il! 50 fL low" ..
in c!ovation. The uil hill! II vi9coI!ity of 20 .,;,n tipoiBeB at the
temperature of no"".
PROBLEMS 147
11. A water main it to be laid from the pJ"ellent pumping globe valV\llll, A in line fl"'Qm the tee 1.0 tank M, and 8 in line
Bation in a email community to .. DeW BUbdivision. The from the tee ttl tl.r\k N. All valves are wide open IlXcept
estimated future population of the IllIbdivisioD is 1500 per- eithe!" II or 8, one of ..... hicb ~ tbrottleo.J to gi"YlJ the ra\.ell of
110M, eaen of wb()lll. will uee .." a~ of 40 gal of water 80... of 50 gpm ttl tank M tmd 00 gptn to tank N. The water
per day, witb the IJIaXimum nt.e of 4 gplt. The pipe ill to level in tank T ia 30 ft abo~ t he pump inlet, and tbe lewis
be aurt. iron, bel!-.nd-spigot. jowL. in tanks M and N ~ each 8 h above the pump inJct..
'The subdivision IieB on the erest of II. lo..... hill ..... boI!e f!U.IIlID.it. (..) What is the bOl1lepower requirement of the pUmp!
ill 75 ft aboft the pumping mtion, a nd t he_Ie of the pipe (0) Wbich valve, A or B, ill t hrottled? What ie: the .,...
line ill 13,!iOO ft lon, to the aummit. sure drop due to friclion acroea the tbrottJin& .... lve in poundB
'The pump delivu. ,he lnaXimum of 100 ",m at a "bead" per 9q1W1l inch?
of 145 ft.-Ib forw/lb 1n$I!II.
If the pre.ure at ,he aununit mud be 25 pm,; under the 14. Carbon dioxide ill forced through a 2-in. ecbeduJ&..8J
muimum BoW" 1lIo1e, what aile pipe is required' ~teel pipe liM with a PI"efl>IIUre of 600 pilia. 'The pipe line ill
.2llO ft in leni;th. The readin, on the flowmeter at tbein1et
12. The ef&dency of a pipe line it defined lIB the ratio of of the pOpe line is ~,OOO Standard cu ft per bour (60- F,
the quantity of Buid actually delivered to t he quantity which 1 atm).
p--
would be delivered by a BlUooth pipe line of the llame length If the fiow ill iIIothermeJ at 95' F, "'hat pll)lllUre will ba
and inside diameter, worldn& with the 8IIrne inlet and outlet read on the gage at the dlachMge end of the line?
(a) A I.Jvel eectlon of a natural gll>lline tm.rumIi~ 8,500,(0) PROPERTIES OF CARRON DIOXIDE AT 90 F
ell ft/br. The inlet preesure is 831 ptiig, and the outlet pr.:s-
suro ill 636 peig. The !lection conlli~1.8 of 97 mile!! of pipe
with an oute.ide diameter of 24 in. and a wall tbicknell5 of
0.25 iii. The barometric pll)lllUre is 14 p!!Iia, and the temper-..
....
Presilure,
14 . 7
Dcrurity,
Ib/eu ft
0. 111
Visoosity,
ccDtipo~
0.0150
0
ture of the gll.$ in the line ill 40 . ' . The meMured fiow rate is 300 2.45 0.0100
expreMed in tennII of a cubic foot, defined as the qU&lltity of 400 3.39
....
0.0165
gas which occupill8 a cubic foot nnder the p~ of 14.9
500 4 .41\ 0 .0170
paia Ilt .. tempera.tul"l! of 00 ' f. T he vi8coeity of t he g&II at
600 0.0174
.0. F and 700 pBia is 2.8 X iO- T (Ib fon::oe) (sec)/(II<!. ft) . (Note
that these uni", of viBculity are tho!te of system TI of Table 25.
700 1." 0.0171
Vi8COllity in (lb III&-'S)/(rt) (lICe) may be obu..ined by multi
plyinl, by IIe-) TIle speeific ,""vit y I1lfe.1n.'<.i to air ill 0 .69 at. 15. A natural~ wel l 7.500 It deep hN a Pl"llMUte at tbe
low pl"e&llUJ"e. The ID.I.SII of a cubic foot of t bc g&II at P psia B:ufaoe of t"'" ground of 2600 pea. TIle pi! ha.s a specib
e"ceede the _ calwlated from the ideal gas law by gravity tefemld to air of 0.744, tbe a"ftra&"ll temperaturf: in
0.OOOI8P. What is the efficiency of I hiB pi pe-line section' U>e "'"ell is 1~- F. and the oompre.ibility factor for the pi!
(b) Two li-. a 2O-i.rI. (actual inl!ide d iameter, 19.5 iD.) at the mean oontiit.ioOll is 0.82. Compu~ the PftI!SI,lre at the
and a 2'2-in. (aetual iMide diameter, 21.~ in.) are in parallel bottom of the weU, ~ the staled aver. value for the
fM .. difttance of 41 miles. The t ..o tov.t ber tl"lUl!Ill.il 7 mH compnlllll.ibility (equation 83) a.od usm& 1.0 aven.p ...alue for
lion eu It/ hr, ea.leulated to a bMc preilIJUn! of 16.4 poM. and !.he speci6e volume.
.. base t.empellloture of tiO F. 11Ie inlet JlI"'!!l8Uft! ill 550 pei&
and the ba.romct.er ill 14 ptlia. TM! specific gravity of the gas 16. 'I'hfI main S}'IIU!m, tank 1, ocmtainB ...a~r ct 50- F IIlId
at low f!~"r1l ill 0.6S, and 11.8 viscOllity is 2.5 X 10-7 11HIee/ remainB &t coMtant \evel. The water dlsch&rJI:C8 through line
II<!. ft .. t 500 pilia and 40 F, 40" F l>cmg the flo..ing temper..... A to tee B. Tank 2 oontair.. 40 per cent 8ucroee IIOlution
lure of the gN. The w~i&bt of a cubic fool of the gas a t P p8ia
ex0eed8 th.6 weight calculated from the ideal PI la.,. by
O.()(1022P. The 2().in. line hN an efficiency of 92 per 00llt, a.nd
the efficiency oC the 22-in. line is S8 per O(lnt. The lines are
level. What ill the outlet Pre88ure'
r
50'
- T nk
Jt:- pipe,
equivaltnt
Itnjlth _ 50'
13. WII.~r at 60 F ill pumped from t.an.k T to t.a.nks M
and N. The Line from tank T to the pump inlet ill 3-in.
IIChOOuJe.40 pipe, with nn equivalent Je~h Of 200 ft. The
line from the pump di.scha.rge W the tee ",here the line brancOOl!!l
Equivaltnt lenil/l
from link 1 to
B
2 pipe, equiYaitlnt
Itl"l&lh from tee to
1so'
ill aIIIO 3-in. IIChedU\e-40 pipe, witb aD equivalent length of
100 ft. 'The line from the tee to tank M ;" 1 h-io. schOOule-4O
pipe, ",ith an equivalent !eDith of 600 ft.. The line from the
tee B - 500' discharae - 200'
DatumplaM _ _ _ _
L
tee to ta.nk N is 2-m. ilCOOdule-40 pipe, ... it h lUI equivalent
\en&th nl600 ft..
"""''''
at rue F and di8c1w'"l'llOl to t.ee 8. At B the _ter and INCI"OIIe
The equivalent 1e1'gt.h8 &II giVlln rio not include four gale nWc and t hen paII:I till a d iluted eolution ou~ ur line at C. If
n.lvea, aile hetweoo tank T anti t.he JNIlIp, ol)e bet ..-ren t he t he vcloc.~ty of t he eolution in the pipe at Cil lO fps. wbat ill
pump and tbe tee, and one eacb at tanka M and N; and t ...,> the co~nt"lion of the diluted IIOllition? What. ill beipt Z1
'41 TRANSPORTATION OF ~F..NERGY RELATIONS
Vl8C08ITY AlIID DENSITY OF 8l!CR06E SOLUTIONS 18. An iMUlt.w f\lnllUle GOI....une. 10 '-/br 0l1W.ural
AT M OP pa which for thit purpoee may be _...:I kI be methane.
The pi' II burned oomplctely 'lritb 20 per oent _ air.
""'-
%
10
Vi&cIOIJity,
cenl ipoa
"8
.....
Den,hy,
.. 04
/~
The pr'fII!ISW'eof the Ilue peeIJ leavilll: \.he (utnaQe and etltel'inc
the chimney ill 1.0 in. of water below atmoepherie ~
T~ chimney Ie .~i6ed to be of welded .weI plate. 11 ft :D.
If the &ver. temperature in the chimney ill 500 F, \.he
20
40
2.68
9.8
1.'"
1.178
atmoepheric t.t~1'l!I.ture .ia 70 F, and the prouure is lU,
IJIiI, bow t&11 a chimney ia raquiredt
19. Water Is pumped t hrough .. lin. ecbedu.\e-40 irQn pipe
17. A erude-oi1 pipe line is carrying 0000 bbl (42 gal eaeh) and a strainer 10 a 'Ptay nonle to be UIIed u pa.tt oil. humidI-
GI ___ oil daily thn:lqh 71 mileII 01 anp. pipe, 12 in. lD. fier. When spraying into the atmoapbere ..nth 00 pelS preII8Ure
ThiI capacity is no..- insufficil!Jlt to mee t Ilia con&umers' at the pump, the flow rate ..... found to be 200 IJ)fn. What
nIQIlitement.&. AcoordinIY. a ...,..tiel braneh of the same flow rate ill e.~ted ""hen the noule tliech:t.rp into .. humidi-
_ . a\elldina f{N" one-tbird of \be total diatan08, is to be fier opera\O..~ at 30 pili" if the prel!!lUre &.I. pump it maiutallled
added. How mueh has the capncity of the pipe line been at 96 psia; and the flo", rate of t he nou.le is related to the ~
ine~ by the addition of the parallel br.neh if !.be line IIUJ'e drop &CI"OIIB the ooule Ai!! follo .....1
II ~I tbroucbout.. the oil baa I. 1peCi.6e ~"rity of 0.111 aod
a ville<mty &t flowing temperatllJ"e of 500 ocntipoilJca. and the
, 10 15 2'0 30 .,
..me pMMUI"e ill maintained at the iDIe~ to tho pipe line? eo 100 1~ 140 176 200
CHAPTER
13
A
volume. The metering consists of mechanically
of the quantity of fluid flowing per unit time,
counting the number .of aegmenlil pel" lUlit of time.
as in ~ubic feet per minute or pounds per The t hree common types of displacement meten; for
second, or of the veiOl'ity ('If flow, U8 in feet per liquid Bows are osciJIatingpiston, nutating...lisk, and
""""d. multiple-piston meters. For gas flow8 the two com-
Whatever the con~tructiOll., a flowmeter is often mon types are the "wet" or bucket-type meters and
calibrated by diverting the entire stream of fluid the "dry" or diaphragm meters.
from ita usual channel into a receiver arranged to Most of the pumpa described in Chapter J.1 can be
pennit accurate measurement of flow by weight or operated in reverse as {lowmeters, especially ,the
volume during II. mC88ured interval of time. A' rotary pumps which need no valves. The main
liquid may flow into a "weigh tank" mounted on shaft is col/nected to a. register, and the mo.vilij!; parts
8C81es or into a tank calibrated kI indicate volume are ma.de of hard rubber or other lightweight mate-
a.s a function of liquid depth. A g8l:I may flow moo a rial when these designs serve as met.eN.
" gas holder," an inverted tank float ing in water Of
oil imide a larger tank. In a !!eIi8e, aU flowmeters Oscillating.Piston Mel.el'
are alwa)'ll calibrated in this way, for even a standard Figure 129 wows tbe measuring ehamber of an
calibration meter must be checked by this method. oscillating-piston flowmeter, with the piston at four
equidistant positions during one revolution. All
fluid enters through the inlet port and pa.sses around
DlSPLACE.!'IENT FLOWl\IETERS
the annular space between the outer and inner rings
A di!>placement meter measures the entire etl'cam of to the outlet port. Part of the fluid traveL! this
fluid by dividing the streo.m into segments of known distance in the space between the piston and the
FIG. 129. "nw! opera.tion of the Ol'Icina\inl!!:-pi~ton meter . .4, inlet pori ; B. an!II,llllr meuuring tbAmller reoeivilll!;: fluid ;
C, hollow pifrt.on; D, d~ph.rapu; 8 , OUllet port; F, a nnuw IItc:1l1uring elwnber tllisc:bllrpnc flwd; P, spiDtlle; fl , roHer.
n... o..t .... ri,'4t Us Ihe WIlli of the easing. The inner ri~ OOnOOftlrie w h t he OUll>!' ri ng. ill oovered by the piaten and appsn.
only &oil 1ilIor1. while art joiN"" tbc iDllCr c:nd .. the diaplmocm in vi""", 2 And 4. (Nq/l ..rw Mder Co..)
'"
ISO .\IEASURK,\IENT OF FW W OF FLUIDS
of .1I. spinning top 80S the top reaches the end of ib
action.
Sud! meten'! fl.rc widely ul!Cd in water supply lina:"
of mooernte llllM'city.
M"Itiple-Pi:JLon Mdcr
Figure t31 sho\\"", a mliltipll~piston meter wi ll,
five pistons and eylindf'rs mounted in a circle and
COllnected 10 a nut:'lU';g plate or "wobble-plate."
The !luiJ ente,-,; aut! le~l.\'t!iI the top of euch cylinder
through u rtJt<~1')' valve. T he nuil! ente r>:! the cyliJ.-
den; from thO! rhamber ali imlicllteU by the solid
arrows and leavel! the cyliuJ cl"l! thruugh the rotary
\'!lln', flowing into II. centml veltic"l pu.:;..-;age M indi-
cated by tile .Jotted arrow,., The rotmy. valve
COlltroh the fluw ~o thttt the "i,.tun,. afC acting in
:;lIccc~ion around tim circlo. One pi:-;ton, at full
withdrawal from tho valve, ie changing from ililet
ro {Jutlet while its neighbo!' Oil olle side is still
being pushed down by enl.l!ring fluid IUld the ncigh-
001' on tho oj.hpr side is being pushed up by the
F la. 100. Cut"''''lLy dmwing olnut.nting-dil!k meter. (Neptllrle lIuUl.ting pl:J.~ un the bQttAllI'I and is discharging
M thr Co. ) Huid. The c()nnC(!ting rods are (If !!Ueh a length
thnt the plate on the botkom wobbles around i~
outer ring, and pnrt movCII through the Rp3.CC be- centrnl heariug in un action similar to that of the
tweeD the wall of the hollow pi.'ltoll and the inner nutating...Jisk m eter. The rolury valve at the top
ring. The pi~ton is guidf'd by t he sl)indle which is driven from the plate nnd is synchrollired with it.
follows the circular rmth I.Iet\l"~ll the imler ring and
the centrol roller. All extcru;ioll of the spindle
through t he cove r or the measuring chamber actu-
ates the first of n series or gC!fLIlI Irhiclt record OIl a
dial the total I'o!umc of fluid pa~1 by the meter
since it was set at :001'0.
Wet-lest Met.er
The bucket-type wet-tesl meltr (Fig. 132) jo IlSfllI
principally for test.ing :lond iaborat,(wy, measurement..
The main body of tlle metcr contains a cylindrical
rotor made as four buckets, each 'occupying one
(uadrant of the cylinder. Each bucket. receives
through a slot ::: t he axi;; of the rotor and dischaq!:eo!
through ~ narrow stot. paralic! to the lLXis on Ihe ou ter
t'dge of the rot.lr. 111e rotor is immersed in. wilier
to r.level just above the axil!. The gas beillg metered
is introduced int() the hollow axis and bubbles into
the bucket at the right through the inlet slot. The
trapped gas lifts the bucket lintil the diOlChargc ",lot
e.nerges from the water, At that inshw t. the parti-
tion between buckets passes the opening in ~hc
bollow a.'(is and shift:; the inlet flow U! the IIClx l
bllcket on the rotor. T h\! gas washed out (If tbe
rotor leavell the (!U!oC tl."'Ough the opeLing at the top.
The shaft of the rotor dri ves a gell.r truin indiCllfinJ;
Diaphragm Meter
The working mechanism of u "dry" or diaphragm
gas meler is shown in Fig. 133. The two circulur
diaphragms and diaphrsgtn pans (Fig. 134) are sus-
pended from thc valve plate and ha.ng down into
the pro..sure.tq;ht CMll. The gas enters first the
space t\.bove the valve plate !lnd is admitted through
one side of one of the D-~ide valvel! to either the
space between a diaph ragm and its pun or between
a .diaphragm und the C3.l:I(!. The diaphragm8 move
in and out in a "breathing" hetion, being p.I.~hed by
gas entering on one ~ide and pushing g;~ Olil on the
other s!ue. The dio;chnz'ged AIlS leave~ t.hrough the
valve and I.he di5(~hargc port cast into the yalve
152
plalC', The motiun tlr tilt' tliaphragm, th rough t he
flag ::ums, operates {he \,tl.ive gear and drives the
index ~Iulft which Rct Il UH'S t il{' rq!;il'! lflr,
CURRE.'~T FLUW:\IE'nms
A currl~nt. mctl'r mCll.~ur('S tho v('l!lc:it.y of flow,
not the quantity of flow , and I>! no t pObitive in its
action, If 0. displacement met~r :;hould (,'Cas<'
operating the tot.&l flow wo uld be "hSltucteJ, but if
a. current meter s\l()uld cease opera.ting HIe flow would
lit! hindered only sligh tly. If inscrtPd ;n u c1{1t1t'(1
,'onduit the dials of a current mete r may be cilli-
bratcd in u:rm~ of quurllitiC5.
\ The three oornmo.n t.yIX'8 of current meters I1te
propeller, cup, and hot-wire mete~, The 1881 lyJX'
is suitable only for mew;uremt'nt of ,ll;1~ flow, but. the
first two type! ure u~1 wit h uny fluid.
Cup M.cur
The whirling CliPI' of the weatherman's anemom-
eter (Fig. 137) a rc the commoneilt. ex:unple of the eltp
flowmeter. The fluid striking t.he concave siele of the
cup exerts a. greater forte than t.he flui(l striking the
convex side of the opposite cup, resulting in easy
rotation of the cup assembly. T he central shaft
FIG. 135. CUta..... ay view of propeller meter. (NtpCUM drives the gear train which teUs the velocit y of flow.
MdQCo. If the device is made smaller and more rugged and
is enclosed in a. housing so that the ftuKl strikes the
Compound Meters. A eurrent meter is most cups in a jet, the instrument !!Crve8 as a liquid meter.
accurate at high fJllantit iM of fl ow, ",nd a. displace-
men t mc t.cr i)o; ol)ernhlc only at low rales of flow. /lQL. Wire Anenlomeler
Therefore, metering of flows t hat vary greatly cannot A hot-wire anemometer reliC!> upon the r"'te at.
00 done aceura.tely with only one of these type. A which the fl owing strcam absorbs energy supplied
compound meter eonsi$ts o( OJIe of each type of meter hy the primu.ry elem~nt of the n eter. A rt'S;stanoo
constructed to permit. operation of ~n.ch II.t il::l OIJt i- wire pl!u~( in n flowing IItreuffi illid supplied wit b
m,um ,range. Figure 136 shows a compound meter electrical energy at a constant volt age gives tip heat
MEASUREMENT OF FWW OF FLUIDS
t..> the stream. As the rate of flow of fluid inCre88ll8, The nonfto wing fluid need not be identical \\-ith
beat is absorbed mOl'll rapidly by the stre1UD., and, the flo\\ing flu id . A nonflowing fluid of high de nsi ty
if the temperature of the wire is 1.0 be held COll8tant, may reduce.the.height of the column to a. convenient-
tho elect.rical cnrrent must il:icrelt.'*l. An ammeter length if the pre88Ure is high. All.erna'!,ively, a
placed in the elect.rical cirmit wilt vary in reading fluid of lower density may be used to increaSe the
M the ra,l e of flow e~llIillgea, Ilnd its dial may be height of the column and increase the accuracy uf
n'!exlifierl to n:oad dired.ly the '\fclocit,y of flow. meaSIIMment. Inst rumcnU! made ;'0 mmu:;lIre pres.
Anothcr VI'n.; iOll uf t.he hotwirc anemometer sure diffel'ences in t his way are cal\(,.j manometers.
operates wil h a c;onstant voltage and amperage on )'1 anometc~ alw!l.Ys measure differenoos in pres--
the wire. AIS t hI' rale of fio\\- varies, the temperature sure hy halancing ~tat i c "legs" or columns of fluid ,
of the wire vMies, and the rate of fl ow may be
measured by the va riation in electrical remstance of
the wi re.
J\lANOi\TETUt
If a duct is filled wit.h fluid alld no flow OC'curs _z,
through the duct., t.he flow equation SOl: reduces to
c_ ZI_
-
equation 80. If t.hc fluid is incomprClOSible
t1P g '3 . . .
., -+-.iZ = O
p g,
g
FIG. 138. Dillgt&m illusln.t.iIll!: the general Ilppli eatioo of a
manolDl!t.cr.
IlP - P: - PI ~ -p!-,iZ - p- (ZI - Z:) (85) but a la rge number of widely varying design!! e mbody
g, g,
t his principle. Figure 138 showtl the generw (~ase ~
When the local Recderalion of gravit.y g is numeri- of a manometer containing a liquid, C, denser than
cally equal to the conversion constant ge, as is the and immiscible with two other fluids, A and fl, being
ease at RCa level, p' may be us ed as a specific: weight used t() measure t.he difference in pressure between
numerically equal to the density. The dimensiolli! point I in fluid A and point II in fluid B. PoinU!
of p' are pounds force per cubic foot. I and il are a~ different elevatiQRB. The application
If the duct is vertical and open at the top to the of Cf"\IUl.t,ion R5 to this system by successive addition
atmospiwlre, PI et"luals atm()$pherie p~ure and t1P of inc:rements of the colupms of fluids gives :
equals t-he gage pressure corresponding to p~. iden
AP - P u - PI
lificd by t he symbol P2'.
- -P'B(Z. - Z2) - P'B(Z2 - 2 1)
IV = P'(ZI - Z,) (86)
...
-2
Din!ction applied between points 1 and 2 as in Fig. 141.
" (m,,)
OU + O(PV) ; _0 (91)
Also
2"
v - -IV __
G
(92)
pA p
-
To 0I'Ie side
of m.l>OI1ltltr
A - cross-sectional area of flow.
G - mMS velocity, or mass per geOOnd per
unit area.
Jo:qllation 91 may he written for 1 ib mM6 :
Jp,2!,2 - P22~2'
velocity. 2<,(-0)
In applying equation 00 to actual pitot tubes, a - (94)
coefficient C i!; frequently neeessary
" -J
,
C
2Q~(P2 - PI)
p
(!lOa)
where 11 is the enthalpy per pound mMII.
If the flowing fluid is incompressible or the p1'eS-
sure difference is 80 small that .I.he density is almost.
The value of C for a given instrumcnt jg detcnnined constant, then
by calibration.
2g<p'lA,'(t.R)
IT'- (96)
VENTURI l\IETER (..4,2/ A I 2) _ 1
If too ftuid to be measured is nt/wing inside a closed This relation is qui te useful when the- entbalpy of
conduit, a COIlstrictioo in the chan nel will serve as the Howing fluid can be evaluated at points I and 2.
\
ORJF1C": 15.
When the entbalpies cannot be evaluated, equa- nozide, but the vo.l.ue of the coeffi cient C will vllry
tion 60 may be applied without assuming adiabatic from 0.70 to 0,98, de pending on the shape of the
OOOruLiOM. If I1Z - 0 and '0 ... 0, nozzle, its le ngt h, ~d its relative d iameter,
6P 6(11)' _
- + - -- -ltD (96) ORU' [CE
p 20<
As eomp:ued to the venturi tube or the flo\\" nozide,
Substituting equation 92 in equation 9{1 and solving
the orifice (Figs. \-13 and l..j..j) i8 a Iliml.llf' mecha-
for W,
Ilr-
! '
I
.
q :1 =11
The irrevcrsibilities (including fri ction I ~) lw
can be expreillK.'d as a fraction of the pre;!dure differ-
ence I1P or
(98)
1 o 2 3
FIG. 143. C"_",,,,!iunlll diaJ(mm of a MhaTJH":d~ orlflee
(99) indicating approxiTlllite flow liJle!l and p~~.
This equat io n enabl~ Ihe calculation of th e (!IUU1- nillm, A ~imple flat plate with a central opening
tit.y of fluid Howing in pounds per second, if the made \\ith ordinary louis will suffice. if an accurately
density of the Huid and the crol:!!Hleetion al area of machines! orifice plate is not. available.
the tube arE! known a t points 1 and 2 and the pf'e!:l- The contraction of a s tream Howing through an.
sure difference between points 1 and. 2 is measured. orifice is quite pro nounced. The point of minimum
Sil).ce venturi tubes are difficult and expensive to cross section is one or two diameters dow1ll!tream
manufacture, they are made by specialists. Usually from the orifice plate. This point is known as the
the tapering entrance has an interior total angle of "vena eontracta" and is indicated in Fig. 1-13 by Ihe
25 degrees and the tapering exit has a.n interior point 2, This point corresponds to the point 2 in
sngle of 7 degrees. For such an inst rument the value the venturi tu be and the flow nozzle and is the point
of the coefficient. C is 0.98 if the Reynolds number is at which the pressure is U8l..IRUy mea;jured just down-
greater than lO,lXXl. stream from the metering element, t hus obtaining the
maximum difference in prl'8!lure, as shown in Fig. li3.
The cross-scet.ional area at pOint 2 ~ importan t
FWW NOZZLE in flow equatioll8 such a;j equations 9S IIo nd 99, bUI
Because of the aize and exr.en&c of a ve nturi tube, the CfOS!rseetional 8n!a of the vena
a smaller device called a flow nozzle (Fig. 142) is contracts is quite difficult to de ter-
often used as t he primary element uf mine wilh accuracy. This area may '
a fluwmeter. The diverging exit of
the venturi is omitted frum this de-
be expressed, huwever, as a fraction
of the area of the orifice opening. l' .,
viee, 8ll.d the converging e ntrance is which is CSHily detennined. If A 2 in
altercdto a more rounc.led form. equa.tion 99 is replaced by . C".-I o
;\1any different shapes of the con- where A . is the cross-sectiunal lU"('1t
ve rging entll:Ulce of noulC!l!l are lUIlXi of the orifi ce opening, and the (' 0- F' G. t. (;,......
...., ioll.. tJ i&tI;rulll
FlO. 142. CI"OI!;$o in order to reduce the friel-ion I ~ efficienb are combined tu a new or" rollud-4!d,..d
aeet ionaldia but. experiment has shown that the coefficient C., then orim..,.
liram 01 a 6011' shape of one quadrant. of an ellipse
flOU1e ,
(as seen in longitudinal sectiun) is ' ( 100)
mos t f\Q.tisfactory. F.quat.ion 99 applies to the Aow
,.e...,i_. l'ihow t hat Hilil ('(Illation 102 ml\~' he writt.:n
At II-={A.ilA:~1)
('. - c A~ Vi" (4I A I'J
(\04)
An alternative r~plution. in icrrus of the pipe ar"lL jl;
TIIe!;e l"Quations penuit calcu lutioD of the qU3n
lity or velocity of fluid Rowing though an orifice
pittt! ill II 9ipe, pro\'idrd Ih.e dimem;iOll8 of the
By I:urubining l.c lulltionl! 101 and 92, II rdation for s~tem arc known, th e pressure diffcrcnl~ between
the vducity may hI' tlt IOt,loped. puillts I and 2 is mf!~ured , a.nd Ihe cucfficienl of the
orilil~ is known.
The friction losses are relatoo tu the neyuuld~
fi\lmber. lliereforo the values of thE; coefficlcnt C.
may be cxpres..'l('(. as a function of the Reynolds
For circula r pipe:.. the cl"OSS-St'(:lional iI~S arc number And of the diameter ratio of t he ('rifiee &-fId
prolJllrtional to I he !lilllnre8 of the dl",metcn;. There- pipe, as ~hown by the light lines in Fig. US. For
fore , P.<.jull.tiun ]00 mny be written vnhlC8 of the Rcyn'olds number thruugh the orifice
greater tilll,n 30,000, the cooffir,icnt is approximl:l.tely
0.61 for all ratlOll of the diameters of t.he orifice and
the pipe, provided the t.FIpl'l, or manometer con net'
Illl
r
11
P\ . ':"~
r
V
i7
/ 1\
~
,
1/ II
vtw~ ,
~ l"--L\
::::;-
~
1-'" r
/
V
10 ,. 40 60 00 10' It 10' 10
Reynold$ "umber th'OUBh o.-lIIel D,;: '"
FlU. 14::;. V"rI"tio'IOf discharge coef"1Ci~lIt with Rey.wid.r u\lf\lIK,r fu. ~h"rl'""l... I,or;c<J unlic.",, ' '''H I rul:lIL~I.erS,'
11", bil.>iiocmllloy for thi!! chapter appeal"ll 00 1'. Ina.
ORIFleE 159
tioos, 1l.1:e ont'-half pipe diameter dO\\1lstream and Ttl(' If',~r may <:ontrol an electrical or ('fJmpl~~I~
up!ltream from the orifice, and the orifice opening hag air ~.\'I:'t("m whiclt will control thl" flo\\" alitomElti~
sharp edges. The Reynolds number through the cally.
orifice is usually grea.ter than 30,000. Therefore Orifice met.ers tll'e widely used for mf'-1ISnrin,l1; ga....
0.61 is a. rea.'IOnliliiy oonsll:l.nt. val ue for I.he coefficient flow wht-'re it is customary to express the ((,!lult in
of a shaT'p-e(lgf!d. orifice.
If the orifice is not sh.:l.tp-edged but. rounded at
the uptStrcam fll(,,e (Fij.!;. 114), the coefficient of di8-
charge C. ha.~ a value vllrying from 0.70 to 0.88,
depending on the degree of ('\lrvaturc and the size
of the opening. This increa.<;ed eocfficienl. results
from tI .;, approoch of tbe null. cnntracta to the
orifiOf' opening in size.
For any particular orifice in II. particulnr "meler
run" (length of pipe containing the orifice), cquu.tiull
1m may be wri tten
lV = KA . V;( - fl.P ) ( 105)
C.A. (t.RT_)
AlP. (
3600 1 2g~Jl P(h h,) . (62.4)
>"';(1-- IJ}/ D 4):RT 12
1 -
reduced by t.uking pains to have the pressure lines
leading to the meter of equal coefficient.!! of discharge
I for inflow and outflow and the capacity in the line!';
(100) and meter the same on each side of the mcreury or
water column.
where (hi - h,) .. = pres,mre drop exprcsHe<l in
The error due to velocity variation ennllul 1..(.
inches of water.
Assuming z, is unity and omitting the fartor eliminated hy any meter constnlclion now availabl(.
It varies with rnllIlY factors, and 1hc best plan is to
(l - n:/D I 4 ), ('(Ination 100 run)' he simplified to
reduce the varil,tion to a minim\lm as there i" no
S~ndard cubic feet per hour satisfactory manner of making prcpcr corrections.
The appro,;imate error causal by pnlll8tioll in the
_ 2,588,1)5OC..A .. T. /(11, - h,) ..P, (107)
,ciocity a.~ n>purlro by Hodgson ~ i" indicated in
p. 'J MtT, Fip;. 147 a.~ a funCliufjuf the pnJ{luct:
When the pressure drop throngh .Ihe orifice is not
greater than 0.2 of the absolute up:stl'eam pressure C( - llP)F
(P,IPI is not less than 0.8), the error introduced by p VW-
using P2 for P in equation 100 dc)!!s not exceed 1
per cent~ Since this error is in the p<lI!it j\'C dh'ectiou, where C = tht': volume capacity in the line (ell ft)
it tends to compensate for the lIimplifictltion in~ Ilf't \\et>n the source of pulsation P u.nd
~rporated in equa,tior 107. the meter.
(-llP) _ Ihe pr~ure drop (psf) hetwef!n the en-
" .. '-(ion. trance to the capacity C a n' 1 thf' !lide _ .
Serious errors may he introdu ~1 hy pulsating of t.he orilirr or ven turi mete r whicll i>l
How, as exists in liRe!> oonn("t~lro to jl;lUC f'ompn',I.'!OI'S. fUr1hro;t fwm thl' sC)urcc of pulsatiun.
F - thl' rl~ lul.nt.y uf pul_tiun IX'r 'C,)nd .
/' - al:)I.oIUl e Prf'>;!<urt'" (Pli).
V - gpccific volulll(' of fluid (eu fi l l!) .
W - mIlS!! raIl' of flow (Ih/>:ICC).
'O~
coO.B
o.9
1.0
- ......
'-.,
B ~
.t" ~
07
.
~!! O. 6
::~
.s~.::I 0.5
'\
rio
-.
0_
.4
1\
~ l5 0.3
'"
, 02
t ~.
< 0.1.
o. 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R r OIifito Diomel'"
a 10, Pipo lliom_
~:
curved taper, and the mte of flow can be etched, in
appropriate uni ts, on a di vided seale a101lg the tube. the term (I - :) approoehCH a ' Rluc of 1.0 and
The flOats ~rc mmaJly "made uf brass, stainless steel, is not induded in the C(llIation, Icaving
aluminum, or nickel, although any special material!;
may be used. The end blocks of the mt.amctcr may , J2rIP(Pf-=-P) r,
be made ,of any pipe material, ~uch M steel, cast iron, W - (',/(Ao
AI
porcelain, \ead,-or hard rubber.
In_the smaller rotameters the I float s usually ride. The coeffidcnt of d il:lCharge C R is similar to its
freely. bl.it in larger sizes the float may hl~ve a hule counterpart for orifices C~ in that it. is sensitive to
drille<J through the center a.nd slide up and down a viscosity and to the flow lines through the constric-
center poI:It. GlfI.StI beetls may he molded Mlung the tion. The heavy Lines in Fig. US show valllCl> or the
sides of the tulle, or the tube may be irregular in coefficient CN as a function of Rcynoldl:l number
Cro6II section, thus eliminating the need fur the cen-
through the annular s pace D,.voP/ Jj, where n"
tral post. The floats may have an ('.xtension arm, is the equivalent diameter of ..he annular opening
either up or down, beyond the norlllal eXltHit uf the (n. - Ih) for cirr.lIlar tube and float.
end block.- SI)ch an cxtensiorl arm, extending PiBton-(ll1d-Sleel."6 MelerB
thrQl,lg~ the center of a coil, can vltory the inductance
Another device, :Fig. \50, US('S a cylindrical sleeve
of that coil and thus control ll.uj(Jmat.ie valves or in a. vertical tube with t\ slot or orifice in the side of
remot e recorders. For high-prr$ur~ \vurk the glass
tube may bEt replaced by a metal W!)e, and an exten-
&ion float used fur the reading of lhe instrument.
The equalioll for flow of fluid through an orifice,
eqllit~QI"I 100, ca.n be applied t.o fluw through a.
I"Qta~ter. The area of too orilke .4 . is now the
area of the annular opening betwccn the largest
CroBl! section of the float and the wall of the tube at
any point. The area of the pipe AI is now the cross-
sectional area oJ the rotameter tube just below the
float . The pressure difference ( - t1P) can be ex-
p~ from a force balance acrosa the float. The
downwlI.rtI force exerted by the fl oat, the weight of
the flua.t less the buoyant thrust upward, if; hll.!anood
by the Pn'!SSu ~ difference acT068 the float times the
crOes-lleCtiunaJ aN'fL of the float :
the tube, A piston !;lides in the eylindcr wilh a d .......strcll.ln 01 the eoNltrie1.ion "",,!.aillll "'Ilter with li _
filled witb oi!. The mannmctcr ru..s a ditrvential reading 00
cI06C fit'l&gainst the \\'ulk AIS the fluid enters the the . rater of 300 mrn. What is the' lullS ill IJ~II'e ae"1fIII tlw:
bottom or the sleeve, the piston is lirted until enough OOIlIItriction in foot-pOundl! per poo..:nd of oil1 I n prounda per
orifice is uncovered for the ftuid to escape, A variIY square incht
tion in the rate of flow cauiit!S " variation in the 5. The l1lII,I\IlIoott:r in problem '" WM broken and .....1lI 11)0
level at which the piston will float in the strea.m, pls.co....J. by anothe r manomctcr hll.YinK too uI'Ilrca.m leg lnadc
providing a method of measuring t.he rate of flow hy of E}-mm gi&M tubinJr: and tho! downstream kl!; ulA<kl of 8-mm
reading the loca.tion of the pi~ton , The parts are !11M'! tubi ng . Wnen "" oil ill flowing, the menw.U8 i~ 21 ' cm
usually metal, and the piston carries an extension "bove the bottom of tM IJIlI.nometer and 40 em beto. the t"I'
of the manometer. \\'h....t i8 the maximum decn''''''' In p..-ure
arm which indicates the location of the float by in 11<1"00'" Ilf!r "'11J.&t"e ineh whieh can be meMUred? If the
visual observation or by variation in the inductancp- connect""", to the Iep am ren:rsOO, what ill \tie p.;nnia8ihlc
of a coil surrounding the ann, docrea8e ill j>I9IIUre?
6. In order w tktcnnine the quantity of air no..-in th ... >Ugh
nIBLlOGRAPHY a cirou la.r dud .,h... iotemal diamew r ill 20 in., piWI tuoo
readinp .....ere taken alnng diameten; at right floglefl to ead!.
1. AMI!:IU C,l.1f S<x:u:,rY OP :\1,;cHANICA L i<;l'IGll'Ir.t.1II!, Special other in a ernB8 lIedion of the duet. The data arc pn:.enntcd
C;,romhtoo on Fluid Mcwl'S, Flllid Mekrl, l'tlrlf I, I, and in the table below.
3, New York (1931-1937). The air was Rowin; at &0 absolute ]JTtlllSure of m mm or
2. F\QWIU!llt, INC., Fort Wayne, Ind., CatalOlPl' mercury and &t a tempe ....ture of 250' F. Tho pitot tube
3. BMOw" INIlTIUJIIIIl:NT Co., Divil!ion ill ~Iinneapoli&-Hooey coefficient ..... "" 0.118.
weUltegull\tor Cn., Phil&delphia, Pa., Catalop. (al C"leulatc the TMe of fl.ow of the " ir in cubic foot per
4.' I !lC HCII ANO PORTZR Co., Hatboro, Pa., Cat.alop. Section millut.c, meMUred .. t 760 mm and 00 F.
9S-A (1I1m. (b) c..ustruet a PI"" r.bowinf!: the Vll.tiAtion of the rMin
6. HOOOllON, J . L. , Trani. A .... Soc.. M It. Engr." 61 : of local velocit)' t.o cent ral velocity ,.-it.h the ol iituroec from
f'SI'-5142, ~ (1929). th<l renter 0' the duct..
6. Nw:l'Tu,u: ~I ETl:R Co., New York, Cat.alop.
7 . PtTnIlUROH F.q I:ITAIIJ..,!; DI VIIIIOH, itoc:k ....'CU ~H&- 0. . rrunt 1.()CII.linn,
Pitt.sburgh, Pa.. , c..tal~. in. 'rom Pilot Tube Readinc,
8. TuvJ:, C. I . and R. K SPBEN ]o;I-C, l/U1r umtnt.., 6, 201 - 206 OOR t ~r ()f duct in. of ...."ter
(N()v . 1933). fl. 7S O. HIS
9.00 0.800
PROBLEMS 8.00 1.40
7 .00 1.00
A aharp-eodged orifi"" metcr ill meMurinJr: Jr:NI fin ... uitd<)r
' .00 2.t17
lIuch "nnditionll tlut.t the relative I>reetlUl"e drop ill ~mall
(Re - about 10,0(0). What. wouk! he the qUlilnt ilatiYe dr~
3.00 3. 27
on the readi nlC nf the IDCrcury manometer Utij~1 t () indiCll.te 0 .00 3.67
3 .00 3.38
,he orinc.e differential of (0) iocreMinlC the !.e'nl'".... lure of
2.8 1
the pol frolll 70 to IOO~ F, (b) an inereMe in ~y of '.00
7 .00 2 . 10
1.5 t i,,--, (c) doubling the moIec:ulat ......,ight. AeInome each
8 .00 1.56
ehange can oxeur independently nf an)' uthe.... The pi!
Y'OIUI1"lC at Illl.lIdlllrd OOnditioollll is to be 1\.000000rnOO. Cf>llIItant
9. 00 0 .891
9 . 75 0.210
in all CIII!CII.
9. 7S 0.205
2. Spl~ify thol orifire . diameter for meMuring 100,1))) 9.00 0.""
Btandard OU ft (at 00 F and 1 atm) pcr hQur of propane, 8.00 1.48
flowing throuJr:h iI, pipe 12 in. in diameter at a l>I"<.:gsure of 7.00 2.92
10 peI.g II.lId SO ' F. The !:eading acl"Oll8 the orifice should not '.00 2.73
be murn theon 5 in. of mercury. 3.00 3.3'l
3.31
3. Calculllte t ile flow of oil in pllone per millutc through a
u ndard shu~ orifice ~in. in diameler. The cham-
!:: '
7 .00
2 .7:i
1.95
ben lo the o rilioe. are four time!! the orifioc diameter. The 8 .00 1.4{i,
oil hall a SllO(:ifie I[n.vity of 0..8.'; and a ~ty nf I I eenti-
'.00 9 .""
poi8cI. The p~\l re drop ~ t he orifiee ill rneN<ured b)' a 0 .0
9.75
II1ICnrury manQOleteT 1oMt.ed. unJerneath the o rifice meter.
The rewint( on the R'ahom"'!"r i~ 9 ill. 7. Air is no""'ing ~I>tout;l, a 12-in. rilTuw.r duc!. A pit... l. tube
4. Oil of " I...."'iliu g .... vity O.81!J i.~ flo"'iuK t],rouKh :I. pipe i:I ill8erted inw the duct "t the oouter poiut of th$ . , ..... IIL.
with .. CQn"trictio " . A m:lIlomet"r wit.h tllp!< ul"'t.l"tlam "nd The temperlltul'(l nf the .. ir i~ 110 f", ""d the prellllUI'E! is 1 alln
... MEASUREMENT OF FWW OF FLUIDS
IlheoiUle. The pitot tube manometer ill an oil-.... ter type. The It) Readin, on a mercury manometer meuurinc the drop
oil, specific p~ly 0.835, ill .bow the ..... ter. epeci6c sravity IICfOIIIIII Z.~in. diameter ~ged ori6ee.
O.9!l8, anJ contained in ,.,latiniy iar&e reeervoirs eom pared (d) Po~' requirementa for the orifioe.
1.0 the ~ube , When the manometer reading is 2 in., what ill the 14. A 0.75-in . orifi()ll it installed in a vertical standard 2-i.a.
ft,o .., of .ir in cubic feet per minute at d uet ound itions? pi pe to meNUre Ute upward I\ow of benaene. WiUt the lead
8. Water ill t\o,,;ng in a horisont&1 pipe. b~h up on a lin"" ~uppoeedly filled with benzene and with mP.!'eury in the
mano~eter, the r... llo.ing reading!! were obtllirnxl.
mountain (g _ Z8 ft / fII.!<:'). An orifice with .. mereury rna-.
nometer is U!IOO toO meMure the flow. The manometer reading Rate, ~,".nometer
Po 4.00 ill. What, ill the pJ'ell8ure drop (-4P) in pnun<ii! per gpm reading, in .
IIqlUlre ineh t)t'lrTeflp:mding w thi!< readinJl:? 30 .52.56
9. Water III SOOF ill Ho,,-ir\li thmu,.;h 3-in. M,lw!<iUJ...40 pipe IS 13 .51
at I. ...111 of 150 pm. . 6 2.10
(0) If A sTandard sharp-ed,ed ori~ I '~ in. in diameter Af~ calibration '1' ... completed and the meter placed in
ill iMenf(\ in the line, .... hat ...ookl 00 the ",aninI{ on II. merrury llervloe it bappeJ?td !.bilL Bow .."" Bt.opped temporarily , and
manometer connected I'oCI<ll'I'I the mificf!? the manomc~ pve a ~;'" of 0.69 in. &II if a small quan
<bl H a venluri meier 'A;lh " th ....... ' 1 ~~ in. in dia.mo!l.er tity of ben&ene ...... flowing. The pl'l.'8<Ure at the uptltrellm
...-ere ueed iMlead of the orifiee, ".. hat " '"uld the manometer oonnec:tion of the manometec .,."" .l()
psia throughout calibra-
""'"
it ) What 'l"Oukl be the reading on caeh iJll!trument if,
il1ll-' of ,uter, an oil "'ere 8("'-;lIg through the pipe at the
tion a nd the te mpnrary _tion. Bleedin, bcnune out or
the do ...~tream vertical lead line to the manometer d ;";IOIleIl
an air pocket, which WAS entirely du.pl&ced li nd the meter
"me rate, t.he oil having a deTlllit.y of 0 .800 gm/~ and a Mltored to 8trvice. Whlt j" the pl'el!ent corr('C t calibration?
~ty "f 1.30 "" utipuises7
16. A pump it tkliVt:ring oil from tank A 1o.t&nk B through
10. A 2-i n. &eh."lule-J.O piP<' line carritla ..ater at 70 0 c. t~ pipinll; .yeteRlshown in the figure, 4-in. pipe frum tllnk .-t
A tl~geJ urifioo O.on in. in o.lWroet er) llervt'll a.~ the to PURlI} WId 3-in. pipe from pump 10 tank B.
prinlU)' denwmt of a fIu"'meter. The _~ element ilia
,...ereury.....ler manumeter I'I.~ t'KO branehes have a differ-
er.oe in le~1 of 22 i n. lit nl&Xlmum flo ....
The nWlllOlneter ill to be inverted a nd \IIlIed .. an air-l'Iatl.!r
....
nWlllOtnete r, maintaini..,; the 22-in. d ifferential at manmum
-
What nel'l orifire diameter ill needed?
18. Th~ "Y~\.em sho .... n in the figure i~ carrying wal~r !!.t-
00 F from tflnk A to tuuk B ",ud through tho liu<~ leading to
"
'.>
'H
,.
',. \j."
CHAPTER
14
MACHINE that does work on a. Rowing Ruid fl uid through the discharge valves. The piston or
'"
Rt;CIPROCATI:\G PF\IPS A:\D LO\IPRF.SSORS 167
CosI'IiorI'tam
10< regu!atin.
leni/:h of strolle
...
..-
Box-type
Slum
Dislon
F .... In2. &ctionfl,l view of SltnnHlriven reeipl'OOIIliuIC l>IImp. (It' ..rlhing/,,,, P'"" p MId .Ilnchinall C..rp.)
168 PU.\IPING AND COMPRESSING
The pistro comes to a iull stop at the end of each .side ~ timed thllt at r.nidstroke of one piston steam
stroke. The resulting pulsations in flow and pres- is admitted ahead of the other piston. This adjust-
tlure arc reduced by the air chamber on lhe discharge ment provides thal one piston is in mid8troke
line (Fig. 151 ). The air trapped in this chamber delivering at its maximum rate when the ol her
19 oompre&!cd during thll peak delivery verioos o~ piston is at, the end of its stroke and not delivering.
v~ ..... St.", Stuf. AII.m.r~ St.. ", Valve - FI,t F4C' Slid,
fing Bo., Screwed Sturn Ch,.t v.lv e -Alway. Ti<jlhl-C.nnot Wurto
Type, of Lib,.,1 tJI_: .. P,," Should., - Thi. V,lve I. Oper~I.'; By
O.pth the Adu.ti~ L f,om the Pislon Rod
Mo.
P""
the IlIunll anll exp:md .. sli~htJy Iluring the peritxb of The fll:'lull u.n l ,li-':\l:hul')(l: is mOl'fl ,,~(!udy and iii nl a
rcvf'noal, maintaining How of fluid . Ioigllflr avcn:lJl;C IJrt:Ii6urc thllll f<?r a si llglp-(lillt.on
The duplex piEtoll pump is e&\elll ;ally two sillgle~ pump.
piston pumps built into the IIIl.mc caatings with These pumpa may be fwrictcd of any lIOi~ble
common suction and discharge liquid chambers but metal. Standard COllstrurtion is east iron,. with
individual villv(s. 'Ill(' "t('um \' al\'I'~ for tint" side hrollZl' \'ulv(':-I, llrollz(' liw'r rot' III!' liquid '('ylindl'l',
are !:l.(:tllateti by lcvens un Ihe pi:;l.o11 n)(l of the other and !;tool liquid piston und piston rW . 'rhl'! liner
RECIPROCATING PU\lPS .",NO (:tHIPRFSSURS
iH replaceable if solid pari ides in the lIuid {'IUUll! oppo.mcd p!unger.; tl'ig. 1M) must Ue used t.u give
...
BOOrmg. delivery corre>;ponding t.o a single double-fl~ling
The fluid valves are generally disks, balls, or wing piston, The br plungt'r iii Fill;. IS.} i~ driven by ruds
valves. The disk valVE" (Fig. 152) is a flat disk of (shown broken) e:octending around 1he pump from
rubber, bronze, or steel, seating on a flat scat, guid(,(} the erC&:!hcad.
by a stem screwed into the valve acat, and held j>lun~r pump8 ~arc IISP.1.I for hip;her delivery pres-
tighlly by a spring. 'l1le ball valve is a sphere of sures than pillton pumps of e<lual size. Wi th llutl!iide
rubber or met \I. seating in a spherical seat (of equal packing any leakagt' i!; visilJle ',0 the operator. Thi~
or slightly smaller radius) by gravity, and held in 8ml the greal('r ea.';(' of rf'p.'l.Cking re;;uits in much
position by a metal cage. The wing ",uve (Fig. i:x-tter maintenance and less leakaJl:e. Tlu!oo f8.(:tol";';
154) is similar to the disk valve but hll.~ guides cast off:;ct the higher ini! iul co~l (If plunger pumps.
FlO. 1M. Longilurtinlll ~ion of 5t~am .. triv.. n dupl~", plun~'r pump. (lrrn1hi"gI',,,, PHlftp ",.d J/IIr}n~ery C"rp.)
into t.be di;;k and extending through the valve ;;cat. Plungel''; MId pumps are freqllently con,;tructed of
It is prefcrred when tne valves do not operate in a steel. and whell 8pcciul conditions mu~t be Ilwl
vertical pu;ition. alloys and {'\'cn porcelain Illunp;l'rs are uSPd..
Th(' dimrllsio7UJ oj the cylilld(7"' of reciprucating Thr 1"lJper IlC/ecti(J11 and Il/Ifi'llrllQ/u;e oj 'PIlchllg
pumpg are usually expl"Clll>Cd in the atbrevill.tcd fonn is one of the major facturs in effieient pump opc ra~
as 12 X 8 X 10, indicating, rrepeetively, the dmm Lion. Asbestos rope iml)l"t'gnatoo with oil and
eter of the steam eylinder, the dill.mete ~ of the graphite il:l widely u&..,j fl)1" plWking both 8leam and
"water" cylinder, and the length of the strukc in fluid I:Ituffing boxes. For highcr tempera1urc,. and
inohes. when the Hnid acts as a solVf'nt for oil, metallie
Steam-Driven Plunger Pump. Liquid piston>! parking is morc lmti;;farl.ury. 'flli;; packing is con-
(Fig. 151 and 152) carry packing to reduce leakage ::sirnctoo nf Ip.aci or aluminum fuil twi;;ted and form ... 1
of liquid from the hi~hpressure Lo the luw-pr{'!!SUI"e into ~pli t rings. Such pa<:king i,; availaltlc with or
side of Ule pigton. Whcn this packing hecoml..'lI worn without g'rnpllite: For 8pcci!l.1 purpose,; other mate-
or loose it can be lightened or replaced only by re- rials lIl'1! uscd, ~ueh as leathcr, rubber, and ropC8 of
moving the head of lllp. pump, thu~ putting the variou,. fibers.
pump (tul vf ~'I"viet'. III the plungt'1" pump the TIll". s l eum pi;;ton;; 'urc ('ltled by oil~lubriclI.ted
Jolingl('-al'ting pillnger~ work through packin.c in the pi.;ton l"inl(~ ill.:ste:ul (If pll.lkiug. Because the stl'am
hp-ads of the cylinder, using two outsid!" l)l\('.kings vapor is practically (n!t' from all suspended I!o.,lid>l,
instead of one (lutsidll and one im_idc I)uckin". Two the clearance.;;; betwl..'Cn pis t.un rings ami ('ylind!"r
17'0 Pt;)IPING AND CO'IPRESSING
FIG. too. LooihJ<.linal8eCtion or Clllnk and flywheel romp.--:lt. { Pm"~!lfM..m Pllml' aNd CO'"PlYuor Co. 1
walls can be made very small and sealed with oil. connecting roo linkage controls the pump stroke.
When pumping clean liquKi, the liqukl. pistons can It aLIso permits multiple fluid cylinders which increase
also be sea1ed by rings.. the discharge pressure IUld give leas deviation of too
Power-Driven Reciprocating PUInVI!I. In t.1e flow rate.
direct-acting pumps described, the steam-driven R eeiprocating Compressors. Compres80i , for
piston is rigidly connected to the fluid piston or g~, both direclracting &nd power-driven, may be
plunger by a piston rod. A crankshaft and flywheel similar in constru(;tion to pumps for iiquili. The
dril'en by a motor Of engine is usually more eco- lower inertia of gases pennits an increase in the speed
nomical for large p umptl when more horsepower is of compressors ovm that of pumps of similar physical
requi red. The flywbeeimnooths the operation of the dimenmons. This places the steam-driven dimct:-
pump. The crankshaft permits power to be de- acting compressor at a disadvantage and increases
livered through a i"uiating shaft, producing simple the desirability of power drive .
. hannonic motion of the piston, and through the A double-acting crank.and-flywheel compressor is
shown in Fig. 155. It can be driven by any engine or
:notor-. The light valves (Fig. 156) of th' ribbon
type respond very quickly. The passage consists
of circular or straight slots.. The valves consist of
light metal strips in guide groovee. They are clO6Cd
by g88 movement or light springs and opened by
gas passing through them.
A double-acting compressor driven by a Vtype
tW<f-Cycle gu engine is shown in Fig.. 157. Four
pistons arc connected to the same connecting.rod
bearing on the cranbh&Jt, the two engine pi:ltons,
the compressor piston, and the scavenging piston for
air supply to the engine, (mounted on tbe cl'088head
in the compres~or linkage). Such compressors are
}o'l<l. 100. ClItnway ... ~~ ... '" rih\.Jnn.tY[lll OO<n~r ... alW'. available with multi ple compressor cylinders, diljo-
( II'nrlltingiM Pu.... p nll~1 ;U..dti""Y ( ''''1'.) Ilhqbg at different inst.tl.nl.8 in the cycle, reducing
REf.lPROCATlXG PU31PS ANn C031PRESSORS lit
}'IU. 157. Cu[away vic\\' 0( C'ODII'n!fI8Or tliroct-driven by V-type inlcfflIll eoJllhUll!ion engine. (Coo~r-Bu_ (,'Of'p.)
,-
1-, PUMPING Ai'OD CO!\lPRESSI~G
FIG. tW. Cutn.way view 01 oompre.or ~yli Dder fot p_res up to 4!JOO IJIli. (Coopv-RUM<mer Cltrp.)
the amplitude but increasing the number of pulsa- ciplcs in a more rugged construction. For still
tionlS per revolution. higher pres.,>urcs. forged-stoel conl;truction is used.
The compressor cylinder shown in Fig. 157 is Figure 159 shows a double-acting -i5()O.psi cylinder,
designcO for dii~chllrge pressures up to 1000 psi. and Fig. 100 a single-acting fiOClO-~i c:ylindcr.
Figure 158 show!\ a dotlblc-acting cylinder fOl' pres- A vacuum pump is identical with It low-pr~!lnre
sures up to 2OCIO psi, utilizinp; the sa.me dC!!ign prin- compr{'88()r (compressinll: from les.., than atmospheric
REClPROCATING PUMPS AND COl\1PRE.."iSORS 173
to ahJl08pherie pTC!:ISUre), -and they may be inter- end. Such caleuiations may give i'ftIults varying
ehanged in !!Orne applications. The VMllum pump, a1mOllt from zero to infinity.
however, is foreed to handle larger volumes of gas It hall been customary to ~reat some of the indi-
per unit time when on its del!igncd p~ure, l~nd it vidual factors contributing to inefficiency as if they
has a larger ratio of pis ton diameter 10 s troke thlln were effieienciCl; themsel v~. For example, the steam
is usual for eompressors working in the! rCl!Bure pressure required for a steam-driven direct-acting
range from atmospheric pressure to 500 psi. pump may be computed as t hat presl!nr'e n~cssary
on the s team piston to c01mte rbalanee the dilieharge
Ope,..ti~ Feature& of R eciproc(Jting Pumps pn$Qure of t.he fluid being pumped. The ratio of
ond Compre"sor& '
'Ine reciprocating m llChines deliver a eun!jtunt
volume of fluid against a wide range of pres.~tlres,
el!pecially ' if power-driven, lIond can be built to
operate against high pressure;s. They are self-
priming for serviee ori liquids. The valves prevent
satisfactory operation on viScous liquids, and the .!Ii!
cloee elearunees cause maintenance problems, es-
pecially when pumping fluids containing suspended
solids. _
A relief valve and by-pass linea should be provided
to prevent damage to the pump caS!.ings upon in-
advertent dosing',of the shut-olT valvc in the dis-
charge line. ~1any pumps and compressors have
built-in by-pass lines and vah'e " unloadcrs," wh ich
holn open the suction valvr~ so long Wi a certain
pre!!lmre is exceeded il( Uu~ di:;cnarge fluid '; hambP.r.
Maintenance problems ILflcl the t ime nCl'<ierl for Fpm _ S~es ptr M<~ut. - Rpm
valve action in pumps limit their speed of operation.
Fw. 161. U~.... 'mmell<k~l ~peeds rur recipru<:at~ng !Jump" rur
The recommended speeds for eoid liquids of kine~
L~llrl liquids .... it h viSoUoli~il'S
k'NI thall 00 ceutistokf!ll. 1111/'
.mat ie vi scosity le;s than 50 ecnlistQkes are given in dm u/ic I MtilJ'le. ).
Fig. 161 for single and duplex steam-drivcn fLnd
single, ' duplr.l, 'and triplex power-d n vcn pumps. this computed pressure to the actual pressure re-
T hese speeds should be rOOuoed for liqr.;ids of higher quired to o>perale tne pump at the rated deli very and
visoosity, using 80 Per cent of the recommendoo pressure is called the "51eam pressure ratio," or
speeds for liquids "ivith kinematie ,v meosi tiffi of 400 sometimes the ":,stcam-end efficiency." This rat io
centistokes. aot.ually indicates the sliding frietion of the pistoru;
The efficiency of reci procating pumps ILfld eom- and rod, the momentum changes to accelerate ,he
p~rs is properly the work done on t.he fluid pistons and fluids, and thc "slip" or leakage of fluid
divided by the work done on the pump. For a pump past the piston from the discharge side to the suction
driven hy a.n eleetrie motor tbis definition of effi- sidc, all in a single lenn.
ciency i~ gcneraliy applied ~o !,he cpmbined motor Another so-called efficiency is the "water-end" or
ruld pump, treated as a single unit, in which ~ t_he "volumetric" effictcncy, which is supposed to be the
overall cffieicncy is - the work done on the flu id actual leakage past the piston. This may be deter-
divided by the electrical energy supplied to the minoo by closing the shut.off valve on the discharge
motor. of the pump, throttling the gt.eam l'.ltppiy lmlil the
This 1(>3(111 In Iht! attempl. In determitlt' thf: effi- t1beharge prt'Nlll re is just. rnainlainffi, and noling
ciency of slcll.m-drivcn pumps by dividing the work lhe speed of t.he pisum. The volume of leakage per
done on the fluid by thc""total energy ul)!o;()rbed ," unit of time is the product of the speed and the erOS&-
which is sometimes misinterpretR.d as lhe eherRY of sectional area of the pist.Qn. Another method is to
t.he l'l tcam sllpplied OT 'Hguin ~ IhE~ dl'1'n:':W' in (,1If'l"liv nlCIl.t'Ilrf' the piston 1>1>reci tin der opt-rating (~ondi t i()llI:I
content. of the ~team !!.i> it. p3S.es thr(Hlgh the .<lteam alld I;ompu le the volu me of fluid which should be
PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
delivered if no leakage occurred. The pereentage of pump through tbe wction line is t rapped, carried
this volume which is actualJy delivered is caUed the around the outside by tbe gears, and diBchargcd.
"volumetric efficiency." Usually this volumetric One ~ is driyen by the driver, and the second gear
efficiency fails to agree with the watcr-end efficiency is driven by the first gear. In some pumpe very
computed for t he same speed as (piston displace- small boles are d rilled radially through the teeth of
ment leakage) + (piston displacement). A volu-
metric effici ency uf greater than 100 per cent (or &
negatiVe leakage) may be computed.
The momentum of the fluid being drawn in
through the suction valves is sometimes sufficient
to cause flow through the discharge viJVe8 while
the piston is reversing. The fluid thus discharged
is credited to tbe piston displacement and may be
sufficient tu exceed the leakage around the piston
during thc actuAl stroke, giving a vol\lmc " pumped'!
greater than the piston displacement in the same
time.
ROTARY PUMPS AND BWWERS
RAltary pumping equipment is restricted to that
part of the m tire field of pumps and compressors
which combines rotating movement of the working
parte with positive displacement.
The rotating parts move in relation to the ~ing
80 fL8 to create a space which first enlarges, drawing
FIG. 163. onaway Yiew of intemal sear pump. (Faif'baftb,
M_ alldCc>.)
in the fluid in the suction line, is sealed, and then
reduces in volume, forcing the fluid through the the idler gear, opening into a groove in the idler
discharge port at the nect!888.ry higher pressure. shaft which discharges back into the suction side of
Valves are not used in rotary pumps. Small clear- the pump. If fluid is trapped and compressed by
ances must be maintained for efficient operat.ion. the meshing teeth it can then escape back into the
Rotary pumps and blowers may be divided into suction, preventing strain on the gears and shafts by
five main types aceording to the chars.c~r of the the pre9l:lures created. The groove in the shaft i8
rotating parts. as gear, lobe, screw, vane, or cam. placed to prevent any by. passing of fluid from the
But cooaiderable overlapping occurs in specific e&Be6. discharge side through the holes to the suction side.
Gear PumJM. If two ordinary spur gears are Gear pump& may have herringbone teeth, helieal
confined by a casing which fita so snugly &f' 10 IIQIIl teeth, o r a combination of these.
effect.ivf'Jy the spaces between each pair of adjacent Internal genr pumps are of two main kindll. In
1f'f1t,h. as sbo....n in Fig. Ifi2, t.hen fluid entering theboth kinds 8 modified spur gear rotates inside a
larger gear rolating around an axis parallel to that
of the spur gear and displaced sufficiently to mesh
snugly at one point on the periphery. Figure 163
shows a common type which is sealed between suc-
tion and d ischarge by a "creseent." Fluid is t rapped
between the gear8, 1)fl!8Cent, and casing and swept
inl,(J Ihl'! hijl;h-prf'8Hure discharge port.. F.ither gAar
may he driven with the other idling.
Figure 164 shows an internal ~r pump wh{lA8
two gears maintain a continuous series of sliding
Flo. 182. ~tional drawiD& of external ,~r pump. seals with each tooth, fonning the pockets entirely
(HvdmuJ~ llUtil uk. ) between the gean. This type of pump may have
ROTARY PUl\IPS ANI.) "LOWERS
any number of teeth in the 'spur gear, pro\'Kled one other and with the cnaing. The clearan;::es are a
.more IIOOket isprovided in the ring gear. few thousa.ndths of an inch, sufficient to reduce fric-
Some pumps with the appearance of gear pumps, tion and wear but to maintain minimum leakage
but with both "~ars" driven and using the "teeth" from the diRCharge to the Sl.lction side.
A two-lobe blower is shown in Fig. 1M. The
lIilllpe nf I.he lobe!! of the impeller is not reetricted
to the particular pattern shown. but no great varifltj
of dC'>:!ign~ exists.
A three-lobe pump is seen in cross soot.ion in Fig.
Hit\. The principle of operation is the same. More
FI(I. 167. CUIM ....n} vit\\" uf !!Ctel\" I'uml'. (IN I..arnl Slro'H Turbjll(! Co.)
aniam of a vane pump a:; picl un'<.! in Fig. !!iR Ca m Pump!!! in('lmlr a !'in'ular nJtnr mounlN!
Centrifugal force throws the \'lmf'S olllward, and, as ~'C(' ntri enrly to SWN'Jl a dr-de \\'h~,,;c rndilt~ is the
the impcHcr rotalet:l, the ~pacc behind 11 vaw.' en~ l:lum of lhf' radius of the rot.(1T and lhe ctcf>ntridty.
larges and draws in the !luitl, then dl '('/1'RS(>S and FigurM! liO and 171 shOJI\' such 1L pump, wilh a
fol"!e8 out the fluid. The V[IIlf'S receive pral.'! i('slly plunger valve, at ihe beginning of a stroke alJd ncar
aU the weaT and are readily replaced. A variation the end of 1\ stroke. The circular cam is rigidly fixed
of this idea is the vane shape and litlachment. of to t he shaft and is inside the rotor ring which ~ free
Fig. 169. The vanes swing outward by l-<lntrifllgal to rotate about lhe C!lm and whieh is int~gral with
force and seal the trapped fluid. AI:! these vanes the plunger. The plunger slides freely through a
wear do ....n, the change in dimension is nutoml~tically slide pin to !Let, as Ihe discharge valve. FloI\' through
compensated until the time when the !!Cal is bmken the p1lmp i8 inuicatPd by arrows. The plunger may
by the decrease in size, ufter which new vanes can be ff:plllC<.'(l uy any form uf vane which 8Cnh. the
be inBerted without specici 100s.
The sliding contact may be avoided by using
guided rollers instl"ad of guided vanes. The artion
U:I identical to that in Fig. 168, except thut Ihe con-
tac~ with the Calling is a rolling action, reducing wear
aud friction.
FlU. 1IiI'. Di"gnu1\ ..r ~tid",!(\" ". ;"''''1' . ( 1I!f"rrr"li~ 1<'10. IG!I. ('u , ,, .....,,y vi, ..... ,,{ ",,, I vi.""- "f v~"" lJ6mp with
1".Ji',,'~., "'uekel-v~. (Blae1ona P.. ",p C... )
CENTlUFUGAL PUMPS AND CO~IPRSSORS 177
FIo. 170. Cutuway vi"w of earn ,'UI!",P indicatiIli opt'mtion at 1010. 171. Cutaway view of cam pump indica.tiIll!: opemtion
hi."ginning: of stroke, (K ill/le!l ,11f9' C". ) {\PpnKL~ hj ng end of glrokc. (Kj"ne~ Mfg. Co.)
suclion line from the dilJCharge line. Except for the sures, and the simplicity of con:';tru(:ti.)n of rotary
rotation of the cam inside the rotor, the I:ontacts pumps give them a wide range of a pplicat.ion.
bet.ween I!Urf:lCC8 are ulmost. utlvoid of friction and
wear.
CENTRU'UGAL PUMPS AND
Operating Fea t ures of Rotary Pumplf and COMPRESSORS
Blower. Basically, the centrifugal mlWhine is built a.round
These pumps and blowcr.; ure pcriecHy adapted an impeller, which is a. series of radial vanes of van
to direct connect ion with the motor. They are oUiI Sh3t>C'l and curvatures, spinning in Ii eil"(lul:l,r
usur.Uy small cnough and bah,need well enough not cWling. Fluid enters at the "eYfl" or axis of rotation
to require a. flywhPf!!. The ca.pacity is almost con- and discharges more or le~ radially in~o a periphel"t!.l
stant within t.he limits of speed of tbe driving chAmber at a higher pressure coTl"CI!pooding to the
mechanism for all d ischarge prei:'SUres up to t hat sum of t he centrifugal force of rotation and t he
which will destroy the pump or stop the driver. kinetic energy given to the fluid by the "aneil.
Rotary pumps are made for d ischarge pressurCII all Thtl only moving part in the pump i5 the impelJer.
high as 5O(X) psi, above which the torque drive is Tho vanes of the impeller extend from the center of
1~ practical than the I"cciprO<'ating ma.chine. rotat ion t.o the periphery, and the shrouds are the
Rotary machines arc cl:lpAble of operating with dis ks on each side of the vanes enclosing thcm. The
low &booiute suction pres;;lIres and re<llIire no prim- vanes may be radi.a.1, may curve slightly ' "forward "
ing. The d iscllarge ranges from lightly pulsating in (in the same direct.ion us that of rotat.jon), or mllY
the two-lobe blower and some cam pumps, to qui~ curve "backward," the usual case.
steady in tbe gear pwnp and vane pump. Contain- The common impellers for pumpa are 8hown in
ing nu va1ves, as used in n ..'Ciprocating IMChines, all Figs. 172- 175. Figure 172 5how~ a high-head close-
roLary pumptl l$re well suited to pumping liquids of elearance impe1ler ..... ith narrow ~, six vanes,
high viscosity. and a streamlined "eye" or entrance at the a.~II.
The extremely close clearances necessary in all Thi5 impeller is fo r use with dear, noncoTfOllive
rotary machines require precise machining and in- liquid/!. Figure 173 shows a similar impeller of more
crease the cost as well as maintenance problem. rugged CtJllEtrucf,ion and more ~treamlined passagetl,
. These small eleamn~ and freq uent rubbing of the for service Oil corrosive liquid;t and 00 liquids con-
moving parts preclude pumping of fluids wi th no taining small solid purtides in suspension. Figure
lubricating properties or fi"ids containing solids in 1H 2!hows a two-vane impeller with Illng sweepin8
sus,Pf"..rullon. The small size, the high dlSChs.rge pres- valles' Md an open eye, for service on liquids con-
,. PUMPING AND COMPRESSING
taining small trash and abrasive solids, such as.Jlalld,
gravel, ar.d ashes. For gewage service and sump
pwnps, this type of impeller is often used with wide
vanes to increase the passage area stiJI more. Figure
175 shows a llemi-open impeller (as contr!lo8t.OO to the
enclCkled impellers described above) with an abbre-
viated shroud on one side of the vanes. Such an
impeller is used on pulpy solids which tend to clog
an enclosed impeller. An open impeller has no
0'
'10.. 172. CUta.....y vn hiphf1ld cJoAe..dearanoe impeller.
(Nagk Pt.ompl.)
8brouds and is better able to handle pulpy solids
than the semi-opcn impeller.
Centrifugal fans, blowers, a.:ld oompressorl!" use
similar impellers, but the vanes are more often mdi,,1
..."'""--,,
.-~
FlO. l1i2. &-etionnl .,it:", uf II ~'dlM'Uelion l..,ntrifu~,II)Uml'. (Fairbankl. ,II",. lind Co.)
r.ENTRIFUGAL pmlPS Al'iD COMI'RESSORS 181
FIG. 183. Sect ional vi..", of een(rifuga.l pum p built IQ "" unit with IIIQlor. (FairooTltb, .Ifar~~ " ",I ('",)
F IG. 185. CutawAY vi('w of doubJe..esudion ucnlrifugtl\ pUmp. (P~n1lJl!1I""n'" I'ump atld CumprcMllT Cn.)
rings of fibrous PBtking compressed by a gland. If - from an ouUiide S01lrce. Leakage bccau&J of iOOllC
thl! suction p~lIrc is less than 1 atm, air would packing will 1)(\ visible outside the pump and call to
k-aTt in past tl1ii! packing and "a.ir bind" the pump I'fflucoo to a t rickle by tightening the gland. Some
(.we p. 189). Thi ~ is prevented by sealing the stuffing liquid will leak back into the suction of the impeller
box with a high-vressure ]i(luid through the seal and be recirculated. This is the price paid for
tube and the " 'antern ring." Frequently the high- prevention of ai r IrAks and !.linding. Double-row
pre:;sllre liquid is obtainoo from the ea.'>;ng of the ball bearings are moun ted outboard on t his pump
pump itllClf, thus placing the packing under the equipped for direct dri ve.
tlil\eJl!\rgc p ressure, but. it m:\y be supplietl as well Figure 186 shows a pump of this type connootCil
through a l1exibli:~ coupling to all eleetrie motot.
Multis lKge (A.ntrifugal Pumpa! ~ nd Blower.<.
The head deli\'(~r<'d by a single impeller (or two
impellC'fS in parnll('l) is ret!trie\C'd by the pra.ctiNli
limits to diamC'tcr ami ~ 1x..'eJ. If high heads arc
d!'l:!ircd, two or more pumps may be c{)flnected in
series, or hvo or more impellers mounted on II. single
shaft may be connected in series.
A four-stage pump is shown in longi'.,lldinal IICCtioIl
in Fig. 187. The four impellers are mounted to
provide balancing t.hrutlt" and the casing or piping
carries the finid from tbe discharge of one stage to
the inlet of thtl ncxt. stage.
Multistaging may be applied to blowers and com-
p ressors. Figure 1SS shows a three-stnge compressor.
DeepooWell Centrifugal PUJ1lpe. The <'eflt.rif-
Flu. 186. llnuhlNluMion e!'nlri (u!(,,1 IlIlmp. (AtmINI ngai pump is capable of reduction in size to an extent
P_p('",) whieh permil"" t he tlQIllltrndion of n mliltist8gf! unit
CE~TRIFUGAL PUMPS AND CO\IP}{ESSORS IBJ
l'IG. 187. Cut .. way view of four..;,tagt> eentrih.J.l;a\ pump. (lk 1...,,-o1.')lefllll T",mne CII.)
which will fit into \\cl1 (,!l..~in~ as small as i in. in
diamcter. The p l.lll)p 58Sf'mbly can be IOIl"t'l"cd dOlm
to the water levf!1. The motor may be suumerged
with the pump or ~ept at the l!urfae~ level olll:rating
through a long d.;v!' ~haH extending down to thc
pump.
A tW()-l;tagc doop-wdl pump (Fig. ISO) is su ppo!"l~ 1
by lhe discharge pipinl!;. The "haft is shown ""-
dosed hy tubing in this version. Some p llmps use
no protective tubing around the shaft and dcpelld
upon flowing liquid to lui)ricat(' rubber shaft be;~riTJgs
mounted at intervals. In the pump illustrated thc
oillubriCllnt is scaled rrum the water by the labyrinth
packing. F igure 190 !$hows olle impeller anJ bowl,
indicating the diffuser channell:! leading to the howl
above. The rpp]n.ccable wearing rillg ror the im-
peller ahove is seen at the top of the bowl.
Qifl"use r Centrifugal Pumps. The guid ing
channels through which the fluid flows from the
discharge of one impeller (Fig. 189 (I[ 100) to the FlU. 188. ThTl'!'sl rlK" ""nlrir"Jr.l 1 !""\,mp n:,&"or. (lI'"rlhillgttm
inlf't of the nC'xt uro rulloo. diffuscril. They arc P""'P "",/ Jl11rM",ry ('urp.)
'M P UMPING AND COMPREsSING
volute pt't'!tmttl 0. tiharp edge t.o the rotating mass of
fluid. The ~uction . lI.nd discharge coonections are at
t.he klp of lUl over~ized housing with two cbambers
above tlle impeller (note thc reversed impeller, with
the eye flU'ing !Jack along the shaft toward tlw
d ril'er), thus keeping the minimum a mount. of liq uKl
in the pump If the Ilyswm is shu t down fUld per-
mitted to drain. When thp. pump is reSlartt!<i the
impdlf'r throws the liquid to the sides of the casing
FJ(I.I112. ew.'ng I\nJ vo)..,I " of" ~elf-J',i",i"g !JUJUI'. (Nauk Flu. JU3 . ])rllwi ng il!u~lnuiug .~~tiuH of ft se lf_printing pum".
/'''1IIP11.) (Na(lle l'"mp'. )
186 PU~IPING AND COMPRt:.5SING
8 888888
.... iii. ori<O ci 2'
U. S. 6_110119 pet" Minute
~IU. 1!)4. Itcrommelldtld pUmlJ8 for V'.u1oWI combinaliollll of bead 8000 capacity. (FoirbaW, M_ alld Co.)
containing solid particles in 81l8pension, and permit or maximum head possible for a given pump, may
throttling and the temporary closing of the valve be derived from the concept of angular momentum.
in the discharge line. The fluid then simply rotates A generalized sketch, Fig. 195, shows an elementaJ
arOllnd t he cl\Ij;ng and ahlsorbs the energy supplied ma.-;.; of fluid dm moving at a. velocity v in the d irec-
iJy the uriver. The absorption of the total energy tion and magnitude shown as referred to the center
by the flu id quickly raises the temperature of the of rotat.i()ll O. T he mass dm is at 8. d istlU'lee T from
fl uid and pump sufficie ntly to CIlUSC distortion of t-he t he cenl.er of rotation, IU'Id its di rection of motion
rotating parts in a short time. The lack of posit-ive fonn!:! the ungle (r with the perpendicular to the
displacement restricts the economical U~ of cen~ radi us r.
trifugal'! to the conditions indicaled 1m Fig. 19-1 The linear momentum of the mass dm is
which reprerent relatively large volumes of fluid at
moderale discharge pressures (hflaJS), for high prf'..8- {dm)v
sures can be obtained only by excc8~i\'c mult.istaging.
'In general, a cent rifugal pump ho.!:! lower init ial and I ts angular momentum is
lower maintenance eo<>ts and il; more eli-~i l y mad!' of
mll tt'rilll!l that n"l;iKt r.nrro.;iun than t ht' positive {dm)vr co;; a
d ill('lla('f:ment... rt'Cipnl(:aiing IIr rolm'Y unit", hilt it li s IUIqt:e.!fT iii
hao; If'KlI II.bilit.y t.o oper-,lIe with 11111' alpto ,luie p~
l:m~ on the intake or suction . A (:e nt.rifugal p u mp
lIT - th,,--d (l!r- --
(';.1/< ,,)
( lOS)
dt
II:! better able to handle vi.scou.l:l liquids than a
reciprocat.ing pump, but 1C1!8 ~ t.han a rolaT:,\' If an idcalizerl version of a eentrifugal pump is
pump. <' ''IL,; id ~'rl~ 1
(Fig. !!)(i), it may be tU!ljllmcd that all
Virtu,,! Heat.! with Inlinite Nurubcr ur Va""", Ihe tluiu cllmpri~ing a ring at con!ltunt fAdius r ill
If alllo8SC8 of energy are negleeted, the virtual head, moving at. the IlIlme velocity and at the srune angle
CENTRU'UGAL PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS 187
The toW power C<H1lJUmed by the fluid is the prod-
uct of the total torque 8ll.d the angular velocity,"" in
radians per unit time t. .
t>Qw(C2r: cos at - tV, OOH a ,)
If energy il:l expressed in form uni ts, tu; foot.-I)OUn.W
(force) or centimete'~ra"'l1 (foN:e), the expl"e$llOh
i'lcludeR the conve~ion factor !'~.
"q.,
o -
,. (v2r:,! (,"t,., a2 - VI ', COt! al )
/{ 'Ii t
,."
- (I'2r2 cO!! 012 - vIr, COS ad
'The area of the ring of fluid il:l 21rTb, and the radial If point 1 is t.aken as the eye of t.he impeller and
\'elocity of fluid through. tho ring il:l dr/lit; therefore point 2 is the periphery of the impdler, and if the
the capacity, or volume of fluid being pumped per fluid enter~ the impeller without any prerotation,
unit of time Q is then the angle a approaches 00 degrees, its C06ine
app!'oach~ zero, and equation 113 approa.ches
(111) .' 1121'2 cos a2
Vi rtual hewl ... - ( 11 0
g,
ComhinilL.IC 1'>: llIaliullS 110 am i III , :lI1d il1l .1jt;r"Ul. il)~
~I \\'oon poillUi I and 2, Frum Fill:. 1\/7, II - V l.:QI! a + u' C<~ fl. l'lcrdun!
equation 114 may be writt.en
f{y
The virtual head is the theoretical mfLXiIDum head
that could be developed under the indicated operat-
ing conditionll. The quantity o( fluid being pumped ,
is more easily delennined than the velocity at any
point. The quantity of fluid being pumped is
Q - 21rrbt' ;;in a - 211'rbu' sin {j
A~rect~
,/ 01 rotItion
Solving for u' and substituting in equation 115, '0, Center of robtion
Virtual head _ U2
g~
[u, _(2""Q26COB2 ~ iJ, )]
sin
F IG. 199. Effeet or inertia on flu" of fluid,-ine.idt! rot,til\& boll ,
to a point on the earth'. alrflloCe. This effect of
---u,.'l
g~
U2Q
2...r2b~. tan (j:
(US)
inertia tends to eatlse a 80w within the box oounler
to the direction of rotation. Applied to the space
between vanes uI & rotating impeller (Fig. 2(0) the
If the virtual head is plotted 88 a function of the inertial effect is superimpoMd upon the cent.rifugal
fJ\lantity of fluid pumped for impeller! of the same effect created by rotation at the impeller, resulting
dilUTleter operatiu!!; at the same speed, st.raight lines in a variation in velocity ~r068 the space between
afe obt.ained as shuwn in Fig. 198. the van'es, as indicated . The result is to reduce the
&l~'p' Q and increase the angle (3, whioh decreaees the
virtuai head (rom that computed for an infinite
number of vanes. .
."'" -<
-.r .....
Aetual Developed Head.. An impeller is de-
Bigned for a particular bead and tbroughput. If the
pump or blower is operated at a lower or higher
throughput, the inlet and wUet VaDe aDgies are not
the best for that flow and int.roduce turbulence
which increases as the throughput divergelt more and
Quantity Pumped more from the design value. Frictbn of flow through
Fro ~ 1Q8. Virtul\! head versus cl!.Pf\city for different outlet the impeller itself also reduces the energy convertible
VlJ.ne a ngles. (After Cllureh.) into head.
Figure an indicates the effect of theee factors on
The slope of the line is a function of the outlet the head developed by a pump with b&ekward-
vane angle f3.J. A forward-curving van!'!, with a curving vanes. This curve ifI. representative of the
negative outlet vane angle fJ-J" gives a po6itive slope so-called " rising characteristic" curves, showing an
on Fig. 198 or higher heads for higher throughputs. increase in head as the throughput is increased from
A baek\\'ard-curving VN1e (positive outlet v~ zero, reaching a maximum and then decreasing in
angle 132) gives a negat ive slope on Fig. 198, a.nd a . the usual manner. Such a. curve is not necessarily
radial vane gives constant head. At zero How, the reeult of fnrward-curved or radial vane8 but can
Q-O,and be obtained {rom backward-curved vanes if the
Virtual head - -,-
u'
g.
regardleBII of vane angle.
Virtual Head with Finite Number of Vanes. Velocity YWCtlQ !n(ludillC
~!etfteU
The virtual head equations assume no losses and an
infinite number of vanes in the impeller to provide 'I--,V'!eIoeily wekn fllCldlll
11! ineo1Al tIftds
perfeet guidance to the fluid in its travel through the
impeller. Actually , a finite number of vanes must
be used, II.nd the fluid is not guided perfectly but tends
( !mpe!1e!' vAn!'
, i'-i".. '" >.. '''''", ' and l:up:teilY, is propo rtional to til e e ll l~ of lhe
d iamell"l'.
\ 1\ " "I'\.~'~ I - Speci fi c Speed . For ;;inJl;Ie--stage KiJe--I!uetion im-
~.. ~"'l\ ~ rw,lle n;, OJ' Qflf J:!tu.ge of a mult illt age pllmp, the
' f- \-' ~ r\~~~ M!, , t \\ 1" spedfi e ;;pt'etl N. is a "Orivenif'ntt:onecpt
20 \f\~ -
, 1
0
I --
;\' ... re volutions per ~ond.
' f-~ /
.'" Q '" volume of flu id per ~onJ .
,V ,
,"' -iD ... "tolll.l de\'el upeU head," or work done
r--
0
2
I
(w .... ) \
I
C,nI.oW<'
I
by one stage on Hnit rn a...." uf flui d
(eq ulttion fiO with TW ,.,. 0) .
I:~~t
r"" " dimensionless ratio given above. The lower va lUei!
apply to radial~Aow centrifugal pum ps IIJ)d the
o .""
. 60 ., 100 .20 140 IGO 180 200 220 higher !SpCCific speeds to axial-flow p ropeUe r pumps.
~pacity, gpm
Ullfortu nately , current practice I" w. omiw g~ and
FlU. 'lOO. Clur;w:leril!l: ie ~UJ'VeII of & ' y pical ~ ,nl ri rlWll llump expl'el>He8 Q in 'gallollil per min ute, N in re volutioDs
f, ... Itlli.... or ,liIf, ..I vi I'C<SI K'II. (W..rIfti" gi .,. I' ll ...,. "..,1 per m inu te, Imd 1b in foot-pounds fotce per pound
,u",;Airvrll Corp. )
mWlS. In these units spEl(:ifi 'l speeills vary from 5(X)
to 15,000, which may be conver ted to the dimentl.ion-
Since the abwlute velocity V2 and the trngential !eill:! ratio hy d ividing by 17200.
velocity u, arc inCl '.!asOO. proportionally, the virtual Cavitation. When a centrifugal pump is operat-
head and the de~eloped head a.re incre-'Sed propor- ing a t high rates, the tligh velocities occurring a t cer-
tionaJly to the sq~are of thc speed. tain points in the eye of the impeller or a t t he vane
The hON3eptlwer 1."1 l,roportionai. to t he product of t iptl cause loee.l prcssures to fall below the vapor pres-
the head Md ca,acity and therclore inereases pro- ure o[ the liqulrl. Va porization occu ~ a t tJICSC point.;,
portionally to the cube of the speed. forming bubbles which collapse violently u pon rn(.v-
EfTt.'et o f Impelle r Dia m e t e r o n Ch arac le r- ing ulong to !l region of higher pressure o r lowe r
illtica. The capacit y varies IL's the Ill'eli or d Udlarge velocity. ThilJ momentILry vaporiloRtion and destruc-
of the i mpell~r for a given velocity of flow a nd tive collapse of the h:.;,bbles ~ called cavita tion and
I,hcwfore ilO direc tl ~ prop,:-r tiOnl\l to the d iame ler of is to be uvoidcd if maximum capacity is to be
the impcllr.r. obtained and (~amage to tl>e pump prevented . The
SPECIAL PUMPS ANn BW1\'ERS ,.,
'80 ", 35".,,!~ hp
12-'di.
I
ll' """ .....,~~ .
J,IOh P
170
ImPfller
/ ~ EfficiellCY
160
II v I"\: 1.1,.
'50
1I~di.
I " -" . ,.
.40
1 Mdla
""
)< r--
l-~
~ 130
' ~
111
120
0
9Jj:"di. .... I" I" N " """
\ ~ W'~'\
..
.00 hL B
\
~
~ i ' t--. IX / (\\
80 I" r-;.~ J\.. '01"
r-- ~ vV 7/f IIi
10
00
o .. 40 . 80 100
.
, ."
120 '40 .00 .80 200
~. pn
FlO. 204. The ,"'""t cllmpeller diameter 1)1\ tbe <:banu:teristiea of II centriJupl pump with ~ impellera opcmLin,; at
17t!O rpm. Li ......... of equal eMeiMleiellllnd bnke bonopowers 1Ir!! 8bowD. (A_ P..pC..)
"hock of bubble eollapee causes severe pitting oi VIe Net POIl,t ive Suctio n Head (NPSH). Both vapor
impeller andcreatc8 considerable noise tlJld vibra- binding and cavitation may be eliminated by main
tion. Cavitation may be reduoed or eliminated by taining a pressure at the pump inlet significantly
reducing the pumping rate oc by slight atteratioIlB higher than the vapor preeeure of the liquid being
in impeller design to give better streamlining. pumped. TIle required margin of pressure is e&Jled
Cavitation usua11y does not occur .at. low flow the net poeiti~e suction bead. It is a funetton of
rates on any given pump, but, when cavitation the pump design and is usually specified by the
QCCUf1!, all tbe characteristic curves shown in Fig. manufacturer for pumps to handle liquids auch as
203 "break" suddenly towards zero. preheated boiler feed, steam condensate, or volatile
liquids. Usually, it is of the order of 2 to 10
.20 f~lb/lb mass of fluid and increaaea with increaaing
.
"
i 100
~,900
I
H... np . . ..
,""- throughput.
J:I .. .~ 80
" r
c
~40
B,.",IIoIM_,
IOOO"M
~.1000
-
There are many different typea of machines for
the handling of fluids which do not Call into the three
clllSSCS discussed above. Some of these, such as the
o
~ . o
- -..o-
.JoliI:DIdoncJ. 900"...
jet. ejector, the air lift, a.nd the hydraulic ram,' aTe
f&.r from these c,steGorie8. Some, such as the turbine
pump and the Hytor pump, are close re1&tiw.e.
HyLur Pump
A rnllchinc whose prin ~.iple of op<'ration plll.eflll it.
ill the cllUll:! of rotar.Y vnne pumps hut whose con-
Flo. 207. D rawinl or ltI!d.ir.n of ftuid c1"lnllci in luThi"" struction p!i\(,"e!> it ir> Uw clQ.~ of eentrifugai pumps
pump lIhowbg cin:ilialio:l. (A "rona f'"",p Co.) iii Ih(' Hytor vacllum pump <IT nlfnprcssor, "h('wn in
SPECIAL PUMPS AND BWWERS 193
I5eCtion in Fig. 208. The rotor has forward-eurved or the entrained fluid. It is now practically re-
V811e8 enclosed in shrouds and rotates around a stricted to boiler feed-water injectors. An l'jeckJr is
hollow shaft with four ports at the fOllr quadrants, a jet pump more general in character, U$ing either
two serving as inlet ports and two as diseh&rge gas or liql,lid for eitber the motive or the entrained
ports, each opposite pair being connected through fluid amI. discharging at a pressure intermediate
the shaft with the proper pipe connection. The rotor between the motive p ressure and the suction pre&-
revolves in an elliptical casing and d~ not touch sure. An nhaw;ter, blower, or compressor is an
the sides at any point. The seal is maintained by
liquid which is rotated by the vanes but which fol-
lows the shape of the cw;ing as a result of centrifugal
action, thus approaching and receding from the shaft
twice during. each revolution. This motion of the
The Acid 88
It is Frequently advantageous and possilJle to
eliminate moving mechanical Cquipment in pumping
-""".'"
,The acid egg, as the name implie8, is useful if the friction of flow uf the motive fluid . Theile flOCOOIll
pumpe are either unobtainable or Wo coetly because are usually expressed. 88 the rlllio of the lengtr of lhe
of the corrosiveness of the fiuK!.. lIB disadvantages fall pipe to the beight of fall. Tbis ratio has an
lie in the int.ermitl.ent action wJ.ich, in tum, requires optimum value, for & vertical fall pipe wOlild con
manual operation or excessive instrumentation. The lain too small a. mM! of fluid and a relatively fiat
egg is inherently inefficient bP.eaUIIEI at the end of the faU pipe wouLd have too great a friction loss. Too
cycle the egg is filled with the motive fluid at its optimum value varies with the lift.
highest pressure ; if a compressed gas is uacd it is The ValvC5. The ve.riabics to be (.'Q nllidemrl in
usually necessary to vent it to the atmosphere with- the design of the vo.lveR are the we;ght Bnd the
out recovering work. Ag more COrTOSiOlH'csistant lengl.h of the stroke. As a broad generalization it
materials of oolltitruction arc developed for pumps, may be statal that the effi ciency varies inverl'lCly
the usefulnet18 of the add egg grKdually decrea..'ieS: with the length of stroke and Ule weight c>f LIte valve;
Hydrofdic Ko m
The hydraulic ram, Fig. 212, uses the kinetic
energy of a moving column of fluid, wmally water. L:"'::'iv,=,:j"""l! ~_~
pip.!!
to raise a portion of the fluid to a higher pressure or
elevation. If the fluid fl owing in the supply line,
or fall pipe, is ablUptly etorped by the Closure of the -=-
-~-
-
G n itlltt
~ow equation (59) applies to the system. However.
there is aeldom enough knowledge available to enable
a rigorous application of the flow equation. The
principal difficulty lies in the determination of the.
1000t work of friction. It is difficult, at best, W edlti
mate aeourll.tely the friction loss accompanying the
flow of two phMe8 in a pipe. Air-lift systems are
further complicated by the exisU'nce of a relative
velocity, or slip, between the two phases.. 1'hi!;
factor. causes an additional friction 1068 and an un-
certainty as tu the velocity to be used in computint
the 1081. work, U the velocities in the column an
high enough 80 that the relative velocity, or slip
is small Compared to the wta! velocity, then the lost
work may be estimated with sufficient accuracy bJ
FIG. 213. Sketch iDdicatina principle oi operation of the /Llr conventional methods.
Iif~. For tM air-lift pumping of 1DGter an empirical
rela.tion haa been proposed l'
submerging liquid. A force balance may be \Vrittcn h'
for the system for the conditions of no flow of net V. ir - 0.8--::....- -
h + 34
liquid t.hrl:::mgll the column: Clog - -
a.
PJa + p.t..A' ... .(VIPI + V,(P,),,,!) (h + hi) where Val. is the volume of free air required w lift
. V/+ V,
1 gal of water, and C is defined by the following list.
= p.,..(h + h') rt
It, c
~here P, - density of the liquid. I<H;() 245
Pat.m - aVeNge density of the su rrounding at- 61- 200 233
mosphere or fluid. ",-roo
rot..,.
216
I..,
(p, ).... - average density of the lifting gas (or 651-750 ' 56
other lifting flu id) in tbe oolumn. .
the mean densit.y 0( tbe contents or the
Pt... - There are many other applicat.ions of the IIIim"
ooIumn. principle as in the tubes of a nstural eirculatit'J
V" V, - the volumes of liquid aod PI in the boiler or evapo~ator where the lifting fluid is gas
~wmn. . generated by vaporizing a portion of the liquid.
h., A' - "ilia submergence and lift, reepectiveiy. For the air lift itl!elf, many different devic~s,
.. defined by Fig. 213. called root pioocs, have been used w inject air intI)
PROBLEMS 191
the base of the lift. The oommon purpoee of these tbe piping system 1Ib01l'D in the figure which oonlalllll ~ ft of
various foot pieces is to dispel'ge the air in bubbles 2U-in. IICbed,,[e-4.0 It.raigbl pipe io the pump IlUction [ioo
as small as possible. As the relative ;ising velocity, and 210 ft of 'in. scbedule-4O pipe in the dbch'!Je line. Tbs
motor i8 22O-volt 3-phaee alternating CUmlnt, and the' ponr
or slip, of a bubble de<:reases with decreasing bubble faet.or iI 0.9. If aU the globe valV1)fS shown in the ak~teh .re
diameter, the air consumption will be lowest and the eomplete[y open, determine:
efficiency greatest if the smallest poesibkl bubble is (a) The flow Mltl! t.hrmll\:h the piping in gAUonR per minute.
used. The efficiency of a properly designed air lift (b) The ampere. dM..-n by the mo\.Or driving tile pump.
is at least'75 per cent.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Au.,"u PUll' Co., Aurora, Itt, c.t.alop.
2. BI.ACl:IllEa PUMP Co., Gl"1lIId Rapids, Mich., CataSop.
3. CHUIU:H, A. H ., CmlriJIifIol P"mPf aM Bk1u.Yn, John
Wiley and Son.<! (I944).
-
CaPf-clty,
0
10
,.,
20
DeveiOped
Head, ft
' 20
119. 5
117
113
f:ffidenny
(Pump Ilna Mow)
0
13
23.'
31.6
,.
.,'"'"
of. CoorCftBMIIEliII:Eft CoftP., MI.. Vemon, Ohio, C&talop.. 107.5 37.'
5. DA UG HEWT1", R. L., CmtriJugtJ/. PumPf, McGrawHilI 100.5 42 . 2
Book Co. (1915). \l3 42 .&
6. DE L,\VAL&rEAlo( TURBlse Co., Tront.on, N. J., Catalogs.
7. F AlftIlAN)!;" :\[OIl8E AND Co., Chieqo, JU., Catalogs.
8. GEIWTCft PUlfP DIVISION, MAT On. BURNlt1a Cou.,
'"
80 "
77
41.7
39.'
Bahimu"" Md., Cat"alogs. 2. A pump is to be lJeieetoo to ropl8..", the old unit in the
9. HYOI\AI!LIC I N&1'I"JVTE, New York, 8tandatdt. ,y'tem below. The pump must pick up 12110 Ib of " 'lIer per
10. l ",oy.It>IOLL-RANO Co., New York, C .. t.alop. minule at 1.50- F from the oondenmle hot ....e ll and deliver
II . C,uITU, R , f. J . KA.llAS8I~ E. F . WIllGKT. Pump Q_ it to tbe top 01 the coolinK to"-er AI II. noule Prea8uro of 25 psi.
tiOM a1!d AIVItlft"I. MeGnlw.HiII Book Co. (1949). The piping.is compo!led of al nlight pipe (2~ in... eebedulc to),
12. KINNEY :\lASU'ACTURISO Co., 800!t.on, 1101...., Catalop. lltandud e[ba".., .nd a pte Ylllve.
13. LAYII I!l AND Bowloll.... INC., Memphit, Ten.n., Cat.aJop.
14. N"OLa PUMP&, Chicqo Heia:hla, li!., Catalop.
I~. NUH ENOtNEEIlINO Co., S. Norwa[k, Conn., Catalop.
16. PCNNBYLVAIIU P UMP AND CoM'lt.MIOa ('.0., &.ton, Pa.,
"
C'.... talo8fl.
17. RooTS-CoNNEMvILLI;l BIDWBR CoB'" Connel"SVi.1le, Ind.,
Catalop.
17(1. Rot/fiE , HUNTER, EkwunUJ'7I Meebnia oj nui~, John
Wiley and Sons (1946).
18. ScHtrn'E ASO KOII!:RTIl(O Co., Philade[phia., Pa., Catalop.
1&. 8ft;PAIfOPP, A. J., Cntlri/U(Jal a1Id Au YWw 1"1111111',
John Wiley a oo 60nB (194.8).
19. 8W INDIN, N., TM Mockrn T~ G1!d PrQ(;tio/Pumping,
F.rneIII Bcnn, Ll.d., London (1924).
20. UN ION &rEAM PuMP Co., &.ttle Creek, Mich., c.t.aIop. Two uaed pump! Jre aT&ilab1e, a 12 by 8 by [0 OOlble-
21. WOBTIfINoro", P UMP AND MAC HI/UBY Colll'., Harriton, actin( llimplell .team pump witl> a volumetric efficiency 01
N. J ., c..ta1nK.~. 81 per cent and a llteam p~nre ratio of 0.65, and a Clentrifu-
pi pump wit.b the followilll chlLnt.ctermic. curve:
PROBLEMS Developed H~ad.
I. Thf! motpMriven centrifugal punlp' (or which data are Gpm ft of fiuid
pven below Ia to be used for pumpiOj: _ter at 80- F throuch
"
60
200
229
"
100
186
158
, ''''
160
175
1'"
'27
118
"'"
8tum ill anilable at 40 'pei.
110
,',
;J CHAPTER
15
t
-.
"
Gas Flow at High Velocity
N the treatment of Chapter 12 the energy air nozzle inlet, P / P o is unit y, the velocity is zero, tlw
NOZZLES
If a com~ible fluid is expanded through a
nm:zle, its velocity increases and its specific volume
;ncre&leS with decrca,to;ing pressure. Ir the eXp&ruIion
i~ r;onaucted with no fr;etion loss (~vemble), equa
tion p9c becomes
+ Il~ =- 0
Ir dP
2g,
(118)
NOZZLES
"
..
.'"
0,171
O.
. J. ~~:
_ ~i
0.833
0.820
0.811
t
I\' -t-.
~~
# 8
o. ..,
0.80"
...
0.171
,
O. 7
?' V
-
c ;...-
'~: ,
.
O
, O.
;; D,6
"liA!
,.-
/"
---
O. 575
,
o.
1)'1 ! ;' L p..- O.
"
, ...... w I II
o.
'-J.
o.,
lOT O. ,.,
'"
O.
, ,
00 1345' 1 , ,
FIG. 215.
Dittuu tro. "flZZ"
tIItrr-i"dH "
Pret!IIUn! dilltribution in a oonvera:ing-diverpng nOllle 6pl'Cl5lled in \.erlll$ of 'the ratio of prtBIIUre to upstream or
flntl'1lnee Pre!!IIUI'e, P/ PD for vanoW! down&trmm {\f' exit pretl8Uretl.' The nozzie .... ao;; dOl8ignled to "P"MI,~ under the eu nditiooo!
eomospondir-A to ruM 71 a.nd 1'2 repreMDt.ed by (';utY1) O. The ~k in eurve D ooewrin!lt about 7 in. calM..:!. by sudden u.
eoode~ of ste.m 1.0 _ter reault.in, fl'OlllllUpereoolinK 01 the 8t~m dl.:rin& Upan!!lon :md Y not II ".hock ...." ....1)..,
cr08lJ 'section of tpe nozzle is called the Ih1'CKU. The The ope\"il.tiOll uf a cQfwergellt.-dioclyeli l IllIz.lle is
velocity of the fluid in the throat of the Doule is iIl U1ltrated in Fig. 21 5, which shows t h e p ~u re 3.'J
the ve&ocity of sound in thl*t fluid. the ratio PI Pn throughollt the Ir-ngth of t he nozzl!!
The veiOl'ity of 80uQd is usually derived for fI. wave supplied with steam for different downstream pres-
comprising an infinitesi."al rise in pressure followed sures. 1 When the p~llre ru.lio i~ eV('I"ylI"heftl
by an infinite8ill":J fall in Prefl8ure moving through a gl"eIHer th a n the eritical-preIIl:Illre ratio lind the
tube of umfonn cl'OII!HteCtional area:. The ftuid is velvcity n u\\"hl're exceeds the vc\od ty of iKlund, the
_continuous and in a uniform 3t;.a.te (rom wall to wall diverging pnrt of the llOz1.le !Serves as aditTIl8eT and
at any inst.a.nt. U the observer were to move with the IUJzzlc as II. whole is in every respect like a venturi
the sound wave so that the sound wave would appear mete r. Thi~ condition ill represented by curve ,1
to him to be stationary, htl could observe a stream of which shows the minimum pressllre occurring in the
fluid flowing reversibly and adiabatically through an throut of the nozzle. If the e).: hli.ll~t prf!h'lurc i~
infinitesimal rise and fall in pressure with no change lowered, the pl"elliUre in l he throat decrc~ and t ht:
in the cros!H!eClion..aJ. area. of the stream or in its flow through the nozzle inercMe8 until the crili('al-
Row per unit area. -Such behavior is found only pM!:ll>UTe ratio is tea.chod at the throa t (cHIve H).
at a stream velocity corresponding to maximum Row This is the maximum flow rute that ('an be obtuined
per unit area (a minimum area per unit of How). through t.he noz~le fo r the given uptltrcam condi-
Therefore the velocity of sound in the Huid is t he tionS. No further increase in flow can r&1f \t from
velocity of a stream of tbal fluid at maximum How any change in downstre am conditions. FUI' a1lloll"er
per unit. area or in the throat of the nozzle, It follows e.'\.hallst pl"t'Saurre the Cl.mditinn in tne th;(I(lt r('mains
that velocities in a converging ~oJ:lle do Dol exceed llnclilUlgtXl anJ the flnw rt'llULill!l cons taili.
the velocity of sound, whereas velociti~ in, 01 dis- When the exhaust. pr~ure is I ~ than lhat cmre-
charged from, the diverging part of a nozzle may be spouding to Cllrve 8 but grcat('T thun that for wbidl
~on8iderably in exces.'-\ of the velocity of lSOUnd, The the nozzle i>l designed (identit:ul expansion rat ios
smaller t he anPile use:<J in the divl'rgent Dozzle, the . of ~tlTam und nozzle $S rep",~'iCnt.cd \iy uurv(' D),
lees the loss due to lateral eXI)Ilru;ion, but the gN'H.ter at !Wme section in the diverging passage the", will
lengtb of the resulting nozzle I('Q.((,~ tn il\("111l~ be a stanciing pl"eSllure wave (I'!ueh :w< imiicuted
friction 1~. A pract icul 1~III1"rumL~' i" n>l IL !llI~' I,y ~r on ell rvf' (') wili(' h il"l jall ... 1 :1 ;,rt',""tft' "}'f>r/i.
n:u.chal ill tilt: nUIgt' lM:"hw('n iii ,m, \ :~o del{T,"'" f ..r '11", tl\l;,1 ,'III,'r,; thi,. WltV' :It \,, <\' ,.n,,-"un '. ;md :11 :.
t.he whole angle. \(,Iudty gl~~at .. r tha!llhtl vdOC:'ily oj ~o'lI,j :1I ...ll(':(\!'~
... GAS FWW AT HIGH VELOCITY
it at high preseure at a velocity less than that of In the mathematical treatment or flow under large
IIOUlld. . This preUllre ,hock representH a 10B8 in pressure drops or at high velocity, the assumption.
efficiency for supersonic flow similar to the preMure of ideal (J(UIU oj con&l4nt hetJl capacit1l is generally
drop required to overcome fri ction in the morn lIlJICIe to- simplify the calculations.
familiar low*vclccity flow of fluids. Pressure shock For many procesees the path followed by the gas
may be expected whenever any friction ill encowi- may be represented. by the cxpl'C88ion py" - 'a con-
tered with fluid!) a.t velocities greater than that of stant, or
'. sound .
YJ.gUre 21.5 may ail:lO be Ul:ICd to indicate the op(!:rA- PV" - PIY 1" - P,Y," _ P3Y~ "
lion of a cmwergent no:zu if aU the figure to the right where n is a constant whoee value dcpends upon the
of the vertical line laiJeled "throat" is neglected. gas and upon the conditions of flow. For adiaba.tic
The rate of flow through such a nozzl.c is independent reversible flow 8.!1 in the nozzle corusidcrod, 11 ... k.
(121)
of the downstream pre88Ure only when the down- Fur isothermal flow' J1, _ unity.
stream pressure is less than that corresponding If equation 121 is written in the logurithmie form
, to the criticai-pl'08!:!ure ratio. So long as the down-
the following rell!.tiomshipiS are apparent
stream preBllure is ietlS than that corresponding to
the critical-pressure ratio, the flow rate is at. its
maximum and is independent of any change in the
downstream pressure. This statement is also true
G:) -G:)- - (~f' (I21a)
(Ma)' - - -
.. (1200)
-k4eR aT
-; - (k - I)Mtt' -
d(Ma)
(Ma) +2
1 ("1'\
T)
(125)
"J'V
NOZZLES 20'
A is a minimum when Ma is unity or the velocity
dT _ (~)dP
is equal to tbe .acoustic velocity.
T k P
SincedU _ CydT;Cp - Cj. - RI M; and (RIM)
_ d(Ma) [ 1 ] (126)
dT - d(PV),
d(PV)
(Ma) I I (131)
dU-(k_l)
+-2
(k - I )(Ma)2
Mo.dmum Adiabatic FI~ Rau Integrating betwoon the limits II - 0 and II .. 111;
Equation 127 ean he solved for Po/Po and pV .. P~Vo and f'l' - PI V ..
:0 _[2 + (k ~ 1)(Ma)'Y=1
111 2 .. 2gck (PoVo - PI VI)
(121l) k - 1 "
(M')'l'~':'"
k - 1 Po
A (Ma), [ 1 + k ; I
__ - - (130)
(135)
A. .(Ma) .1 +k ~ I (Ma)o!
For maximum mass velocity, dGaldP I .. O. Mak-
wbM:h may be"df.rivrd fton:l ing the differentiation and changing PI to P, to-
represent critical flow condit.ionll
A V""
dB - rot' P'_(_2 )<=; (136)
Po' k +I
~ _ ' (Ma)o JPoV~
Substituting equation 136 in eqllationa 128, 1M,
" (Ma) pV
ar:d 135 gives for, the maximum possible dU!charge
..!:. .; (p,)l 3
IIG ' . rJekP.V. (137) .
Y, P
(Ma)e' ... I (138)
g.k(;:)~': li~:
1
G,t -
.t I (Ma)2 (_k --2- )
(kC. I) + I
+I
Gu
2
.. (13lI)
Under such ('.ondiLions the calculations become where p. has been 8ubsti~uted. ror PI to repr_nt
simple. Lapplt!' has developed a method of calcu- critical flow conditiC'n!.
lation for high-velocit.y flow based 00 a computed Substit.uting equation 144 in P.ql\&ti on~ 141 , 142,
critical mass velocity through a nonle in isothennal and 143,
flow, AJ t hough such conditions of flow may never (145)
eJlist, such a hypothetical velocit.y affords a con- ( Ma')' ., I ( 140)
venient basis for calculation.
If t he flow is flictionless and DO work is done, .2 _ g.Po . p 2 IJ.M
Gn. (147)
equation 594 or 11 8 beeomes "
t Vo
0
tRm
I ()
(l(9) 122
1.2<>
In LhiKway all jijOthermal fl ow rates are expressed
in terms of a ratio (0 a calculated maxi mum dis-
1.18
charge through a not.de under isot-hermnJ flow oon-
ditions (0",,) wbien is related to uPlStream conditious
U6
byequatilm 147. The time of flow through a nozzle
ill !to short thai. isothcrmal flow cannot he realized,
hut the caiculal~1 value for Gc ,,; makeR 3 oonvelli~nt , 1.14
rational rdf!renm'! for use in cak\lll!.tin~ flow. a
S{1.l2
Frjctionl(!,..~ iVonixothermul How 0'
1.10
.r
I'or fiow unde r condition~ which are not iro- t- :-
thermal, the value of n ill not unity, and equations Lilli
corresponding to 148 and 149 may be developed by
combining e<luations similar to 139, 135, and 128 by 1.06
suhstit.uti ng 11 for k to give:
(f7"."G)'...
1.04
1.02
(~)(~).:,
_11 - 1 2
(~'):
I"
[I - (p')'~'l
P
( 150) 1.00
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.1 1.8
u
i - Cr/Cv
Tne ratio between th<> maximum flow rutes under Irreversible I..otll erlllol ""mv
nonisotbermal and isothermal conditions is obtained For isothermal Jl01lllitiolll:l, (I(I'V) '"' 0 = P flY
by combining an eqlJation ~i mils r to 139 with 11 SU" + V dP; thererore.
I'titutcd for k, ....:jth equation 14i.
(_ + lJ d("') J
u
V;;; (2-)"'-" -- + -- Ill. .. ( 2,,r'..) l'rlP (liH)
(C ,) _ ( 152)
O... i n + 1 " V
By 8uh8tit.u!.ing ~,fm' I.
in (''1uation 152 til(' ratio
Hine,e, I' ,.. I', Pd P 1"01" iSllilK'1"mal flow, awl f~)I' 11
pipe of \'ou,;(aJil IW()S.~ st'l,ihm Uw lila:>" v('iue:il.,
of maximum fiow for adia hatie: conditions t.o maxi-
(0 - 1'.lV) ii'! (:1I1L.ctuul awl tiP IV = flv/v, t'l!uaiio;\
mum Row for isot,hermu-l 'conditions is obtained. 1.'>4 l)f~lUm()~
This ratio is plot-too as 9. fUllction of k in Fig. 21:i.
PIP1-S
For flow in a pipe or wherever f ridil'o i(ft'R.!! must
be con.cidered, C(1\ll~tion 63 may I.e subl:ltitutro in.
e<IUll.tion 504 for unit mu..'!S of fiuid , giving, when l
to _ 0 , 2
( 1~1) FIG. 216A. Illft.j/.ntn, 'mh..... ,,,1I. ~ilC " i fo, .. rot~"f ~ul ",,"ri,,~ ~ ("r
III.\\' ~h",u~" pi l..-!\.
204 GAS FLOW AT HIGH VELOCITY
N- - "P, [ (P,),]
- 1- - - In - (P,), (158)
G2V1 PI P2
where To is "stagnation temperature."
T is flowing temperature.
For given vtUues of !'I, Ph and VI! G is a maximum
when dG/dP2 _ 0, differentiating equation 158, and
The adiabatic waU temperature T~ is the tempera-
substituting Pc for 1'2 and Ve for V2 ,
ture uf the wall that will maintain adiabatic flow of
() '
r. - (h
(P,) (P,),
-
VI -
PI ---
'op.
V.
(159)
the fluid and i8, t herefore, equal to the wmperature
of the stagnarit gas adjacent to the wall. If the
flowing gas were broujl;ht to the st.a.gnant condition
F-or maximum maM flow, equation 158 then becomes reversibly and adiabatically, the adiabatic wall
temperature T" would equal the stagnation tem-
(162)
(1620)
PIPFS 205
Flo. 211. lU.lio of. nliUimum flo"" ,10 iolOtIWtllW.\ Itll,);i muln flow ' 1l.II" function of VN ... V/LI D wh~re/'" ftidin" f"(lt()l',
[, _lenlllh ..1 pipe, aDd n ... diameter of pipe.
The distinction bet.ween Rowi ng te mperature and rat io GIG~~ i, lIince r.~~i may be readily ca leula tf'd in
etagnation tem perature is somcwhat similar 10 the tenns of the entrance conditions in reservoir ahead
distinction between static pI"CSSurt' and impu(' t pres- of the pipe by equation 1-17,
sure as d iscussed in Chap t.er 1-1 in connP("lilln \\'ith Figure 217 giveI$ \'Rll11's for the ma..xi mUffi possible
t,he pitot. tllbe. discharge (G.IGcK') as a function of N for various
values of k, for given ups tream conditions incor-
M etluNI" oj Culcnlati"K Pipe Cupocitictl ' porated in G.,,/. For lung pipes the maximum dis-
The ratio of maximum flow in a pipe; G" 10 that charge may be eHt.imated by ..the ap proximate rela-
for isothermal condit ions in a non ie, Gc.. i , is given tionship.
in Fig. 217 as a function of e<luivalent pipe length.
Since The isothermai.expressione are identicul \\;th ( 1M)
th<l corresponding nonisothcmlal (or adiabatic) ex-
pre!!SionB (or a value of k equal to unity, isothennal
How may be considered as equivalent to adiabatic and the critical flow pressure may be estimated by
flow of a hypot hetical gas having 11 value of k equal the approximat ion
to unit.y. For convenience then, all How conditions
JC:1X~)
are expl"('i;SC(!: in tel'ms of vnlut's for k, N, a nd P'l.I J'c 1',
( 16')
or Pa/P", lind the mas..'l velocity is expressed as the P,
206 GAS FU)W AT 111GB VELOCITY
The error involved in the use of the approximat.e llIu, lr,tive E .. Plple, It W dellired to calculate the dill-
relationship of ct'Jllation 164 is indicated in Fig. 217, charge rlt.te ilr air to the atmosphere from a TeIM!rvoir a~
150 psis and 70" F t hrout;h 33 ft of 8I.nIighl 2-;D. ><ehOO u......
which indud{'tl a plot of equation L64 as a function
40 8mooth >steel pipe {t ... 0.000 11 ft) and thn... c1bo .....
of .Y. The IJiIIC intake project/! elightly into tho l"t'<ICrVU1T.
For long ri~s the maximum posaible discharge is To IIOl vc the probll'.m, i ~ iI! ne<ll~ry to aIioIUmc a vaJup- "r
the 61Lffifl whet her the How is adiahatic or illOi.herlTUtl, till! friction l!\Clot J and IIJpre!!JI all 1\";~tan'" in 1('rms " r !t,"
hut Ule prc:-;;;U1C drop is larger for adiabat.ic Aow. as full,,"e:
In Fig>l. 21 &1, b, c t hc actulll m~M velooit.y ex- H,.,J~I""<-u (1-/ /1) (N )
pressed as the rtLtin (G/ On ;) is pl"Uoo It.S a fun"l i' lI1 Inl ak" 31 n ..'"", t
of t.he pressure ratio P,/ Po with N ItS a parH.mel.er HI.nlillhl pip" 1\12 ;UIf; :
(T 2/ 7'u indieulerl as 8trsight chii:lhcJ lines) fOf VU)Hftj 3 db<,,,~ !11 t 1.14 I
of k (J I, 1..1, a nd L.8.
By mrnm; of these charts and lhe simple ralcllla.- Tutlt.l 5.00
tion of t he maximum ml\SS veil.eily t.hrough an iso-
Borda ent ran'~, Fill:. 127.
thermal nllzzlr (O'"i) hy equation J.l7, the cupst';ty t ~l<ldiu.l 8Wt-ep alhow8, Fig. 127.
of a pipe line 0 1" oritiee may bf> readily f'Stimatcd for t Calculated, a!II<Umillll ... 0.016, corl"98J~mdinl: to rcugh-
all)" n lille ur k II.\' intcrpulat ion. ne!lII (. 10) of 0 .0004 Ilnd oomplfle Wrl",Io.'<\<'@<>II Fig. 125.
il(l. 21 811;. k ... 1.0. R:\H" nf downs!.r<l&m lH"L"8Ilure lu IIp.!t.tcIlm I' IUlIIUI"<! ;LI! II function ,i fI"., ratio Glro l :Iud ""';st
llr>Ce Iat.1(11" N ..
PIPi;S 2117
'"
::! 0.8
ci
o
".... 0.7
t
-.
~o
....
,
0.6
0.5
..
~
0.'
...
~O.2
0.1
Frumlne OOnJitKHUI of lho , prohh1ll', II is nuw ~i hl,' 1" ~"Ilh-nhlh' I)", d i,... hlll"jl;' hy ,Iiri~,t u...
or Fig. 2 18 as shuwn by the (,,[[..,wing hlb'.l llltiQn:
T .. 530 1t
p .. (150 + IU )( I44) .. 23,700 Ib r"m :/*I (~
P, .. (l4.7J{144) .. 2210 III furre/ IKJ h , i o;ol h"r mal
1.0
AdilllM1.ic
1.4
(GIG ;), from curve for N _
(P,/ P~) .. 0.0803
6.0 and (P,! Po) .. 0.08H3
M .. 2!l (Ib rnMll)/O o mule) (Fig. 218) 0 .54.'> 0.51>5
G lib Dla6'5/ (ace)I/Iq f~)J
~'ru", the rclat ion.4ip:
~ r!1,~11
Di.8ehuge ,"""I.e (II> mlll!>lj ...,..,)
(Tl/ r-.), rrum dll~I)('<.! ti m,.
"" 6 . 18
275
0.41
The OCln'eetfleS of the valuee oJ a obtained oopeM. on. the lIIu.t... li~e S.... ple, A ~ at 50 psi, pl'"e8lSUl'\l ~n<.i
--.uned value of /, .,..hich '!I'M ebe<:ked by computiog the ~. " re1eMee hydrogen chloride pB to a 8Cl"Ubber at sub-
Reynolds number from the valUfe of 0 and avtrap tempent- stantially atmuepherie prolIIIUnl tJromu&b t()()"h ~,
\.ute obtained from the charta. If t he value of / had bI!en length of &-i n. ID pipe with. rounded inlet. What ill tho
.iocorroetJy ~ a ... r-t e&lcuJation would be requirOO. ratoe of diKharge of hy......,n chloridc, a nd ...hat. ~ !.be
It shookl IOIlYer be ~ to make more than one repeat condiliol1& 01 t('mpera~ure a nd pro88Ure oithin the ",pe?
calculation!lince the effect 0( {ill no~ very pl"Qn()lln~. I t is ~rning I - 0.016, N .. (0.Oi6)(iOOX I2>/ (6) _ 3.2. Froro
.,klom nl.'<U:I>I&ty to . make this cheek caltl.llation when the CODI.Iitions of the problem
G/ G,fti ill a muim um, as this conditioo it llSuaJly accomr-nied
hy complete turbulence. Althou,gh in checkiD!{ the value of f T. - 660" R
the aVIIr&ge temperat ure WM Cllleulated to obtain the ... vernge
1M villoCOlSity, . !I1lfficient acCUnl.Cy (bette1' than 2 per cent)
p . - (00 + 14.7)(144) - 9330 Ib fOfoe/aq fi
will usually l(lijUlt if the visooeity ill taken at the UpI!tre&l1l PI .. (14,7)(144)" .. 2120 Ib foroe/eq ft
t .'mpcrature.
(PalPe.) "" 0.227
If the regular frictioo factor m(lthod dCS'ribed in M .. 36.5 II> mll!l5/mr>Ie
Chapter 12 with all !.enns (Idined by Ihe conditions
correspond ing to t he arithmetic Itven.ge of the up- G r (32. 17)( 36.6)
... .. (\1330) "\J (2.718)( L646)(6OO)
&lrearo and dOWIUltream P-relflures had been employed
in the above solution, the calculated discharge would .. 102.0 Ib m&III/ (soo)(1Iq ft.)
be 3561b ma.ss/ (sec}(sq ft) or 8.30 lb/ sec. D ... (fUXl / 12) _ 0.500 ft
Pipe eroe& 80tltlnn .. (0.785)(0.500)' .. 0 .1002 aq rto
PROBLEMS
-Usinr'I''i,. 218
eaJculated.
(a and II), the followinj!: ..=. may be diff~renti.ting with reapeet to Pl
(GI(}...;).rrom~rveror N -
.,
TfIOthermal Adi&b.ti"
'"
20 dOl ...
1
dP,
(v."')(. ......
",' )'; . . Po.(RTM( .... )
-(-.,
Ts ("Rankine)
.,.,
"" ""'" G.... - g. ",t ( 147)
"'"'.3
2. DoocE. R. A., and M. J. 1'HOMP80N, "'Wid MMAiet,
Mc:Gra ......Hill Book Co. (193'1) .
3. FRoItMEL, W., rrw.dl. GtlJitU '''I1fII~IU'W., . T, 7~ (1936).
(lb foroe/ IKI in. gage)
.,.,
10.1 TralU!l.ted in U. S. Nat. Ad.ifOr1/ Cmnm. Aero. TI1.
Average of TI and T s (oF)
1'. at averace 11.8 temperal.l.lr'e
~b rna./ (ft){aeeH 1.15(10).....
'" 1.04(10}-'
M~. No. 844 (1938).
4. Kt:I.:N'AH, JOII~PH H., TMrmodV'lOIII~', John Wuey .ntI
SoN (19011).
Re 01" (DO/ ,.) 6.28(10}' 6 . lt{lO)' So KI;Ii:HAN'. JouP" H . TI'IIM. Alii. Soc. MtdL Engr... J .
Applitd Mtdwmiu, U, 1l-20 (1939); 4. 13&-(1.
For commercial IIt.eeI pipe of &-in. I.D. Fi,. 120 giVfJII
./D _ 0.0003. From Fig. 125, / _ 0.015 for U1i1! piJ)f! at.U fl. J.APPLE, C. E., TroM. A.... iliff. C/i4Ift. E1Igr' " n.. 385
(June 19013).
value!! fOl' Re,ln ftXoess of 5(10)', Therefore the COI'I"eCt value
7. Loll(), W. E., LEO FB.!.N'Ii, and G. T. SI!;APEBDAlI, 1M.
for f .ahould be 0.016 mther than the MBumoo valut! of O.ot6.
Brag. C1w:m., M, 821 (t942).
Tbe diff~lloe. however. '" .lmollt negligible M it would
d _ l h . value of N from 3.2 to 3.0 indiea\ina: vrJUf'ltI of 8. SToool.... -Lo"J:NSftIJoi. &.:om ClAd (J(U Twbi_, CN,pt.er
111; Pet.er Smith (U)4,5).
(GjG<WoJ
loot""'
0."
" AdW-ti"
0.67
9. 1'lIOMBOJoI, G. W /rtd. EItI/. CMri., 14. 1485 (1942).
CHAPTER
16
F
2. The friction {&cLor also includes a rador F,
particles, such as ::and or other porous medium which it! another fun ction of these variables.
distinet from a conduit, fl~w through passages
between the panicles of the bed. The dimensions D.f/R.Up
Re --"--= (Hi6)
of these pas&t.gflS depend upon the (oBowing vari-
ables.
-
';I.IF,
PurfJkity of the bed. Iw, .. - -
Diameter of the particles. 2gcDp
Sph;rjcily or shape of the particles.
Orientalion or packing arrangement of- the par-
ticles. ,
Roughntu of the particles.
The actual linear velocity of the fluid through the where Dp - diameter ' of the particle. When all
passages in the, porous bed may be expressed in particles are
of the same size the
terms of the "superficial" velocity (computed as the screen size (DuJ may be used for
rI~te of flow or fluid through the unobfitnlcted entire D.. For mixed sizes D. is the mean
cross-secl ional area of the bed) and thcee same surface diameter, that is, the diameter
variahles. _ of a particle having an area equal to
J.ikewise. the length of the path followed by the the "average" area of the particles
fluid may be expressed in tenns of the length of the (see p. 21 and equation Hi9). '
bed and these-same variables. II - superficial velocity, linear velocity of
The lOBI! due to friction accompanying the flow the fluid computed on the basis of
of fluid! through such a bed of contiguous particles. the total or empty crOl!llHCCtionai
when the: particles are in random arrangement may area.
be expreseed in the fonn of an equation similar to p _ density of the fluid.
equation 71 for cylindrical ducts if the two following /A - vi8C08ity of the fluid.
conditions are met. L - superficial distance through which the
1. The Reynolds number based on the diameter fluid Rows, or th~ thicknees of the
of the duct and the superficial velocity is replaced poroua bed in the direction of the
by a Reynolds number Re' based on the diameter flow .
of the' particles and including a factor F~ which ill a -I1P, _ decrease in presI'Ium due to rrict.ion
function pf 1h(' variublPlol lillIe<! tt.bov~ . 10llllt....
210
0.5
Poro'lity,X
FIU. 21!L Ri'JltlohJ n mmher r..('(o r:iS", { ullcti on of p<lIoo;ly and Mphcl'icil .y.
212 FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGn POROUS MEDIA I
Porosity, X
FlU. 220. F riel.ion-fllclOl' f&etor M & function ol porosity and sphericity.
volume or void space average deviation .of O per cent and the maximum
POmJlty X_
total volume of bed deviation of 24 per cent.
The tram~itiun between the laminar and turbulent
Sphericity y, - surface area of Hphere having a. region for porous media is in gener81 a smooth curve,
vulume equal to that of the par- indicating nn average effect "for the large number of
ticle, divided by surrace area of t:hannels through which the fluid is flowing. Some
particle. of these channels may be in lam inar flow and othen
in turbulent flow, owing to their different dimensions.
It is somewhat lIimilar to a plot of average Reynolds
The experimental data on random-packed regular-
numbers versus average friction fact ore for 8 group
shaped contiguous particicIJ (Table 26) 1, 4,11. are
of pipes of different dinmeLPrs. But even at very
plotted in Fig. 221 , using the facto.-s of Figs. 219
high Reynoldli numbers the friction faetor is not so
and 220. The correlation is slLti~actory, with an
constant for porous media as for cylindrical conduits,
The bibliocnaphy ' W this ehaplftl' appear. 011 Po 2 18. indicating t hat. the flow through porous media never
SINCLE FLUID PHASE 213
~
, 1~::S~W::I
to eeli. ~ete'J, eyllnders,
Berl~"
~
.; .~~
I
?;:
F1o.221. Experimental data oll'fIow throuch po\'O\M bed!I of random-packed particle!! of T.ble 26 plott!!d with friction factor
V) .. a fUIlCtion of Reynolds !lumber Re.
Spheres "
m.
0.217
X
0 . 3781-0.468 1
porosity .and sphericity a1'6 required to define the
porous medium.
GlMs IlpOeres 0 .... 0 . 12 1 In ealculating or determining sphericity ftom the
LeIKl Bhot, uniform size' 0." 0.315-0.421 1 dimeosio[U\ of the particle, only the primary shape
0.'"
0.121
0 .363-0.375
O.31tH).390
1
1
should be used. In the CI\.BC of splined rings the
sphericity should be calculated from the dirnell8ions
0 .... 0 .... I
0.325 1
of the cylindrical ring without including the area. of
0.078
0.076 0."" 1 the splint$.
~lite cylind(ll'l" 0.267 0.361-0.461 0.871 The sphericity of a pa)1.icle composed of agglom
Herllladdlea I 1.97 0.780 0.314 crated spheres is N-H, where N is the number of
1.38 0.785 0.297 spheres in the agglomerate. M08t granular particles
0 .985 0 .700 0 .317
or crystals may be expected to have a sphericity
0.'" 0 . 758 0.296
o.-tn 0 .710 0 .342 varying from 0 .7 to 0.8.
0.300 0 .694 0.329 Although the sphericity could theoretically be
1.00 0 .725 0 .311) calculated from the dimensions of the particle, this
0 .5 O. 7125-<l, 761 0 . 370 is often difficult or practically impoesible. Figure
0 . 132 0.031 0.140 223 is a plot of observed values of porosity and
0.1295 0.935 0.140
1.97 0 .853 0 .200
1.38 0.835 0.262 1.0
0 .985
0.'"
0 ....
0.65.5
0.272
0.420
\11\ 1
Ruchig rinp 1.00 0 . 701 0 . 391 0.8
"\I~I
RNchi, rin8' "
Ow.. riDge'
0.'" 0.554-0.620 0.531 q\ -.=,
......
0 .228 0 .07 0.411
0.213 0.72 0.370 )'\I\~ I I
0 .3875 0." 0."" r - 0-
~'.
ptcking
0.n15 0 .845 0.2540
fl1~ (b - ,~
~ ... @~ ,~
~ ... ,~
~~ m ~
Telf,;ona' Sp!Ier'lOid.l
(blocked pIIsu ge I)
Potosity 0.3019
7 Tet'agQnal Sphenoidal
(blocked pa S5lle 2)
f'IlrosiIy 0.3019
8
em .- ,m'= m~ ,,~
Rhombohoedr,1
Porosity 0.2595
Rhombo/1edral
(clea r pII",,~)
Porosity O.2~
10 Rhombolledral
(b/OCked~)
Porosity 0.2595
..
'! 0-
, -~
_
,, "'"' .....
A""",.,.,ent Porosit)'. K
~"
.,'"
:
-- .,'"
(deilf"",,,P)
(bIodIn ........ )
, Tttt ."....~
,.O.:l()19
""
----
(_PM .....)
T*-,",~
(bbcktcl PM"p)
o.lOl9 "
, _ _ II
-,-,
,~
- (-"......) "'"
0.1595
~
"
~
i'-
::
::
00'
Ililla I ' .!
~
~
:.! '0
..
Re)onaIcIs 1't\II'IIbIr, 1M _ D,~ ~ -:
Flo. 2:2&. Frict.ioo r~ U) veIMJa Reynoldl Dumber (Re) for random-paeked p&rtiell'Jl and for lWked .pben!l..
D'
216 FLOW ~OF FLUJDS THROUGli POROUS MEDIA 1
outside these bounds for predicting fluid flow, even equation 167 in equation 60 gives
though these values are based on physical measure-
ments. Il.P g I?
- +Il.Z-+Il. - -
Diameter, or dimension of the particlo, D", whE'-Il P fh 2g.
determined for gnliluiar IIOlids of mixed s izes by the
If w is !ero
rE!lat.ionship given in equation 169, is extremely
sensitive to "the amount of fines present. A metbod
which is less sensitive to small errolll in the oontcnt Il.P+p'Il.Z - (16&)
of fines and. also of more general applicution because 2g
it can be applied to fibrol.\s or other more granular When the velocity v is approximately constant, the
materials is to compute the value of Dp from per- last term is zero.
meability illCMurements by use of cquetion 170. WiUl the friction factor and the Reynolds(n
The value of D,. so dctennined from laminar flow Ltumber Re as indicated in Fig. 225, the calcula-
measurements is also applicable to turbulent flow t.ion of the How of Huids tb rough porous mooia is
conditions. handled in a manner similar to that used for the
Roughness of the particle is or lesS significance than flow of fluids through unobstructed conduits.
the other variables but may become somewhat
important in the highly turbulent region. Experi- lllu ltrative Example. An estimAte ill J'tlquired of the
fio'" of air through a 8eoCtion of 8tandll.l'd 4-in. pipe eontaininJj;
mental da~ in the laminar and early turbulent region
a packed bed Qf ~-in. Iu..,chig rinf;!! under the following (lOIl-
indicate that roughne&l has little effect on pressure ditioll:8:
drop and should not be included in fluid flow corre-
lations (or porous media in this How range. As cases Depth 01 bed 1.93 ft
PI'e88Un' drop 32.19 in. of -,yaW'
of extremely high flow rates through porous bOOs are Air tcmper&ture 00 F
infrequent, the effect of surface roughness on pressure BU(lmetri" pre>!illll'l'l 2\:1.38 in. of mercury
drop may, in general, be neglected. ' &d poro~ity 0.5545
Orientation is an important variable in special Out.Hidll diameter (If rinp 0 .385 in.
cases. In some recent experiments,:to pressure drops Height of riDg!l o.:m in.
WaU thicknell of rinp 0.0836 in..
\Yere determinro for different arrangements of
stacked spheres, as indicated in Fig. 224. In order The sphericily of tOO particlee d .:.t,imatro from the dimen
to correlate the friction 10II8eS with the Reynokis moos of the rings; - I
tation do not occur with random packing as encoun- Total ~f&OO area of particle - 0.910 'Q in.
tered in ordinary industrial practice. Oriented beds
Volume t)f ringa
arc used in some a.bsorbers and for other applications
where the packin,l!; is stacked by hand rather than -i 1(0.38S)' - [0,38.'; - 2(0.0836)1110.397 - 0.0316 cu iD..
dumped into the vessel.
COMPlITATIONS
... Wbenever more than one potential is involved at
the same time, all potentials must be included in the
equation, as indicated by equation 59. If chemical
and s urface etiCCbi , etc., are excluded, equation 59
ml1Y be s implified to equation 00. Substitu t ing
SINGLE FLUID IN LAMINAR FLOW THROW;H POROUS BEDS 211
The IllU of a sphere having the !lame VQlume all the particle EQUATIONS USED FOR LAMINAR FWW
M-eornJ)\lt.ed by detenniDinl: the dilUIle\el' of a spbcre ~vi", THROUGH POROUS BEDS
a volume of 0.0316 eu in. and ttron determinin,; the area of
this Iphoro.
In laminar flow the same foml of equations may
.D,
V - 6 - 0.0316 eu in. be uged for the frictlon losses through poroWi media
&8 for the flow through conduits; for example,
Therefonl
D, _ 0.392 in.
64
A _ .D,t _ 0.4.83 aq in. corresponds to f - -
R.
Sphericity (t) is obtained by dividing the &n!a of the apb.! re
bavina the ,.mll vorum~ as the p&rtide by the ~. of the corresponds to
particle, or sphericity - 0.483/ 0.GI(i - 0.63l.
From Fill. 219 P"" i. found to 'be MI, ..wng '" - 0.531,
X _ 0.M4:i. From Fig. 220 PI iB found to he 1600.
The preern1I'f! drop of 32.39 in. of water ie equivalent \0 (63L)
168.5 par Ol" 2.38 in. of JrM:rcury. The arithmetic' aV8J'llge
dem>ity M ~ beea.olle of tbP, relatively amaIl cban&e ill prell- Solving for v:
IlUre. Using a moleewllt ..-d,h! of 29 ~ an llverage Ptelllllll't
ol30.67 in. of mercury, the a~ density of the air i. com-
_(gJ)./PRe) (pi';;}) ""' K pi",,}
(170)
put.ed ... an ide&.1 g.... 32F, L/J L/J
liP 29(80.67)(1U) (It4) Equation 170, known M Darcy's equation , corre-
P - ar - (29.92)( 1544)(460 + 110) sponds to equation 63L, known as Poiseuille's equa-
P , _ 0.0741b nu.ea/eu It tion.
For vertical flow in which tbe energy of position
-" - 0.0182 oontipoi8e (potential energy) contributes the driving force
The values of aU the flleWr8 in the RoynoidB numher (Re) AP = 0 and dv = 0, and from equation 00 42,,1, . =
and biction fact()l' are now known except velocity, which can - lw. Substituting in equation 170 gives
be fou.nd from Fig. mas: fol)owa.
Re _ D,F~ _ (0.~)(50) (O.074). _ 9'1'OClIo ,_ ("J),~FRa) [P( - l1Z)9j .. Kp(-I1Z)g (171/
-" (0.0182)(0.00067'2) 32FI LiJIJ. L/Jg.
2goDJW, (2)(32.2)(O.03M8)(168.5) l.523 When L - - I1Z, equation 171 simplifies to
1- Up - (I .93)(O.074)( IOOO)r - -;r
Kp'
(1.523)(9700)1
(l71a)
J- (Re)~ "
The permeability K is defined by equation 172,
which is derived from equation 170.
The 801ution will be obtai ped by tbe , interlleetioll of,... .. K ___
".Dp2 FR.
_
straicht line of !Iiope of minus 2 011 FIC. 225 with the curve (172)
fOl' random-pack~ particle-. At wOO"y of I f)lll, 32 P,
Re _ 9700 and J _ 1.523. At. 11 of 10 fpe, He - 97,000 and
J - 0.01523. Plottini these t.wa poiDte on Fig. ,~ and The surface per unit volume of particle 8, com-
rlnllring a lItniiUlt liDe through them givea the aolution fo.- puted by dividing the surface area of particles by
Re and I at the point of interaeet.ion OOITeIIpoodill& to a the volume of the particles, is equivalent to & re-
ReynoJd" number (Re) of"irJ,OOO. DividiUfli thift by 9'lOO ciprocal diameter a.nd has boon used ", 1, 12 in an equa-
giv"l 9.2 fpr;; as: the lIoVerage ~cial velocity of the &ir
through the crctIIIHeCtion&l &rei. of.J~e unobab'ucted '-in. pipe.
tion similar to 170 as follows.
The quantity of &ir llowing ~h \hit pa.eked &eetiOD
of pipe iI
AL
(175)
aW
BIRUOGRAPHY
I . B""t... E., Call1lOfl of Diu rmd r~., Wieeb&don (1\130). 12. KO~ENT, J ., "SXI Permeability," Si!zba. Akad. W i...
2. BLA K, F, C., "The ~ksislll.llOO of P~ckillg to Fluid Wi~, 136a, 271 (l~7 ) .
Flow," TraM. Am. lila. Clint!. Engr. 14, "15 (1 92-1- 13. LEv .... MAx, "PreNure Drop through Packed Tube!!, I.
22). A GeDeral CorrelatiO!l," Ckm. Eng. p~. D, 549
3. BaoW .. El.oL. L . E., o.nd D. L. KATZ, " Flow of Fluid3 (1947) .
throuRh Porou. Medie.- PIlTt I," eMm. E1tfJ. Progre.a, 1'4. OIol.A,N, A. 0., and K. M. Wo\.T!ION. ":rr-.re OrOpl in
u. :.37 (1941). Granul&r Bed.," Noll. PdNleum N_. Ted!. &C.,"
. 8 UIU(E, S. P., and W. B. P LU MIIIE1t, ''G.l3 Flow through 44R19i> (J944) .
Packed Columns," Ind. E1tfJ. CMm., 20, Jtoo (1928). 15. ROllI:, H . r... La,,'.
"An Illvestigation into the of Flu'"
5. (j. ....... N, P . C., " Fluid Fio... tbn>Uf;h Granular Beds," of Fluida through Beds of GnullIlar Mal.eria.llJ," Proc..
TrrlM. I ..... CM .... Eotgr~. (Londo,,), 16, 130 (1 931). I ,... M:h . EIIIJ!"'" In, 5, 141 (1945).
6. ClI.IIM ......, P. C., ''The Dekrmin.tion of the Specific SuI'- 16. RtM'H, B. F., "Studiee in FUwtion III; .Derivation of
{&Qe 01 Powder., I," J . &C. CMm . Ind., 51, 226 {I93sI: Gener&1 Filtralioo .quat.io", IV. The Natun! of Fluid
''II,'' ibid., 18, I (1930). floW" through Filter Septa and It... Importan ce in the
1. ClIIL'!ON, T . B . and A. P. CoLIIUIU<, " PrclJSUre Drop in FIltration Equation," Ind. Eotg. Ckfm ., 21, 108, 806
Packo;!d Tubell," Tra"'. Am. l rut. Clltm. EI'II}I"'" 28, 118 (1935).
(1931 ). 17. 8cHOEtnII)RN, E. M., and W. J . DoUGK1Ut'rT, "PretIlIUre
8. DUCT. ~, LeI Fonl4inu PulXi4uu dtJ /(J Vi/k de Dijon, Drop and Ftooding Velocity in Pacbd Towel"ll with
Victor Delmont, P &ria (1856). Visoous Liquids," TrtllI" Am. Ina. CAmn. /:"IIIJ!"'" 60,
V. F,\l1l, G, 1'01" and 1I....1\:H, L. P., "Fundtmental Factors 51 (1944).
Go~", t.be Bt.eamline Fklw of Water through &md," 18. & :HIUEVER, W., TfGIU. Am. 1M. Mini1tfJ Md . Engr .,
J. Am. WOW Wort. Auo.:., 26, 1551 (1933). "Law of flow of the P&SM.ge of a Cae-Free liquid through
10. F4)IfCKEIl, G. H ., aDd J . A. LEWIS, "Flow of Simple SphericrJ.G....n &nd," 80, m. 333 ( ~9M).
FIuidI thn:Iu&h Porous Mat.eriak," 1M. E"f. Cllem., 1,1 19. SU LLlV.~N, R. R., and K. L. HERTEL, J. Applitd PliI/'"
1139 (1933). '''The Flow of Air tbrough Porous Mooie.," 11, 761 (1940).
11. F'vILH ...s, C : C . "FJQw o(G..- throuah Beds of Broken :n, MARTIN, 1, J., TM.lu . C~ I.IIIItitute of T eeh.nolocY
, SoIidI," U.8, Bill. Mi_Bull. 3IY1 ( 1m). (l948).
PROBI.EMS 219
I. II cy lintlrical tower, 'l It in diameter, pa.clmd toa bei,hl of peroot .. tkm pl1'>OO3ll, I h of oil standi above the bed with
10 ft \lith Iledvated a lumina, isnoll' beingu!lll!d toelean naphtha. atmOilpheric pre8l!urn above this oil and at the bottom of the
flowing downwArd under the followin,; operat;"' oonditlona. adIIorbent.
It is 8\Igge!t.eU that tho mRnufa.eturinc ~ be cha.nPl'i
T~mperatul'l! - Il)~ F
80 t hllt the lubricating oil stock will be dibttcd with IIOlvent
D!~n~ity ... 49.3 Ib mMii /eu ft
at the ti nle of }JII rrola lion.
\ ' ill;C()8jty - O.91G oontipn" Pbt a eurv\, sbo"inlj: the capacity of an adaorbolnt unit
A ve~ di-. lIl8t.f (~l""'.m size) cl<preMod in gall<>IUI put 'hour of lubricat ill,ll; oil versuIJ oon..
of alumina - 0,046 in,
_ OAOQ eentrati<>n of IIOIvent in the oil. The Pl'Opertiet of tbe oil
Pn...,,";ly of bed
,-
8OIutiollll at til<! oontacting temperntut(l are M fo1lo"'8:
Flow rate - to II:Pf'Il/$q ft, crom .eeotion
Pl'CIlSurc differenoe _3Sps;. !IS% 90% .,%
Lubri- Lubri. wbri-
It ill t:t!llired to oo,="vcrt tho to"'er into an air d rier, ~movinc cll.tinll: CAting
e/ltilll
exOORS m oi~turc {rom 1000 5te.nda rd ru h (mell8ured at 60 F
Lubri- Stock, Stock,
and 14.7 p&a) of &it per hour 80"";1\1 uJ7Ward.
cating '% 10% 20%
U ~hc drier opera.~.. i..othermally lit HIO F and the a ir
mlU.t leave tbe tower at 25 p4ig, .... hat mU8t be the inlet .""k Solvent Solvunt Solvent
PN!'SUrel Demity, lI:f&IllII/ tt 0 .91 0.00 0." 0.87
Viscosity, C'JO':n~i_
3. 1
2. N aphthalene cylinders (0 .11 in. in diameter and 0.18 in.
long) form a bod 3 in. in diameter and W in. lone. The
po"," ' .0 3.'
wiligt)t of !l2 tt of the pellet. i3 S8 grame. <Ampute t he S. A cravity 61le!' co"u u of .. 2-It bed of l"n. t n.bed
pounds of ai r which will pass through t~ bed per hour at a trap rook eoverod with a, 2-ft layer of 28-mesh .and. Both
f1uwing temperuturtl 01 100" F \\'itb a pre86u re differential layeCll have bod poraliticl of 40 per 1'AiJ\t. The iii," is flooded
of 18 in. of water . with 2 ft of water above the top of the a nd. The ~
.t the bottom outlet of the fil ter is II.tl'll08pheric.
S. A 001" typo! 01 pebhle regenerator ill Ulled in a proeea. for (II) What i$ the flow of water thrOUJh the filter, upn:Med
lireheat;,,@.airirom 100 to 250 F. Alternately hot flue sa- ... fee\' /(feet%j (bour)1
Ilml then lIl r a t lOO~ F are ~ thTOUfh the helller. TIle (&) H .. similar filter bod Wel'O cnclOiled in .. pft.'3SU1"C! tank
helli er iri pIlcked with oo rl>mic Ipherell 1 in. in diameter to a and operated ,,ith a pl'eS8IIfe drop of 100 pllill, what would be
roomsi l y 01 40 per ce nt.. The bed is 3 It in diameler Md 8 1\ the flow of watert
<lp.
6. Compute the Jll'Il'IIUfe in t he well bore for a natunl p.II
aphcl'COl "2
It hu been ~Uggellted that the addition of MIme lJIllall
in. ill iiiameter to fill the interatioes 01 the bed
would in crelll!e the hell t Clapacity of t he bed., Experiments
well (6J,i in. in dillmeter) a t the nt.te of 34,9)0,000 eu It per
day of natural ru m CMIlred lit 6O~ F and 1'.7 posia. The
indicate th~t the ~ ,.in. 0011.11 ,,nuld fiil on&othird of !.he produci", sand bas a thiek ne811 of 1 It and .. porOlity of 26 pur
inteNtices Ir.ft bet ween the t-in. apheree. cent. The sand 1I:f&iD3 have an avefllll! diamr.ter of 0.000791
Plot 1\ "U rvc of p~ure drop in pounds per ' quare foot ft and a , pheridty of 0 .\10. T he pre&'lurc in the 1000II1II.t,;on at
5000 ft (!.em Pl''''ture, 113 0 F) i8 COtLStaDt as 2100 pm a t a
Vii l'!llJ,ll ~lIl1erficial IllA8II velocity (pounde per square foot per
hour) of the air fnr l be t .,,o beds. radial diltance of 500 ft from the "ell~ . The natu~ gall
hu a gravity nf 0.65 (air - 1), II. viacosity at 11.';' F of
,. A lubrieati"i: oil BOOck is 'beln'g ';"nt&cted "';ith a !IOlid 0,0176 ce ntipoiIM , a pecudo crit ical tcm peratllnl of 37" n.
"d8Ol'bcn t by gnr.vity pereoJation. The eonta<:ti~ 1lIl!!,a ~ a nd a pIIeUdo crit ical pn..uro of GOO pllia. T1le preLllce of
cy lindri cial lxxb! 6 h in dia me ter by 4 ft high. Tkti adeorbcnt ",ater in the sand may be ncgJ.,e wd. (Hoe "A Radiil.1 Turbu-
cun"i~Ui of particicR 0.02 in. in diameter with a apherielty of lent Flow Formula," F;!enbau and Kilt., Pdrok"", Tlt-
0.72. The porosity of the betl . '34 per oent. Durin the 1WII.ow, January 1!M8.)
CHA PTER
17
I
N m&.llY operations two homogeneous fluid
pha.ees may be flowing simultaneously through voids are completely filled with a fluid, the porous
,porOU8 beds. The flow of the two phMe8 may medium is said to be saturated with that Huid. If
be countercurrent to each other lIS in pa.cked towers the voids are not completely filled by a fluid. the
or columns serving 8.'J gas absorbers or scrubbers, or fractional volume of the voids occupied by the Huid
the flow of the two phases may be in the same direc- is referred to aa the saturation of that fluid. The
tion lUI when air is used to displace fluid from 11 filter saturation is expressed as a percentage or fraction
cakc in the air-flow period of the filter eycle, or in which equals the volume of fluid in the voids divided
the displacement of oil by gas in the production of by the wtal volume of voids. For simplicity it is
oil from permeable sandstone. the usual practice to express the fluid content of t.he
When two fluid phases are flowing through a voida. in terms of the saturation of the wetting fluid.
Porous medium, one fluid normally wets. the solid, For example, if the wtal void space is filled to the
floW!! adjacent to the solid, and prevents contact of extent of 20 per cent by volume with water and 80
the BeCOtld phase with the solid; the other fluid per cent by volume by air, the medium is said to be
flows through the void space IUld is in contact with ~ per cent saturated.
tbe first fluid rather than with the solid. Tbis 800- In developiDg procedures for predicting tbe flow
ODd fluid is then flowing through a. porous medium of two phases through porous media, it is nece!!88.ry
which is different in charactemties from the un- to consider capillary forces in the bed in addition to
wetted porous solid. Th,e fluid wetting the surface the degree of saturatioo.
of the eoIid changes the volume of voids available to The calculation of flow for the two phase!! is based
the gas or nODwetting fluid and ,also changes the upon the previously described. correlation for the
shape of the pore space available to the gas or non~ How of a single homogeneous fluid through porous
wetting fluid. It is therefore necessary to speak of media (Chapter 16) with modifications depending
a wetted porosity and wetted sphericity in con~ upon which phase is under consideration. The
sidering the flow of the gas or non wetting fluid in nonwetting Huid is treated 88 a single phase flowing
the presence of another fluid which wetf5 the solid through a porous bed modified by t.he presence of
surfaces. t.he wetting fluid. For the wetting fluid, a correction
Before considering the flow of the Doowetting to the velocity is applied, based upon t.he saturation.
Huid, it is necessary to ,establish the How character- Figure 226 shows t he relative permeability" of
istics of the wetting Huid in order to arrive at values
for the wetted porosity and wetted sphericity. Relative (aonlOUmea callod 6pecific) permeablllty wthe lie-
tu&l QUM.tity or Bow of II pven phll.ge divided by the q UII\Hlty
In every porous medium there is a volume of of flow of tbAt phaIo under too ""-me driving foree when that
~ace not occupied by the solid. The volume of pbaM oompiflteIY ' IiIu. tM voids, i.e., single-fluid phlWl flow.
220
TWO FLUID PHASES
1.00
I
0.80 1\' II
\,'
,
.
GH
'"
1\ .. .If
..' _1
Fla. 227. (0) c.pilI&ry tubell ill coot&ct wl Lh liquid ; (/.I) b....
1\ If aontlll capilb.ry tubeIJ..
!')., W
r;;; horizontal position, as indicated in Fig. 227b, but
0
j.A
j
. .f-. completely submerged in a flowing stream of the
liquid which wets the surfaces of the capillaries, the
o .. OJ liquid will flow through- each capillary in aceord
20
Uquid Saturation, % '" 100
with Poiseuille's equation 63L- under cOnditions of
laminar flow. The liquid in all capillaries will be
Flo. 2'le. Permeability of uDCODIIOlidaled !land to gtI-' and oil
M IIolunei;ion or liquid .tul'II.tion." flowing u nder these conditions of 100 per cent
saturation.
unconsolidated sand of iO to lro mesh to oil and to -If the bundle of capillary tubes is rai!led above the
gas as a function of the liquid saturation . At ll liquid stream and placed in a horizontal position in
saturatiOll8 iess than about 18 per cent, only the gas an air stream, as shown in Fig. 227b, with 0. pressure
Hows through the porous bed and no oil flows even gradient from one end of the tube to the otber, tbe
though, the voids are 18 per oent saturated with oil. air will tend to displace the liquid Crom the clI-pil-
Similar data for the simultanoous How of two liquid 1aric8 with a force corresponding to the pressure
phases, such as water and oil, are available-II gradient multiplied by the Cl"OI!8-6CCtional area of
This effect of saturation on the permeability in the fluid in the capillary. This displacing force i8
the simultaneous flow of two fluids through a porous opposed by a force equal to the interfacial teMion
medium can be explained by considering the effect between the liquid and air multiplied by the internal
of surface tension of fluid in capillsriee. The surface perimeter of the wetted capillary. Since the cross-
or interface between two fiuid ph.a.ses always tends sectiooal area varies as the square of the diameter,
to contract and generally behaves 88 if it were in and the perimeter &$ the firs t. power of the diameter,
tension. This characteristic is described as the there will be some size of capillary for a given pres-
6Urfoa temion or inl.erfacial ten8Um. IT (our capil- sure gradient in .,.-hich these capillary forcee balance
lary tubes of different internal diameters are placed the pressure gradient, and no fluid will pass through
in a fluid wroch wetB the surface of the capillaries, a capillary having 0. diameter equal to or smaller
the fluid rises in the capillaries to different heights, than this value. In Fig. 227b, tube 1 is passing
as indicated in Fig. mao Thil'! r-ondition Tepre- air and the capillary forces in tubes 3- and 4 are
eeots a balance of forces. The totaJ surface force sufficient to prevent the flow"of air. If the pressure
tending to pull the liquid upward in the eapil.la.ry drop is incresaed over the lengtb of the capiUary
varies directly as the inside perimeter of the capil~ tubes, air may pass through tube 3 and only tube 4
lary, or 8B the first power of the diameter. The will be of such small diameter &8 to prevent air flow.
gravitat ional force tending to pull the liquid down- Further significance of capillary forces is seen by
ward in the capillaries is the weight of the fluid in comparison of a porous medium to a bed composed
the e&pillary and _varies directly as the square of of many capillary tubes of short length. varying
the diameter ,of the capillary and as the height of
diameter, and random distribution. Coll8ide!" such
the liquid in tJ:ae capillary.
If the bundle of eapillary tubes is placed in a a bed completely sa.turatoo witb a wet.ting 6uid such
&8 water and subject to a pressure gradient. Each
The bibliography lor this chapter I.ppeal'II OD p. 228. short capillary conducts flow a.ccording to its diam-
... FLOW OF FLUIDS nfROUGH POROUS MEDIA 2
to flow. This condition represente the maximum
pore IIpace eliminated (rom flow by capillary forces,
and also the equilibrium reached if the flow of the
wetting fluid to the porous media is stopped and the
non wetting fluid contim,le8 to flow under the same
conditiOI1ll.
For any specified pn::ssure drop over the length of
the capillary tubes, there is a definite quantity of
I the wetting fluKi retained in the capilla"ries. This
liquid wruch remlLins fixed in the capillaries depends
-.
not only upon the si ~ of the capillaries, but also
j I
on the pressure gralhent of the nonwetling fluid
across the porous medium and the interfacial ten-
=::, sion. If the porous medium or the capillaries are
completely filled with a wetting fluid, all that fluid
is flowing and there is no fluid "fixed" in the capil-
laries.
Figure 228 is p~p.kJd to c!arify the tenua lor
F lo. 228. G~phi(&l I1!preeelltaoon of tbe di8tribution of the expressing the distribution of the pba8e8 for two--
two fluids Rowlnl throulh .. pol'OWl hed upreo!l8ed as per OBD.t
saturatioo S and the oorrellpon_iol!; relative permeability of plase flow. The voids in a bed are divided into three
the wetUlJ1 fluid for OHe [16rlieu!a.r preeeure gra ... ient. The portions: (1) Donwetting fluid, (2) wetting fluid in
line !lep&ratilll &rea I fNun area 2 ill tile oil permeability line
of Fig. 226. flow, and (3) wett.ing fluid eliminated from flow by
capillary forces. Each of ~ese portions 'of PIe voids
eter, pressure gradient, and viscosity of the fluid as is represented a8 an .. ~ QD Fig, m, wqi~h applies
stated by Poi8euille's equation (63L) for laminar specifically kI the cQlldit.ioDll of liquid saturation
flow. Now replace a portion of the water with a indicated by F'ig. 226. The oil permeability line of
nonwetting fluid such 88 air l'oO that the saturation is Fig. 226 appears on Fig. 228 as the lin" gepa.ra.tWg
about 80 per cent. In the "unsteady state" repre- area 2 from area L
senting the change from 100 per cent saturation to The significance of the following definit.ions is
80 per cent saturation, the air flows through the also iIlustratA!Jrl on Fig. 228 for the specific case of
larger interstioos, displacing the water as is repre- 00 per cent saturation.
eented witb tube 2 of Fig. 227b. When equilibrium
is reached, with both fluids being supplied tAl main Saturation, S
Lain a saturation of 80 per cent, the air will be
flowing in the Iaeger capillaries 88 represented by Volume of voids filled with wetting fluid
tube 1. The water flows by two systems.. A por- Total volume of voids
tion Rows in the annular space a.s shown for tube 1.
At this high saturation many of the small capillaries Residual saturation, 8r
still are completely flooded nod conduct flow in the
Maximum volume of wetting flUidl
same manner a8 if the bed were completely saturated.
However, a portion of the short capillaries is ex- I eliminated from flow
- -----=~'7':i=_=~-~
posed to the air stream at one or both ends, produc- Total volume of voids
ing surface forces wbich prevent flow 88 repre-
8Cflted with tubes 3 and 4.. Thus, water flow de- Fixed saturatton eliminated from flow, Sf
creases for two reasons: (I) in the large interstices
Volume of wetting fluid held stationary l
the air replaces the water, and (2) a portion of the
smaller intersticeS drops out ot flow. l by capillary fofQC8
---~~~~~~---
With progressively lower 8&.turations, this phenom- Tota! volume of voids
enon continues with additional interstices opened to
the flow of air and addit.ional interstices eliminated
-
1-8) (,)
(1-8. (176)
from flow by capillary forces until the IiquKi ceases
RESID UA.L SATURATION
system with reglLrd to the relative volume of ea.cb the cos 6 was taken IL$ unity). Data for low values
Auid flowing and is the rel'm used in flow relation- of residual saturation are for packed towers, whereas
shipe. data on high residual saturation are primarily from
Consolidated
Ib!schig rings
Bet1 saddles
Glass TiniS
,.0
lead $hot
Spheres
BeI1 $lIddles
.. Ru<:hig rinas
0',,,,,,
o So'"
o SoIl
1.,
1.0
0.0001 o.otlO3 o.ooos 0.001 0,()02 o.oos 0,(" 02 0.3 o.s
P/IrtiCIe Size, D,. fl
FlO. 23). Expopent!l to the efl'ect.ive SAturation S. in eq\ULUoIl3 181 to 187 M II. function of pIIortiele!lise D,.
The wetting fluid on the surfaces of the solid changes For example, in Fig. 226 at 100 per ceDt satura.-
the shape (sphericity) of the particles exposed to the tion (8 _ 1.0), the equivalent porosity for the' non-
non wetting fluid and also occupies selectively the wetting Bum is zero. At the residual saturation
sinall pores and capillaries, leaving only the larger (about 18 per cent) , the equivalent poroeity for the
pores open to the nonwetting fluid. The correlation nonwetting fluid is the total porosity X aB follows
for flow of IL single fluid (Fig. 221) is based upon the from equation 184.
total porcaity of the 80lid phase including all voids,
no matter how small. 1 - 0.18)
X' - X ( -X
]n order to use the correlation of I<igs. 221 and 1 - 0.18
225, the porOBity must be expree&ed in term! of a
porOBity of the same quality as that of the dry At a saturation of 90 per cent the equivalent poros-
medium. The wetted poroeity is of a far more effec- ity is 0.122 times the porosity X lUI follows from
tive quality than the porosity of the dry medium equation 184.
because the liquid hal! selectively filled the smaller,
less permeable voids. In order to make this adjust-
ment the wetted porosity m\lijt be increased before
X' _ X (1.0 - 0.90) _X (0.10) _ O.I22X
use in Figs. 221 or 225. The equivalent porosity X' 1.0 - 0.18 0.82
for U$E! in Fig. 225 is obtained by adding the voids
eliminated from How S,X to the wetted porosity X.". Sphericity of the particles to the nonwettin, fluid
or
is altered by the presence the film c4. wettira Ouid,
,-"
~~ \.
.~
.~
-
.-
A"~
'\ ""
O.
"-
. / .....
.-' .
k:.~ ..!:
0 :.-
.-
7
--
7
.-' /'
9.pC'f'I"4 (11
..~
./
O' ~ V~ \t>.
e.;...
iP'
OA
V-
Q3
o I 02 0.3 0.4 0.5
Effective s.tumIon. S.
0.6 0.7 ... 0.'
FIo. 231. Wetted 8pbericity as a runc1.iOD d effective .tmatioD.
Figure 231 l5bows the wetted sphericity 40' calcu- For noncompressible and nonwetting fluids, equa-
lated from experimental data. as a flWction of the tion 188 becomes
+ AZ G')
effective saturation. For the larger particles the
P, - P,
wet~ sphericity i:J reduced with increasing satura-
p
- oi'LI"'F/
2g.D p
6(oi')
- + -
'}.g.
(189)
tion to a greater extent than for smaller particles.
In general the llu'pr particie8 have a lower value of When applying the flow equat.iona t:> differen~
the wetted sphericity V for the IllUDe shape and streams in the same operation as in this chapter, 1M
.turation. sulncript (1) rejer' to the point up.tTeam and 1M aub-
Each fluid flows according to its indiTidual prop- BCTipl (!) to 1M point dotorutream; therefore. in
erties and tJle foroee acling upon it. The total cotl7Ikr~ jlOfD, point (1) fur the wetting fluid i&
driving force available to overcome friction may be 1101 point (1) Jor the nonwetting fluid .
different for the two 8uids even for the same preMUl'e Different methods ma.y be used for the simulta.-
neoua solution of the two equations, 187 and 188 or
FLOW OF NON WETTING FLUID 227
189. to calculate the pressure drop and the velocities Since (S.l.lO) OCCUtll to the nt>gati ve fitllt power in He" and
of each BuKi. Bowing through the porous medium. to the positive iItOOnd power in f', the corrtIlp(lndint: VIlIu",
Re" ..nd f' will be found on .. line wi lh tbu l!Iope or nega-
The correct solution is obtained when each Buid or tive 2. By elimin.. ting S.I. ... log!" .. _2 log Re" + con-
satisfies its respective flow equation for the operat-
"""L
wg conditions. For a given solid bed and two ftuids Af!l!Uming a vallJe of 1.0 for S. I.... t he OOrTtIIpondilll! value
r
of known properties there are four variables: the rOf" Ren is 11,400. ..nd fnr is 0.695. Tben..foro the correct
velocity of the wetting Buid , the velocity of the non- IJOlut.ioo ill round at the i n te~tion of the tul"Vfl on Fill:. 225
wetting ftuid, the effeetive saturation at steady ...;th the st.raight line dr .....n t hrough t he point, Re" .. 11,400,
t' .. O.~, with .. slope of oep.tive 2. This inl.el"l!leCtion is
state conditions, and the pressure drop across the at. He" .. 68,000.
system. Of these lour variables any two may be TberefOl"l'!
arbitrarily fixed and the other two determined by S _11.400
_ _ _ 0.168
trial-and-error calculations. 68.000
For the C&Se in which the velocities of the wetting S .. 0.338
stream and the nOD wetting stream are both fixed, it
is necessary to compute the effective saturation From equation 179, !JOina: (p' + !!PIL) for tb~ pre!IIIIlnI
whict-. gives the same pressure for the two fluids at , gradient l1li explained on p. 224,
a. selected point in the system such as at the bottom
or top of a packed tower, or inlet or outlet of a
s __,_ ( (0.0417)'(39)(62.01 - 4) 0.0276 )-O.Ifl ..
T 86.3 {32)(72.8)(6.85 X 10 ')(660)(1)
porous bed.
If the pressure drop is fixed and t.he velocity of From equation 177, using S .. 0.338, S .. 0.0276, Sis fOlllld
be 0.351, and 13, ... 0.0188.
one of the fluids is to be caieulated, the procedure is to The
holdup ellp~ III! eub ie feet of liquid per eubie
mdre direct. Such a calculation is demonst.rated in root or void.!. .. 8 - 8, ... 0.351 - 0.0188 ... 0.332. ElI-
the following example problem. prt'l!!!f!d .&I> poundB per .cubic (oo~ of p'-cL:inlil. (S - S,)pX
.. (0.332)(62.4)(0. 75) .. 15.5 Ib of w.. ter per cubic (oot of
lIIu.nati..., E,..mpk. Pr-ediet the air fio'I!" aDd Iiqwd packiq. An experimental run under l heee coDditiorul indio
holdup throu&h .. ; -...eked bed of O.600-in. Herl aaddles. cated .. hOldup of 13.3 lb/ eu ft or packing.
~ gradjeo\( -bP'/L} .. 4.0 psf/ ft of heigb~
Since
Solving ror f" logr" .. -21", Re'" + Conat.a.nt
I" .. 2(32.2)(0.0417)(S.)t(I")(6U - 4.0) .. O.~S )1.1
16(110 )' ,be eolution ia obtaiM/d .&II the Inte1"8eCtiu n of t~ lItn.it;ht line
( 62.4(3600) (62.4)(600) Jllll!8inK through Re'" .. 14,000. 1m .. 0.00396, with &lope of
From equation 18 \
negative 2 with the curve on Fie- m. This intetlleCtioo ..
at Re'" .. 4350.
(0 .0417) (82.4)39 Tbererore,- _ .. 43-50/ 14,000 .. ().3t (PI-
roe" _ _D_",:_. ~
_or _~_ --~;ilr.;~i%1~r.- 11.400 Experimen\al relUlte under the _ oonditiom. CaYe ..
I. - s.1-D
docity of 0.29 rl&
228 FWW O}' FLUIDS THROUGH POROUS MEDIA 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY ~nt. 1be Sflnd galu IlI1': 'II'eO rounded and have a sphericity
of 0.85.
J. Bo&L're1l, L . M. K., and R.. II. KPsR, "Pr-..re Drop
At companring Two-Componen~ F10w through Pipe!l," "leIIh :w 35 48 65 100 150 2(lO Pan
1M. E,,~. eMm., 31, 426 (1939). MAlIS %
2. ~Jo;T, H . G., "Flow of Gas-Liquid Mi~to.)R~ lhro'ligh Retained 0.92 0 . 70 1.80 13.90 57.00 18.68 IUO l.0
Consolidated Sand," TI"(l1I!. A.m. IMl.. Jl illillg Md.
ElIgr. , 138, 91 (l940). Crude oil IIIoturated "'ith natural gas enters the tube.
3. BKOYlS(;Ll., L. E., IUld D. L. KATZ, "FIn,," nf Fluids Pl"ell$ure taps are located at 5-ft interval!. In ono te~t the
through P()I"OlUI ML..J.ia-Part IT," OMm. Rna. P,O')rc33, pre88UfC readings on two successivc tapti am 423 IOnd 401 pIIig.
n, 601 (1947). The liquid oil ratc OOtw.'Cn tll<-_ tapti is 1.7 lb/ hr. Tho oil
4. EL(lu", J. C., and B. W. JE~S(;R, "Studies of Liquid dcnsity is 0 .78 gnun / ml, iu. viSCOJllity is 2.2 eentipoi-. a.nd
Holdup in Pacrud TO.... er&," Trail, . Am. [1181. O~ e lJl. its surlAOlj wns on i~ 2() dYne!l/ cm at the flowing temperature
A'n,,,., n , m (1M3). _ of 96 F. The natural gas has a specific pavi~y of 0.71
So E Ulll'!, J. C., and F. B. WEISS, " J..iquid Holdup allfl air ... 1) and a viseoeil y of 1!.012 centipoillC.
Flooding in Paeked Towera-Part I," I nd. eng. CM m., Comf'\lte Lhe average rate of gu Sow ool"'een the 1"'0
31, 435 (1939). pre8IlI.Il"e tape ill 8tandard culoic foot pcr hour and the aatun.-
6. L&VR!:TT, M . C., " lItow <If Oil-Waler ~r;ll"tures through lion of the pol'Ol1ll bOO "-ith oil in this pipe .etlion.
UnconlOlidated Sands," TraM. A.m. Inllt. ).IiM"fI Md..
4. An absorber In a brimstone contact plant fOf sulfurie
Engr3., 1n. 149 (l93!l); ibid., 16, 152 ( 1941 ).
acid is paok<,d whh quutz pebbles to a depth of 20 ft. The
7. MARTlSELLl, R. C., L. M. K. BoELTER, T. H. "I. TATJ.OR,
pebble!! are CiI8tlntillUy 3pherical in shape a nd havu un avcr
E. F. Tno)tlll!N, lind E. H. MOflllllf, " I!lOloormal Pressure
age dillJILu Ll.!r uf 7S in. The packed quart' hall &n average
Drop for T.wo-Phase Twp-Componcnt }'low in a Hori-
porllllity <>f 0.3M. Caloulate the p!"C8SUle drop and the liquid
lonlal Pipe," Trani. Am. Soc. Md. E-II{JI"" &8, 139
holdup IlfI pounds of liquor per cubic foot of p&cked absorber
(HK4) .
for &n averap pili velocity of 160 !tandllTd cu {tl "! ft/ min
8. MAIITINU,I, R. C., J. A. PuTN.6JI.. and R. W. LocIU.HT,
and an average liquor rate 01480 Ib/ hr/ sq ft of total CI"Oe&-
"Tw~Phalle, Two- Component now in tbe vi8..oua
sectional area in the Ilh8orber. Tbe eoterine acid is !)8 per
nqion, Tronl . A .... 11U1.. CoVill.E.,., U. 681 (1946). cent 8Ulfuri.:. acid, and the product is 99 per cent sulfuric acid.
9. PrRlIT, E. L., C. A.. M ANN, and T. WAL .... Ja., " Pft'I!IiIlJe
A~ abeorber temperature is 150 F. The pa to 1he
Drop and Liquid Holdup in Packed Tower," Ind. SAg
abeorl.lo:!r averages 8 per ocnt sulfur trioxide. The g:aa hall
CM ...., n, Rfil (1040).
an average vW:o.ity of 0.020 ocntipoiae and tb~ fldd a 8Il.rfaoe
10. SCltOll:lflJOR.S, E . M., and W. J . DoU(loIu:a'TY, "PreIlSUre
tension o0.OO5Ibs force per foot and a demit y of 1121bs/ cu ft.
Drop and FJood.ing Velooity in Packed Tower 'IIjlh
Vieoou.s Liquids," TraM. A .... In. Cke .... Ertgrl ., 60, 5. (a) Compu!oe the How of meth.we upwa.rd through a
51 (1044). column of sand 4 in. by 4 in. !!Quare and 42 in. tal! with a
11. VAN .WINOE"'. N., "Influence of Oil Flow on Water pressure drop from 60 psia at the bottom t.O 51 paia at the
Oontent of &nd~," Oil W ed:llI (Oet. 10, 1038): per80Ual top. 0.2 gal of gM80line (.56" API, vi3008ity of 0.56 centipoise,
letter (Aug. 10, 1945). and eUriace telll:lion of 23 dyDCB per centimete r) ate entering
12. WYt""JI:orr, R. D., and H. G. BoTsn, "The ~low of Oae- the bottom of the column per hour. 10w i. at SO F. The
Liquid Mi.r.tureB through. Uni::oMolhUted Sande," PArna, bed htu! a porosity of Hi-3 per <':eDt. The Mod is com~
T, 325 (I!136). 01 weU-rou~ ~ 9i.the following ecreen analysis:
3. A horisont.1 tube of 2-4n. inlli<le; diameter ill packed rith (b) Compule the peml!ntae saturation of the !JfJ)(\ bed
-.ud of the followin, IICrecn analysis 1.0 a poroeity of 34.3 per under coodit.iOM of fLow.
CHAPTER
18
Filtratwn
ILTRATION is the operation in which a enable backwashing of the Mad bOO to remove
230 FILT RA110N
the fluid fil~ the bed and no solids have been de- The sphericity is eIItimat.ed {rom Fig. 223 as 0.75. From
posited on top of the bcd. When the bed is just 219 Rnd 220, PRe _ 48 Ilnd P, _ 1200. Solving ..,qU&-
}-igll.
filled (ftoodl'li) and the height of the sand hed tion 170 for the superficill! veloci ty of the water ( ba.!OO on
empty eru. 8e(:tiQn),
equals the height of the water column, -AZj !,
becomes unity.
The calculation of fil ter capacity from equation
170 gives the init ial capacity when clean. Cont inu-
.-"''''''''''' '
~pptwlt;,
3'lI'I'JL
'W~ \!
O.rcurr- ~
"
.s.... ~,:-'
,
++-- .-++
ffilma Wash plate
FU). 234. Plates and frame of an oPen-deli very fil t.f!r press..
,...
o o
ffllme
FlG. 235. P!&teI!I and fmme for d Ofled..lcl ivery waahing ph.t. ,.nrl-frwnc filter press.
Bag or ""hat" filters .consist of cloth bags of felt as a unit by mechanical force applied by f' acnl~ "fjlr
or flannel with the mixture entering the inside as in hydra ulically, as indicated in Fig. 236.
a dOlDeltic vacuum cleaner. The capacity of such There are many different types of nit ,t presses
filters is low. employing plates and frames. The simplest has a
In most industrial operations, the fluid to be single conduit for introducing the slurry and t be
filte~carries a high concentration of solids which wash and a single opening in each plate for removal
bWld up a cake of increa.sing thickness S8 the opera- of the liquid (open delivery), illustratOO in !'IeCtion
tion proceeds. Such conditions require other types in Fi~. 234 and 237. OLbers have separate conduits
of filters, 'particularly when~ th{\ solids 'are to be re- for introducing .~he slurry and wash water. Some
covered. Many varieties of' filterS are used indus- also have separate conduits for removing filtrate
ub.J1y. ' Some filters operate ' bateh\\;sc, whereas and wash water (cloSed delivery), as illustrated in
others operate , continuously; some f.lters require Figs. 235 and 236. The conduits may be a.t the
pressure on the Blurry entering the press with the comers, at the center, or at intermediate locations.
filtrate leaving at atmospheric or higher prCl!.8ure, The fced slurry enters through the conduit forme.:l.
whereas others allow the s1urry to enter under at- by t he holes in the upper right corner of both the
mospheric pressUre and require a vacuum on the plates. and
fr&me8 (Fig. 235). Each frame carries
filtrate. an inlet or hole leading from this conduit through
which the slurry enteN! the space bet.ween the plates.
Pressure on the' slurry fed to the pross causes the
PLATE-AND-FRA;\IE FILTERS
filtr&te to pass through the cloths 0 11 eitber side of
The plates and frames of an open-delivery filter the plates and run through the space between the
press are shown in Fi""g. 234: The plates and frames clot.h and the plate ~toward the outlet which may be
are assembled alternately with filter cloths over each either a spigot, as sbbwn in Figs. 234, 237, and 238,
side of each pl&te. The assembly is held together or a second channel' (ormed by holes drilled thl~llgl1
FILTRATION
Flo. 236. Seetiooal drawing of fully &lgembled comer-feed c.d-delivery filter pmlll. (T. ShrifJn lind Co.)
another corncr of the plates and frames .....ith outlet!; a small part of the space between tho plates is
provided from the plates but. not the frames (Fig. available for the slurry, and the feed is shut off. If
236). Whether the outlet is through a conduit the cake is to be washed, dear washing flu id is then
(Fig. 236) or through a cock or spigot (Figs. 237 and passed into the slurry or mlxture inlet (Fig. 236 or
238), the plate is 80 drilled or constructed that the 237) behind the slurry, enters the ctlke more or less
filtrate enters the outlet from both sides of the plate. from the center of the frame, and passes toward the
The solids in the slurry accumulate on the cloths
on opposite Rides of the plates. After due time only
plates on either Bide. After the cake has been small in quantity. However, continuous fi lters are
wMhed, this flow is stopped, t.he force holding the supplanting plate-andframe presses for many large-
plates together is released, the plates and frames scale operations.
are opened in sequence, and the cake is removed or
dumped into a pit bela", the press. After dumping BATCH LEAF FILTERS
is completed, the press is again closed by applying
the mechanical force to lock the plates and frames Leaf filters are similar to the plateandfram.)
together, and a new cycle of filtration begins. filters in that a cake is deposited on each side of the
By providing both the lower outlet through the ielrl (Fig. 2394) and the fi ltrate flows to the outlet in
cocks 'and s. separate channel at another corner of
the plate, the wash may be taken out separate from
the filtrate.
When the wash Rowing through the cake follows
the same path as the filtrate, the pr00e88 is called
"simple washing." The expression ':through wash~
ing" or "every-other-plate washing" is applied to
the system illustrated in Fig. 238. This requires
the use of two diffp,rent types of plates. The non~
washing plate (one-button) and the wash plate
(three-button) are loaded in the prese between the
frames (twc>but ton), as indicated in Fig. 238. In
this process the feed enters the frame as before
(upper right comer of frame in Fig. 234) but the
wash enters every other plate (the upper left eoo~
duit of the three-button wash plaJ.c, Fig. 234) and
pas!IC8 through the t wo cakes in the frames on either
side of this plate, leaving through the cock on the
nOn\\'a.sh or oncbutton plat.e. This method re-
quires that the spigots be closed on those plates
(three-button) into which the wash elltcrs.
All these types of plates can be dcsigned to
opera.te on clOOled delivery by providing a third (0'
conduit formed. by the holes in the lower right Fm. 239. (II ) Seetiolllli view or II lilter leo! sho..-illg CO r\8true
corner of the plates and frames. By providing four lion a nd .pproximate locatjon of o:ak ~; (II) eutll ....y ... ~ion
conduits (Fig. 235) it is possible to operete with a oflcaf Bhowillg detai4 of roMI.ruetion. (O/im" Unill PiU(T!.)
d.od ddilltTll with separate out~1.II for filtraW ana
wash, as indicated in Fig. 236. The feed slurry the channels provided by the coarse drainage screen
erateNi each frame through the upper right conduit (Fig. 239b) in the If!af between the cakes. The
(there being no opening from this conduit to any of leaves are immersed in the slurry. The types of
t.he plates). The filtrate leaves each plate through leaf filters shown in Figs. 240, 241, 242, and 243
the lower left conduit until the frames are filled operate batehwise.
with cake. The wash enters through the upper left Figure 240 represents a stationary lea.f filter
conduit into every other plate and passes through (Sweetland type), and Fig. 24 1 represents a rotating
the double cake within the frames on'either eide of leaf fi lter (Vallez type) . The rotating leaf Jilter
this plate and out through the lower right conduit gives a more unuonn cake. The incorporation of
on the alternate (one-button) plate. During wash~ the screw conveyor pennits mechlUlical discharge
ing the valves on the filtrate outlet and inlet are of the cake without opening the case.
closed. During filtering the va1ves on t.he wash Figure 24.2 shows a Kelly filter in tbe open posi~
inlel, and outlet are closed. tion. In operation, the filter is closed and the inlet
Plateandframe presses are widely used, partic- valve is opened, allowing the slurry to enter the
ularly when the cake is va1uable and relatively shell with the a.ir being displaced throllgh the vent
1kl.24O. A S~t1a nd pressure lelll' filter in o~n pMition. (VIi.",. J "iWl F:lltr. )
---
FlLTItAn:
OI1l1.iT
""
BATCH LEAF FILTERS .. 5
FlO. 242. Kelly lee.! pressure filter in open poI!iti(,n. (OliveT Unum FiUer3.)
pipe at the top rea r of the shell (Fig. 242). This channel, or frequently a wfiter spray, is used to help
vent may be clo;;ed or left open after the sllf~ll is remove the cake from the leaves.
filled. If the valve is left open, it ads as a limited Leaf filters may he very la.rge. The leavca shown
overflow valve, returning tJlC excess feed to the in Fig. 243 ~uspended 011 a erane al"'f, being tran&-
feed tank. This m ay be advisable as it provides ferred to a pit containing Lhe slurry for the recovery
better circulation between the fil ter lca.velol nlld tends of magnesium 'hYdroxide in the process of manuiac-
to keep heavy particles from settling. The cake turing magnesium. from sea water. After Ule cake
lJui ld~ up 00 both !;ides of the leaf, as indicated in has l)(len built up to t he dOOred thieknellS, thc crune
Fig. 239, and filtration is continued until the de- lifts the leaves and cake out of the pit containing
sired thickneS!! of cake is formed or until the fi ltra- the urry and immerses the leaves in 8. second pit
tion raUl drOpti off sharply. The fced is Ulen shut containing the wash solution. A vacuum i held Oil
off, the drain valve is openoo, and the eXt'C!;8 :;lurry t.he filtrate or wash side during filtration, tran~fer,
is removed. Low-pressure air is introduced into and washing. After the rake has been adequately
the tMk to aid in removing the excess solution. The washed. it ir:; similMly transported to a third pit for
prei!Suro diffl"rential also helps to hold the cake dumping bcforu the clean leaves are returned to the
agaillf'it the filter cloth. After it is emptied, the EUUI7Y pit for filtration.
shell may be fi lled witb wash if desired or blown
with air to d ry the eake prior to discharge. The
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM t'iL'I'ERS
flXC<'S8 wa..'!h fluid if:; drained off at the end or the
washing pericd in the same WAy ~ the e..xeess slurry, Rota ry vacuum filters (Fig. 244) arc ulK'd where a
and the cake ' is then blown wi'l1 air. The 1>hell is continuous operation is desirahle, Jlarlit~\1larly for
t.hen opened, as indicated in Fig. 2-12, and the cake brge-S<.:ule upf'ratioM. l'~igure 245 j~ "' diagrammatic
is dumped. Air pressure int.roduccd into the fi ltrate cross section of t.he filt-er shown in Fig. 244. The
236 FlLmATION
Flo. 243. Large bat ch leaf filter preS!! used in producing mag!rel!ium from eea w!\t.er, showing ieaVll>l su~r<"vi<)(1 Ly crane during
traMfer ir(lln filtering point t.o washing "oint. (Dol/.' CAm.iwl Co.)
filter drum is immersed in the slurry. Vacuum ap- ing from air blow, a nd Ba indicates lhe bridge sep-
plied to tho filter medium causes tho ca1<e to depooit arating air blow "from filtering. Air ii; Admit.ted
on the outer surface of thc drum as it passes through through the line Va to assist in removing the cake.
the slurry. This part. of the cycle is indicated in Tn the operation as indicated in Fig. 2-45, the pipe
Fig. 245 as "cake forming." The d rum is divided from segment 1 hlti:! jUl!t passed bridge Bill and the
into segments, each of which is connected to the drum section 1 is completely submerged in the
rotating valve tbrougll which the vacuum is ap- slurry. The vacuum (2 to 2(j in. of mercury) causes
plied, and the filtratR., wash, and uir are removed. a thi'n cake to build up on the out..side of the cloth,
These segments are normally about 1 ft in width and the filtrate po.sses through the piping V I to the
,and in length exwnd aeross the entire width of the main, filtrate outlet on the valve body.
filter drum. As the drum rotates in a clockwise manner, the
The poI>ition of the twelve scgmcnt.a shm"'n in cake becomes progressively thicker, with filtrate
Fig. 245 is such that segments 1,2,3, 4, and 5 are still passing out through the main fi ltrate out.let
eor.nccWd to the main filtrate outlot through the un til station (l is reached. At th is position t he cake
rotatillg vslve and the line VI' HI indicates the is fully (armed, and the connecting plpe has j ust
poBition of 8. bridge or blocking shoe whieh sep- pMSCd bridge 8.. The fi ltralR. will nolV pass into
arates the fi ltrate from the wash. Segments 6, 7, the wW!h connection and out through the wash out-
8, 9, to, and 11 arc connected through the rotating let of the valve body V 2. Tile cake is then washed
valve tQ the wash wat.cr and air outlet V 2 Bl! by a scriC18 of nozzles as shown mounted. on pipes
"indicates the posit.ion of the bridge !;Cparating wash- called "wash headers." Aftcr being washed, the
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS 231
be spr:lycd with wash water, after which a second d ivision plates in the tank, two or more products
dll.,"atering mmally occurs. Finally, tllP cakf' is re- IDay be fi ltered 8imul tn ncou~ly and !!Cparateiy ~n
m6vrd by thp. SCnll)().r which may be assisted by a the same filter, provided the flllrutcs may be mixed.
Klight air revers.'\l t hrough lhe filler valve. If the fil trates must be kept sepamte, ollly two dif-
The filtratp and air P&8>J into lhe segment.'>, then ferent products can he handlro, as only two valves
through the ports, and thrrlUgh the di~harg*" head (one on each end of the trunnion) can be used.
into a receiver, where the nir is rt!movcd by meaIlS Sizes range from about 22 to 2800 sq ft of filter
of fl vacuum pump anti the li4Uid by a fi lL rate area..
pump. Tho dc\\'oterOO cake may be discharged to
a cunveyor or to a repu1rXlr for rcpuiping wit.h wat.er
or wenk liq uor.
Continuous rotllry l il ter~ of this general type
pru"ide high filtering rates and excellent. washing
am.I are available in a wide range of sizes, from about
:3 to 800 sq ft of fi lter area.
Tu diak-lypc filler (Fig. 247) operates un the
same principle hut, has its filter aI'f'.a arrungoo in
disks rather t han on tile circumferen<:e of a drum.
Inwvidu.a.l sectors of the disks may be changed
independentJy and while other SCCl.Ors continuc in
operat ion. By separating the slurry compart mcnts
for the different d isks, as by placing one or more FtG.2"7. Rotll l)'-di1.k filter. (OIilfltT Un:ttd fiUn, .)
CONTINUOUS ROTARY VACUUM FILTERS
The intenlGl rofaf'7/"drum ' filter is of _il revolving
drum type but filters 00 the inside of the periphery,
ILS indicated in the diagram of Fig. 248. BecaUBe of
too relatively short are of travel between the cake
forming, wasbip.g and discbarge zoc..:;, this type of
filter is not 8&ti:factory for sJow-filtering s1urM or
w.:.:e a thoroughly washed cake is required. It iSr
however, an ideal filter for rapid-settling slurries
Which do not require e. high degree of washing. 'The
diffiCulty of keeping such slumes in SUSpe'lHiOll
maus ~ rotary drum vacuwn filter leSs! satisfa<i-
tory for such ma.terl&J. If the sluiry hILS particleS
of different sizes the cake 'formed I in this filter is
properly stra.tified with 'the large Particles adjacent
to the filfur medium.
The tfJp-fw1, filter, illustrated di~tically in
Fig. 249, is equipped for the use of h~ted liJ.ir for
,
drying the solids. The food is pumped into ,the hop-
per wherein suspe!!-d,ed . ~Jids. tend to setUe to the
bottom while exeees liquor overflows and may be
returned to the prooess. 'l:he slurry or {pulp is
ca.rried through nozzles by injecting filtrate. The
slurry strikes the spreader apron and flows over
feed d&ms. The baffle spreads the slurry on the
surface of the drum, followed hy fOrm&tion of the
cake and primary dewatering. 'Ibe-::CU:e is then '" /
wlUIbed by water fl'Qllt the wash spray Iloules. Fill: 249. Diagramma.tie It'd.ion of a top-reed lIt.er. (8.-- .
,. .. _ &u~ Co.)
-r--,
,.
---"-~.
. .- .jI-r.... '
This is foUowed by a second dewatering w~ilh re-
, moves the ma.jor part of the liquor berore ffie cake
e!1ters the drying section. Heated. air is blown
thmugb the air duel( iiito the hOod 8urrOW!dlng the
drum at 8. positive pfessure preventing the ~_
. age of !'lold air, then through the cake and oUt the
port.'!. Drying is followed py rem~val of the ~uter
\ crust oC/ the cake by the intennediaCe IIClT&per. 'The
f ~
thinner, partly dried cake continues iF,ugh . the
final part of the drying cycle and is completely re-
moved by the final scraper. Spray from cleaning
spray nozzles cleans the filter mediwn, and the cycle
is repeated. The dry product drops Ul the bottom,
is picked up by the IIClrew con~eyor, and discharged
onto a belt conveyor. I'i-..
,
Top-feed fiIteno are well adapted for handling
,
of
aolids 'rhich settle readily and filter quicld;r~ They
baw.,t.bJ advantage of producing a dry oproduct.
~y.:: are not so 8ex:ible not-SO-simple to operate as
Flo. 248. Diagramma,ie,crou llect.ion Qr an intemal ooatm- a rotary drum filter. A oompkte inBt.allatioo is
00. . rOtary-drum neuW1l filter. (Oli....,. u"iil '''lim.) indicated in Fig. 250.
FILTRATJON
For slurries containing a small quant.ity of fin~ly any filter cake. The slurry pf diatol118Ce9US earth
divided mawrial, it is desirable to have the C08J'Ser is then removed from the pan, ar,d the liquor to M
materialJ:l. dCp!',sited adjacent to the filter medium, clarified is admitted. Operation of the filter then
with the finer material OIl the outside of the cake. causes a cake to huild up on the underlying precoat.
Sedimentation in the slurry bed at the top of the In tbis way extremely tilin cakes may be built up
filwr rntly be used for this purpoee in the top- and removed, t.hcreby mAintaining a high rate of
feed filter and also in the internal rotary drum filtratiOn . In order to insure complete. removal of
filter. -. the thin cake, the .scraper or knife is adjusted to ad
Precool filleT' in which the ordinary filter medium vance slowly into the ca.k~ or precoot witb each r0-
is coated with a porous cake to a thickness of 172 to tation of the filter drum, In this way the p~~t
2 in. have been developed for the Clarification of filter
_.J medium is finally removed ... after a period Of
liquors containing slimy material or fin"!!ly divided hours or days, depending upon the rate of advance
aolids which are difficult to IiIter. The operation of the scraper. The liquor is then' removed from the
coruistB in building up a porous cake of material p~ , and the precoat is again built up from a ~iurry
such lL!l diatomaceous earth to the d"C!s.ircd thickness of t~..e precoat material Usually 2 to 3 11r is suffi
in the same maimer as would be uSoa f~r building up cient allowance for forming the prec6at:
. ",..,. \."
. '.'" ~ ,', .
i,
OPERATION on
The action of the knife on the cake ill indicated in ma.y be incorporated to a certain percentage with
Fig. 251. the material of the sludge before it enters the filter
Rotary filten; are used for a wide variety of serv PfC!58. These filter aids are usually diatomaceoug
ices. Cakes composed of relatively large crystals carth or kieselguhr, which consists of the siliceous
may be built \lP to a thickness of about 4. in. Such skeletons of very small marine organisms, dia.toms,
cakes normally admit relatively la rge quantities of that were deposited on prehistoric shore lines. They
air and require a relatively coarse fi lter medium. In consist of practically pure silica W""Id are very com
the filtration of finely divided substances such as plex in their structure, offering large surfaces for the
precipitated calcium carbonate, relatively thin cakes adsorption of colloids.
are deposited and the air fl owing through the cake
is usulllly negligible in quantity. This means that
OPERATION
it is practica lly impoBSible to dry these Cll.kes on the
The simplest method of opera ting a filter pres. or
a leaf fiJJ.er is to apply the fuJI pressure at the s tart
of the filtration and maintain the pressure constant
throughout the run. If the initial pressure is high,
the first particles caught in the cloth may be com-
pacted into a. tight mass of low permeability which
results in a low rate of filtration throughout the rest
of the cycle. If the sludge is not homogeneous and
contains both crystalline and colloidal particles, the
colloidal portion may be forced into the voids be-
tween the crystalline solids, greatJy decreasing the
rate of filtration.
on t he other hand, a low init.ial pressure drop may
mean that the first filtrate will not be clear as the
c~ke is formed with a more open structure. How-
--
dV
at
A 2 (_ aP.)
2C,V
(I91a)
tained and when assumption of uniform oonditJona
of cake, fil tt'fLte, and Blurry can be made, the values
of Cy or CL may be computed' from the available
Noncomp,euiple Cakes operating data. and used to estimate other operating
conditioIU!.
If the cake porosity remains essentially. constant
during fi ltration (IUJ is true with a 8O-<:slled "non- IUWltratlyCi E",ample. A homogellOOWl lIudp lormina ..
compressible cake" and may also octur for constant- uniform oonoompr!'llleible ca.b is filtered throup .. batoh leaf
pressure drop filtration in general) Cv may be coo- filter at .. ~tant diflenme"., in ple!lB\lre 01 40 P'i tonniq ..
sKicred as a constant, Illld 'equation 1910 is easily ~.ju. cake ill I hr with .. filtn.te. volume 0( 1.500 pl. Three
integrated. For constant-pressure drop (and coo- mWutee ate required \0 drain liquor from the liI.c.er. Two
m.ioutM U'& requinld r.o .6.U the fil\..r witb ."at.er. Wuhiaa
stant porosity) t.h.ia integrates to prooee<k exaetJ,y lie 61tratioo, u.iua; 300 pl. ~ dump-
Cv 112 iD, aDd cloeiDl take 6 min.' Aaatme \be filtrate to have \.be
(193) same ~ ... "ash water, r.nd uepect t be 1WIiat..-
This 6na.l ra.te of 12.5 Kpm equals the I'M.: of wuhing, mDee The expression Kp, ( l - X) represents the fipecific
the ' filtratij hu the Il8.me properties lUll ;1V~h and the prollllure conduct.ance of the filter cake and usually ill con~
is cOlU!tant. stant during filtration except for changes in porosity
T ime for washin 300 _ 24 miD of the clI.ke, IT the specific resistance, defined as
.-
12.~
Total cycle: 1
Filtering 60 min .,,~~~~ (201 )
Dni. 3 K p,(l - X)
FiU
Wuh ,.2
is substituted in equation 200,
Drain
Dump ,
3 dV
_3
A 2 (_.d.P<)
(202)
Fill 2 dt Varpl'
dV .A 2( -lJ.P) A 2( - tJ.P)
(204)
d, arp,u(V + V.) 2Cy(V + V.)
For cOll8tant-pressure filtration , equation 204 ma.y
be -integrated (\\-ith - !J.P COlIlItant and V. cOll8tant)
to give
(205)
Compres8ible Ca kes
In actual fil tr. ltions the combined resistances
Volume repre;ented by Cv are ~Idom independent of the
pressure drop ( - 6P), even when Cy is a constant
Fig. 253. Rec!pror~\l n,t':II dt jdV for m<WItant-rate "nd con-
sjant_pn.""'IIre filtnniun. independent of the thicknf!!'l..'1 of the cake 'or of fil
trate volume, a8 indicated by tbe straight lines of
rotary vacuum fi lter in the sense that the pressure Figs. 252 and 2S.'3. In othnr words, practically all
gage reads a l:onstofll value. liut actual ly the cakes are compressible to some degree Ilt leatrt-.
IlrcllSUre drop acrORS the fi lter medi um and cake is Lu~ d rops iii pressure tend to force the solids
zero while ':w !jI~gment is submerged until the valve further into the interstices in the fi ltering medium,
opens the port to the vucuum and the segment is thereby increasing the resistances IUId the values of
eV8(:uuted. The portion . of the cuke deposition C y and V .
period dllrin'!!; ~Wllich the prr.s.~ure varie.~ as described If Cy increases with the pres..mrn drop (- ilP),
differs with the dellign of thc filter lind oI*-rating there may be a. definite value for the pressure drop
conditions, bllt it usually varies from tiliout 3 per which gives a maximum rale of filtration. This
cent of the total ca.kf' dcpOl!ition period for slow- may be dete~m ined by ru nning a number of t-'O nsl.ant--
fi ltcring shU'fic~ of fine partides to a lmost 20 per preSsure filtratioll ~ and plotting the values of C y so
ee nt fOT fnst.filtc ring slurrieS. obtained as .( - Jl[ / C y against ( -6P) , as shown
III !!lltny ca.sc~, Hwh as a phltc and frame or a leaf in Fig. 254. If Cv is independent of pr~ure, this
press opcrat.l>U with the slurry sup plied from a cen- result.'! in a straight line passing through the origin
trifugul pump, t-he early stuges of filtration are con- wit h a slope of I/Cy. If Cy increa..c;es wil h (-ill-')
Ilueted at C.llnstant rntc rather than CQnstant. pres- u.8 in cornpresl:iible cakes, the plot is of a curved line
!Sure, as the controlling f~ctQr is the capacity of the which muy have a. maximum. The vulue for (- ilP)
pump to deliver. As the cake becomes thicker and which corresponds to t his ma.'I(i m u m is t he pressure'
olTers more resistance to the flow of fluid . the limit- drop giving lhe maximum capacity when fi llering
ing factor l?ecomes the pressure developed ' by the. that slurry.
pump and the filtr&tion prOl'.eetis at. constant Com preAAible cakes are more dense adjacent to
presslJre. the fil ter medium becaul:lC of the 'greater pressure
The twu types of fi ltration may be re presented by gradient (- tJ.P/L) in the initial stages of cake
1he curves of Fig. 2113 in which reciprocal rute formation.
FILTER CALCULATIONS 247
For compnmDle caku it is necessary to determine These equations may be rewritten as follows.
va.luee of Cv and V" for differen t pressure drops
(tiP) and instantaneous values of either V or L , and (-tJ.P )t /y\ 2c
VI A - (C')\A / (- . P)'+ A ( -.P)' (208b)
to lise the proper values corresponding to t he known
pressure drops in the differential equation 208 which
may then be integrated graphically. If mean values (- AP)l
VI A
rpjJa'
- - 2-
(V)
A
' p,.{l
( -j.P)" +A(- j.P)~
for Cv and V" are determined for a given pressure
drop and cake thickness L or the corresponding (204')
volume of filtrate V, the integrated equations 205 which are equa tions of ~traight lines when plotted
or 207 may be used with t hese mean values for ( - 6P)'
these specific conditions only. ( VI A) against VI A for constant-pressure filtra-
If the experimental values for Cv (and CvV.) are tion data. The respectiveslopesare (C y ')( - tJ.P)- a nd
plotted 88 a fun ction of pressure drop fo r particular rplU%'
- 2- (-tJ.P)-, and the corresponding intercepts are
2c( - tJ.P) rp~
-"-7'''-'- ~d - ( - tJ.P).
A A
The value for the exponent a is obtained by plot-
ting the logarithm o{ t he slopes, (log ev') + a log
(-tJ.P), agaill8t the logarithm of the pressure drop,
Jog ( -AP), giving a s traight line whose slope is a
hUd whose intercept (when (-tJ. P) "" 11 is log Cy'.
f:;imilarly, the value of the exponent b may be ob-
-4P tained by plotting the logarithm of the intercepts,
FIG. 2M. The effect. of ~ drop 0lI capacity of fil ler for
log (2l:/ AJ +b log (- tJ.P), against the logarithm or
DOneom~ble a.nd oomprelllible cakes. t he pressure drop, log ( -tJ.P), giving a s traight line
whose slope is b and whose intercept is log (2cj A).
values of V, on logarit hmic paper a straight line is Unfortunately this exponential relationship is only
usually obtained, indicating that Cv may be ex- a rough approximat ion in mOBt cases of compressible
pressed as an exponential (ur ction of the pressure cakes, but it may be used to help estimate the effect
drop (- tJ.P) for I"Ubstitution in equation 205. Simi- of changes in operating conditions when experimen-
lar procedure is inaicated for CL in equation 207. tally determined coefficients and exponents are
If the values for Cv or CL are exponentiul funo- availa.ble. The values of t he exponent 11 vary from
tioll8 of the pressure drop for a gi!'e7l ,luny, the a. maximum of about 0.9 for the compressible hy-
specific ,resistance a is also an exponential fu nction droxide sludges to abou t 0.01 to 0.15 for calcium
of ' tJ.P) for a gi!'e7l cake. Under these conditioll8 carbonate and kieselguhr.
When these equatioll8 are used, b is frequently
C v - (C y')( -tJ.P)- a - a ' ( -tJ.P)- B55UDled to be equal to a with coll8iderable simplifi-
CyY. _ C(- tJ.P)6 aV. ,. fJ( _tJ.p)6 cation.
slurry. Substituting the appropriate exponential When a - 0, equation 205a is identical to equ&-
relationships in equation 204 or 208 and integrating tion 205 for incompressi ble cakes.
between limita of t - 0 and t _ t, and V _ 0 and
V - V, for COll8t&nt tJ.P, gives,
(C v ') y2 2cV
, - - A'- { I1P)I...... + co;-'-==
A'( _ tiP)I-6
(2080)
Rem(J1)(l' oj FiltroteJrom CalM
(2(Ha) After the cake is dcposited and built up to the
desired thickness, it is usually desirable to re move
, FILTRATION
the filtrate from the voids of the cake. Thil! may btl Differentiating Nluation 211 and substituting in
done by washing the cake with another fluid such as equation 210 M indicated gins
water or air.
1 - S, ]' dV
H the waslling fluid is not miscible with the - [ dS.- - - (212)
lilt.rute, DB when air is used, the problem becomes 1- S~. XLA
one of simultuncoUlI flow of two homogeneous fluids. Since
dV
Under these conditionB the quantity of filtrate in t.he " ~ -A dt
- (213)
cake may be reduced to the residual saturation S,. as
[11- S,]'dB.
a limit.. The quantity of air that must be drawn
through t.he cake to reduce the filtrate content is an dV = vA dt "" -XLA (214)
- S,.8.
important consideration, ~rticularly in vacuum
Rearranging,
filters as it. determines the required capacity of the
vacuum pumps. Further reduction of fi ltrate rnfl.y d1~ - -
XL[ I-S,]'dB.. l215)
be accomplished by some other procedure, such as v I -B.S.
drying with heated or dr)ed air which removes only Equation 215 may be integrated graphi
the volatile fluid, or washing with a fluid miscible cally by plotting the cor~vondin)l; valu e~ of
with the filtrate which in time will remove prac- XL/vl O - 8.)/ (1 - S.s.JJZ RgllinstSe and determin
tically all the filtrate. A miscible wash flui(i can be ing the arca under the curve hAtwecn the dc!;ired
used only in limited quantities when the cake ill limits of S. , to determine the required time.
soluble. If the flow of the fi ltrate ii laminar, as it USIII!.lly
The removal of filtrate by another immi&cible is, tile calculation may be !>implified by substituting
fluid may be cruculaW as a function of time, using the value of v from equation 183 in e<llIation 2 )5,
the relatiooship for steady.state two-pho.se flow for giving
instantaneous conditions and integrating e.!I ou~
lined below.
, Fint., select the pressure gradient (-AP/L) to be dt - (2lfi)
UBed. Select values of saturation S of the cake by
the filtrate over the range from the initial satura-
tion down to the dCllired limit. These values are
converted to effective saturation S. by equation 177. (2160)
The porosity of the cake X must be determined
or estimated. Once the cake is formed the porosity
wbich can be integrated graphically.
may be assumed to be constant with re!pect to time
The tenn [(I - 8 .)/(1 - S,.8.W in equation 218
during the washing period, provided there is no
is unity when the effectiye saturation Se equals
mecha.nksl compression.
unity, and it is (I - S.) 2 when 8. equals zero:' As
This value for the pot08ity and the selected values
this factor is always e\o&e to un ity, a good approxi.
for effective saturation are then used in equatioo8
mation may be made by \Ising the arithmetic aver
181 and 182, with the proper values for Pn., P" and
11 determined from the properties of the cake and age value [(1-
S,)' +
2
1]
as a constant value, and
from Figs. 219 and 220 to determine the correspond
ing filtrate velocities for the selected pressure the equation becomes
gradient.
If V is the volume of filtrate removed from the
t .. _ I'XL
2
[(1- 5 r) 2 + I]fdS. (217)
K(-AP) 2 t 8l
cake
dV Integrating,
-dB - XU
-- (210)
t (I - 8.)2 + I] (8.) 0 -.-) - 1
(218)
c, [ 2 Y- 1
Solving equation 117 for S
~bere
,
jlXL2
S-
S. - 2S.s + S;
r
(211) C, - - - - (219)
1- S.s. K(-AP)
F1LfiR CALCULA TlONS
and 11 - exponent dependent upon )Mrticle size, Fig. Tbt: procedure can be simplified by making some
230. approximations and integrations for the general ease.
The filtra tion constant C, hliS t he units of time As the flow of air is usually in the early transition
and incorporates the variables affecting the flow of region bet ween laminar and turbulent flow, rela
filtrate. The exponent y varies with particle size tionships may be derived on the basis of laminar
L'om 2.4 for 20 Tyler mesh to 2.8 for 100 Tyler flow, with a correction factor for turbulence. Equa
m~sh. Using an average \'ulue of 2.5 for the ex- tions 18.5 and 186 may be combined with til -
ponent 1/, the time ratio tjC, is plotted versus 64/ Re '1l for laminar fl ow of the nonwetting fluid to
saturation IS, lI'ith parameters of residual so.turation give
Sr as shown in Fiji;. 25.5. IJ.' _ (g.D/fi'R~)(-AP) (220)
32fi'/ L~
1.00
0.80
.
<
Dividing, equat ion 220 by equa tion 170,
0.70 I (221)
rr.t 0.60 ~
~050 ::-- ,
Sr " 0.5 By the solution of equations 221 and 218 for
M!l~ted values of S and BTl (V,.'j v",) may be obtained
~ 0.,
as a function of tIC , . By plotting t he rntio (v. 'j v",)
~ 0.40 0,
0, against the oofTC!lponding ratio (tjCJ (computed
!:'- 0,
0.30 0, with the same value of saturation S) for the same
-0,15
0., ~ residua.! saturation S ., the wtal air How V. in cubic
0.20
." feet may be detcnnined by graphical integl'5.tion of
~l 0
0.0
J:
these curves, since ( V .. ) is va' dt, or
0 .
024 ti S
Time Ratio,
10203040
t, Ii ('.') d ( .:..)
Jo V. C,
=1"' ,,'vaC,dt _ c.V.
0
(222)
I VV V
V
., r" ~>
V
Fig. 257, point 1 represents a Reynolds number of the corresponding Reynolds numbers. The tur-
above 100. The correct lWynolds number is at bulence correction factor FI is
point 2, which is the intersection of the friction
factor curve and a line with slope of - 2 drawn Re'"
FI - (224)
through point 1, because the locus of points in Re'" (I)
which velocity is the only variable is a line with a
slope of -2, as described in Chapter 7 (equation 22). For convenience, a plot of thi8 correction factor F,
The ratio of the velocity found by assuming in terms of permeability K and pressure gradient
laminar flow to the correct velocity equals the ratio - t:.P! L is shown in Fig. 258.
~ ~~ S:-
..-::::: .~!
IS' :--.; ~
~~
"- ~\
!-O,
I
Ii
o,001
0,001 ,01 >~.
Air VtIotily Ratio, ~ ,
FIG. 259d. The OIlio of lIupcr!ieia L "ir velocity when liquid i8 present ".. to vek>city or ai r when no liquid is preeent It
e:tp~ &II .. function of t he eorre8ponding ratio of lIuperficial liquid ~Iocitie.. ,,{ / '" for laminar flow of both phue!l with
panune tel'1l of residual saturation S. &00 Mturation S.
there is no adSQrption of fi ltrak on the surfa.ce of the with the wash following the Same path as the filtrate,
part icles. as may be encountered in plate-andframe and in
If the wash is I~s viscolls than the filtrate, the leaf filters. When the cake is not flooded because
quantity of was h retluired is increased by the multi of simultaneous flow of air, the amount of wash re-.
plying factor given in Figure 259b , as a function of quired is somewhat reduced.
the viscosity ra,tio and the extont of washing ex~ On a continuous rotory vacuu m filter, wash water
pressed in terms -of saturation of the cake by the or \\'eak liquor is sprayed continuously and uniformly
filtrate. onto the cake wi thout Aooding the cake and in t he
With thin filte r cakes having a thickness less than presence of air. This creates a condition of steady
200 parlicle-diamctcrs, channeling occurs and a state /wo-pwe jWw. The cake at tains a saturation
grea ter q uantity of wash is I'C(lllired . Figure 259c dependent upon t he Tate of supply of the wash
; hO\\'8 the mult iplyi ng factor to be used in estimat- water, the properties of the cake and wash, and the
ing the volume of wash required for such thin cakes. pressure gradient. T he vclo<:ity ratio of the ai r
These relationship${ are based 011 a flooded cake du ring washing for lam inar flow is given by eqlla
FILTER CALCULATIONS 253
tiun 221. The velocity ratio or
t he liquid under the
same conditions is givcn by equation 225, derived
by dividing equation 183 by equation 170, giving
'"
<0
'f
- "" So" (225) "
~3.0 ,,
"
where II,' - velocity of the liquid in lamina r two-
:: 2.0
,
pha.se flow, cu ft/(aq ft)(sec). ,, "
III - velocity of the liquid in laminar single-
phase flow, cu ftj(sq ft)(sec).
"
By selection of a suitable wll.Sh Tate III', t.he cor-
responding saturation S may be computed from
equations 225 a nd 170 wit h equation 179, or F ig. 229.
The corresponding air rate through the cake during
washing may then be calculated by equation 221-
F IG. 261. Typie&l curve of the inst.antancous ai r veloeit)" ~.'
The re!atiOilship between air velocity ratio (II.' Iv.) lUll.luru:t>on 01 eycle time I in JSe('Ond..;. The 1lret\8 VI, V 2
and liqUid velocity ratio (II!' Ivil is shown on Fig. 2l'j!)d VI, &nd VI repre8tmt the Ilccwnulative volumes of (lir for
with residual saturation S, and saturation S as t he OOl"l"ellponding portiolU! of the cycle. The flatul"lltion
parameblrs. The accumulative volume of air passing C(looitioll8 are ~pn!l!entcd in Fig. 260, and tltis curve i~
through the cake during wa.shing il! equal to II.' specific only for oondit;~ &II gi Vlln in lb., iI1 US1.nl.l.iVll entnplc.
multiplied by washing time. The air flow so deter-
mined should be corrected for turbulence by use of latcd as follows. Determine the total calculated
v olume per SQuare foot, assuming laminar flow by
Fig. '258, as described.
adding t he volume of air for t he removal of fi ltrate
Blower R equiremel1tll for Rotary Vacuum duri ng wa.shlng and dewatering periods. T his total
Filt.erll volume iB t hen corrected for t urbulence a nd con-
verted to the pressure at the vacuwn pump. Mul-
During a fil ler cyclc, the r~tumti on S and in-
tiplication by t he drum area of the filter and divi-
stantaneous a ir ratc Va' vary over i he eycle lUI indi-
s ion by the cycle ti me givC:$ the blower capacity in
cated in Figs. 260 and 261. The lotal volume of air
cubic foot per minute.
passing per ~uare foot of cake can be readily calcu-
Lam pi<:. Compute the blower req uir(!tTlCnt8 for a rotary
vaeuum filter filterina: Glttubcr, salt from recla.i.med rayon
, pin bath liqut under the foll owing conditions.
,s11ll't"Jl DoI.t;J
t. Weight f!ll.Ction of sU8pCfJOOd rolid.1, .z .. 0.20 Ib !!&It
pur pound of slurry.
2. De.n.'!ity of filtrate, p .. 82 luku ft.
3. Densi ty of aull." in s lurry, P. _ 9 1.4 Ib/ oo ft...
"'. Vi!!C08lty of fillrate, 1'1 .. a.o ccnlipoiscs or 0 .G0r02
", lb/it-l!lec.
6. Vi".:osity of air, ...... 0.0 18 eo: nlipoWic or 0.0000121 110/
, fWk."'.
" 6. Surf&Q8 tension or filtralt" l' .. 0.004,;2 lb force/ft.
t
Port
"""nlnc
6.67 - '0'
c.~. depooJllatl
", 3 7.5
Co~'_JlJ
(pot! d"s..)
52.5
Cake lJaIa
7. POI"OI!ity, X .. 0.4 volume of voids per volume uf calc.
8. Sphericity, of .. 0.7(;.
9. Average partiCle ~i ze (3.~ mCllh), D _ 0.0013(;7 ft.
FIG. 260. Typical instania lle(lllll saturat>on or filter ffike N 10. Opemti ng vacuum " 4 in. mercury or 283 psI. If the
a fu nction 01 cycle t ime I for II. rota!), Vl!.CUWll filter. Thi~ droV in pl"t.>;Riure atrut\S filwriog medium ... nd. oon nl-cuons is
curve i8 8p<.!Cifie only for the condition s given in the illusLnol.ive ncglnctnd, th~ may be used II.'j tho drop in pn.'I!<!Ul1' It.CI"OII!! the
example. oak.
FILTRATION
11. Fi]tA;lt aize: Diaflli"lWt of drum - 4 ft Equation 223
Width of drum - 2 ft
Drum area - 25 IQ it. C. - XL - "-
~
0.f{0.10(7) -0-(3.0) ... ILl eu ft/ aq h
O. 18
12. Cake thiclmeu, L - 2 in. or 0.1667 ft.
13. Rerolut.one per minute .. I , ",;th variable speed pn> Equation 170
visions. K ( -ll.p) 3.89 X 10 --C283)
14. Wuhing ratio (.,'1",) - 0 .10 . 1& - L;;:- - 0.1667{1.21 X 10--) .. 5.46 CI.I hI .. ft !lee
15. Filter cycle, all given in Fig. 262.
Equatioll 170
... 0.19
CGhllHpo.Htion
Equation l ~
-CLiJ
-_ 58,.500(0.1667)'
1, - (-ll.P) 283
-!l.74aecore _
In equation 172
F, - 2500 from Fig. 220 . """
It 20.8
125"
- - 60rtee-20.8.r.tc
- - - _ 10.ao
flA' FRA, 32.2(1.367 X 10~' X 51.8 C, 2.02
K - 3211," 32 X 2500 From fig. 2M .and S. - 0.19, St _ 0.28 (at end of IirIIt
- 3.89 X 10
__ CII ft
eec'
(IbIb fM)e
_) dewatering) .
From }o'"lg. ~ and S. - 0.1(1, vt/e. _ u .
Therefore,
Equat.too 196
VI - 4.0(C:J ... 4.0(11 .1) - 4404 CII ft of air/{aq ft){cycle)
Cl. - ~ [,,(1 - z)(I - X} -..uJ WoMing (Va, Pit. MI, &.l on ~ of FiUrote)
2K"
0.002
D{ - (~) ./ - 0.10(0.0331) - 0.00331 CI.I tt/aq It lea
- 2(3.8!l X 10- ,)<82)(0.2)
C; _ lUI (1.0)
3.0
.. a:ro _ 1262 elm at~4 in. meroul)'l'aeuum
- _ __ _ 223
" 15
Co' 0.673 . S;.
( ') ( ~
X ) -0.245 (91.4
".' ) ( 1 -0.'0.4 )
Fron: Fi,. 255 and8 . ... 0.19,8. - 0.245 Cat cake removlll}. .. 0.1l15ib wa~r/lb Glauber salt
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. CAIUIAN, P. C., "A Study of the Meeha.niam of Filtra- 7. RUTH, B. r., and L. L. KEMPE, " .'-n Ex tenaion of the
tion," J. &C. CIwn. Ind., ~a, 2&1 T (1933); wid., os. Teslin, Methoda: IUld Equatiootl of Baldi FI1tt&uon,"
159 T (1934); ' "Tbe Determinalion of the Specific Sur- r ....... A. .... [ lUI. CAmI. E,.,n., II. 34 (1937).
'aoo of Powders," ibid. , 11'1', 225 T (1938) ; iUd., 68 (1939); S. RUTII, B. F., G. H. MONTILLON, and R. E. MOrn'Ol'ItfA,
"Fundament..1 Principle!! of Induat rial Fillration," " StudM;>e in Piltrat.ion: I , Ci-itical Analyait of Filtration
fuM. I".. Cltem. Engra. (Landon), 111, 168 (1938). -' n-.ry; II, Fund&mc.ntalB of CoILlltant Prc!llll.n!l f1Itra--
2. DICItET. G . n., a nd C. L. BMTnl!l'I, ""'Utration," ReInhold tion," Ind. Eng. Chern., ~, 76, 153 (1933).
Publishing Corp. (1946) . 9. SPERRY, D. R, " Principles of Filtrations: 1, The iJ'fect
3. LI:WI~, W. K., IIlId C. ALMT, ''Fact.ort Determining the of Pl"CEI!IUI'e on Equa.tiolll! When Solidi! Are Non-Rigid or
Capacity of a Filter PreeII," Ind. Ellfi. Cite'll., " 528 Defnrm&blc," CMm. Md.. E"g., lCi, Ins (1916); "Prin-
(1912). cip\ee. of Filtr... tion n," ibid. , 17, 161 (1{H 7); "Const..Jlt
4. LEWIS, W. K., "Some Obje<ltions to Filtration Formulas," P rel!8llre Fi ltrMion," JIId. Eng. CMm., 20, 892 (1928);
CIIem . M~. E",., 27, 594 (1922) .
6. PI f. KARO, J . A., Filtration nnd
J..ondon ( 1m ).
',fUn,
Ernest Benn,
"II, Anal yei8 of Fil t l1l.tion nat&," ibid. , S6, 323 (19).
10. USI>ERWOOD, A . J. V., " A CritiCilI Review 0' Publisbcd
ExpooW!nla 00 t,l lration," Tm.... J .... Cltem. ""., 40,
6. RUTR, B. P., ''Studies in Filtl'lltion : III, Derivation of 19 (1926) : " Fj ltralion Equ&tiollll for Compte8'Jibie
Generat Fiitl'lltion EoIU.Uooa; IV , Tjle Nature of fluid Sl.utlp," J . &e. Cite'll. Ind. (London), 401, 325 T (1928) ;
Flow throop Filt.er Sepla," 1M. Eng. CAem. , 17, 708. ''file l\lathe matical TIicoI)' of Filtration," Irid. CIte".ilt,
806 (1935) . " 463 (1928).
PROBLEMS
1. I~ I, nooeeMry to inere....., the c&paeity of a rotary vacuum 2. A disk-typo filter hnndlCfl pctrohum Pellidue eettJjnp.
drum filter. Too cryetals In too slurry bve a deilliity of A !!erie/! of tIl!IUI run &t a OOlllItant rate of 0.1 iPm yielded the
100 Ib/eu it Rnd produce R nonoomprcssible cake bliving II following data:
pol'Ollity of 45 per cent. The filtrate hu a lI(!nai~y 01 65lb / eu P~ dift"crcntial (psi) 32 67 ",
ft. Tbe fol ln..' ~ CbRnges have been ' Iliieated.
(0) Double the vacUUItL
Ttl"" vohllnll liltercd (pi) 1 2
It ;. proposed tba.t this filter be opent.U!d at a oollltaDt-
(~) Double tbe I!Ubmergenc:e. 0'
pre!!IISUre differeolia l ro pili. If the sludge ill bo~neoua,
ealeui&te the Tol ume of oil fillered in 30 min uoder aueb 000-
(e) Do'~ble the s peed (rpm).
(d) Double UW! fraction of .l!U8pendoo eolids in the &lurry. dit ions if the ehan&c io preIJII resistance wit h rate ill negl~Ne.
Calculate t he filtering time if the pre811 were operated at
What will be the per...,nt&ge change in the quantity' of oo""ta.nt /'lite unt il the p,..,.ure differential bo.ooalDO.50 pti, and .
cake produced per unit of time for el/oeh of these 8uggetlted then at eonatant.-PI'\.'MllnJ differential until 20 g&I of oil wen!
changes? forced through the pl\\l!ll.
'!i1LTRATION
3. ;. rot""" OO~r filter, 3 ft 1n dlameter .... d 8 ft 4 in. wide, (Ill If the t ime for dumping aDd fCa.s8Cmbling the pres. ill
it operated on II. thick Blurry. The.peed of rotation is 0.254 hr, what is thtl optimum time in hours fOl" t ile filtration
rpm,aod the fraction of t~ drum periphery submerged isO.33. cycle at the oonlll.4n tprea.uru of 40 psig. As!!urrw w:I.!Ih water
The preellUreon the vacuum ~de is 14.5 in. mereury (7.12 pIIia). is ~ in the 1I& tru.! proportion to the final filtrate u in (o).
Filtration rate is 00 &pm of filtrate. T he .luny baa II. weight What. the volume of filtrate r.btained per ey~le1
fractiO!! of 0.1 (1 Ib or Sllids per pound of slu rry. The rl'f\ll1t #l.nt
eake!l:u a pIlroliity of au per cent. The .~1ic "l'!'~ity of 'be 6. A rert&in filter pres "'hen tested on a homogeneou..
.olid is 3.0. The filtrate is wilter at 70 F. The average reaist- at COM/a,t/ rale yielded tho follon'inll: datlil .
durl')'
ance of filter doth and linea may be exprel!l'i(lC1 as V. - 1.48
cu ft. The eake may be oolUlidcred incOlIlpreeorihle. Time, PI - Pt, Filtrllte,
It ;. desired to change the fil ter operation to IIeCUre a m in I.
IU"
-clearet' filtrate, smaH amount ofllOlida is coming through . 0 ""' 0
In order to do this., it it propoo!ed to ],eave .. t hin laye r of
I':ake", in. thick on the drum . What would be the expected
1
,
3 "
30
change in the capacity of the filter if other operatinA oondi:ions
~main the.arne! 0 "11 "
00
.,,. l'
Would it be poMlble to operate at the II&IDe rate under the 10 100
. . , condition! If 110, A.~. wb&t aheolul.O prossura in the
vacuum clIeet with otber conditions collSt....t? "
:IS
200
""
4. A cOntinuous filter de",a.xing bright .tack IIOlution oon- If this press it to be operated a t a COMt ant prelllJUn! drop of
"'", of a hcUontal revohing drum 6 ft in iliameter and ]0 rei and the t ime for clea ning anll wWlhlng holtwoon eycJt.o.!
12 ft long, mounted in a gMtight CMe. The filter cloth <)Overs is 20 mil>, Mmpute t ho! optimu tn eyc~ tj,ne {lime for tilt...-
the peripheral IlUriue of tM d rum and is in tum oover-ed lion, cleaning, and wuhing}.
with wire 71:6 in. in diameter. The eake .craper reetl agllillllt
~ wire; o~r the doth. nus
arn.ngement leaY'flll a wax 7. Calcium ca.rbonate &JUlT)' is being filtered in wlI.!!;,ing
cake Me in. thick on the drum which the .crape r cannot plate and frame Pre.&ell oontainina: 20 framos, 3 ft by 4 ft
-.emoYe. The specifie gavity of the wax ill 0.8. The apecilic by 1 in. 11JC ealcium carbonate partieJea are _ ntially
gavity of the bright stock IJ(IlutioD 18 O.M. Ipherical with a diameter of 3.8 miClOIIL The delll5ity of t he
PreIcn~ operating conditioM are: IIOlid is 2.26 J'&DlII/c:c. The porn'lity of the filter etoke is 31
per cent.. The viIJcoeity of the filtillte is I.M C(!ntipoises, a.nd
Filtering rate ... 1.0 iPm/ eq ft of filter trurfaoe.
the dellllity is 66 Ib/ cu ft at liltllltion temperatur6~ The
Wu concentration ... 0.06 ell ft of wax/ eu rt IIOlution.
concentrat ion of IIOlid8 in the "'urry is 4.8 mus per cent..
Rotational a~ - 6 rpRL
Immenion ... 20 per cent of periphery.
The filtillt ion prtlliiBure is 38 pIlig.
(a) Plot a curve of IlCC1.imub,ted fil trate vulume YenIUII ti noe.
Cake porO.J.ty - 20 per ce nt..
(II) What volume of slurry is ",,<uired to fill the ProBII with
Calculate the filter rate ell-peeted, in wm/sq ft for the CIiIke?
foUuwiq; oooditions. (e) The eake is washed with water .. t 120" F and a pl'C!!Irure
(0) The level _of IIOlution it rai!ll.!d to immel'!le 40 per cent of 51 psig. The volume of walb water equals two times. the
01 the periphery of the drum. volume of liqu id in the cake at the end of the filter cycle.
(b) The rotation it inoreMed to 10 rpm. Ho... lung does it take to wash the eake?
(el A liner wire;' UIIed, 110 that the CIIke is tcraped OO"'n to
an ael'qe of }i,,-in. thickne!lli. 8. Ferrie hydroxide is to be filtered at aonlltant preMW'II
(II) N __ OOnditioDII of (a), {Ill. and (e) are. all put into in a plate and frame ~ 3 h lKI.uare with l-in. frame thick-
neIII. After 6.6 hr of operatioL, the pru!16 is full and 4.5 ('U ft
e4ect tot;ether.
'of filtrate per equa..-e ioot of area hu M lleeted.. It ill decided
6. A led filter ptel!ll!l with ]0 eq rt r,f filtering are. operating to wlUh t t,e cake with one-third the volume of filtrate c0l-
at a ooooant pre8lute of 40 P'ig glove-the following reeultl:
P\ltrate volume (cu ft)
nme (min)
14 1
10
'"
20
... ""
00
lected. How- much tirne will be tefluired to wlUb the cake
",hen the aame PI"C8!IUle is appliedf
the cake is wu hed at t he SlI me pic98ure with 4000 Ib of water? (b) Wha ll\1U lie the liquid sat.unltion of t he CIlkelJrotllk'Cd1
Dumping. cleaning, ami n...m.'llBinll: t ]1I! P/"'OIIIJ requirel! 40 min. (.:) What is the capacily M.!quire mllot (cubic feet per hou r
40,000 Ib of filtrnte "R' obtaine<l per ("ydc. at60 F .nd 14.7 psi:l) of the VBC\lWll punlp .tnormal filtering
oonditkms7
11. A ].ear filter pre!II! is operat ing at OO"'t.nt pro:!l!ure,
buildin(! up a Iin. noucorupre8llibl(! cake in 6 hr. At the end 16. A aeriee of filtcTII iB being fed by centrifugal pump A..
of 6 hr the prell! iJI , c\eane<\ a nd t he c);cle: repe.ted wil.hout Byp11811 va lve 8 TrUl.intai~ pressure of 50 ]lIlig on the filteTII.
wuhing. Cleaning M.!quires 30 min. Jr it ,,"w be required. TIll! filter cyele is: 60 min filter, 40 min wash, And 20 min
to waah t he eake with 1m .. mount of wash wnter equal to clean and fill. Of the 12 filters in: the grbup, 6 are 011 stream,
one-n..1t the volume of the 6It .... t", "'hat will be the m .. ximum one starting eve ry to min. The filter p~ cnoh deliver
cap..clty of the pres8 obt:linable by varyinr the e&ke thick
2800 pi of fill.mte in the hour. ~ ,
IIOM, eJq)~ WI A fraction of the present capacity! The The Blurry is oom~ of a.O volume per oent of aolid&,.
nature of ~he sl udge, the preIISIlN'), tllld the time of cleaning .filtrate 1.03 Ir:ltnll/ ec and sOlid 2.60 ,;T&ms / ec.
" 'ill be unehanPJ. The orifioe bas a manoll1l!ler containing men:ury _nd filtrate.
A s mal l amount of filt rate is fed s low ly l hroul(b VlIlves C to
12. A bomott"DI."OUS &Iilit)' ill 1.0 be liltered lit a cmulom keep IIOlids out of the Rl:\oomet.e r. The orilioe eoefficieDt
Tl2U of 5 dm in a Kelly leaf pre!lIL Teus made um)er COlllltant- for ~hc 8luny is O.M\.
PlC:!J!lUte eonditionl! indicate that the cake hM a compl"l!!l!i. Q.mpute th~ rate of return -of the slurry to tank D t hrough
biUty ooeffieiMt a of 0.5 a nd tbat at IL pressure of :it tJSi t he liDe E .t the moment a filte r is becoming full and j .... t prior
volume of filtrate in cubie feet &t' Bny given time i n minutes to tak infl: one oft" stfl.'lIm.
is Jepl'OIOnted by the eqUll.tion ~ _ 16,000 I. T he time of
t he ooMtant-rat~ cycl e is SOO min. 8pecJry the horsepower E
of the motor requil"l.'I..I. What;" the theoreticnl .... ork dono,
by the pump per cycle?
8
CHAPTER
19
Centrifugation
C
where Fc' - centriIugallorce in absolute units.
. force greater I,han that. of gravity is desired p. "" cent.rifugal force in enginef!ring units .
lor separation of solid::! and fluids of different m - m888.
densities, ,80S in settlihg, or for 8ejlarations of the u - peripheral velocity.
nature of filtration. A centrifugal farce is created r = radius.
by moving a mass in a curved path and is exerted w - angular velocity in radiall8.
in the din:ction away from the center of curvature
The tenus (r,i/ o<) and (u 2/ roc) are referred to as
of the _path. The centripetal foree ilS the force applied
the acceleration in gOO'il, designated as a' in equa.-
to the moving ma.-;s in the direction toward the
tion 7d (Chapter 12). If the speed is expressed in
center of curvature which causes the mass to travel
revolutioos per minute and the radius r in inches,
in a curved path. If these foroos are equal the
particle continues to rotate in a c~ula.r path around a' - 2.84 X lO-s{rpm)2 r (pounds force
the center~ per pound mD.8S) (226b)
The effectiveness of a machine in creating cen-
trifugal force is expressed in terms of a'. By sub-
PtriphtQI~, stituting the numerieal value f of pO' for p or for the
pressure gradient - /lP/ L in the equations which
have been prt9Cnted for relative motion between
fluids and solids, such equatioM are made direetly
applicable to eentrifuges.
EQUIPMENT
Probably the earliest industrial equipment utiliz.
ing centrifugal force in the processing of materials
was the centrifugal filter. Such devices were referred
FIo. 263. Diagram ol.forcea for centruuge. to as centrifuga.ls and consisted of machines ,of
large diameter and relatively alaw speed. They wern
As indicated in . Fig. 263" the centrifugal juree in used primarily for separating coarse granular or
absolute units is' , .
mu' It b common engineering practioe to use the tenn gee
Fo' - mr",' - - ,- (226a) abo 1.8 a dimellllionleee {&el, gIg" Of r",t/g" where g, ill the
at.&nd&nl. a.ooeleratiOil due to lravity lind not the ooDYersiou
f&cloor ()~ The numerical value {or the number of ll)eII ill the
and in engineering units (Table 25, p. 132) same with eit.hB- definition ~nee g, it numerieaUy cqu.a.l to g.,
mrw' mu' but the dirneosi_ IU'e different.
F. - - - - -
(J.
... ma'
rgc
(226)
... tActually ,.',.lrI. ill lIlIbsl.iluted fot " aad
tilted {(M' -t..P/ L f(M' dimen8ional _ .
pO' il S\I~
BATCH CENTRIFUGALS 2'9
eryslalline solids from water or other fluid~. The The solkls drop through the opening to Ii. conveyor
smaller high-spcod m~hinC8 of more recent develop- or drier below the cent rifugal. The valvc in t.he
ment arc gencrnlly referred to as centrifuges. bottom of the basket is then c1~ , and the cycle is
repeated.
Batch CentriJu8(Jls A cOIJiplete cycle may require from a few minutes
The simplest type iJ:l the vcrtical-shaft perforated to I hr, depending uPon the elttent of washing and
ba,.<;ket centrifugal. The basket diameter is usually d ry spinning of Ihe cake.
30, 40, or -18 in., although models are available haYing
diameters from 12 to 84 in. The shaft iJ:l usually
di~t driven I;y an electric motor at about laxl rpm
for a 3(}.in. diameter basket, although greater speeds
of about 2000 rpm are frequently used. '
Some mn.chint'f! employ centrifugal cllltchcll or
hydraulic couplings for more rapid u.cce1eration with
a lower starting torque on the motof. Abo, Y-belt,
variablc-8IX-w drive, nnd multispeed motors hu.vc
been used to incrc8.l:lC the flexibility of the batch
centrifugal . Tho motor ill ' generally overllized for
quick acceleration. Up to 25 hp is used for a 30-in.
diameter basket. A brake is provided for rapid
deceleration.
The most common type is a s\lspended basket
with the driving power applied to the vertical shaft
above the bMket, as indicated in Fig. 264. This
overdriven sU!;ipended basket t,ype is widely UlICd for
uft hAlf RChI "-"-
separating and rinsing sugar crystals in the refining
of sugar and for separating aU types of cryst.aJline or ,.....,
Flo< """'" Self -disI;~rgil'lC
blsket
granular produets. For large-tiC8le production (over
i ton/ 8-br da.y; automatte ceotrifugals or vacuum
filters are preferred because of the lower labor cost.
' Figure 264 lS a section of such a machine with a
flat-bottom baskot indieal.ed for the left side. Tn
operation the basket is rotated at a moderate speed
and ill fed with a rathor thick Blurry until sufficient
cake ill produced on the screen. The liquor or filtrate
passes tbrough the cake and filter medium (the
screen) 88 in filtration . The feed is then stopped,
and the cake may be spun at high speed to free it of
most of the liquor, or it may be washed immediately
after the food is stopped ' without the period of high- Flo. 2M. A eompOllite diAltTIUll of II 6u8pended hAlch br.sket
speed operation. After it is washed, the cake may centrifuge, showiftll: for the left ho.lf flection a fiAt-bottom
be rotated at high speed to remove m08t of the wash bssket, and lOf the right half flectlOD a oone-bottam basket.l.
liquor. The basket is then decelerated, braked, and
unloaded through the bottoll). by raising the flat A cone-bottom basket is illustrated for the right
valvl! in the oottom. ~ side of Fig. 264. This type is preferred for materials
In the older low.priced machines the .cake is which readily leave the basket at low speeds without
loosened by a wooden blade held against the cake the necessity of scraping the cake from the !!Creen.
while it is rotating at low speed. The use of a hinged The underdriven link-suspended vertical..shaft
blade or plow makes for safer and more rapm opera- batch centrifugal illustrated in Fig. 2G5 is widely
tion . The blade may be provided with a rack and used in laundries and pbarmaceutjcal industries
pinion to all'lI\' vertical motion. The bibliocraphy for thit dlapter appears 011 p. a.. .
260 CEI'liTRIFUGATION
because the Qpeo top allows easy charging and clean- continuously as shown or at the end of the cycle,
ing. This type can also be made vaportighi for wh ilc thc liquor accumulates until it reaches the
handling of volatile materials and requires 1C!16 flange at the top of the basket whcre it overflows
headroom than the suspended overdriven centri- and is collected in the housing outside the rotating
fugal. ba.sket. Artcl; sufficient cake is formed , a plow mAy
The suspended type is generally more versatile, be employed (Fig. 267) to free the solids from the
po8I:IeSSing greater stability with unbaill1l(': ed loads walls of the ha.sket, causing them to drop to the
and permitting greater speed for a given diameter. bottom discharge M in the operation of a perforate
When equipped with a "solid" or imPerforate basket centrifugal. When t he quantity of solids is
ba.sket, as illustrated in Fig. 260, the centrifugal 8IIlali (up to about 1 per cent of the feed), this
opera.tes more like a. settler or a thickener than a
IiIter, as the clt'ar liquor is removed by overflowing
the weirs or baffles at the top rather than by fl ow-
ing through the cake. In operation the feed fills
the machine to the overflow, The sludge collects
at the \\'1l11 ~ and is discharged at the bottom, either
/Baflle
~ lmptrlor3te basket
,
--
FIG. 200. Solid or
Ii
IOliIk dl$Charge
imp<~rforll.te
.J:r
.... J.-."........ _ -
,
"
:i
Flu. 268. ContinuOIW horilontal !IOIidbo",1 oentrifupl with .pical ~l"9.per. (Bird Madaint Co.)
machine can be used satisfactorily for clarification of" that there is relative motion between the scraper and
a fluid with a comparatively long cycle of operation. drum forcing the 'solids to'vards the left and up an
The same machine may be uaed as a classifier. By incline towa.rds the center until the solids leave tbe
means of a high rate of feed the fine particles may pond. At this point the solids rrte.y be washed
be caused to overflow with the liquor while the lightly, drained, and finally thrown out the solids
coarser particles are thrown to the wall of the basket discharge ports at the left. The solids con.veyor or
t.nd removed. through the bottom. In this way the spiral scraper is driven from gears at the far left
operation may be made continuous {or the separa- which receive their motion from the hoUow ~in
tion of two liquids, as..will be described under con- shaft. If the pond depth i8 increased 8lld speed of
tinuous centrifuges. oPf'ration is sufficient to overflow the fines with the
it. ; filtrate, this machine can also be used as .\ classifier
Continuou. CentriJugob ' with the larger solid particles removed at the solids
The centrifugal filter may be made to operate discharge port.
continuQUSiy by the incorporation of a mechanism A perforate horizontal-basket continuous centrif-
for the continuous removal of the solids. Two ugal (Fig. 2(9) adapted for handling coarser solids
methods are illustrated in Figs. 268 and-269. giVeR more thorough washing, particularly where it
11\e spiral scraper (Fig. 268) is used with both
solid and perforate baskets. Withr the solid hori-
zontal tapered bowl illustrated, me solids thrown
against the wall are moved by tbfo: spiral scraper out
of the bath or pond of liquid up tq the draining JOne
or "beach." The solids are then aSpoo and dis.-
charged through the discharge porta.
This machine is actually a contiouous settler and
drainer. The feed and Wash liquor> enter th!"OOgh
the hollow shaft at the right. The feed PtutB:eS
through holes in the feed pipe and is thrown into
the spinning pond. The clear flUid -overflows the liquid disel!arp
filtrate ports at the right. These ports can be ad-
Flo. 209: PeriOT:l.te;:horiZOllt.i-buket continoou.-eI!otri(upl
justed to vary the pond tlepth aDd volume. The-
witb capiral 'Craper_diic:ht.cge. (CmJri/K~ MW"lIlical E,,,ip-
spiral scraper shown only in section is rotated at a mmt Co., 'tie., Dirri&ion of Co1l.de.ur S~ and Enginuri...,
, slightly ~crent speed flVm the drum or basket so Co., l11C.)
CENTRIFUGAnON
is desirable to keep t.he wash water and filtrate speed as it- flows out of t.he feed fwmeL A cake is
separate. The feed enters through the hollow shaft ~ dcposited on the !;Creen within the perforated drum,
Ilnnulus between two concentric honzontal cylind~ filling the s!;'ace bcbveen the drum and the ring of
rotating.in the same d irection with the inner cylinder Qle feed fun nel. To' remove the cake the hydrauli-
or "hub" trhveling slightly slower than the outer cally act.ivated pusher moves towards the"right a
perforate cylinder or bowl. The cake is retained short distance, shoving the .:::akc along the perforat.e
on the perforate bowl, and the liquor passes through basket the dil!tance of one "~troke . The pusher is
t he screen or perforatiods 1UI in a .filter. The cake activated by nil pre;\8ure, ifo;~rod.uced through the
is removed a.long the insidp of the perforat.&-outer connections, operating on the' piston in the cylinder.
dn lm by a series of d ischarge plows similar to the ""ory cake a ies off-the end of the basket into the casing
spiral scraper used. with I.he solid bowl (Fig. 268). and out through discharge. The pusher then re-
The filtrate is caught in the first section of fU1 outer turns: and additional clloke is deposited before the
casing. The casing is usually provided with three next 8troks . The len~t.h and frequency of stroke may
such sections as shown so that at least two washirigs be adjust~ and is generally set to handle ~lightly
are possible Il"ithout mixing the filtrate or either wash more than the anticipated maximum production of
liquor. solids. A.<; the cake moves along the drum, the fi l-
This type of continuous centrifugal filter is limited trate is thrown out into the first seet ion of thp. ca.z;iug.
to separations of coarse nonfriable crystals, as the The cake m~~y be washed and the' wash liquor
scraper tends to break the more friable :MJlids. thrown oul. ill the subsequent sections of the c&!ling.
A reciproca.ting shoving mechanism to remove too The cal..c reaches the end of the dnlm and is thrown
solid:; is shown ill Fig. 270. The feed enterl'J the feed off. by centrifugal force int.o the collector housing
li!ll! 9t the right and is accelerated gradually to drum and d ischarged through the bottom.
"
RI." of fled '0,"" -fI.
., ,
'-
, FIG. 1'70. &~l iun ...1 dl"llwing 01. .. continuous perfora.te-buket oentrifugal ",ith pUBher d ischarp. (B~r PerkiM. Inc.)
AtrrOMATlC BATCH CEl'I'TRIFUGALS 263
Centrifuge.
The smaller..<fiameter higher-speed mnchines used
to separate liquids of different densities, to break
emulsions, and to remove or dfl.SIlify filfe solids in
FlII. -271. Sectional dl1!lwing of BII AUtolfllLtie ho.tclJ horizontal suspcMion are. generally of two types: tile tubular
oenlrifupl. (BilMr Perf;in., I~.) bowl illust.rated in Fig. Zi3, &lid the disk bowl illus-
CENTRIFUGATION
trated in Fig. 274. The botUe type, a batch machine, from a fOO<;l nozzle. It then comes into contact with
is limited to laboratory a.nd analytical separations. a set of vertical baffles riding loosely in the oowl,
A very high-speed batch machine called the ultra-- which serve to bring the feed up to bowl speed
centrifuge is used for difficult separations. quickly. \\llen used as a duriner to remove small
A tubular-oon-I cent rifuge (Fig. 2i3) equipped amounts of su.spended solilb from a single liquid, the
with abo\\"l ..J in. in diameter and operatal .at 15,000 bowl contain ~ a single discharge port at the top
center for the clarified liquid.
When used as a ~parator (Fig. 273) to separate
two liquids of dilTerent dcnsiti..s, the bowl contains
two discharge port:! : an inner iUlnllla r port for the
less den!!/' fluid . and all outer a.lJll\llar port for t.he
morf' dense fluid. Tubular-bowl centrifuges designed
as Sf'paraton; may be employro to Tf'move solids
'continllously by n();lIing the :solids on thc heavier
1i(lllid , us in the Sfparstion of oil and :saltcd-out SOIlp
from an oil-soap-II'Btcr emulsion where the brine is
thrown to the wall of the bowl :lnd the soap flOIlts
Ollt with it while the oil is di!;cha!"Ked througll the
inner port. Usually thc solids to I~ removed 110 not
float but eollect on the wall of the bowl and lend to
plu~ the machine. This necessitate> cleaning the
bowl and usultlly limits the operation of the mtU'hine
to suspensions contllining only a few per cent of
suspended sol ids. In the manufact ure of bright
stock for lubricating oil, the solid wax scpurated
from the mineral oil ill the I.;cnt rifuge is continuously
remo\'ed by the injection of hot water into the
wax space just ahf'ad of the dis(lmrgc ring. Thi:.
serves t.he purpo;;e of a secOIld hcavy immiscible
liquid to floa.t the wax out with tile water a nd al.l:lO
the purpose of melting the chilled wax. ' Melting of
the wax is further a.~i;;tcd by spraying hot water
on the top of the bowl to be thrown into the wax
cover along with tbe wax.
Capadties for such centrifuges vary from about
Flo. 273. Cutawny view of a tubular-bowl continuoUII 50 to 500 galjhr.
centrifuge. (.sMrpla Corp.) Special lICak>d designs enable operations under
vacuum, pre58llre, or in the presence of an inert.
rpm dcvelops A. centrifugal force per unit mass gas.
~lllivalpllt to 13,200 geel! (a ' ). Ttle IJow l ~ are u~ual!y Disk-bowl centrifuges (Fig. 27-1) operate at a lower
3 to G in. in diumctcr and up to about 5 ft in If!flgth. speed and have l>owl~ of larger diameter than the
Some of the ~mn.l!er laboratory units wil! develop tubuLar bowl machines. The diameters of disk bowls
100,000 gees. The long 00\\"1, maily timet! the depth run liP to about 41 in. With a IZ-in. diameter bowl
of thc liquid on the inside wall of the bowl, provides rotating at. 6400 rpm , a ccnt rif.ugal fOIl;e equivalent
amplc time for the de;;ircd separation. The hold is to 7000 gee;; is d evcloped.
sllpportft1 vertically with a slendcr solid Oexible Disk bowls contain stacks of cOJ.liral disks spaced
shaft and a. thrust bearing. I t is guided loosely at at least twice the distanre of the In.rgest.-sized particle
the bottom byl a spring-supported bush ing. Drive Of globule to Ue separated. The bowl is mounted
is usually indireet with a belt from an electric within a cast housing provided with onc or more
motor, or direct from a stcam tu rbine. covers, eacb equipped with a discharge p6rt for a
The fet:d enters the bottom of the bowl as a jet liquid stream. The vertical shaft musually drivon
CENTRIFUGES
through geMl and a centrifugal clutch by 8. hori-
zontal motor. Dc Laval originally dCl>igned this
machine in 1878. It has been widely used in the
separation of cream from milk and for many indus-
t-rial preparations.
The feed enters at the top and flows do''''-n the
cenual tube to the bottl'm of the bowl. During this
traw!l it is uccelerated to bowl speed by vertical vanes
in the tube. The ft.'Cd then passes outward through
sever::t.l feed ports into the conical disk~ lind then
upward through a series of holes in thc conical
diilks. The location of these holes determinCij which
eomponent is to be recovered with the minimum of
contamination by the other. If the lCIJS dense com-
ponent. i~ the more valuable and demrOO. product, as
in eream ~paration, the feed holes will be located in
the disks ncar the center so as to give the gn>ater
travel t.o the more dense component (skim milk),
thereby stripping it as completely as possible of the
less dense component (butter fat).
As the feed moves up ward the ceotrifugal force
throws t.he heavier liquid or solid out.ward along the
under side of the disks. The less dense liquid then
flows wward the center along the upper s\lrfaces of
the disks. In this wily the disks stratify the liquids
FIG. 27.5. Cut"',ay view of disk-howl r>entrifuge with noule
dieeharge for haodling lIOIida. (De Larol Separalor (.'0.)
_....
Rotating bowl
.... iuI"'~_
-
two phases as indicated. The two levels' L and H ,. 10..,. ,_01
... -
are d.e tennined by t.hc density of the two fluids, and' In.... fin, dt m
by the level E of the interface between the tlVO
J =0.1., ,Jdjus DI
fluids. Since a tmospheric prel!SUl'e exists on the Cree ,ldiusol_
C1 _
panent at the periphery.
concentration of the more dense com-
ponent. at. the oenter.
Specific gravity of dry lIupt
Di&met.er of ~taIe; {ft}
PoroBiLy ulllUpl" cake
....,
1.69
O .4~
M .. _ molecular weight of the more denBe SphericUy of eryst&ls 0.'"
Derurity of liquor (lh/cu ft) 85.0
component.
ViHOOBity of liquor (eentipoieee) 7 .
M, _ molecular weight of the less dense Surfaee tension oJ liquor (lb/ h ) . 0058
COOlponent.
u _ peripheral velocity of the tube (eml 3. A tubul&r-bowl celltrifuge ill being ~ to eepan.te a
SO pet rent oiJ-W per cent _ter (by ~llme) emulllioa ..t a
.,,).
rate of 100 Ph. The apecific gravity of the oil ~ 0.9fll, and
R - "gas" corurtant (8.3 X 10" ergsj"K). that of the water ie 0.997. The oentrifup bowl i, 3 {t long
T - absolute temperature (OK). from entrance w overflow dams and operate/! at 12,000 rpm.
Tbe radii of the inner and outer overfiow dan. and t.ube
ate 1. _ 2.000, aod 2.600 ill.. ~Iy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(a) What.;. the ~ oil dropJe\ that C&D. be oompletely
I. ANONYMOUS. CAem. MtL 8f'1g., 10, 119 (July 11M3). ,.",,,,....!!
Z. "Centrirupl MachineB," Otto. EI:. RI:t!., II, No.5, 4J6 (II) What would be the effect of deerelloSiIl@: t~ inlltr over-
(May 1919). flow dam n.diUII to 1.91111 in.?
3. K.lLWlrn:1l, O. H., ''Tooia oJ the Chemi<:al EllJineer; VI,
CentrirupJ Mac:hme.," /fIolL Efig. CIIeM., 1', 287 (l927). f. The tubuJar..bowl oentrifup oJ problem 3 ill to be uaed
4. MALo,(u, J . 0., " Unit-Operatioos, CeD~rilU&Ation." \0 clarify &ll oU. (dellsity .. 58.5 Ibjrl', &Dd viaoooRty _ 10
Ired. En{/. Ckm., . . 29 (1945). oentipoilles) DOIlt&illinl a IIlDItoU amount of finee (dell8i.ty
5. SKAan.a, L. P., "Which Centrifupl--.nd When?" Ind. _ 98.04, Ib/ ft l , and average particle aiIO! of 10-4 em). The
Eng. Ollem., 11, 1072 (19aD). aoIldfJ are w be wl.llhed out of the bowl with a stream of water.
6. SMI'l'!'!, JUIJAN C., "Selecti", ~ntrif~ {or CbenUeal
P~nl," 1M. EJI{J. Ciltm., It, 474. (April 1947). ....,
What ~ the C&p&clty of the machine in pllone 0' 011 per
CHAPTER
20
Fluidization of SolidA
- ~ "\
F
LUIDIZATION of eolids by the flow of A.tj-pical variation of pressure drop with super-
Auids is an operation intennediate in char- fieial velocity is IIhown in Fig. 279 where the loga-
acter between the Row of solids through fluids, rithm of the prefl8Ure drop is plotted against the
as d~bed in Chapter 7, and the tlOlv of fluids logarithm of the fluid velocity. The IItraight line
through solids, &8 described in Chapte", 10. from A to B represents the variation of the pressure
When a Auid is paseed upward throulli a bed of drop through the bed with fluid velocity during the
closely siaed granular eolids, a pressure gradient is period of 6xed-bed operation when no motion of the o
required to overcome friction. In order to increase partides OCCUI"$. At the point B the bed becomee
the rate of flow. a greater pressure gradient is re-
quired. When the pressure drop ( - Il.P) appf'06Ches
D
the ~ of the bed over a unit Cro8fHIet':tional are&,.. I
the aolids begin to move. This motion of the solids
~ .. is created , at superficial ve10cities far below the
I
/
terminal free-f!ettling velocities of the eoIid particles I
and constitutes the beginning of fluidimtioo. The I
I
p1'OOe8ll is approximately equivalent to the inverse AI
of hindered settling.
270 FLUIDIZATION OF soLins
At this point of fluidization the bed begins to the cross-sectional area or the thickness of bed. This
expand with increl\8ing fluid velocities. At point D is also true of the curve similar to Fig. 219 obtained
ftuidisation is complete and all the particles are in by plotting log [-6.P/ Lo(l - Xo)] versus log v,
motion. Further increases in fluid velocity beyond where Xo and Lo represent respectively the porosity
the point. D .are attained by relatively slight increases and thickness of the bed at any known condition,
in pressure drop, merely that required to overcome and v is the superficial velocity of the fluid.
tbe increase in friction 10SSC8 between fluid , su&-
pended solid, and walls of the oontamer. The ex-
pansion of the bed during fluidization is indiCll.ted AGGREGATIVE F LUIDIZATION
in Fig. 280 where the logarithm of the Reynolds When the fluid is a gas such as air, the fluidizat ion
number is plotted as a run~tion of the logarithm of of material such as closely sized glass beads follows a
the porosity. The Reynolds number in Fig. 280 is somewhat different mechanism, although the reJa...
bAsed on the dimension of the solid partieles and the tionships between the pressure drop and , the
superficial velocity of the fluid. velocity is similar in all respects to that shown in
Fig. 219.
I=====] Whereas in part.icuiate fluid ization the beginning
of fluidization is marked by gentle oscillating motion
f of some of the particles constituting the bed (8 to
C, Fig. 219), in &ggregative fluidization the fluid
c
! literally begins to "bubble" through the soJid bed in
a manner identical to the action observed in bubbling
laI_ or l4 ~~~ a gas through 8. liquid. The bubbles of fluid rise
through the bed and break at the surface of the bed,
FlG.280. 1be erreet of Reynolds number on the pol'Ollity 01 a
bed of particles thl'Ougb which a ftuid il lIowinr; upwe.rd with
"splashing" a few particles of the solid upwards.
a superficial velocity ." As the fluid velocity is increased, the bubbling action
becomes more and more violent, "streamers" or
The porosity of the bed du ring fixed-bed. operation "ribbons" of solids being ejected t ... considerable
remains constant with increasing velocities until distances above the bed before returning.
point B is reached. The porosity then increases The relationship between the Reynolds number
continuously as a function of the Reynolds number (based on the particles) and the porositf is similar
to that shown in Fig. 280, althoug1l experimental
up to the Reynolds number corresponding to the
free-eettl ing velocity of the individual particles d ifficu lties have made the procurement of data and
which may be calculated as described in Chapter 1. Reynolds numbers approaching that of free settling
At this Reynolds ,number each particle is moving as extremely difficult. These experimental difficulties
!lJI independent individual, the bed has ceased to
are due primarily to the violent "streaming" action
exist u such, and the porosity may be assumed to of the bed at high fluid velocities.
be unity. Extensive experimental data I . when
plotted as in Fig. 280 may be extrapolated as a CALCULATION OF REQUIRED PRESSURE
straight line to the point E where the porosity is
DROPS
unity and the Reynolds number is that correspond ing
to free settling. The forces tending to raise the pa.rticl~ are the
The dotted lines on Figs. 219 and 280 show the buoyant force plus the friction force. At the point
relationships for a bed containing the same quantity of fluidization the forces tending to raise the particles
of the same particles but having & higher initial are equal. to the total weight .(force of gravity) of
porosity during the fixedbed period. In either case the particles, or,
fluidization begins at approximately the SIUIle value
g
of the pressure drop. Above minimutn critical values - (1 - X)(LA ), + (-M',)A
below which wall and entrance effects llIay become g.
important, the curve of F ig. 280 is independent or
~! (l - X)(LAM. (230)
Tbe bibliogapby ror thia ~t.et appe&nl au p. 274. g
CALCULATION OF REQmRED PRESSURE DRCPS 211
whr--e X - porosit.y of the W. (ReI',w is ~puted &8 followl, uei.o.g Fig. 219 to determine
A - croSs-sectional ares of the bed. the value of F 7I lUI 46.0.
L = thickness of the bed. D,IIpFa. ..
P. -= density of the solid particles. .. 4O,00J
P - deill!ity ()f the fluid.
- I1PJ - pressure drop required for fluid izing. The frietion factor for gall flowing Ihl'OU(h' a porowi bod
(j) .. then olJtained from Fi,. 225.
Solving for -AP"
/ .. ~'D.(~ ~P') .."0.022
-API - L(I - X)(P. - p) (~) (231) "'pP, L
where D~ .. diameter of partieh: (_ e'lwl.tion 168). From
-"PI (') Fig. 220, F, is determined &II 1640. Therefore,
L(1 - X) - (Po - p) g: (232)
JIIu. tr. th,c Lamplc. It is desired to contaet in the The Reynolds number for a single panicle ba8ed un super-
ficial velooity of 3.1 fpa at the 8uidiaation point ill
fluidised state 50 Ib of bead caWyst oomp(JfJC<l ,.f emooth
spherical particl(!lj 0.174 in. in diameter with 20,000 eu ft/hr D,fp (0.174/12)(3.1)(0.143)
of II. IU having a density of 0 143lb/ cu ft &fId II. v.iatJoeity of - ,..- - (Om 1)(0.000672) -870
0.011 oontipoise at the pf'OCClJB condi~ion& The ea\&lyst
density is 1.370 grams/ ce. The porosity of too cat.&Iyst in a Open.linl Reynolds number choeen arbi.-
closely ~kcd bed i~ 0 .383. ~y &II 3 X 870 _ 2610
E.t imale .he 8i~ of t he rel'elm' which .5hould be ueed.
Operatinr; pe velOcity (fpe) is tberefore
Solution. The ralCl required must be large enough to
accomm,KI ...te the bed in h I! eltpBndod AuidilOd st.e.t(l. The aX3.l -9.3
diameter of too bed may be d,:u,nnined from the nWl!l velocity Re&.otor Stel!. (8q ft) is
of the PI! under operating oonditioIll!. The mllSll ""Iocity (2D,000) /(3600)(9.3) .. O.WB
of the gall must be such lhilt the Reynolds nwnoor lit I\'hich
the ayatem operau,", iI! ...ho\ftl the Reynolds Ilumbtor at which lte&etor diameter (ft) ill (2) (0.698/3.14)~ _ 0.872 (10.6 iR,)
fluidiutiOn occun.. T he operating HeYllolda number IN!.y be
The free-eeLt ling Reynolds number j . c:alculated by trial &ad
takCf> arbil'llrily BI! eqUAl lO t hn", time<! t he Reynokk num- <nw as faDow.. .
ber u the poin~ of fluid ililtiun. The height of the reaeIm'
mU8~ be &t le&st eqUlSI t,u the .eight oC the bed in its eltp.l.nded A!!I6Ume free-eettling velocity (rps) _ 32
fluidi""J ~f~t<!. Tbo height of tho, bed may be Cfltabti8hed
lWynold$ number for froe settling
from a plot such /1.11 is shown in Fig. 280.
The ateps involved in t.1u:l SQlution include D,up (0.174/12)(32)(0.148)
I. Caleulation of the fleynoldll numbtr at the point r.:i ,.. (0.011)(0.000672)
f1uidiu.tion.
2. Choice of a I5UitabIe ope .... ting ftlocity _what above Friction factor for froe l!euJing from Fig. 70
tbu OO~1l& to tho point of Ruidiaation to fix the di&m-
eter of the reactor. 4[" - iJ1JD.
I - &!p -0..87
3. Construction of tile plot of log Reynolds nWllber vel'\!JU8
pol"Ollity~ to deterrruno porosi t y of the bed at open.tiolj: condi~
tions [or mtim&ting the height of the l"".-aetor. ' The free-eettling velocity"" caleulBtod from frictioo fact
The pI'fflIlU1"e gr&dient in pound! per tlqU.ll", (oot per foot {4(.. p)gD.
of height of bed..aL the lIuidiaing p>int may be cak:ulated by tr., - '\J 3'DP
equation 231.
~(4) ( t.37 X 62.4) 0. 1431(32.2)(0 .174/ 12)
- AP, rI - (3)(0.37)(0.143) - 31.8
- _ .. -(1 - X)(... -,.)
L '0 This ia in .wfficicnt agef!meItt with the &III!U1Ded. value of
.. (1)(1 ~ 0 .383)(( 1.37 X 62.4) - 0.143) .. 52.6 32. " The logarithm of porosity is plotWd. against the logarithm.
of Reynolds number, all IIhown in Fir;. 281, by drawing the
The wpemei&l "-:"IOOly of the gas at the point of f1uidiu.tion horilontailine of eolllltant poroe;ty up to the ReYllokla num-
is obtained by tria.land erro r. Assuming !.I tinear ~ velocity ber correI!poDdin,r; to the point of fluidization aDd. oonneednc
of 3.1 fpa, the Reynoldl! number modified for JIOI'OO6 beda Lbat poillt C wit.b !.be pain, B reptWlleDWaa WLit pc::woei'Y M
..
272 FLUIDIZATION OF SOUDS
I.0 TABLE 27. VALUES OF FROUDE GROUP AT POI~T
010' FLUIDIZATION IN PARTICULATE AND
AGGREGATIVE FLUIDIZATION'
.
3 C
, Fluidilin, Point
Particle
1000 2610 10'<'"
Reynolds Nttn'lber (DpIlPJ/jj a,.- Diam-
SuperticiaJ F .....
eter, ft
FlO. 281. Solution 01 ilIusll1ltift enmp)e by plotting lop.. Velocity Numt-;,r,
rithm of Reynolds number VlmIU8logarilhm of porosity. ~, {pi! t?/D~
10
Ce.ta1)'1It beads and air 0 .01l 2. 1 13
Ordinarily- the operating conditions are choeen
Ce.t.alytt bea.dII and air ! 0 .01 5 2.'
relatively CI08e \0 th086 COI1"e$pOnding to point. C to
insure freedom from carry-over in streamer8, etc. A
G.... beads and air 0 017 4.7 "
40
Lead abot and air 1 0 .0042 3.'
~ of calculations simila.r to the above gives data
(or different heights of bed, depending upon the
.
"
diameter of the reactor for the cooatant gas rate. From Table 'Z7 it appears that aggrega.tive fluidi-
In this example two different "diametera" for the zation will probably occur whp.n the value of the
8IlIIle particles were indicated. The pressure grad)ent
Froude number at the point of fluidilation is greater
through the porous bed is related to D", the mean than Wlity, and particulate fluidization is to be ex-
IUrface' particle diameter (equatioo 169) . . The free- pected when the value of the Froude group at the
-.ttJing velocity is related to D., the diameter of a fluidiz.ing point is ie8l'l tha:n unity.
ephere of the same volume 88 the particle. . In tb.i8 In addition to the forne of gravity acting down-
particular example, both these diameters (D" and ward on the bed and tending to keep the bed com-
D.) have the same nuInerical value since the parti- pact, and the .viscous draa of the fluid acting upward
c&es are spheres of a single size. . tending to dispe1'1!e the particles of the bed in aggre-
gative fluidization, there appears to be another force
CRITERIA FOR PARTICULATE AND or combination of foreet which tends to retain the
AGGREGATIVE FLUIDIZATION bed in a compacted although agitated state. These
foreet may be elect-rost.a.tic or f1uid-<iynaOOc in origin
It appears that the F roude number (vI/gD,,) is a or both. Electrostatic charges have been clearly
convenient criterion for determining whether or not observed ..m a number of experiments involving
a given system. will fluidize in particulate or aggrega.- aggregative fluidization . There is some evidence
tive 8uidiza tion. The value of II in the Froude group that electrostatic charges may be neceesary for
is taken at the point. of fluidization. Table 'Z7 pre- fluidization of very small particles. Whee conditions
aents typical data for systems involvinc air and water favor the 1088 of such charges, as when the flui<.l is
88 the fluid . ioru.ed, there is a tendency for the bed to collapse.
TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDIZED DISPERSED SOLIDS %73
"TRANSPORTATION OF FLUIDIZED of the most eODvenient' dimel18ionless groups is
DISPERSED SOLIDS; difficult since there are many combinations which
When the superficial velocity of t he fluid e.xceeds eouGI~~~ ~~.' I ted h' ,d . _ b 01 tC-
' he f ree-settI'mg ve IoCity
t
' 0 f t he so I'd ' I h I
1 partlc es, t @' - .I:
"""",rs.....u
. I ._cone"aI t' 18 a_ y d means" . It;
FIG. 282. Tho rela~ioWlhip be Lween the group ~1 /3(p. :/)pfD,4and the coefficient 8111 equation 236
27. FLUIDIZAnON OF SOLIDS
The 'values of the parameteI"l! B and k are ex- In industrial practice the velocity may be limite9
by damage to the solid particles or by erosion of
. ft(P, - p)pgD.a .
the conduit which may occur at high velocit.ies. At
presaOO. as functlOll8 of the group '\j 11-2 J
relatively low velocities unsteady operation Qr " slug-
which is the product of the Reynolds'number based ging" may oceur in horizontal runs because of the
on the solid particles and the square root of the drag alternate settling and resuspension of the solids.
coefficient for a. spherical particle under free settling In m ost industrial &pplicatioos, solids are trans-
conditions (Chapter 7, equation 22) and involves no ported in a much more dilute or dispersed. condition
velocity term. than is represe!lted by the condition of a fluidized
F'lgUre8 282 and 283 show the effect of tbe group bed, and the fluid velocities encountered will usually
lie between the two practical limits which represent
( HiP. - p)pgD.' )
" 2 on the values B and ok of damage to the particles and conduit on one hand
P, . and slugging on the other.
equation 235 in both horiJontal and vertical convey-
ing with air. Data are not yet available by which
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the effects of particle shape and roughness can be
evaluated, and the correlation represented by eqUllo- 1. CRAMP, W., J . &C. Chmt. 1M . (L..ondOll). '"' '1Jfl (1925).
2. Czu.lIIP, W., &nd J. F. PRl ICIjTLJ:Y, EngiM"r, 137, 34 (1024).
tion ,235 and Figs. '282 and 283 is baaed on limited 3. GAJlTEM'I"ADT, H., V.D.I. Par lI unglQrbtiUn, No. 265
data. (1924 ).
Application of the eorrelatioos of Figs. 282 and 4.. MvaPHltKI!, E. V .. C. L . BltOWN, E. J . GORK, C. E.
283 is subject to large error because the value of a I .UHfIG, II. Z. MAItT'IN. and C. W. TYSO N, TraM. Am.
lui.. CAeon. Engr. , U, 19 ( 1'*5).
OlAy be many times 118 large 1:18 the computed pres- 6. PAJUCNT, J. D., N. YAGOL., and C. S. 8Tl'lrNR, eMrn. Eng.
sure drop for the fluid alone. This error is particu- P rogreu, " , 429 (1947).
larly significan t in vertical flow where the major fac- I\. SCGI.L"R, W ., U~llUnvm _ KOF"1W'~ tmd
GruItdLagm fur illm BtrUllnung, MllliIlho"im (1934).
tor in determining the pressure drop is the wcight of
7. VOM. E. G., aDd it. R. WIHT~ Ind. Eng. CMnt., 40, 1731
the solid particles suspended in the vertieal column. ( 1948).
In fact, the pressure drop for vertical flow of fluid- 8. WlurlCl..M, R. 8., and M. ,K WAUI:, Ckm. Eng. ProgrCB8,
ized solids may be calculated more accurately as " ' 201 (1948). .
9. WOOD, S. A., &nd A. BAlL_T. J. Proc. b u t. Md . Engr.
equal to the weight of the suspended solids in the
(Lcndon), ld, 149 (1939).
vertical conduit by methods indicated in equation 10. "Sympol!ium on Dy namica of F1uid-Solid Sy.llwmII," Inti
230: . B"fI. C.w.... U, 1099-125 (UH.9).
PART m
Separation by Mass Transfer:
The Ideal Stage Concept
",
T many operations and is known as mass transfer. The absorption-of
a. volatile component from a vapor phase, the extraction of a com-
ponent from a solid by solution in a liquid, the separflt,ion of volatile com-
ponents of a -liquid by distillation are examples of ~paration by mass
transfer.
The equipment for such separations frequently incorporates a series of
stages in which the t wo phases are brought into intimate contac~.to provide
an" opportunity for the transfer of material between the two phases, and
subsequently separated. The effectiveness of the stage in accomplishing
the transfer of material depends upon many factors such lUi the design of
the f'quipment, the pbysical properties of the phases, and equilibrium rela-
tionships.
It is convenient to compare the performance of actual stages with the
standard performance of an "ideal stage." This standard performance is
5Uc.h that the two streams leaving an ideal stage are either in equilibrium or
of such composition that no further transfer would result from further con-
tact of the phases. The use of this concept of an ideal stage in calculations
involves only the fundamental principles of material and energy balance!!
and phase equilibrium relationships, without any consideration of rates of
transfer. The effect of the rate of transfer is reflected on the relative per-
formance of the actual stage as compared to that of the ideal stage. This
relative perfonnance is usually expressed as a stage efficiency.
In a later section the rate of mass transfer will be considered as applied to
these and other operations in which the concept of the ideal stage is not
readily applicable.
t '
CHAPTER
21
Solid-Liquid Extraction
E
EQUIPMENT
operation in which a constituent of a solid or
of a. liquid is transferred to another liquid The equipment used for, solid-liquid ex(raotion
(the solvent)". The term "solid-liquid extraction" is may be clasaified according t.o the manner in which
restricted to those situations in which a 80lid phase the fint step is accomplished. The tenn "aol.id bed"
is present and includes th08e operations frequently refen to any operation in which the solid particles
referred to 88 "leaching," "lixiviation," and "wash- are kept in relatively fixed positions with respect to
in&." each other while the solvent flows through the bed
Solid-liquid extraetioo is important in many in- of solid particles, whether or not,: the bed of IfOlid
dustria.! p~ Copper is fecovered from oxi- material remains stationary with respect 00 the earth
diled copper Orell, whieh are usually iow-gfade ores during extraction. The tenn "dispersed contact"
COIltaining'iess than 1.6 weight per cent copper, by refers to any ope~tion in which the solid particles,
exttaetion with 80Iventa such as dilute 8ulfurie.acid. suspended in the fluid, are in motion relative to each
'The extraction by suitable eoI.venta of 80ybean oil other and t.o the solvent during the t ime of cootact.
from soybeans, sugar from sugar beets, and fish Both t ypes of equipment may be operated either
oils from fish livers are further examples. with a batch of s.:llids being treaWi with one or DWre.
Extraction always involves the two steps: (1) con- batche.rs of solvent or with the solvent flowing suc-
taot of the solvent with the solid to be treated 80 as cessively through the solids being extracted,
to transfer the IIOluble constituent (solute) to the
IOIvent, and (2) separation or washing of the 8Olu- SfatiotWll'y Solid Bed
tion (rom the residual solid. Open Tanh. Where a fixed bed is u8Dd, the
Liquid always adheres to the solids which must ~ sinrpleet type of equipment c~nsist.8 of open tanka
washed to prevent either the lOBS of solution if the made of wood, concrete, or steel with protective
soluble constituent is the desired material, or the linings if the solution I1I!ed is corrosive. The tanka
co~ta.min8.tion of the solids if the solids are the de- such as shown in cr068 sectiou in Fig. 284 may be
!ired ma.terial. This washing of solids is frequently provided with false bottoIfl8, \~' hich serve 88 II. sup..
necessary when there is no cOlll!tituent to be dis- port for the bed of solids but allow passage of the
eolved. For example, the calcium carbonate pre- solvent or solution. The solid to be treated is placed
cipitate formed in the manufacture o.f eaustie soda in the tank in such a way 88 to prevent size qte-
from soda ash and lime is washed 00 recover the gation of the 80lid particles, and the solvent is then
maximum amount of caustic. introduced at either the top or the bottom 01 .the
The complete pr00088 may also include. the sepa- tank.
rate recovery of the solute and solvent. But this In one method of operation the solvent or solution
is done by another operation such lUI evaporation or is pumped in unt il the bed is covered, and the liqukl
distillation. is a.llowed to remain in eolltact with the solids for a
,m
278 SOLID-LIQUID EXTRAcrIO~
r
. ; Ofl pel tln~
An example of this latter method is the extraction
of copper from ore as reported by Aldrich and
Scott. l The ext-raction ba.tt.ery con;;il:lts of thirt-t'en
concrete lead-lined tanb, each 175 ft lonl/:, 67.5 ft
L
l-
wide, and l8 it deep, having an appruximate capacity
l 1
of 9000 tons of ore per tank. The tank const ruction
is illustrated in Figs. 284 and 285. The false bottom
in each tank consists of 2-io. pial.ks having 15 holes
,
per square foot of surface. Each hole is % in. in ~ COflYeY'Of A. - - --;
diameter at the UPIX'r surface lind ~ in. at the x<SI,ndarllllipptl'
bottum to prevent clogging. A 14-in. lead pipe is I3-T.n~Cyde
8 \IMer Kill t".tment
"burned" kI t he lead lining at the end of the tank 3 beinj"'.ned
opposite from the overflow and eonneetcd to the 1 t.iot lilod
l Minc_
~ ischarge of a vertical lead pump which takes suction
Fl(]. 286. Diagrllm of t"nk~ lind helt eonveyol'!l illustratinc
ThO! bihiiography for t his clll!.[">ter "PI>C&l'S un p. 2<J -l operation of .. n r.xtro.ct ion hattery ttll.chillit OOpPel".'
EQUIPMENT 279
the preooding tank Of fresh solvent is pumped by a
vertical lead pump underneath the false bottom and
up through the ore in each tank. The solution over~ Pulp and
liquor inlet
flows t-hrough the launder Ilnd to the pump &erving
the next tank at a rate of approximately 1200 gpm.
Baffle
The ore ia washed with solutions progressively weaker We;,k liquor
in acid until the last wash is made with water, ten and WiSh
WIlei' inlet
-1'---.J>:21>----1
washe!! in aU being uged. In washing, the wash
~UtiOD or water is pumped ooto the ore, circulated
by ~8 of the pump, and then drained. The
drained ,solids are removed from the tank by a.
bridge-type excavat.or which spans the leaching
tanks with the bucket C:l. rtlage traveling across the
long dimension of the tank. This bucket travels to Yo,,,,
the end of the excavator and discharges its load
through It hopper into air-dump standard-gage rail~
road clln. A complete cycle for one tank takes 13
days. At o.l)y one time eight tanks arc under 8cid
treatmcnt, three are being wllShed, one is being
filled , and one is being eXC:l.vated.
~ Closed Tlln.ks. With volatile solvents, such as
Wn hed po.olp
ammonia solution in the extraction of copper ores,
discharge - , I">'
or hot water, it. is necessary to operate at pressures Water
above atmospheric and closed tanks are required. conlleCtion
Such vessels are usually constructed of stool and
must be provided with adequate openings for charg~
ing and dikhnrging the solids.
Digested pulp obtained from the sulfate paper pulp To 5tora,. .To seMr
process is washed in the type of closed vessel shown Flo. 287. Diagr1l-m of c\Of!ed Ye&"Je1 (or wuhing di"eewl
in Pig. 287. Th~ mixture of pulp and hot liquor pulp fro m wlf.te paper ploeaollS."
under pressure in the digester is transferred to tbe
vC:!!8el t hrough the feed opening. Steam formed opening for injecting a high~\"e1oci ty stream of water
due to tl1e drop in pre!:l8ure, together with entrained to aid in discbarging the pulp.
IiqUOl: and pulp, escape through the vent at the top.
The cone-shaped baffle fastened underneath the pipe Mooing Solid Bed
through which the pulp is blown into the vessel, In some cases it may be advantageous, par-
distributes th~ pulp and protects the oottom of the ticularly from the standpoint of hlLlldling tPe solids,
vessel from the impact of the entering material. to move the bed itself.
The false bottom is mounted on I~bearns and on The SoUman or lIama-MUhk soyl>t>an ext ractor,
angle iron faatcned to the circumference of the ehell. Fig. 288, is similar to a bucket elevator, conei!:lting
The empty space underneath the false bottom is of a series of large perforated basketd suspended on a
partially filled with ooncrete which supports the pair of endless chains which are dri ven by sproo ket
Ibeams and also decreases t~ free spaCe beneath wheels. On the side of the equipment where the
the false bottom. The weak liquor and wa.ter used basket.s are moving upward, frellh s<Jlvent is sprayeu
to wash the pulp are introduced through a top con~ on a b!U!ket, near the top, which contains bean flaketi
n!letion and gradually dil>place the liquor contained almost exhau8ted of oil. The liquid flows thrvllgh
in the pulp, ioreing i t through the false bottom and tlle bed, through the perfnratioos in the basket, and
through the bottom outlet. The washed pulp is downward to the next basket. A seri~ of counte .....
discharged through the discharge opening which is current multiple-atage oontacts is thus obt ained
fitted witb a tleavy cast-steel frame and bolted. cover. until the solution of solvent and oil reache.~, the
A water conneetion is locll.tcd opposite the discharge bottom of the unit where it is collected in sump A
... SOLID-LIQUID
and J:umped to an intl'l'mediate storage tank which
EXTRACTIO~
~
any wayan equilibrium or saturated condition be- 3
"'P'
1. RI..- product ooIutiorl """" C
2. " "rIJIl, soIutior> I""" BloC
tween the solutions and I:IOlute in or on the solid B 3. l ,aMlo< oo/WorI ....... '" to B
particles. 2
C
I .... o-o_otted_"""''''
An equilibrium. or ideal sta{} is defined for solid-
liquid extraction as a stage from which t.he resultant
solution leaving is of t-he !lI:UIlC comJlt.l/;ition as the "" 3
1. Chelf" ......" feod 1(1 '"
solution adhering to the solid!! leaving the stage. Z. 1""11et- "",_ I""" Clo '"
3. r .. o"tI $Dlulion from B ... C
Since t.his condition is not always fulfilled, the ratio ... .o\cId'-"_ ... B -
Pound$ of Soh1tion
T .... BLE 28. G E:-i" ERAL NO ME KCLATUP E FOP. PoundIJ of Liver Oil .RetAincO by 1 lb
T RA;\"SFER OPERATIONS iu 1 Lb Solution. 1/A Oil-Free Livers
L Qu&ntity of one etlt)am. usaally t be /f1U'Q' phol/t leaving
a stage. d~'8ignated by a numerical I!tIbscript.. as 41,
' .00
0 . 10
'02.242
05
0 .286
....
LI, L,., etc. '.>J
V Quantity of the other etrea.m, usua.Uy the upper (0:' '.30 0 .339
VIIjlOr) phaae leaving a. . tage.
..,. 0 .405
0 .489
.."
~ Fractional composition of stream L in len os of t he com-
ponent, dcail{J1ated by a lett.er subscript, M 'l'A, ZB, etc. ' . 00 ' .600
0672
11 F ractional composition of ~tream V in terms of the 0 . 70 o. m.'>
oompolll'nt. dClSignated by A letter !IlLbftcript, lUI !I", ' . 72 0 .8 \0
1/11, etc.
X Ratlu of -q uantit y of oon'ponent, designated by le lt.er o
suUscri pt, in 1.. tO lm [)th er ~pecified quantity, Ueually
of otkr mll.teru.i in the same st ream.
1
II
Y RAt io of q UAnt ity of com ponen t in V to another speci-
fied qUllJl tity, usual ly of other malenal in the same
stream. 6
Number of ~tages in the operation. When U!Ied as a
n
!!Ubscrlpt n indicates the lo,,CI\t or La.st SUIge iu which
the stream 1",~ leaving t heoperalion is ooot.ao:ted ...itb
, /
I'"
the ,>nte ri ng stream V .. +1 in multlple-<9tage counter-
current extraction. , /
The quantities and compositions of all the ter- 3
V
minal streaIllB Are first calculated, using tI convenient.
V
q nan ti~y of one of these terminal streams lIB the basis
ror the calcuhuions. The q uant.itics and composi-
tiom~ of I.he streams. enterinp; or leaving a terminal
ideal stage at either"~hd of the extraction system are I
---
next calculated. These calculations are repea\ed
for each successive ideal stage from one end of the
system until an ideal stage is obtained which corre-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
PoUnd 5 01 Oil per f>r,und of Solution. YA
0.5 0.1
sponds to the desired conditions at the other end
of the syswn. The number or actual stages may be FIG. 292. Retention of eol ulion by livers WI II. function or
IIOlution concentrat ion (Table 29).
obtained by dividing the number of ideal stages by
the overall stage efficiency. These calculations can The fl'l.llih ha libut li ven con tain 26.7 mMS pcr ce nt oil. If
be made if the quantity of solution retained per unit 95 per een~ of t he oil i~ to he extl'll.Cl.(ld and t he fillllo l wiut ion
quantity of inert solids leaving each stage is known. obtained from the operation is 1.0 oon t.jlin 70 TfUIIl8 per een ~
Thi!;' is .not a constant quantity as it depends upon oil, oompute,
\. The poun tls of oil-free ether required per lOOO-lb charge
the properties of the solution, particularly its
of fresh li vers.
viscosity. 1t is therefore determined experimentally 2. The number of ilkAiltagcll n!Quired.
under conditiOI18 similar to those being considered 3. T he num l.oer of &elU::ll ~ta.ges required if t he overall $\.af;e
for the commercial operation. efficiency i", 70 per- cent.
MEmon OF CALCULATION
The aI;ebraic calculat ion ()lI the ~ of 1000 Ib of fresh OVERALL MATERIAL BALA ;':CE (BASIS, IIXXl LB
livers, ~,follow. FRES H LI VEnS)
x, x, By different.e,
0 .00l 0 . 5 Et ber ill L:t .. 1721b
0.0242 0.218
0.0572 0 .22\1 Total rna. of ... 568 + 10&3 .. 1311 ~.
T hese values are plott<..-d in Fig. 2lJ3 "'h;eh givt'S, for (X A)..
_ 0.0173, (Xs)~ .. 0.215. Therefore, the dller p,"6ml ill Uu Lo + Vr - Ll + VI
di1u::rgtd Ii""" ill 0.2 (.0; (143) - 159.8 lb.
VI" 1..01 + VI - 4J .. 13 11 + 34'J - 1(l()O .. 600 Ib
0.230 By & mAterial ba\s.n('(! for the oil, wound idc&18l&ge I,
i >? 0.225 ,/'" Oil leaving in I~I and V I _ 244 + 3OO' - 6-40lb
.:i ~ 0.220
o~ ./' .
Oil entering in Lo .. Ui11b
:i I 0.215
~! 0.210 ,/'"
i.s 0.205 . /
'0 Oil entering in V, .. 383lb
TABU: 30, SL\J:\I;\RY OJ.' C AI.cn .,\ T IONS )o' OR ILLUSTRAT ION OF ARITHMETIC CALCULATION
Comr-itinns, Quantities, Ib
CoJnJlOllitione,
Qw.ntities, Ib
M &lIII Fractions M .... Fraetioll8
--
0 1000 '57
,,, 0 0 .2';7 0.000 0 . 743 34. m 10' 0.100 0 .000
,
1 \311 Sf. 3\16
24'
172
1711
0.302 0.131 0.567
0.635 ""
51'
383
2M
2n 0."" 0.420
3
1170
1075
427
332 150 182
0.212
0.140
0 . 153
0. 169 0.691 424 137 '"
287
0.463
0.324
0 . M7
0.676
7
020
800
177
156
11.1
2.4
150 . 9
153.6
0 . 0186
0 .002<1
0.174
0 . 171
0 .807
0 .826
269
2<,
4.1
Nelo:lltive
264 .9 0 .0152
. . .. , .
O. \185
.. ...
I
t.'te di8Chatged livers with 8Cven $t~ The &Clua] Pgcll ConverseJy, if streams V IWld L are combined into
..., not. 100 pcr cent e fficient but .tated to be 7Q per cent
.~
a single stream P, equation 236 expresses the maw..
e lfieicnl. Therefure the 6 ideal Ft4gee aro equiv&lent to
rial halance.
& + 0.7 or 8.& actuallltAp, and the 7 ideal sl.agt!a are equiva.:
lent to 10 IlCtUAI It.t.gorI. Rinee the numbQr of ide&l stages Similarly, for any single component,
I'\!fluired is lIIighlJy puter than (I &nd (lOIlSi(\ertlbly u. than
7, it is eetimated thiLt 9' .ctuaJ aUt.gct I\i lJ give the specified Fz, .. Vy + Lx (237)
-.It.
Substituting rrom equatian Zl6 for P in equation 237,
CRAPHICAL "ETHOOS (V + L)z, - Vy + Lx (238)
Although any solid-liquid f'xtruction problem can Vy+Lz
be solved by the repeated use of material balances
and the dat:J. on the underflow compositions in the
z, - V +L (239)
For the solute A,
above manner, such arithmet ical solutions are tedi-
oue. Graphical methods not only simplify the cal- (239A)
culations and thereby reduce errors but also indicate
more clearly thE:! variables involved and their effect For the solvent S
on the operation. The samc graphical methods are () V(y,) + L (z,,) (23ll8)
applicabkl to any operation which involves the Z8' V+L
trarufer of matter (and energy) between t wo phases.
The principles are the same in the arithmetical and TIle composition of the etreams may be repre-
graphical solutions. The graphical method is simply sented on a rec tangular (or right-triangular) diagram
a graphical representation of the materia.! balances (Fig. 294). The fraction of the solute in the stream
and the equilibrium data. is plotted horisontally a long the absciMa and d~
. If a stream (or quantity of material) designated F nated ZA or 1/.4. a8 may be required by the nomen-
is split into the two streams (or quant.ities) V and L, clature given in Table 28. The fraction of solvent
the quantity of material in stream F, designated F, is plotted vertically aJong the ordinate as Z8 or 1/8,
is equal to the wm 01 the quantities in streams V as required. Thus z or II may appear on both the
and L. ordinate and abscissa as the nomenclature used is
(236) not consistent with the usual geometric plotting of
GRAPHICAL METHODS
equations involving x and y. Thi8>may be oonfusing 1.0
ulltil une becomes famil iar with the nomenclature.
Keep in mind that the subtlCript controls the coordi-
nate rather than the leller i' ~If. Thus XA or Y.{
is a1ways plotted horizontally, and Xs or ys is always
plotted vertically.
Therefore, a lIingle puint on the diagram (Fig. 294)
indicates the compusition of a stream , or the rciatit'e
quantitiu of the throe components of a stream,
but not the absolute quantity of the stream. The
horilOlltal distance is the frac tional quantity of
component A , and the vert.ical distance is the frac-
tional quantit.y of eomponent S .
If the slope of a straight line connecting 'points
x and x, is the same lUi the slope of the line r.on- ",IriH~~+++++~
oOhl,1.~I."I,l.~I,~,,'.71,~"~''''':.~''''':''''~''O.~7':'..l,-~0~'~'D
necting points x find y, it follows that the t.hree
points x,.. x, and II, are on one straigh t line, and a
material .balanct such as equation 239 can be made .r"or ),,,. Mus Fraction Saillle. A
by simply drawing a Iltraight line through the }'IO. 294 , lli'III'(";<' IlI :llinn of material bfllaMe OIl right.-
points repre~n ting the composiliOlm of any two of lriaogutu di'liilUm.
the th ree streams.
Keepi ng in mind that the subscripts A and S be. demonstrated by simplifying equat.ion 238 &II
detennine the coordinate, the slopes of the lines foJlolVs, ,
connecting points XF anq. x, and connecting points V (XF - y) "" L (x - x,.)
II and x , he
(2'"8)' - (zs)
and
(I/S) - (xs)
V
L
x - x, (%.4) - (rA),..
-----
x" - y
=(r.dl' - (Y.4 ) - (xs ) - ex,,),
(x.~)r - Ws)
(2380)
(ZA)' - (ZA) (YA ) - (XA ) E.ercille, By" o;imibr Pl'l~UI'O, eli minating L, and then
Y, from 4l'[uation 237 by lOOII.ns "f equation 236, 5how that
3uhi!tituting for (XAJ,. and (xs)l'" from equations
, - X"
239A_and 239.$ and simplifying, ,,' L
F "' ~
(238b)
+ [. (r8) z,.
- V(Ys)
V (IIA ) + L (x.t)
- V(xs) - L(xs)
- V(ZA) - IAxA)
Therefore, the d istance between pointB i and
to the distance between points XF and y as the
quantity V is to the quantity L. to other words,
is
x,.
- (us) - (is)
(YA) - (z,.)
the point is located on a gl: aight line between
pointB 11 and x so tha.t the ratio of the distance
between x,. and the two other points, y and %, is
8inoe the slope of the line between points x and Xl'" inversely proportional to t he quantities ol the eot're-
is the sa.me as between points x and y, all three sponding streams, V and L.
points, II, x, and x" lie on the same IILraigbt line. In dealing with solid-liquid extractioo there is
The location of the point. x,
is alwa.ys between present not only the solute A and the solvent S but
points II a.nd x if streams V and L are added to fonn also the inert solids C. If these three components
IItream F, Similarly, if V is separated from F, account for all the mAterial prtilC nt in any stream'
leaving by difference tbe stream L , tbe resulting or mixt.ure and x is thc fract ion of the component,
product obtained by difference has the composition
of the difference point x whieh always lies 011 the X.4 + Xs + Xc "" I
Rearranging,
extension of the line from 11 thrQugh x" . X8 - - x,( + (l '- Xc) (240)
The lincar distance between ' these three points
representing the co~position of the three streams is Equation 240 is represented on Fig. 294 as a stl'aigbi
dependent upon the quantities L and V. This may line wit.h a slopo of - 1 and intercept of (1 - xc)
... SOLID-UQUID
Any line parallel to the hypotenuse of the right
~TRAcn:ON
L. "'" 0
D
repreeenta t he C"_mpoeition of the resulting stream L.
obtainee by the addition of two streams, V and L . '-- - '--
Any nu miJt>r of streams .nay be added together, and FlO. 295. Di:\gram' represellting CQuntereurre'lt flow of two
3tresnu V ..nd L ..nd tbt. significance of the dHrerenee .tream
the resultant strea.'Il8 may be represented by one
D u indic:atilll V - L .
addition point by t.a~~ing pairs of the added streams,
obtaining the addition points for these paira, and Similarly, a material balance for any component,
then takillg pairs of these addition points and com- such as A,
bining them until one point representing ..II the
added strea:ns is obta.ir.ed. (DXA)O '" (VYAh - (LXA h ... (VYAh - (LzAh
H a mixture, represented by point %I' o)Il. the di- ( VYAh - ( Ll:A) ~
agram, is to be separated into two streams :>f fixed (XA)O - ---'-""D~=
compositions, such as represented by points Y and %,
the pl"O!le8l'J may be con,idered as the subtraction of where (XA)O is the abscissa for the difference point D.
one stream from another, 8UC'-i:l as L from P to give Since (XA )O is the relative quant ity of component
the resultant stream V, or a.8 V from F to give L. A moving to the right per unit quantity of D , or the
When one stream is subtrsctcd from another, the relative net. flow ...,f component A to the right, it is
point representing the composition of the resulting -:Iear t hat the value for (XA)D may be any number,
>itream so obtained is ca.1k.d a d.~'fert.'fiCe poitU. The positive or negative, depending upon the relative
concept of a difference point C&D be extended to vaJues for (Vyh and (Lz)2' Identical equations and
calculations where t.he subtraction of one mixture statem~J:.18 may be written for any other component.
from another would result in a stream of imat;inary I na wlid-liquid exlraclitm where tl!.e solute
c.xnpoeition, in which case the difference point falls originally present as a solid phMe, the amount d
outaide the triungle. solute that may be dissolved in a gil'en qU&.ntity
An addilion poitU always lies between the points of solvent is limited to the Rtl.tUflltion compollition
representing the streams added together and aearer of the solution as determined by the temper&.ture and
UiC original stream of larger quantity. A difJerenu pressure of operation. The effect of pressure on the
poitU always lies on an extension of the line through solubility is small and may be neglected except for
the two original points beyond the point represent,- high PfC88Ures. At any given temperature, therefore,
inp; the larger stream. For example, if the stream the right,-triangle diagranl may be divided into two
(or quantity) V is subtracted from quantity F, the areas (Fig. 293), one representing all the mixt.ures
diffel,;>nr.e point % must lie on the line beyond x, and in which the solution present is unsaturated, and one
u"..oU'('r x, than y, since F is larger thAA V. representing all the mixtures in which the solution
The concept of a difference point of negative com- present is saturated. \hen the solution is saturated
position or of c()mpoaition greater than l.00 will the solids prctCnt in the mixtures will consist of
cause no difficulty if it is recognized that a point on undi!l8Olved solute and inert solids. The point y..t
G'RAPIDCAL METIIODS
1.0
i- '"
"i
-
i
~
~
o '" 1.0 o 1.\1 o 1.0
"II or y" ,lMass FractIOn Sol~te " II or y". Mass Fraction Solute .1:11 or y.... Mass Fraction Soluta
represents the sutU nlt.ed. solut-ion of the solute at If, however, the solute is not oompletely miscible
the l~ m peratu re under ronsideralion; the point 0 with the solvent and two diff~rent solutions are
represents the inert solids free of solute or solvent.. formed , the triangle ma.y be d ivided into three areas
Any mixture of inert. solids and saturated solution as shown in Fig. 297. Point VI represents a saturated
lie!> 0 11 the Iille {JY,nt. 'J'lu'!refore the arca t-o the left solution of solvent in the solute. Point YIn repre-
of t he line, GY,nt, lllbel~ '''unsaturated'' on the sents a saturated solution Ilf solute in the solvent.
dillgrum, represent s mix tures in which the solution T he solution will COill!ist of only one liquid phase in
is unsaturated since /l.1l poin L.. in this area are for the Ilreas labeled I and III. In the area labeled II,
smaller mass frac tions of solute x,. than points to a mixture, such as represented by the point P, will
the riRht of the line Oy",,~ in t.he area labeled " satu- consist of inert solids, represented by point 0, and
rated." two solutions represented by the point fI, indicflting
This is demonstru.tt!d by any point such as N a composition between points VI and Ym, which
represcnting a mixture in the unsaturated region. requires that point y represent a mixture consistirw
1f this mixture is separated into a solution free of of two Ii(lllid p h88eB, of compositions YI and 1/111 . fn
solids, as reprellCnt.ed 'by a point on the hypotenuse this sense 'Y is an addition point fe,r tho two imrr.isci-
JI[, by removing the inert solids, represented by bie liquid phases of composit.ions YI and ym.
point 0 , the difference point. YI represents a 8OIutioo In most. solid-liquid extractions a single unsatu-
containing less solutc than the saturated solution rated solution is obtained as a product because 01 the
rep resented by point YIM' On the other hand, the desire to obtain a high reco v~ ry of the solute, or to
area labeled "saturated " un tbe diagram represents obtain the inert solids relatively free from the
mixtures of saturated solution , undissolved. solute, solute.
and inert solids. In the absence of supersaturated The quantity of solu tion retaIned per unit quan-
eolutions any mixture in this area, such asJ P, COIl- tity of the inert solids M determined experimentally
aists of saturated solution with a dute content. under conditions simila r to thOl!e which are L1!eing
represented by point 11... " undissolved 80iute and considered for the full-scale operation may be repre-
inert solids represcnted by point %2 . sented by a curved line such as EO in Fig. 298. Thi:!
Where the solute is originally present as a liquid, line represents the locus of the compositions of
the solute may be miscible with the solvent in all mixtures of inert solids and adherent solution and
proportions, and, since the mass fraction of solute will be called the locus of underflow, or x, composi-
11.4 in the solutions JIlAy range from 0 to 1, the entire tions. Point %:z represents the underflow oompueitiOl! '
triangle represen ts an unsaturated area as the point for which the solution retained hasJ the composition
JI.... is then at z,. = I , X3 "'" O. represented by point. 112, provided the composition
SOUD.UQUID EXTRACI'JON
of the solution retained by the inert 80lids is the Continuou. Cclntercurrent Multiple~Coneoct
same as that of the solution removed from the inert. Operation-
solida. The underflow composition %2 may be con- A solid-liquid extraction system using continuous
sidered as conflisting of inert solids represented by multiple-contact countercurrent operation is shown
point 0, and solution of composition Y2. The quan- schematically in Fig. 299 for a system cootaining
tity of solution of composition 1/2 which is retained ideal stages. When t.he system is operating und~
per unit quantity of inert solids is equal to the ratio
of distances &,1';'11,. For an underflow of composi-
tiOn %" the ratio will be OxJ!%11I1' In this case the
ratio of solution retained incl""..fUICti as the solute
content of the solution increases. For an ideal
stage, the composition of the solution leaving
the st.agt', 111: detenninell the composition of the
underflow %1, which J1lII.y be computed by construct-
ing the- IItraight line joining the point YI with 0 and
finding its interaeetion with the curved line EG at
x,. L._ 1 L._. L. """'"
~
If the quantity of solution (including aU c~ the FlO. 299. Schematic ,1iagJ'll.m indicatlll( the operation of a
oontinuoWl OOWltercummt multiple-contact eyatdn.
&o!ute) retained per unit qua.!ltity of the inert solids
is COD8t.aflt, tLe locus of underflow compositionfl:t is a steady-state conditiOll8, the equations for tht:
straight line, EG' pa:rallel to the hypot.enUBe of the malerial balancu over the whole B]l8lem are as follows.
triangle since Zc is constant. The intersection of the
:I: or underflow line with the vertical ordinate
Total Lo+V,,+I-L,,+V1 (241)
%A - 0, point E, repre!leJll.8 the limiting case of a For any component :
mi-ct.ure containing zero solute and occurs at Loxc + V,,+ly .. +1 - L,..z,. + V 1Yl (242)
1..0(%"')0 + V ,,+I{YA ),,+I - L.. (%.,.) .. + VI(y,,
%A - 0 (242A)
The subscripts are used to identify the stage from
where k equals mass of solution. retain~ per unit whkh a stream originates. The solids or slurry
mass of inert 801tds. Wben k is a constant, t-he locus en t.er the sy"lem from an imaginary stage prior to
of the underflow compositions if. a straight line repre- l:ltage one; accordingly the subscript 0 is used. The
sented by the equation fresh solvent is int.roduced from an imaginary stage
following stage n. and the subscript n + I is used.
k
x, - -(k +
- -1) - .. The extracted solids or slurry I~ve the operation
from the last stage, n. The fresh solvent enters the
system on 8tage n, and the strong solution leave!!
If the quantity of BOlvenI (solute free) retained per from stage L
unit qWUltity of incrt solids is I!onatant, the locus of A material ,balance for any 8tage m in the 8ystem
underflow comp<lf!itions will also be a straight line gives, with simple rearrangt:ment to express the
EG". Since xs - Kxc, the line passes through the differences in the flow of the streams between stages,
points IZ8 "'" K I (K + 1); :tA - 0) and (X8 - 0; what might be called t.he " net flow" toward the nth
%A ,.. I), where K eqlmb Dla88 of 80ivent reta.ined
stage (to the righi). For loljl,l I:I lreruns,
per unit mass of inert solids. I solute is added to a.
mixture containing only inert solids and ~lvent, L,.. _ I - V... - L. - 1'.... +1
represented by E in Fig. 298, the resulting mixture ... L"+I - I'~+2 - (243)
by a material balance lies on the straight line joining For any component the net flow toward 8tage n (to
points E and (rA _ 1; Zs .. 0) which line represents tbe right)
a constant ratio of solv~nt to inert solids and the
locus of underflow compositions % for these condi- L.. _ I (X)"'_ I - V...(Y)..
tioofl (244)
GRAPHICAL l\IETIIODS 291
If the difference in ma88 ,t. an. particular com- If the compositions of all terminal streams are
ponent as represented by equation 244 is divKled 6xed. by choice or otherwise. the. Telative quantitaee
by the corresponding difference in total streams as of the streams and the OlL'Ilber of ideal stages are
represented by equati~ 243, that is, dividing the the~y a.lao 6xrd and may be determined graphicaIly
net flow of a single component by the roW net by tOO procedure outlined in Fig. 300. The dilferenoe
flow, the resultiq difference in mass fraction is a point .:1 lies on the straight line passing through the
cooroinaUi of the difference point, (zAh, (Z8)4 or points Xo and 111 and also on tbe straight line passing
(ZC)6, representing the nlalilJe net jl.otD o'f each com-
pooent. ioward stage n (to the right) . 1 1 ,
I.",.(:t).. - V _+1<Y)"+1
(245)
i
L.. - V",+I
i
which may be written for (x... ), (XS), or (xc).
As has been previuusly indicated the compositions
"
or coordinates of the difference point for the streams
on either side of stage m are identical. The same
diJTerence point represents relative net flow for any
"
"
~
E
L1 (x... JI - Vt(y... ),
LI - V,
L .. (XA) .. - V"~I(Y..tl"+1
L,. - V,. +I
(24M)
FIo. 390.
Grapblcal rtolution of eou.nU!rcurrent multiple-
cont.a.ct HOlid.liquid extraetion.
Similar equatiOJl1! (2t5S and 245C) may be written
for (XS)4 or (Zc)4' respectively. through the points x. and 11.+1, since .:1 is the differ-
If the qU&Dtitiel! &D.d compositions of any two ence point for the two te.-minal streams at stage 1
p8S8ing streams, as the t.erminalstrea.ms at'w;: same and also at stage n &8 shown from equation 245.
end of the system, aw known, the Ioca.tion of the There(ore, the difference point 0:1 is the intersection
difference point is fixed, since (Z... )4 and (%8)4 or or the straigh t line passing through the pointa Zo
(:le)4 are fixed by equations 245.-4., 2458, or 2450. and 11" and thll straight line passing through the
In solid-HquKl extraction the coordinates of the point.s x,. and 11 .. +1 .
difference Point uSually lie outside the triangle COI"l"'3- The graphical solution for the number of stages
sponding to a "necative" relati~ net. flow for one may be started at either end of the system (Fig. 299).
component (negative, because the direction is oppo- Beginning at stage 1, the underflow leaving the ideal
site to the relative npt flow of another component, stage 1, L I , has the composition Xl which ill on curv~
toward stage 11., or a "po!!itive" relative net flow EG (Fig. 300) and also 011 the straight line oonneeting
toward stage 0) and a rdaLit;e net jI.IJw greater than point 111 with the point 0 , as bas been explained, and
.wity (or another . This is undenltalldable from the therefore is determined as the intel1ll!Ctioo of the8e
definit ion of the difference poin~ (equation 245) and a two lines. The composition 11: of the overflow
realiution that the toW amount of material corre- stream V: flowing from ideal s~ 2 to lltage 1 is
sponding to the difference point, L.". _I - V ..., or total on the hypotenuse of the triangle representing zero
net fl ow toward stage n, may be either positive or I!Olids, and a1ij() on the st..aight line connecting the
negative since the sign indicates the direction. difference point .1 with XI or at the intersection
SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
~ ndicated. Similarly, Z2 is detennined 88 the inter- retained by t he lfUIulated liven ia PV'eD in Tahle 29 ..:od in
section of the line "EG with II straight line drawn U>e finst t wo ooIu mus of Table 3t. The halibut Iivel"I oontaio
0.257 INIIII fRCtton oi l. If 95 per eMt 01. the oil ie 1.0 be ft-
through the points y~ and O. This procedure is
tract.ed and the strong lIOIution obtained from Lhe ay8tem is
eont.inued as in Fig. 300 until an underflow solute i.o oontain 0.70 I1'WIII fraction oil, detcnnine;
compoeiti,on XA is obtained that is equal to or less I. The quantity .nd oompol!ition of the di8chatp;ed .oIidt.
than the required solute composition (%".) ... 2. The poundt of oil-free ether n.Quind per l~b ~ha.r&e
The number of ideal stages required corre.."J)Onds of fresh liven.
3. The number of ideal $1qeII required.
to the number of lines representing the streams leav-
4. The number of II(ltual . tII.pa required if the ovt'.raI1.t.a.p
ing a stage, t hat is, the number of lines connecting efficieney it 70 per _ \.
the point 0 with the hypotenuse. In Fig. 300 three
Kleal sl..fLKeS are not suffident and four ideal stages Solutimo. b.- G'ropAlt:al M~
are more than necessary as four jdeal stages give a TIu. II<f of 1M --flow _PHitimU may be either caJeu-
concentration of solute in the slurry leaving the last Iat.ed or determined iBphically from the uperimental data
civen. Table 31 includes. amunary of the neceeeuy caIeu-
stage, (XA)4, that is less than (:tA)... In actual Ia~ ('-oIUl"DllII 1 aDd. 2 lin! the nricinaI experimental data..
practice all stages may not be ideal and the values Col,unn 3 ia the produet 01. columna. t aDd 2. Column 4 ia
for %A may be Bomewhat higher thlUl computed for the difl'erenoe, obtained by 8UbtrllCting the vall.lllll in oolu:un 3
an ideal stage. For th~ reason four actual stages are from tboee in column 2. The va1UEl11 in oolwn.n ti repl'Mel1t
specified for the case ilIustrai;)(f. the total IJWIeeII of the underflow IStnounI &nd lin! obt.ained
by addina; 1.0 i.o the valllllll in oo!umn 2. Columns 6 I.Ild 1,
Exe.-clM. Show tha.t the IIWIII of IIOIvt:nt fed V _+1 per repreaenting the underBow oompolitiollll, lin! obtained by
unit ~ ol underflow- leaving the lMt.1iW&e L.. iI tbe length dividinc t he valUElll in oolUlllIlll 3 :uid .., re.peeti vely, by the
of the line 4 to %_ divided by the lengtb ol t.be line tJ. to lia+l. value. in ooIwn.n 5. The vclues in ooIumllll e aDd 7 are plotted
Le....... Sbow t hat !.be m&M or 101ute-!ree .oIvmt V _.+1 011 the ~ ~ thue IocatinC the kl<.ua oI.lhe UDdez--
per unit ~ of eolvent.-ln.e IOtHb fed to the exu.ctiuo. bat.- Bow compoeil.ioaa..
tery 1.0 ie obWoed by drawintJ: IItla.iPt liDe from ptJint.%e Th& pobieal method ia ebown in Fie- 301. For the ate
to point ,.,,+1 .00 a etrai&ht line from point %" to point Iii. of elari ty, oo1y '.0
of the pointll repreaentinc the under&w
u the mtenfttioo of ,'-1:_ ie muked J , abow that
Y,,+I z;J '"
0.'
"""L;""" - "'_+1
lII ... trathoe Example B (G phleal 'vsoIudoD of the ~"Hn:!"~
~ ., k-"'I<:-"I<--">'
i O'Hn,,*"-'),<
Same Problo:m .. ~ ..... A). Jt iI dee.in!d to ftXtract too
oil from hUibut liVen! by continuou. OOODtereurrent multiple-
OOlItact e xtraetion ..nth ethyl ether. The quantity of .oIutioo
U....s..r6ow 0-.,.,.......
~talO' ..
-. "".. -.
"'''' "'. "'. Total M_
.
,..",
""......
U> Solution
PttLboo. 00. o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0..5 0.6 0.7 0.8 o.g 1.0
-. -
UDdet8<>W,
............
Flo. 301. Graphical detemUD.t.tion ol 100", of underftow
--
..,
--
0 . 10 0 . '42 ~ 0 . 111
..... ...
.
0 . 01 115 0 . 17U
............ ....
.... ......, ..... ....
.. ~
\J. 10 17
0. 1$20
. .m
. .m
.m
0.07$1
0 . 1731
0 . 1770
CIOmpOIi.tiona are thown. T he underflow oompoeit.iOQ :1', cor-
nwpondinc to .. lIOI.utJoa overflow conlainiDi 0.40 _
"J.,
tm oil iI ohtai.oed by OODIItruclq!.he line~, n:IeUlIrin&
f~
..
0 . 1162 0.1730
""V\ X
in the Jiv~~no, the total mass of oil left in the .:::drlLctl live1'S ,
will htl ( I - O.\h'i)(O.257) _ O.OI285lb/lb of fre!lh liver. Since o.7
t he oilfrofl 8<)li(\8 HC 0.743Ib, till' m8ll! rat io o'f oil to 8OiV1!!lt.- I
fl'lll;l liver and oil i~
6
I I
0.01285
0 .0 1285 + .. - 0 .017
0 .743 I 17
5
and may be repreeent.ed by poin l P, (:Z:A - 0.017, :rs - 0), L'I
shown in F'ig. 302. The extracted livers ~avjng t he o<yIItem
4
I
I
!
/~ "x,
~
cuntain ethe r, a.nd the actual oomposition )ica,)!) t he 8I.Taight
line joining point P with Xli _ 1.0, the IInlvcnt ApeX. Since
t he composition of the extracted Jiven also lice on the l"cUll
too
3
I I V " :7 / ,
of undorftow compositions (line EO), ;JOint :t'. i8 located
hy the interooetion of lhe 1inc joining P II.nd :t'$ _ \ .0 witq II 1/,';/ /" /
// ?
~o. 2 "
the underflow oompalilion eurvc EO. AI!. I'1!Rd (rt)m }o'ig. 302, ,,
the enmpoeition of tl~ cxtrllcl..:d ""lide w,: ,r L? / '
1 i~>; ~. 1:'
:'>tll.88 fraction ether _ 0.113 o. 1
:'>taes fraction oil _ 0.013
MM8 ff':\lction oil-fn-,e solide (by diffel'l!nee) _ 0.814
o '/ / ' 0V'
:i~
The quantity of discht.z-ged solids is therefore
,.
SOLID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. ALDIUCH, H. W., IIlId W. G. 8co-rr, 'The I nBpiratioo. 9. H"WLIlT, L. F ., ''DiIIoontintlOllB Extn Jon ~"
Leachin, Plant," Tram. Am, 1M. M iniTIIJ Md. Engra., Ind. E"V. Clltm. , 9, 86&-71 (1917).
106,650-77 (1933). 10. HAWLl:T, L. F . "Numerical &b.tion between Cella and
2. AlhlfI'I1IONO, R. T., and K. lUIIIIElun:n:R, "Counter- Tre&tment.s in Extn.ctiou Pro<:eIIf!et," Ind. Eng. C1Iem.,
eUJTent Le&ching-Graphieal DetenninaUon of Required 12,493-96 (1920).
Number of Unit.ll," Ind. En~. CMm., "' 122&-31 (1942). 11. KnHI':Y, G. Jo'., "Leaching CaJ.culation&-A Note on the
a. 8 .u;:.:., E. M., ''Caleuiati,,''- Methods for CountereUTl'eot Gmphieal Method," Ind. Eng. ChnH., M, 1102-04 (1\;42).
Lea.ebing." Tram. Am. 1M. C . ErIgrII., n. 62-72 12. MARXI.U, K. S., and W. H. GoSII, Soybean CMmWlrJi
(l93t). Ilnd TfI.Iwlow, Cberr';cal Publilr.hing Co., In~, Brook
.fo. BILlE, C. W., "ContinuOWI Solvent ElIitracUoo of Vege- Iyn, pp. 175-182 (19-14 ).
table Oils," Md. Bng. sa.
357-1 ( 1941). 13. RANOALL, M., and LoNOT'IN, B., "SeparatM>n p~
6. CUU.WAT, L. A., and F. N. KotPEL, "The Metallurr;iclll AnalOI.)' belween AbIIorptioD, Extnt.etioD, Dilt.illation,
Plultof the Andes Copper Mining Comp&lly at PotrerilJos, Heal Exchange, and Other Separation r t - , " Ind.
Chile," T_. A",-1rut. MiltiTIIJ Md. e.,.,lOG, 69&--lI6 Eng. Clem., 11, 1295-99 ( 1939).
(1933). 14. RAVENSCRO fT, E. A., ''Ertn.ction of Solids with Liquid&-
6. DoNALD, M B., "Percolation LellChing in Theory and Multiple and Countel"l!UlTent EztraetiOll," Ind. Eng.
Practice," Tro\'l.f. 1rut. CMm. &!gr . (London), lli, 77-104 CMm., 28, 851- 55 (1936).
(1937). 15. SAN!)Jr.RlI, M. T., "Ca.leule.ting Wuhing Efficiency in
7. DORR, J. V. N., "0ya.ndi~ation and Concentration of CounteNllllTtlut Deca.ntat.ion," CMm. Md. Eng., 19,.
Gold and Silver Ores," McGra1f-HiU Book Co., pp. 16l-(l2 (1932).
99-106 (1936). 16. Mant4adut"e of Pulp and Po.pet", MeG,..wHiU Book Co.
B. ElAlI", J. C., "Graphical C&lculation of ~hinr; Opera.- ( 1937).
t;OOII," T ....... Am, 1M. C/u:rn. Enqr._, It, 461-71) (1936). 17. K Jr.NYON, R. L., N. F . KausE, and C . P. CLAUIC, ''Sol--
k Gosa, W. at Jwr. A .... 00 C.\e1Jl.. Soc.. 21, :us l-eDt Extn.etion 01 Oil from Soybe&na," Ind. E..,. Clem.,
(1941). .0, 186-19-1 (I948) .
PROBLEMS
1. A Oo.""Unte,CUl1'enl multiple-aontaet extraction system 3. RoNted ooppe r are, oontalJUDg the oopper all cupric
bI to treat 60 tont/hr of wet, sliOf:d ~ugar bo!et.B, with fre!!h suHate (CuSO I ), i~ la be extracted ia I. .em of eJl:tno.ctora,
water u I,he IIOlveoi. The beet.B have the followina: analysis: with wat.er &II the eolvent. The 8y8tem i!lloa.ded hourly with
10 tollll of pngue, 1.2 tollll of sulfate, and 0.5 ton of Wl.ter in
Component M. . Ftl.Ction the ore. TIle 8troDK extract 8OIutlOD ie to contain 0.07 l""M11
Wl.ter 0.48 f",cti.oa of cupric !IUIfate, and 98 per oont of the cupric , ul '\11.
Pol, 0 .<0 initially Iot.ded into too ' Yltem i>I to be reoovered.
S"'" 0.12 If each toa 01 inert , ... ngoo ret&illll 2 toni! of water, plllli the
cupric l ulfate d*lved in that water, oompute the requiA:!d
The 'trona ..lulion leaving the ' )'litem ie to oonwn 0.15 number 01 ideal or equilibrilllD eJrtraclioo unit.s.
IOUIltl.ClioD aupr, ud 97 per ceal of the aupr in the "'iced 4. Tung meal oontaiillnA: 55 ID.IIdII per cent oil ill 10 be
beett isla be relvered.
extracted au rate of 4000 Ib,lhr, usi", 6000 Ib/b.r of n-hexane,
Determine tile number of extraetion cella required, . .uming
containinc 6 ITWIII per cent oil, u the IIOlveut. A oouater--
equUibn'.lJll between the underflow aad overfiow from each
current multipte.t. extracuoa I)'Btem which is equivalent
cell:
to t ...o Ideal atagea 18 to be employed. Tile meal will retain
(a) If $l.Ch ton of dry pulp ret,illll 3 Willi of IIOlution.
1 Ib of eolutlon per pound of oi!..free meal. The averfto.wB
(lI) If each too of pulp retaina 3 ~1llI of water.
'll'ill bf. a mixture of !IOlution and fine meal particlea with an
eiltimatecl ratio of O.06lh of ..lids Pf'r pound of lIOluti.on.
i . A .hufY of pulverized IIOlirlJ In heavy oil i, to be ...uheJ
Determine the per ceot reoovery of the oU obtained under
with a chlorinated ..Ivent ia a bt.ttery of oontlnu\>U.e thick.
the I.boY\' CDaditiooll. LU!t IWY &lllU.mptiont that mt.y be
enerl. TIle "'urry ill initially 60 per OI!flt by volulOt oil. The _ ' Y.
llDderftow from each thickener conwlllI fS pel'" cent by rolume
Itq-.li<i. TIle specilic &l1l:riu.e. are: oil, 0.95; IOIvent, 1.3; 1I01id. 5. A t.lurry CD....tine of eodiwu chloride c..,..u1s and aD
3.0. n.e oil awl IlOlvent are oompletely miecibJe and fOo'ID eo!lItion of IIOdillm hydroxide and eodiwn chloride
&qUell ....
ideal eolut.ioM. is to be WMhed with .... turated eodiwn chloride IIOlution to
If 98 volume per cent of the oil ;. to be reeovert)C\ from the remove !.he ea..-tie eolution from the crptalt.. The daily
,Iurry, what ie the relation bf.tWflIlD the number of ideal ,tap produC\i.on af IlUfry, of tbe compDlriti.on &i~n belair, bI
~tbe volume ratio of aoI.veIlt to ,Iurry feed! "'...,.
PROBLEMS
ColI\poor.ent M_ % No. 6 will be fed 19 tona of watfot per bour. Thi ciuluer No.4
NaC l (/JIylItala) <0.0 will reoeive an intermediate feed of 9.5 tOIlll of mother liquor
NaC l (diIBIlV$!) 8 .' per hour, ront.&ininl 15.0 IIlUI per ce nt talt.
NaOH l.diMolved) U., PrniOUl! experience with this material In Dorr thickel'lerl
B,o 42.0 indicat.eB the following rel&ti.ooBhipil betwcen the eolution
cooceu ......tiom a.nd t he amount of liquid retained by the IOlidL
A fOUMlOOlp&nment countereurrent lI'J.IIhinI cl&Mifier is
to be . - l for t.be operatM>n.. Twtnty-6~ toIII per day of PoundB of Solution
Mt.waWld aodiwn ehIoridt .olution (27 ~\ per tent Naa) "-%Sal\ Retained per Pound
~ be UlIed for the wMhing. Determine thfl quantity of in Solution of Dry Solid
!!Odium byd.- oxide leavinl; with tbe uJt cry1Itaia froll\ tbe o U.
da.ifier if tbe dueifier ie opera.loed .0 that \be 8OlkI. diIt- '.0 2.37
.chMpd from the fint three compartmenU cont&l.n 76 wel&ht 10. 0 2.20
per cent Nac,, ' eryat.U (~ "'tight per ClInt aoIutiOll) aud \be 20.0 2 .07
dida diecbarpd from tbe fourth compartment contain >1.0 2.03
85 ,",ilbt per eent NaCI cryltaJa (16 weight per cent aolution). " .0 2.03
The dubility of eodium ehloride in e&Ufl.ie 8Olut~ at \be
Pure wt erytItail carry with them 0.50 Ib of fIOlution per
_......
temperature of operation ie All foUoWII.
pound of dry uJt.
M .... % M_% Compute:
N.OH N.CI (IJ) Quantity &Del. oonoentr&tiou of the .ttron,; IlDiUUoD
0 27 .0
25 . 8 (II) The ~ per oent recovery M strong eolution of all
2
6
23 .6
21.9
.-It fed to the battery.
Reoommend any changes ... hich would improve thit
8 20 .3 operation.
10 18 .7
.."
16
17. 1
15.6
1 . 1
S. A eootitloOOUlll countereurrellt ex.traetioll l)'t\em ill to he
used to extract lIOdium nitrate from a mixt\u"~1 of eodium
nitnte and mum chloride eontalnin 0..520 me.-. fra.etioo
IIOdium nitrate. The syttem ie to be ~pcm.ted at 100 C.
18 12.& and M to prooellll .so tona/ day of the mixture. The aq~
-alutioo t.o be U8Ild for the trtraetioD OODt.ai~ 0.100 _
&. Tbe C!-'*iWin& of"lOda aeh foBow. tbe lMCtioo:
fraction lIOdium niw-ate aud ie .turated. with re8pect to
NItCOa: + Ca(OHn _1NaOH + CaOOa lOdium chloride .t 100 C: 1be lIuny leavirg the .,.atem
ill to oonUUn 0.200 QUIllS fraction lOdium nit.rate .
MUIr marl. of tbe liquor containing tbe NaOH a.nd lOme . U 77.6 ioIIII/ day of solution 1.11) fed to the' .,.tem and if
reeidlMl N.,coJ 9t Ca(OH), ie deeMloed, IU.I appreciable the I)'stem ill operated..o that the underflow frum eaeh . tap
aJllOUDt 01 NIlOH .till remains with the CaOOa slOOp. 1be oont&i.", 1 Ib of water per pound Df eoiidlJ, determh!.e:
Ca.COt ie to be recovered a.nd marketed lIB "precipitated (u) TIie eompoBitkln of the !IOlu~lon leaving too 6)'8te1Xl.
chalk." (II) The num.beJ 01. ideal , tage8 required.
The Bl.ud&t from tbe pndpitation tanks oootainB 6 per
tent CaOOs OD .. total roaM bailie, 0.1 per oent di8eolved SOLUBILITY DATA AT lOOC
alblinlty (filumd M NaOH), and a b.lanee of wa ter. One
SYSTEM: NaNOrNaCi-HIO
thousand toN per day of thill 81udJC is fed continuously lop
two thiekenerto in eeriea in whicD it it wllllhed coUD~rt1.Immt.ly M_ %
with 200 torw/ day 01 neutral. "ater. The thi~ken.ed pulp , Solid
reJDOvtld from the bottom of each of tbe thiekenera oonWIW NaNOs N.C1 p",",
20 per eent .oJids.. A filtl'r takes the pulp from t be last thltk- "'.1 0 N&NOa
ener a.nd ooooent raw. t.bt.tOlids to.50 per tent, retumina the 00.' 2.8 NaN~
filtra~ to the 'Y8tem 1M w.uh wlI~r. w.
,.,
' .0 NaN~
"66.7..
Cakulate the _ per cellt alkalinity (M NaOH) remainillC 67 .6 NaNO I and NaCl
in the final CI.CO, After it bu beell oompletely dritU. 8bt.eb ' .8 NaCI
the eQuipment and aho ... flow ~,na. ratee, and oompolitJona. 6.2 N.C1
M.2 '.6 N.ct
7. A oountercu.rrent 8XUaction t.ttery ooneiItinA; t1f IIi..r: 60 .7 7.7 NaCI
Don thickenel"lJ ia to be WMKi to Ieaeh 20 tollll/hr of material 48 .7 8.' N.C1
... hlah llOIlt.&ina 10 per emt moiIIture, 3O 'per _ t inIoluble " .0 10.2 N.ct
pnp, and 60 per OOIIt IIOlub\e ah. A ...turaUld. lOIution 83.' 18.4 ct
_tai ... .o per cent of alt at the Ie.c:bias ttmpera.Ulre. The ".0 17 .6 N.<>
material to be )eaoDed ill red to thiekelw No. 1. Thiebntt- 0 ".6 N.CI
SOLl()"LlQUID EXTRACTION
9. A oounteroorrent extraction be.Uery conei~ting of five t~ 8treamtl have the foUowing oompoilitioJUI in IlllUIII per Cl'1lt..
DOrr thieken.era gives tilf': foU'o wing tellt dill e. "'h~n useS 'to
luch t . soluble n.lt from an inert IIOlid, "'ith wat er II~ I. &,,] wnt. t'nderflow
SoUd feed OOO!aiM 63 per cent inll<>lubles anu 37 per cenl Fe! to Strong F Leaving
all and it supplied at the ra lt of 10 tonB'/ br to cell ~o. 5. Thickener. Sol\ltion, System,
Mothe!' li'1uOl' containi ng 8.75 (X'r cent salt ill. introdnced lIS % % - %
intermediat~ feW Ul ceil ~o. 4 at the 'rate of 8.1)7 wM/hr. CuSO, 6.10 6 . 69 I..
Water ill tupplied at the rMe of S.73 tollll/ hr to cell Xu. 1.
Under th~ <\Ondi tio~s, the e.~trl.cted solids contain 3.35 pm
Gan~
Water
i . In'
78.98 93.3 1
>
."
)DD.G
oont salt arill/" dryin g, and IhI! extract product in the (orm of
(0) Sketch the fIo ....shcet for t he e u tire PI"OOel>$, and inolude
a aturated IIOlu tion conlai ninlt 27.5 per cent sal t it <lcliv<'"red
th",' " Dorr ~ick<!n~ra. .
. t lhe ratt of 16 toM/ hr. The salt content of t h.. evcr/luw
(b) lk1.ermine the oWI~r oIequivakmt '-"Iuilibriwu .t.aga
atru.InII ia .. foUoW1l:
and .the q\lll.lllity of wll!llh .... lIter llIIIId.
v, 3.75 % Mit
11. A leaching hitttery . for' wffi6 reuon, operate.!! Il.II ShoWn
V, ' 9 ~ 70 .
it the flow dlagrorn below. Tru; eolid .foed, oric..hBJr'of which
V. 10 .60
is to ~ tage 1 and one-h~lf to ~ '3, contains 50 per ccnt
V, 19 . 30
,- eolute nou 50 pcr (Xm ~ incrl sol i\k. _~
Tn vie ..' of t he reialiV<'"ly hiRh IOI!II of salt in the t:J[~meteo,l The solvent is pure ..... \.er aniJ M fed to Bt.acl"2 a t " rate
IKllid.<!. th. operation is COIlIlklercd \<1 be u!U!ll.li1lfll.cllry . Sug- cfJu&1 to the tub.! feed rnte. The ttllgel prodUl'C 81urric8
&eIIt !lny chn ngct which gbo uld be flClll.de, and estimat<J. th" ..... hich contain I lb of BOlutiou pcr po'u,r"d 9f ""lid. The BIllt
I. . of 5II.lt in tbe ext racted !!<>lid..... hich you wllulu CxIlCC~ from forms II. 811.turnteli lIUlution with " ,.. ler oon'ti.ining /\0 p!:lr cent
\he :~ll'li , unit. 8I>lt.
Calculate t ile co~ tion of ,ti l BtrealTllJ 1Iho'll'n io the Bow
10. The orebotly of t he Union Mini~re d u"H:o.ut- l{ntl.rl~ in
d iagram.
the BeI,;ia",Congn is cumpo.o!e(l of ma~hile (CuC<4Cu(ORh) S
and gangue. Copper is extracted by crushing the 0",''16 - 20
mtII,h,J'gitli\ting with 1\ dilute solutio,n "~f sulfuric Olcid, f,,\lowed
,~y. mulLiplo-oontac t crn.IIl u.~reurrent wa..~h.inl!l -,W wash tbe
pngue fme of the oopper-bcaring iI(,lu t ion. Tho rich IlUlution
fl'Olll tho "'uhing II)'3tem ia-tn:a.ted for removal of uillotulv.,u iron v.
.and a1Wll,illUm a Ol.i thell !!eM to the eleclrolyl),: ecJIs for
precipitation of the ~, TIle ~ute acid 1IOI1ition ,i)pm
the . cell. i:a ~yc1ed W ~be ag!tatOni for trl'lI.tffi!.n.l ~ rDOl!'
raw ore. ." ' t" ,"',
The i'!otmt.ereurrellt wiUhlng operation ,UlItlI ~r ~hickeI}et.l\
foe t~e recovery of tm. rich eolution. The sluny f"?fl\ ;t he ,.
aci~ ......i,!.h. l he eopper ill tolu tion u copper sulf.te, is f\...
1.0 the thickeneD at the ra.le of SOO.toos per hour. ~_ feed. F
Accordin, to opcruting rcoorUri, the UllderflO... frqm <-~I ch
tbiekener retaillii 1.22 WM of solu tion per tun of gangue, 1I.1,u
"
.,'
-, :oi.. ""
'
.
J: '
, . , '
,.
CHAPTER
22
Liquid-Liquid Extraction
'QUID-LTQUID extraction i8 the term applied 1. The components are relatively nonvolatile.
[ to any operation in which a. material dissolved 2. The components have 8ub'stantially the same
in onc liquid pha\:;e is transferred to a second volatilities from the mi:tture.
liquid phase. 'fhe solvent must be insoluble, or 3, The components are sen sitive to the tempera-
i-Oluhle to a limited extent ~nly, in -the ~ution. to tu~ required for the separatlon by distillation.
be- extracted. tf the solvent and the ::Kllution Were 4. The desired less-volatile component is present
completely miscible, there would be no opportunity in the solution only in relatively small amounts, In
ior transferring the solute from the original solution suc~ a case, the less-volatile component m~y be
to a EIElOOnd liquid phase. The degree of solubility extracted int.o a second solvent, ~roducing a more
of the IIOlveot in the solut ion , and of the solutioo llnd concentrated solu ~ion from which it may be re-
ita componcnta in the solvent, are important con- covered more. economicalJy ; OJ; similar economies
siderations in the selection or. tbes.ilvent and in the may be accomplished with a solvent Iesa volatile
operatioo of the extf(1(ltion process. L'lan the desired component, e ven if the incresse ill.
Liquid-liquid extraction COOflisl8 of the same basic concentration of the desired component is !lot par-
steps 88 solid-liquid ext raction: ticularly significant.
1. lntimatc mixing or con t.ac~ pi the solvent with Usually the different di!'ltribution of the com-
the solution to be t.rf>..&ted, 80 as to transfer the soluteponents of t.he f~ mixture between the two layCfll
from the solution to the solvent.. at equilibrium is dejl('nded upon to effcet t he desired
2. Separ.a~ion of the liquid solution ph~ from separation. The layer contruning the great ~ r con-
th" liquid ~vell t phW:IC. centration of th(l solvent and the smaller concentra-
Thc {'ompletc ex~raction proees.!:l may involve other tion of the feed liquki is referred to as th(' "extract'"
operations Bueh Il8 the sepa.ration. and recovery of layer, The other layer, oontaining !,he greater con-
the solvent from the,solute an:d of th,e solvent "'hich centration of the, feed liquid and the smaller concen-
.-nay be dissolved in the solution. The removal and tration of solvent is referred to as the "raffinate"
l\~overy of the solvent ma.y Pfl n;lore . impo~ta.nt in layer. These terms are arbit.rary and are used in
determining the succClIsfu\ application of the J!Xtrac- different ways in different countrie!'l, so the reader
tion proce"Sl:! than the. dcgl'ee of ~xtl'action and sepa-, of foreign literature should take care not k be con-
ration accomplished in tiU'l tW(i basic steps, par- fused.
ticllhl'iy when s~ial 01' 1)IIfIt.ly iIolvenl1! are em- The sol....ent is said to l:'C selecti ... ", for the com-
ployed. The scparaLinn alld re(\OVl!ry of" tJj(~ sI)]wnl ponent of tilC fcod which is found in greu.ter ratio
may he accomplished by va rill1l3 methods ,su<:h ~ I" the other compoDcnl3 in the extract tban in either
distilla.tion or simple h~al i n g \II' I11IOli1l1{ to d iminish
1.11(' mffitUJir. or the origina.l foed , The 80lvent i.u
the,lIOlubility of the solute or IIf till' I#J1w!lt. scle<'t ivc f(lf cOInlll)nen t .'\ if (x,,/ xs )p < (Y" / Y8) J
hquid-liquid ~xtmc l ion ilt wi<h'ly u;"I1,- for the > {X,dIN ) ...
separation ,>f the compuucnt.'i of a 1#.lul ioll, par- The rctiidl'nl materials remaining Irom the extract
ticularly wllen : alill raffilla te laY(l1"l1 after thc major part of the
LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACflON
solvent is removed are frequently referred to a8 the
extract and the raffinate, respectively.
In operation either layer may be the upper or
_..
....-....
t
- GI-
lower, depending upon their relative densities.
Either of the liquid phases may contain dissolved MIn - ~
solids. In some operatiol18 more than two liquid ~
phases may be formed simultaneously, and solid - \1,,
phlLSel! and vapor phases may also ~ involved.
The extraction may involve only the phySlca.i process
of IIElparation by solution, or chemical reactions
between the extracted substances f!J1d the solvent
........... - J ~
More-dellH liquid CXIIIds
on tra)'S .nd, 15 it
"". G -
spills eMf the edge
or other materials dissoh-ed in the solvent may take flows IIlrou&h and.
place. . ,--oens.lIuid mtx.:I with IeM; - " - pIIM
Liquid-liquid extraction has been widely used for
the removal of the naphth.enic and aromatic con-
stituents from the paraffinic constituents of lubricat-
ing oil stocks by means of a wide variety of ~ven~
-J G
and solvent mixtures.lt. The recovery of acetiC acid
from dilute aqueous solutions,' the IIElparation of
unsa.turat.ed constituents from vegetable aile such
as soybean oil," the purification of butadiene,1I and
the recovery of penicillin are other examples. A
combination of liquid-liquid extraction with frac-
..._-......
tional distil1&tioo known a8 "extractive distillation"
has become of increasing industrial importance in
recent years for the separation of close-boiling com-
pounds'and aseot.t'opic mixtures.'
Flo. 303. lJiacrammatic _ fledion of . baftle plate column
for liquid-liquid extraetion.
EQUIPMENT
An alternatiVe procedure for obtaining a large con-
All extraction equipment attempts to 1leCUJ'e a tact ~ is to bave one phase flow past the otber
large contact area between the pha8es since the rate but without any attempt tQ mix the two phases.
of ~ransfer of the distributed component is directly The equipment used to contllCt the two ph.ases aJso
proportional to this area. Differentiation between acts as the eeparator, and mixing of the two phases
the various types of equipment is based on tbe is undesirable. This method depends on the in-
method employed for contacting the liquid phases. creSBed length of the path of flow to obtain a large
Mixing the two phases by subdividing and djs.. contact area and usually requires less energy con-
persing one phase forms new surfaces with rapid sumption than when the two phases are mixed. Such
transfer of the solute IlCroM th(" large contact area.. an extended contact area -between phases may be
The ' ease of mixing depends upon the interfacial obtained by flowing the two liquid phaaes oounter-
tension between the two phaaes, the relative densities currently or concurrently in borisontaI tubes or
of the two pbases, and the viscosity of each phase. . ducta with the less deMe pha8e flowing in the top
Separation of the two ph&ses after they have been aection of the tube, or in ve.rtical tubes or ducts with
brought into contact may be accomplished by gravity the more deMe phase Howing down the wall of the
or, less frequently, by centrifugal force. The ease of tube while the less deoee phase flows upward through
separation of the two pbases depends primarily upo~ the oenter of the tube. The term "wetted-wall"
the difference in density of the two phases and their klwer is often used for the vertical type. In both
viscCJ@ities and may be appreCiably affected by the the horizontal and vertical type of equipment the
presence of impurities which may stabiliu emulsions. extended contact area is obtained by having the
11Ie biblior;rapby for ou. cbpter appe&l'll on p . m. equipment of sufficient length .
The baffle-plate column (Fig. 3(3) is a modification
EQUIPMENT
trifugal forro is utilised to prevent mlxmg of the
...
of the simple vertical column which provides an phases, higher now rates may be used. The Pod-
increased contact area without greatly incrcasing the hielnia.k centrifugal extmctor (Fig. 304) is bBl!ed on
length of the column. Solid baffle plates which this principle.
ex~nd partially acros." the oolumn cross section are Sulxli vi~ion and dispersion of one phase in the
placed at suitable interva.ls in tile column. Each Second phase may be accomplished by various t~
baffle plate may he provided with a short lip SO that of mh:c..-s or columns.
each is subtltantially II. tray. The lighter liquid flows Mixers include air agitatorll, mechanical mixers,
upwa.rd around the batHe and til rough the free area alld flow mixers and are used to mix the phases in
between the t ray and the imooe walls of t he column. one vffi5e1 wi th t he separation accomplishro in a
The heavier liquid Rows along the hame, overnowlI separate vel!l!CI, exl."Cpt. in batch operation when th"
over the lip, and then flows downward to the next sarne vessel may be used first for mixing and then
tray. fOI" lOCparation.
The capacity of such eqjlipmcnt is limited by the Columns may be of t.he sprny, packed, ur p late
fact that the Aow ratcs of hoth phases must be low type and ure usually operated with countercurrent
enough to prevent mixing of tbe phases since both flo w of the phases. Separation of thc two phases
the conl.acting and the separation . of the phases takes place within the column il;l;elf and not in a
occur in the same pie<:e of equipment. If cen- separate vessel. The heavier liquid pha;;e enters at
FlO. 304. Diagre.m ol a centri(ugal toUntercurr~nt. extractor. Contllcting or tw .. liquid phMeS ill. efl"ecl.ed oonti nuously And
coulltef(:urn'"lltly ill tho " nnula r I<pIletII of Lt.., rowr p:l$IIf\gf!Wlly while the fUtor is revol ving at higb speedJs. The lighter of
Ih~ two liquid phll9L'!I i. "d milled to the outside of th" rowr, while the henvier lilluid pllA.lMl ent.,,,, the t:(lnter as shown. Bmi.,usc
of the density difJ",nCle lx:twoon the two liquid phase~. "t he huavi er phase will lIow to the oUlllide of the rotor, displacing
the lighter phaec .. nd Cilusing it to lIow wwaros t.he !:Cnter. The !let ion of th" cont acting dements wit hin the rot()l" is
to produce a llerMleIy many intilJlll tu dil!penliolla allhe liq uid ph.15et i nlo f!4eh ol her anti the immediate ..eva-mtion tllC""'f.
&\CII.U9C this process is carried out in a .oootrifugll-l force fiel d raJlging from 2000 t.o 5000 times gttvity, t~nd encie8 to emulsify
are i/:teatly reductxl. Ry mll-inta.ining a back IIres8Ute on the "liht liquid out;" the Interface b.:!tWCfi Il the two cont&ineti
liQ.uids in th~ rotor CIill be oontrolld at any deairod oositioQ. Capa.ci t.ietl are f rom 25 ,ph to 1500 gph. (P~ Inc.)
300 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
the t.op and leaves at the bottom; the lighter liquid lion depends l1pon thl' subdivision of the dispersed
!)hase flows upward in the opposite cl ircrtion. phase into small droplets. Coalescence of thcse
T he $pray CO/limn is the simplest type of equipment droplets after they are fo rmed tends t o decrease the
and comi:>t:> of 3. ,;tlilable vessel, mmully cylindrical effectivcness. Coalescence is favored by a high
intcrfal'ial ten.~ion between the liquid phases and
Less - d!f15e
liquid out by hiZh fl ow rates of the dispersed phase, that is,
when the numocr of droplcts per unit volume is
large. Proper design of the spray entrance, so that
the entranl'f' is of the gradually expanding diffusion
liquid In type (funnl"! type) rather than of the abm pt orifice
type, will allow operation at higher rates of flow
without coaleSlcnre of the droplets.1 If the column
cross serl ion is cunst rieled at the entrance by the
introd1lctiun uf t he 'dispersing nozzle, the counter
current w locity uf the continuous phase between the
droplets may Telld, to promote coalescence instead
of keeping t h{' droplets apart.
Th e packed cuhm!ll differs from the spray column
Swing joint,
flexible tubIng. Of in that thc v{'SS('1 i~ partially filled with suitable
other devIce for packing, cit her solid or hollow. The packings used
is dispersed i adjustIng the heIght
continuous mGre-dense ohase of the dir.charge hnve a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Thin-walled
hollow eylindel'S of the same length as diameter
(Raschig rings) ano saddle-shaped units called Berl
saddles are frequently used. See Figs. 328 to 328d
(pp. 323 and 32-t) for a diagram of a packed column
More-dense liquid and phowgraphs of packing.
The performance I)f a packed column depends pri-
I .?arily on the large contact al"ea p r~ uccd by the
I packin>g and les.'l on the subdivision of the dispersed
'@ phase. It is important to support the packing and
to locate the distributor head properly with respect
to the ptwking support, so as to avoid interference
with the flow of the two phases.!
Either of the phases may be dispersed in spray or
packed. columns, although it is usually desirable to
make the phase flowing in larger amount the dis-
persed phase.3 Separation of the two phases occurs
continuously within the column in suitably provided
settling seetions at the top or bottom of the- column.
(") Instrument -operated tj'U\ In~rlace levtJ The Icvel of the interface may be maintained at
t:II:I control valve I(J indicator
any point in the column although it is usually at the
@F1OWcontrOller Q Pressure wp or bottom of the column. Figure 305 indicates
1..2;.1 contrOller
methods for controlling the level of the interface.
fo'H-/. 3OZ,. ~rh('Il1:\lic tiiaK"'1ll ind icating methods for the
oonll'ol of the inINr,,,,,, levd in NIh",,,,,, u"",1 fur liquid-liquid
A plalc cwumn consists of a series of plates, spaced
oxlme!;ull. at regular intervals along the column, whieh serve
to disperse one of the phases. Circular pipes extend-
and considerably huger in length than in diameter, ing above the bottom. of the .plates arc used for the
and equipped lI'ith nozzles or dist ributors for the flow of the continuous phase from plate to plate
phase to bt: dispersed. The cont.in uullS phase fills the (Fig. 3(0). If thcre is marked difference in the
vessel, and the dh;per.;ed phase flows through the wetting of the column by the two liquids, successful
continuous phase. The effectiveness of the extra.c- operation is obtained only if the nonwetting phase
I\U."IHODS OF OPERAnON
is the dispersed phll-<>e. Separation of the phases allowable throughput over 0. range of pla.te spacings
occurs in each section between the plates, the inter from 3 to!) in." The recombination and redigpersion
fste level being mainlained hy the length of the of the di:;persetl phase which occurs a1.li!Iorbs energy
downpipe!:l through which tho cont.inuous phn..se whi!'h t:an be supplied only when the difference in
flowB. dcnsity of the t wo phases is ::!Uffic;ent to overcome
the increa.<;t.-d res; st.an ~ at the sieve pl.a.tes, so t,hat
" the enel"I!:Y consUlr..ption for this type may be can
siderably greater thaD for a !!pray column of the same
height.
The bubblH:ap plate column, Fii. 327, widely used
for liquidYllpor eontacting ha.!s bAen found unsati&-
lact-ory fM liquid1iqujd ex trac~on as ordinarily de--
signed. l t The higher interfacial tension octween two
liquids 0.0> compared to that between u. liquid and Ii
Vllpor, nnd thc lower agitation obtained due to higher
viscosities when two liquid phases are contacted,
probably ~count for the poor pcrfonnancc of bubble--
ellp columns when used for liquid1iquid extraction.
'rhe flow rates of the liquid phuses in oolumns used
Motelfense liQuid for liql,id.liquid extraction are limited by the fact
f\QW5 acrOS$ that after ccrtain limiting flows hayp. ix.-cn reached
l;quid flows the column will no longer functi,m satiilfact-orily.
Thi!! limiting flow is ca.lled the " flooding point" and
liquid depends on tbc flow rates of bot.h the phases. At
the fll.Miing point "he dispersed pha.'iC is h;wked 001
of the column and carried along with the continuous
phil&'.. In general, the allowable yelocit.y of 0fIC
phlUle de<:rease5 as the velocit.y of the other ph~ is
More~nse
liquid out increa.<;(!d. Th~ phY8icni properties of the liquid
phases, the type and size of packing (for packed.
Flo. 306. Perforated plate, Of' sic\'(! plllle, column for \illuid-
liquid edra c~ion. A A ~huwn, liquid flo ...8 downward through f.,o\\.f'I"R), the size of d rops (for spray towcrs) , the
the pip!!IJ or 9C1I:JIl<Jnts an.d upwurJ through dIU perforation&. !!ize and l()('ation of perforations (for plat.e columns),
CoIumrll!l &re . I!IO constnlcto..~ 1 "';11, the p1H.tel! invl'rted , in as well as the clltrance conditions, all will affe<:t the-
wbich CIlII8 the B6w it< upw,u"" (h"Mlgh the pipe or ae,;ment limiting rates.
and down through the pcrfumtions. The II.J"!uHlI:emcnt Although considerable data 00 the perfofmaooe of
depends upon which phage ilS to be , l i~')(,I""iII!d ROO is oft.. n
determined by lhe inl eMI. cial pro,K'rlies of l.he nuid8 aud ~be mlrul-walc equipment are availa.IJ1c, little infonna:;
m!\t eri.~ls Qf (~"'struc Li(>n. l.ioo is available on the perfOlmo.nee of large---scale
equipment, and the design of such equipment &t
The aiere-plale column C()r l"elip(mdll, in a sense, to a prct;ent is La!'Cd 0 11 empiriral procedures and . .
series of short spray columns mounted one above the specific information fOl the liquid being extracted
other. The dispersed l)quid recomhines above the and the type of eq llipmcnt being lI!ICd.
plate and is then again suhdividod and re<iispersed
in passing t.hrough the perforations of the next plute.
l\Il<.THO US OF OPERATION
Since it has been shown lhat for single drops an
appreciable amount (40 t.o",5 por cent) of the tot.ul The ~me met.h,ods or operation that were used
extraction occurs as the drop is formed and before for solidliquid extraction may also be applied to
its release from thc nozzJe," it is possiMe that t he Iiquidliqu id extract ion, namely, (1) single contact,
reported effectiveness of thi!! t}'Ilt: of equipment i!! (2) simple multiple-con'tact, and (3) count.eicurrent
due to the frequent formation of new surfacl'lS at multiple-contad. Countercurrent mu ltip l~taet
each ' of .the plates. Decreasing lhc plal.e ,spMing operation may be either batch or C(mtinuOlls. Be--.
improves the extraction efficiency but dCCreMC!! the cause of the greater eaSe in ha.ndling liquid phases,
302 UQUID-UQUID EXTRAcnON
"t'' 'f.=;;:;;;j,-,-:,~,-l~.....
c..
"1 v,
I L,
.....
2
Yo
L,
; [ .....
L,- I r--' ~"T7'
r?fl
L,
UtrKt reflux
E.drkt, D feed, L, RaffiMle, L .
Fro. 307. Schematic diagfsm ilItqtrat iog countercurren~ multipJo.eont.act utnctiOD with u lnu:t re8ux, stream ~
..........
VA. I ....'''''',
,...
L, II-I L. _l II L.
continuous operation is more commonly used in larger quantity of solvent per unit quantity of feed .
liquid-liquid extraction than in solid-liquid extrac- Reflux may also be provided at the end of the
tion. system from which the raffin8.te layer leaves. With
In certain cases, the use of "reflux" with counter- such an operation, termed "exhausting by reflux"
current multiple-contact operation may be advan- or " raffinate reflux" (Fig. 308), a portion of the
tageous. When countercurrent muitipJe-eontact raffinate layer leaving the system is mixed with the
extraction without reflux is used, the maximum incomiri g solvent 80 that the resulting liquid (stream
concentration of solute that can be obtained in ' the y _+1) is usually sa.turated with respect to the major
extract layer, even if an infinite number of stages is raffinate component. This liquid is then introduced
used, is that corresponding to equilibrium with the into stage n. The feed (stream L() is introduced at
incoming feed . U the concentration of the solute the opposite end of the system (stage I), and the
in the feed is low, it may be desirable to obtain a ' extract layer leaves t-his same stage. The use of
higher concentration in the extract layer than corre- raffinate reflux has been said to improve the degree
sponds to equilibrium with the food. This may be of removal of s')lute from thc raffinate.'t1
a.ccomplished by taking a portion of the extract layer Both extract and raffinate reflux may be employed
from which some or all of the solvent has been simultaneously. However, the use of reflux is not
removed and returning this to the system at the generally applicable hut is limited to certain types
same stage from which the extract layer leaves. of ternary systems as will be considcred under
This type of operation has been termed "enriching equilibrium relationships.
by reflux" or "ext.ract reflux 1.11 (Fig. 307) . The
feed (st.ream t,) enters at. an intermediate stage of
METHODS OF CALCULATION
the 9}'8tem. Fresh solvent (stream V.+.) enters at.
stage n, IUld ~he raffuu'l.te layer (stream L.) leaves Ai5 in solid-liquid extraction, the basis of calcula.-
from t.h.ie stage. The extract. layer (stream VI) tion is the ideal stage. Since the two phases leaving
1ea.ves stage 1 and is sent to the solvent removal unit an ideal stage are in equilibrium with each otber,
where solvent. is removed from the stream. The the "stage" includes that portion of the equipment
result.ing material is then divided into two port.ions, which contacts and stlparates the two phases. In
the reflux (stream 1..0) which is ret.urned to stage 1 the case of liquid-lilLuid extra.ction where separate
and 'the extract. product (stream D). The use of mixing and settling vesaels are wed,each combina.-
extract reflux allows the extract. layer leMing the tion of a mixing vessel and a settling vessel consti-
system to come into contact with material .,hich tutes a stage which mayor may not be an equilibrium
contains 8. higher concentration of solute than that stage, depending on whether or not equilibrium exists
of the feed, but a.ix:omplisbes this by requiring a between the two pbases leaving the stage.
METHODS OF CALCULA n ON
U the erlractioo equipment is of the type where neglected in most C&8e8 88 being unimportant in
ODe phase flows past the other phase without mixing, liquid..J.iquid transfer.
"or oC the spray or packed-column type where the Material baLmct.I for the total streams and for
phases are continuously in oootact throughout the any individual compooent ma.y be made lUI was
equipment and llepar&tion of the phases is not done for solid-liquid extraction.
aooomplisbed until the outlet is reached, tbe equip-
ment 'may be equivalent to a number of equilibrium EquiUbriurn RelotiomhlJN in Ternory Sy"tenu
stages. In such cases the effectiveness of the equip- Acooniing to the phase rule there are three degrees
ment may be expreseed 88 the height or length of of freedom (three inde pendent varia.bles) for a ter.
the equipment which is equivalent to an equilibrium nary (tbJ-ee.component) IJyt!tem consisting of t.wo
stage. Other metll(xls of exr-rosBing the effectiveness liquid ph8Blll! at equilibrium. A L any temperature
in terms of the rate of m&88 transfer, such as the and presaure, therefore, only <rill degree of freedom
hei&,ht or length corret!ponding to a "transfer unit;" remains. II the composition of one of the liquid
will be discussed in a later chapter. ph88efl is specified or fixed, all the independent van.
In the present methods for calculating the number abies are fixed, a.nd the oomposition of the second
of equilibrium stages required for a liquid.liquid liquid phase is also fixed a.nd is not an independent
extraction, it is assumed that only the two liquid variable provided tha.t equilibrium conditions exist.
phases are present, and the sy8tem consists of three A ternary system composed of components A, B,
(or more) CIOmponenUi, the two (or more) compo-- and C may be rega..rded as compoeed of three binary
nents preeent in the original &oiution, and the solvent systems-A and B, B and C, and A and C. The
used for the extraction. The presence of small most common type of temary.phase diagram is that
quantities of impurities may be neglected as far as for which two of the hinary systems are completely
the equilibrium relationships are concerned. Any miscible liquids and the trurd binary system is one
single stage operatee at a C()ll8tant temperature. in which the liquid! are only partially miscible. The
The calculation of the number of equilibrium phase diagram for euch a ternary sy8tem is shown in
stages required for a Iiquid..J.iquKi extraction is based Figs. 309 and 310, which represent the data for the
00 the two principles of (I ) material balances, and diphenylheX&llMi~urfura1 sy8tem at 4.') C
(2) equilibrium relatioosbips. and 1 atm.t Figure 309 is the equilateral triangle
Energy b&la.nces are generally not made becaWle pba.ge dia.gra.m customarily U8ed, and Ftg. 310 is the
of the lack of data such &8 he&t.s of 8OIutioo, beat right triangle phase diagram for the 88IDe system as
capacities, and surface energies, and these effects are represented on rectangul&r coordinates.
1.00
~
o 1.00
.."
\ .., I"'-
0." \
1"-
La
~
0.,,\
i
Ii 0.60
I
1"-
pD,
/ ~
I
..,
,f." H
~
~o.40
~ F
H,L. J-...... L,\
~
~
n 020
""
~
D II
n
UIO
o .., 0.40 0.60 OJI) 1.00
o 0
0
JI
0.40
.... FtICtion FwfInI - -
J'1Q.lI09. EqWlateral ~ phue diagram ror diphenyl-
""
FIG. 310. Pbue diagaDl (or dipbellY~UJ'.
"" .., 1.00
~ I"- . to a tic line of tero length, that is, for which the two
li.quid phases in equilibrium have the Me composi-
0." tion, ie; called the "critical" or "plait" point and is
1"-
1t 0.60 1"-
1"-
represented by point P.
The influence of pressure on the equilibriilm in
liquid phases may u.sually be neglected unlcss high
, 6
', 0.40 1/
45 " C
.yet--- L"-
pressures are considered. The effect of temperature
is usually much more important as i~ may change
the t)'lXl of phase diagram, increase or dllCl'P.ase the
~
~
.,.
2 /
V
. V
1"'-
J1S'C
r--
I::':::,
area of the tlV~phase region without affecting the
type of diagram, or chnnge the slope of the tie lines.
111e cffed of te mperature on the phase dingrlUTl for
~ diphenyl hexune--f.locOMne-furfural is shown in Fig.
31 1. .F or this l:lystem, an increase in temperature
1/ N:\-
140' C
of the twu liquid phases in eq}!ilihrium approach FlO. 312. Phue dillgram for mllthyl-r.yclopentane.normal
each otht;lr as the di phenylhexane content of the MlIIn_niJine lit 25 C and liltm.
METHODS OF CALCULAllON
outside the two brlUlches. This particular diagram have been derived (equations 236 to 245) for solid~
is or special interest because it permits the use of liquid extraction apply also to liquid-liquid extrac-
extract reflux. The equilibrium relat.ionships for tion. The main dist.inction between the two opera.-
this sysWn are very seLSitive to temperft.ture in the tions is that the overflow in solid-liquid extraction
range from 26 to 4ljo C. If the tempel'lltllrc min- consists of only two components whereas in l iquid~
creased to 45 C, the phase diagram (Fig. 313) ill liquid extraction all three components are uSllslly
present in the overflow. Also, there is no inert
1.00 " material in liquid-liquid extraction corresponding to
'"
f='"",
-
r- _'~
the inert solids in solid-liquid extracti~.
i---" i'. L The qUlI.lltiiy of ODe liquid 8tream, umail y that stream
consisting primarily of component C and designated
- i'. !loe '"raffiTl!l.t.e" pbase.
H V Tb.. quantity of the other liquid Mnam, WIUaII~' t:...
---..;
I'" Bt rmm oonfIifltlng primarily of eompooentS and delli."
t
:-...~
D /I Ml\laI fl"llCtioo ;n stream V of the oompooont designated
by a letter llllbeeript. l1li V.. , VC. or lIS.
o k ~
o 0.20 0.40 0.00 OJIO 1.00 In the diphenylhexane-docosane-furfural system
Mole Fraction Aniline at 45 C (Fig. 310), furfural may be used as the
Pm 313. P)11l8t: dial{Taffi for methy1cyciopentan&-Dol1ll&i solvent for the extraction of 8. solution of diphenyl-
he:utfle-:miline at 45" C and I atm. hexane and docosa.ne. The furfural will then bt-
designated. as component S. The equilibrium data
s,imilar to the type first diacu!!SOO, as the methyl- show that the ratio
cyclopentlUle a.od aniline are completely miscible at
this 'temperature. M ass of diphenylhexane
If 8. separat ion is to be elTected by liquid-liquid M8BI! of (diphenylhexane + dooosane)
extra.ction, the overall composition of the mixture
in lWy stage must lie in the two-phase regioD of the is greater in the extract (furfural) phase than in ~be
pb~ diagram.. raffinate (do6oe8Jle) phase. COWlequently, the fur-
fural is selective for the diphenylhexane. The
Graphicai M.uhods dipbenylhexime will therefore be designat.ed 8.8
Any liquid-liquid extractioo problem can be solved component A, and the docosa.ne &8 component C.
by the repeated use of material balances aDd the The quantity of the extract phase from any s .
eq~ibr ium relationships according to the arith- will be designated by the symbol V, an appropriate
metical method illustrated for solid-liquid extraction. subscript being u~ to indicate the stage from which
The graphica.l method is simply a grapruca.l repre- the stream flows. Similarly, L will represent the
sentation of the ~terial balanO('s and equilibrium quantit.y of raffinate phase leaving any stage.
data and is simila.r to tbat used for solid-liquid
extraction. The symbols used for liquid-liquid ex- Continuou1.Covntercurrent Multiple- ~wc,
traction are similar to th08e .used in Table 28, Operation.
Chapter 21, and are given below. The schematic diagram of a liquid-liquid extrac-
The representation of material balances, the con- tion system using continuous countereurrent mul-
cept of addition and differenoe points, and the general tiple-oonta<:t operation shown in Fig. 308 be may
proper~ of the triangular diagnun are the same in simplified by omission of the mixer, in which case
both cases. Consequently, aU the relationships that V _+1 fePWRf'nt.fl rresh solvent.. When the system is
L1QUID-UQUID EXTRAcnON
opera.ting under stea<iy-etate conditions, the mate-. POINTS IOOATINO THE SOLUBILITY OR SATURA-
rial balances over the whole system are represented T ION CURVE ENCWSING THE TWO-PHASE
REGION IN TJ:lE EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM I
by equations itlentical to thoee obtained for solid-
liquid extraction (equations 241 and 242). M _ Fra.ction M_ Fra.etion M_Fr&et.ioD
Furfural Dipnenylbexane ""'-
Total m&terial balance:
.. .
,...!,
'"
phenyl-
f>ooo. Fur-
'woI,
"
......,
,-" f>ooo.
......
thfJ ul.nu:tioo. appuatu8 ill equiVJJent to three equilibrium
.''''
Number
",,""
Pha.!ie, ..."
ilaffillaU!
Phase, z...
1 0.1015 0 . 104
2 0 .051 0.053
3 0.027 0.028
, 0 .ot3
0.0075
0.0135
0 .0080
~ 0.24
,
"Q2Q
!t ""0.12
~
, 008
N ~ 0.04
,.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
M
o j~ O~
o OJ 0.2 G.l o
0.04 0.Cl8 0 . 2 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.32
Mns FrKboo Dlptltt1y1Ile.<aI'le. "'.... Y... Min Fraction Oipllenylhexane In Docoslne Ph.SII
SA'
101(1. sa. Graphical dcterminatlort of number or equilibrium 1'10. 3 Ui. Equilibrium diatribur.ion or di pbenylbeune be-
stag... required wben t.be solvent-to-ffled ratio i. 1.66. t1reefl furfural -.nd 0000Mne a t 45 0 C .
Port I . The addit ion point 7.J (Fig. 314) is louted 00 lhe Pan t . When the number of equilibrium IIt.apIt La be..-l.
~fied. a trialanderror 8OIutioo is neoetIIIaT)' in order to
i.e
line joinioC pom u:re and .--+1 110 tha.t
determine the IlI!oeee&lY ma..s
ra tio of solvtlDt to feed and t.be
compoSition of the e.x1Aet. proU-..et, 1(1. The ai..nple;it. pr0-
cedure is to _ me It. value for t~ oompcet.ion of the estraet
product, 1(1, and determine the number of equilibrium IItqee
required. Thill proeedure b ropce.u.d eeveraJ UtDI'JI SO I.hat.
1be point VI ill tbeD Io<:ated at the intcnect.ioo. of t.he stniJbt the number of &quilibrium stages requited may be plotted
line t.hrough point. z .. and ZJ wilb the equilibrium C\.Il'Ve. against the solvent-to-fe(,d ratio used, ae in Fig. 316. The
Tho oompo6ition ill ('-Al! - 0.1016, and (.-.'Ih - 0 .882. The required soIvenwo-l'eed ... tio q then ~ from ~ clw1. (or
difl'erenoe poiIlt, ;q.. ill located at. t he m\e:neetion 01 the male- tho Bpeeilic number of equilibrium ~tacea.
rial boi.lance or c.pera.ting line through poinl.8 z:o and lib and
that through poin t. z" and V" ... I ae indicated in Fie. 31*.
The nurobel' of ~uilibrium stages required is determined
by makin, the equilibrium .. nd material ~re calculations
,
&.a de&cribed unwl Ule dellired valUII for (ZA) .. _ om i, ob- 0
,
tai.nOO.. From the equilibrium d,u. plot ted in Fi,. 316, {or
(VA)t - 0.1015, (Z,I)t it! found to be 0.104.
The material bal&nce iI made by drawing the s t.ralgbt. liM
\
(Fic. 314) joining pointa z l and z". TI>e intenleCtion Q( t.ha "-
, "-
..
line with the equilibrium curve at point 112 [(",,)1 - 0.051)
IPves the oomposir.ion of the e",U'act ~t.ream bving IItII&e 2.
The prooelI8 of equilibrium calculat ion to find Z'! and lDater...aJ o
btJs.nce to find 1/, ill repeated until a point ~ ,i, obtained which o 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 s.o
bae a composition (.:E,.) equal to or lol'l"el' than (z ... ) . - 0.010. MaS$ IbOO of SoIverlt to Feed
Approxim.tely 4.6 101.100 llteps oorrosponding to abou t 4.6 hypo- FI ll. 316. The number of equilibrium .ta~ requi red u a
thetical equilihriwn stage~ lUll ruquired to reach tbiIJ poinL $II function of the IIOIvent-to-feed ...tW.
UQUID- LIQUID EXTRACTION
I .1 gruphical Mlluli"n in Fi,. 317. ThO! num/x-r of equilibriwn
~ >ajI;"~ !"f!quire.J for ... jtiV1)n scpal"llt i"n i n ~n.1~....." .... t he ratio of
I.o ",,1V('nt lO feed d(~<:reIl!leS.
'
\' ~ .
, \ z... ,,- ~
T he limilu'K.eund itiOI\ of lUI iulin il(> I\umb"r "f equi librium
BUlges oo"'-'Sponc\!! IP I I", uliniu uuu 1lI1 io "r IIOl vent t.u r.......1
w al may I>e ueed. l"n<.k,r Ihe!>(! '~ 'lI< li li"n~ or
in fi nite "'agI"',
t.he d il,hen)' lhe)(&nC c'.m 1<- ut <VA). 01 1he '.~ t rll(:t pha.'IC ill Ihe
"(,,..~ H~
/~
lnIlXimum (hal CIilIl be " h," in(-d fur t he !fiven f~"d e.. nditiWl8.
The oond itionr; COIT8Ilponding 10 &II infinit, number of equi-
7 libriu m 8IJlgt$ are ro POC:I) ' oU in F.iJt. 3 17 i>y <le.termining lhe
J
II 1!\w,.o<I ..,....
, equilihrium t;e li ne l or XI IIntl lll which whe n extc nded 0I'lSeeI!0
through xtI. T h" diller-enre poiM %4 lice on a WRight line
connecting ,,~ anrl Il l> II.Ild An infini te numoor of stages (no
5
\ / change in I.'(}m position) i~ indicatt.'(i when X, &l$O lie!! on truB
litle. Under t heole'tondit kmll th~ mll.terial balll.rtr.e (operating)
r( line {XI - !I I) is identical wit h t he equilibrium line (Z I - !lU,
and !I, - !II - ~, Clo .
o1
'/ \ pa.S5C8 through :lIj on Fig. 31 '7 .
: ,RllliIIol~ p/'IKOo For the fnud ciJm p<'!ition specified (:to _ 0.200 on Fig. aI7),
the oomp<lllit ion 111 i6 found t.o be
0 " '.
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 (!lAh - 0 .194 (lIs)1 - 0.'786
Min rrK lio-n Diphenyl hexlne, "'<I_ Y..
shown on Fig. 317 &8 point III (llWIi mum). The maximum
Flo. 317. GmphiCII.\ ca.]oul ation of the minimum 'IOlvent-to-
diphenylbexane conocntra.t ion t ],a t CII.I) bI'! obtained in the ex-
feed .... t io reqllired fo r part 3 of ill U.'lt rative e >.lllllple. tract product ;. t hercfOl"e O.11J4 ma&>I rract ion.
The 8lnLight line joining poinla z~ and III (maximum) inter-
From the infonnatbn obtained from part. 1 it is evident 9CC18 t he line joining poinl8:. and V. H . at t he addition point
Lot a !IOlvent-to-feed ratio greater tluw 1.00 must be W!ed if :r,/'. The minimum llW'II I'ILtio of 80lvent to rll6d, d e termiDed
3 equilibrium ,tAp .-ro desin,d . Thill rorlBllpOOl!.. to. corn- from Fig. 317, iB
poei tion , (Y .. h, Ieee than 0.1015 maBII r~ion dipbcnylhexane
in tbe exuaet prod\l~. If .. val ue of <It.d \ .. o.07O -iS !ielccl.ed, Ma.>JI 0I1101vent iOij:
ihe number of equi librium etageS required is found to be M IIIlS of feed - :t/lI.
==== +1 - 0.83
approxill'Ul.tely 3, Bnd t he mus rat io of solvent to feetl i.~ 2.72.
ParI.~. Con:ti<Jer the e1Tcet of ...::\ding vlU'ioUll quantit.M. of
Eo;e..cise. Diphcnylhouoe ill to be eeparated from a
80lvent IJ) the ayatem per
unit quantity of loed. A~ an ex_ miuUl'll conl&ining 0.20) I\'eill:ht fractioD dip~nyl1nr..ne and
0.800 weigh~ fraction doco5!o.noe by e)l;t noct ion with furlur&i. "
ample, " pPOIie tha t t he mhS ratio of lIOivont j.o fee<! i~ 2.0.
If ~ denol'" tlli~ liddition point for ~treallU! 1..0 a nd V,,+, on 45 C. A Hi'lIplc multir>le-oontaot ext~tion system ill to be
the dia;r&m (Fi,. 8(7), it m ust fullill the eondition ~
used . The furfural u~ conta]M O .OO~ weight fn.ction di-
phenylooxane. Th"", equilibrium ~t~ lire t o be used. The
:\1a.ss of solvent .. z~ .. 2.0 tot"l furfural U$ed i.e to 00 2.7 Ib/l b of feed and is to be equally
divided among ",.." h ~tI<lIie . De te rmine the qUlLlltity and com-
,, MIIoII8 of feed :l:'J II"1-1
position of all 8treAms leaving the ey stcro bll.8ed' on 1000 Ib
A etraight line through t he Iklint %8 .. nd J, therefore, inter- of feed "ntcri~ the system. Cumpa.re till! compoeitioD of the
osccts the oquilibrium curv e in th e point 111, which rcpre..::nu, railinaw product le"ving the ~y stem with that obWned for
the composition of cx tra.<:t atroam VI . For II. IUa!<II mtio of the lI\ustrll.tiv" k:x"mpie, PRr~ 2.
IIOlvent. to fll6d o f 2, th~ ~om p(lI!ititm.tl ror III and J are
IntcTlllooiate Feed. A Iiquid.liquid extraction
(YAh - 0 .0\11 (Z A)J - 0.070 system may be operated with more than one feed,
(y.sh - 0.8\14 (.t.s)J - 0.665 using more than one solution from which it if! desired
to extract a given component. The feed stream
H the quan ~i ty of eoIvl.Ill t u"ed per unit quantity of food is containing the highest concentration of the dis-
Jemo.ued, t he I'ILtio %o:tJh"n. ... 1 ill amal ler ; the addition point
~ i4 10<:.1.0<:1 nca.rot :. on \he linti joining !.be poinla ~ and t ributed component is introduced into :tage I and
V.. +I; and tJ.., compollition of the ~lttnM:t layer leaving !.be is designated 4J. The feed stream containing the
equipmea\ VI in~ in diflbeoylbuaoe as indicated by t he lowest concentration of the distributed component
ME1HODS OF CALCULATION
.~.;intrqdueed at a later intermediate frtae. Th~ For component A: . ( I
8tage into which the intermediate feed Is introduced I ".
t~ .:feled
stage/. The quantity of intennediate food Lo(z.. )o + L,(x.t ),. + V,,+ I(Y,,) ..+l
18 designated by L,.
t.. ' .. ,.1
Under steady-etate operating cpoditions, the mate- - L .. (x,4 ) .. + VtUl,th (247.4)
rial bal&Dcea may be made graphically as shown in These equations are similar to cquaLions 241, 242,
and 242.1 bUt inelude one m~re term because oj the
-M t. rt .... "" ~
'.'
additional intertnediate 'feed .
The material baJan.CtS. fqr st~ 1 W f - 1 in
clusive are : ,... 'h
., Total"material bslance;
, to + ":/r - Lj_l' + V I - (248)
, 1 "
(249)
.d. Fbr rlompopeni'.f: J' J )",u-.IJ' 'tl'l. j ~/; ,:.f .!!.l'
1,1 I ",1",.0 1 ,I .lu~ , .,j .." < A
Lo(x,t.)o+ V,b/.t)/ - L/_ I{ZA )i.t~ +- ~l(Y'\h (k (24M)
EqulI.ti01lll 248, 249, and\249A 1Day lie uaed to define
a 4!fferrn~ point .1." , ~"ll. \
.1 -
-
-.. .
to -
1..1_1 -
VI ... LJ - V, _ . .
VI (~
Laxa - VUlt
V J1I1
i~ ~~~~~~~~~ XD,-
Lo-Vl
-
LI-V~
_ ...
.!
i o. f.\-+-+1+4;,q""'l-.J-~cI-...J J_
.'
- ~ o2fi-j.o.~~~-i--~--~~",!~~~
",
'. o'~~~--~~~__L-~-J~~l ' I "';t t!1
- i Q ao'l ~ )Ii: ~ ' sa !::I ~ . '.c. '"\' co ~ In the same manner, the material balances for stages
a a add d d .d , 0 f.+1tona.re: \11 ,~":t
MA" Friction Acttoll4
FIo. Sla. Grapbial materiaL ~~ I to loeat.e dilferenoe
< .l Point, for Jo.u!~i&t:e feed. -~.
Total material balance:
Fit 11,. 'fi 'I. ' t ,",r (,~
"
SIO UQUlD-UQU1D EXTRACI10N
Equatiorul 253, 254, and 25M may be UBed to define have. been written.,- If XJ il!. the- addition point '&8
_ L/+1%/+I - y,+,,,'t.:a j~
., By dividing one equation by the other
L.. x .. - V II+IY.. +I
L/+1 V!+I (262)
L.. V II +I
- L,.x" - V ,,+111.+1
L,,-V"+l ,
U
. (257)
'!
Therefore, the difference point xt., / represent.s" the
subt raction of stream VI from stream' J, and a
The re1a.t.iOlll!bip between the t~o ~~~ p'oin~ straigp..t)i~.,tW;p1J.gh tbe points XJ and Yl interse<:ts
.4 and 6' may be obtained by rearTangemeot of the straigbt"'line 'through the points :rIO and .1/..+1 at
equ&t.ioos 246 and 247. ~.' . ' the difIere~, point %4',
1.0 - Vi -+ It, - L.. - V,,,+1 (~) E~ Show t.hat. the dill ee' point ~ ill determined
by the inrenection of the 4tcai~ine through the pointll Ze
LoZ n - Villi + LFxl' "" L .. z .. - V"+ly,,+'j '(247) and Y1 with the. straight line through
, the point&: 2".4' Bond ~,.
Since When ,the quantity and ' composition of each ter-
po - 1.0 - V I (equAtion 250) minal stream and of the intermedilLte feed II.re fixed,
and the number of equilibrium stages required ....ill vary
depending 011 the stage in which the intermediate
., Il+L,-/J.' (258)
feed .is introduced.: However, there III one. stage for
which the ~umber of~uilibnu-m stages required is
Division of eqI,Jstion 247 by equation 246 gives II. miniillum. ' This stage "ill be designated as the
"correct rn.age for introduction of, the intermediate
Lozo - Vlrl + Lpxp L..;x.". - Y"+IY"~I feed."
The graphiool solulion may be- started eitner at
stage 1 or stage n....- If the graphical solution is started
By subs\itutiog from equations 250, 251, 255, and
at stage 1, ~the procedure is t~ same as that pre-
256 in the above ~uation viously;;ouUinEKt- (illustrat ive 'example, p. 3(6),
, ' ...," '! i ~: ': '
diJTe~nce point Xb,' for ' this section
.:1(%4)
A+L,
+ L,x,
, '
- (L\')(xt.' )
-.
A _~ ..ter pha.te. 00Ilt.&iDi1ll 0.060
aaet.oaIliI _'" fl'aetion
to t. tl'eat.ed in the ~:rtJ'aCt.iOO. q.t.em ., ..
rue ul o.~ of IOllltion -taininc D,D) __ fractioo. number
with tbat through tbe' pointe z, a nd 111.
The uaW graphical procedure is followOO to OOWWhe lbe
,
N~bu
s_
Equilibrium Ertrict PhMe,
M.... Fractioo
A.aetoIle,V~
RafIina\e P~,
Maat ,Frarlioo
AcetOne, %,1.
,-. )Vater,
tone.zJ. .., .....,
M_
..
~,
j M&-
tooo, rA
J I Water,
"
.
M ....
,),~111'-
~,
The cOrrect'~ for tlie InUOOumioo. 01. tbe In~te
feed II equilibrium Btase 3. The rtwuber of equilibrium 8""""
required W lIightJ.y greaWl w.n
6 and Ie. thaG 6 . ....
.
. "
~
"
.0
~
".
"
I Y,
-t "."
'.
'\ \ '
,,, ,
,
\
, \""
.1_
,
,I
,
I.
,.)(1"
"
~"'~
I
~;:
( ~Mth
nqI;&it>ll''''''.... ~.
lilt ~
1<.
;'1 .'
a.!I,
<.~.
,
1
"
\
I
I I ..
I
'~" <l _.j,
~K ~.'
,
:ii\ . " ...-Hypoletluw
'.I t-Hf-'--l--\l--+~'-~h>-S--1~--+~
I ,
OS I
,
,
I," . I I
;, \
"'-' .J.!1f-'~' ~J---"'-'-"'-I-I---1
I
, ., I I I
I -
,, I
0, 1+" , I'" ,
'i I
1\ I
-' ".
,. , :X ' . I
I
". -
"
,
I
\' I.
I 1\ ,'" ".: f ,,':,n~N,
, :04wlI+H:,\-,:j;:...:('\-++~:"-+-!';'-1I
. " - " I "., -"\~,,
' +"-'-"-'+"-:' " i-~'":''-'~'~'+.I\.,'l:,C',:;,"\\-:-"f-,.-'.-'--1,.,:"
,"
r' ",;' .\
"
~ f '
-;-j
, , '1
02 '
1"
I
i--
i \, .,- I:
"
,,,,~
"
" -\
y. "j , \
,,'
.,r!.1 J" 1'!"1.,lH .,...-;. '_ 1,\ <:,
i'
'I\t " ;:':~~\
,
I.
L, ,
I
I
I
, ', I'
' I"
\ I
I
I
'. ,
I , I)' ,
I
o <'.
".02 " .04 0.06 0.'" 010 0.12 0.14 0:'16 .18 o
M3SS Fraction Acetone
, Fit]. 319. Complete graphical !lOlution for iUUlltrativ~ example, p. 31l.
,"'
0.060 weilbt &action I!.oooone IOlhtion are ml""d' &nd the mix-
'
p. 311) and eqtiations 246 tnrolj.gh 262 may be
ture it tbeuexuacted in,,,, I'l(lIlt.inUflIa ~,~t multip~ usedt..:
_1!IOO~,t V ,lItem. "II ~-~itioN. a.te to ~ ~ SIUfM' ~
i.a \he ih~~ve example, p. 311 , . . .,
When I operaing With refl~, it will be assumed
that; '~.~ ,~ .., .
,Reflux. The use or extract reflux as d~ I . The stream V leaving the solvent ! removal
'Wider Methods,of 6peration,(Fig. 307) is uSuatfy o unit eootains only eomponenlJ:! A and S, with com-
~o practical importance or a temary system in ponent S being the main constituent. . '
which two ;of the: binary~ ~ms are completely - 2. The att'eAllU! t:V 'f,d d; which: hllov~ the same
mialSble liquids (Fig. 3(0), :amce ilie overafi-compoei- cOmP&iti&5~ are saty,r&ted ~h'ases sci~th~ ~e;.Point
don of the mixtures "O:lOth phases) , ~ s~ '1; to Xn, which represents their ,COI)lposition, Jies on the
}'Il1ich the ~'ti.ux La is ';t~med, is'-ly.ery clq@e. to ~ branch MN of' the< Solubility curve (~e Fig; 312
phaAC boundary curve, making separation of. the or 320), , - \ (,
two phases difficult. Tjtis limitation does not occur
in a ternary system in which two of the binary Under steady--st-ate operating conditions, the tmate-
systems are partially mitlcible, as illustrated :in rial ba.11\D ce8~ written for the solvent removal unit are
Fig. 312. , Total material 'balance:
The solVent removal unit shown in Fig. qo7 may
VI i V + Lo+D . (263)
include various means of separating tbe solvent ';Om
the' extract phase, depending upon the system con- For any component:
sidered. Regard~ o., meaps pf, separation, the V1YI - .Vy Lozo + + Dxl) (264)
extraction system shown in Fig. 307, (exclusive of the For eomponentA: ;,". '" '. ., ....
solvent removal) is identical to operating with inter- , ..,,'".
mediate feed withOUt reflux (ilhllitrli.tive example, V1(Yih - ' V(Y..t} + l<d\XA)O + D(ZA)D (265)
METHODS OF CALCULATION .\3
Under nonna! operation, the solvent stream Y from The .r..tio of stream Dto stream. Vmay be"deter-
tlre solvent removal unit is recycled to the extracti911 mined 8.l5 follows.
B}'!Item, and t he composition of stream V _+1 i!l ,t he
wne as th"t of stream V. Equations 2M and 265
mAy tben be 'written:
. -V+ (; + l)~ _ (~I)V (:103)
VIIIl - VJl~'+1 + Loro + Dzo (2640)
Rearranging and dividing 'by D,
V1W,,). .. Y (YA) ..+l + Lo(ZA)O + D(z,,)o (26&1)
..
g'net product i8 WJed. ill equal. to the Dumber of moIea of material in the IeaYin,
2. Det.ernUne the minimum reflux ratio (Lo!D}..1Io that may 1It.reamt, all qut.ntit.ies and oompositiODll ma,. be I!I~ in
"""- tenn8 of mo1N "" well all in terms of ma..
8. Determine the maximum CODCIIDtntiOD of methylcyclo- The rono.rdol valuet are eet by the Btatement of the prob-
pentaoo tha t may be obtained in the extract product willi
the .arne feed composition and the _me raftina.te product
"m.1. Composition of the feed: (ZA )' - 0.400 and (:rc), - \
oompoe;it.iou but .,.ithout the me of extract refluz. 0.600.
'"
7. +1
_1_
1.00
Q
,- ~I": (.)_
~ ~" Id.-I stIfIS NqUind - 12.7 or 13
fMC! mould be introduced In ideal stili No. 6
~ -'!."~' :.~
o.ao !:"."' ... ~..~.
~l'.
~\!0-. I'"
,\1\\ I, 1"'-
~I\~ 1\
1\ 1<\
:~
1"'-
\\11 r.,\ 1\ l'\ D
,\ \~\ \ \ \ 1" 1"'-
\\\1\ l\ 1\ 1\ l\ I), r- thrDU&h points %D - 1:, and Y - ,... 1
,\ ~\
1\ l\ ~~ 1\ 1\ 1\ \
V , 1"'-
1"'-
. \ 1\ ~ 1\ 1,\ I" 1"'-
\ \ \ \\ 1\ \ \
\ 1\ \\' \
\
1\
\ \ _\
I,
'" "I"
\ '\
~
-,
" ~
I
020
V,
,2~,
... ... I",
FIG. 320. Complete (!:MlphicalllOlution (or part I of iU u.etrative example.
METIlODS OF CAWUbATlON SIS
2. Compollilion of the extraet produet: (Z'.li)D - 0 .700, pf\Me. Tbla intenloel.ion cor1"e8pOndt to (/o' A)1 _ 0.132 ~
(ZlI)'D _ 0.11(1, II.nd ED - ;roo fn.etion &nd (v.l! - 0.833 mole fraetion. By meMUl'ement of
a. Compotlition of the raffinat.e product : (%:.)..... O.USO. diet.anee!! atong the line z;y::;j,
For AD equilibriulIl mp,. z" mlt!l rlie 1'11'1 lIOI.ubitity eurve to ~ ,. , ,.
that (~) .. ill fixed. ~.., '....; VI %4'_+1 ,",O uniI5 '
4. Composition of .~ IIOIvetit: (..,d"+1 .. 0.005, Uld (,...) .. ';'1 -Y - .- i;ft - 36.7 urutll
. .... 1.323
-O.~ . .
5. ReftUlt ra~io (L.ID) - 10. v (LtI D) 1 *"
11
(266)
D - ' (V 1I Vl-l - 0.223 - 49.3
TABLE 33.' SATI::RATED AND EQUILIBRIUM COM
POSITIONS FOR THE TWO PHAS~ IN THE SYSTEM .9 unit.s
METHYLCYCLOPENTANE-NHEXANE-ANILINEi .... + 101 .. (1 + YID) 50.
- 0.93 llIIit (269)
' TEMPERATURE, 2:i- C'
Sjmi l~ly. the point ",,"' ill located by t he into:>~ion of tM
. Iinu joining points U &nd 2'4 with the line joining the poinlol
!WI'OM UJ<"
,.hilioo t.yot ;/;. and 10'.. +1 ( Fi,. a2Oa).
- " Tbe UllUal Cf1IPbIcai prooed\lre ill followed to determine t.be
101.... ' ........ N .... It.o ... w.. "....... },I_RoW oumber of equilibrium 1ItaI>lII, Tbe eQmplete lIOIution is Indi-
---.. , '-.
---',- - -- .- - -.
w- -.
cated in Fig. 320. The e.pprol<imatc compOllitions of the
...., .....-,
----...
IItreams le!I.vin, the equilibrium 8~ &re sh01l' 1l in T able M.
e
.H..- A~;'
K, TABLE 34, COMPOSITION OF STREAMS LEAVING
~
W...
"
I,
~ n " " EACH IDEAl. STAGE
'. 100
O.MlO' 0.5L4
'.071
.....
.. ~
,
.......'" ..... .
a. De7
O.lM
. ........ ....-
.6.41 UN!
G. .su f.IOU
0.0711
..
o t l' a..u
~
o,~
0.014
G.1I1
...
-
0'.07'
. G, m
O:ilO
"'7'
.
' .110
Number T
Extract PhA8e
"
~
Y","
.
n...ffioow Phase
,.. X.
8ection of the line joinin, pointll :t:D - ~ II:D-d ..... /o'''H, with 8 0 ..047 0.429 0.295 0 .322
the ' bn.neh of t he IIOlubility c'.Jrve reprieentm, the 'extract
0.042 0.264 '.287
.. .,.
" 0 .390
10 ' 0 .036 ' 0 .351' ' .232 0.251
>1
,.
..
~ II 0.031 ' .200 0.216
".' 12 , , 0.()26 0.266 0. 167 1,180
.1' 0 .021 ". 0 . 141 0 .152
.
1\ "
UIO , z" .. mok frael.ion lDI'lihyieyclopentaae iII raftin.a.te (f.-be:.-
y .... - , ane) phue.
.... - mol.e fracLion methyleyelopentane .in e.tn.ct (aniline)
.~ """'.
~ ". "...... . XI. - mole n.tin of methyieyelopent.ane to melhyle.y rlo-
pentone +
hexane 11'1 raffinllU! (n-helUlne) ph>lll\!.
FlO. 3'lOa.
M.
o
,
0.Q2
1\ 1"-1"-
O.()4 '"
,,0.06
Mole Fl'lICti!ln Melhylcyclopenl_
Enla.-gOO "".&Ie til!l ....illl: locD lion of points ;z"
- Ideal ~t~' 6 Is the corr&ct stage for tho introductioo
d the feed.
1
316 UQUlD-UQUID EXTRAIlTION
minimum I'IlftUlI ra/;io (~D)_ ill \110 maQrnum vai\MI ol .....> ill .'i.53. With tbe _ pI""OOG(IlIJ'e at other Intel'-
WD computed by ~ of lbe ooiDCideDOC or any tie line medi&t.tI poeiUoDIJ and .~ the coda 0{ Lbo I)'IWD., other refbu:
with Ar. ope:ra tina lioe. The coincidence of an optftt ing line ratioB Uu found to correspond to in.finit.e ~ in tboee poeio
with . tie line does not OO!.(!l'nune the minimum n!8ux for !.be tiooa.Sinee i ... 1)0 eaee .. a retlu:.: rauo &rc&ter tb.t.n tbe .'i.b3
SYltem but &imply indicatea the required reflull if ibere iD no indicated, the maximum reflux ",,\.io required fOl: All infinite
ehAnge in eom pol!i.tion from Map W .st..,e at that ~nt in number of .~ 'AIlywbere in the elttraction IlY'lIooI it 6.63,
the 8yfJt.cm. and this is thfl true "minimum reflux ratio" Irw the operaUq
If the 0pllrating line at the feed Bt&go Q to ooilleide with. conditions OODSideted.
tie line, it ~n do 110 only if the extcnaion of the tie line paMei!I - Pari 3. If extract reflux iB not II!led continuol1ll counte ....
throt!ih z, . This tie line may be found by tria.I &lid omur to cumnt multlple-oontact operatiOli of the extraotion .y.tem
pai!II throu&h the points .nll be followed . The muimum oonoentratioo of ruetbyl-
CyclOpeDtaDe ill \he exlJ"aot product ~ill be obtained when the
(Z.4 .. 0.368), (Z8 .. 0.(84)
minimum .-oIve:n~~eed rati<J ill employed.. Thill minimum
(rA. - 0.062), (vs .. 0.880) .xven\.-t()ofeed r&Uo OOI"1'elIpoud8 to a ay.tern tequirill& a.n
infiDite Dumber of at.aree (_ pIIl1. 3, illlllltrat.ive lIxamp)e,
The N WMion of thi. line I'o-;U a)lJQ pA$II tbf'OU&h the pointe p. :JJ8) and ill det.ennined by the coinciOOru:e of a d e line with
%4 and %4- for these Oper1'UnIil oonditiODlJ &8 t h_ point. are an opetatina; line.
011 the operad n, line at the feed atae. %.a M the inte~tjoo Tbe extraet produe1. eompoeition det.erm.i.ned by .. be line
\ lI4'
which, when txtlnded, p&fiIIe& thrnllKh the point x, hu been
determined in p&t1. 2 ..
.
, "A .. 0.062 "8'" 0.880
~
In the ceneral eaee It may be poMible that a value of "A
lower
than 0.062 may be obtaine4 by tbe coincidenoe of another tie
line with All operatina: line. In the pi"'Mlnt cue 110 other tie
llne 'Jeade to vall.lell of 11.1 _ than. 0.002.
Cornpan.oa of the maximwn value of (r&)l - 0 .002 when - ......
_.
1.00 extract ftl8Ul1 Ie not uMKi with the value of (fA)1 _ 0. 132
y.u"y which ill obtained _beD e-.:tzaet rethu: i. u.ed ilIustratee one
01' the rea.tIOM fOf the WIt of IlItnlct teflu:l ~_ \hou&h it re-
. ~ quirul weer arnotmte of dvent per unit maa of feed. In
the preeent illunration., it extract refhur: it not UIIed, the ruse
~ of IIOIvent to feed n.tioe which may be UfIed is rather IimiUd.
~ " , A. already det.etmined, tbe lower limit ill !let. by tbe rt!quire-
XA -
zc ..
2:g _
0.20
0.30
0.50
X .. +
X c - 1 Xc + X g .. 1
X A - 0.4
X c - 0.6
Xg _ 1.0
XA
XC"
- 0 . 2$
O.37:r
on t he solvent-free basis.
Xs -
%A+:rC '
. ;
Xs - 0.62.5
YA y, Ye
Y A- Ys - Ye -
1.0
liA + Yc 11.10 + Ye llA + Yc
1 XA + Xc -
The mass ratios of the two components may vary
from zero to unity, but the third component not- Y I! may have values up to infinity for pure solvent.
included in L' or V' mlLY have lllJlSS ratios from zero U:nder these conaitiollll the material balance equa-
to innr.ity. Th!;! closed tI;angie which includes all tions are most conveniently written in ~rmi! of the
W , solvent-free material and not in temis of -the total
quantity of the streams:--
XA 0( YA
0.',. ...:,"t- ,
~~"";;;)
anilioe,
(X s) ... _ 0
. ' 10. 322. PIwIc equilibrium dillgrnm on 11 mulo-ruUo bru.is
for the lY8tem m"thylcye\o" ~ltanc-norma\ hexan""{ln iliuIJ, 2. Composition of the extl"Mt produot: ... 1"
Ilt 2~ C. ,"
O.7 0.110
(XA)D .. 0- - .... 0.792; (X8 )D" -0 .- .. 0 .1312; XD - X.
positive values of comp06itions expre&M!d as mass .884 .654
fractions (:t, y) is not adapted to treating "alue5 t>p 3. CompOOtion ollhe raffinale product:
to infinity. Bu.t a rectangle with olle side (usuLilly
0 .160 , 0.073
the top) at infinity includes ILIi positive compositions (X A) .... - - .. 0.1618; (-X 8) .. - - - 0.0788
0.'" 0.!J27
expressed as mass ratios (X, Y). As in the triangu-
lar diagram, the cOIDI,ositions ofJhc thrt..>e l: ltrcams 4. Cum(lQ!ition of the lJU\vent:
when plottffl. as cOordinat.cs of m~ ruti,) on the 0.~~15
tc(;Ul.ngu!ar diagram n!so lie on a straight linc, and ( Y.,)">1 - - - - 199
0 .00.'>
318 UQUID-UQUID EXTRACTION
vcnicnL to ute Ulan !.be mole fraction diaram.moe the differ-
ence point. XI.. snd XIl' &r() DOt erowded to&etber (com.pare
with Fi,;. 820). T he I'lOlllpollitio~ of tM 8tr'ea.m8 1eaviDc; the
equilibrium ~ ~d wio. thoee given in Table M.
The lWDe number'oC ideal sta.geI (l3) are computed as by tbe
150 triaqcular diagrun of the emDlpie ou p. 314.
PI1 t. Tile determination of Ute minimum reb ~ ill
ilIuttl'ated in Fig. 3U. For t.be 800\ion to the right of X"
eeriet! of tie lines (dll.Shed) and their f1)8J>I:!Ctive intergeetioDB
f 100 wit h the line X,f l . " , shown. 'nle tie JiDe ft colTellpGnda to
!.be tie line whicb wllea extended JlIIIIIII'II through X,. The
I coordinates for this tie line are (X .. ) _ 0.401, (Y A) .. 0.616.
The intezwc:tion of Wsline with t.be line XeY" pomt " repm-
eeots the point X. oorte!IpOt"ld.i", to t.h:a t.ie !inf). The value
50
of (X,!}", for this tie line it the hlgheet. v&lmfof (Xs)", for any
~. t.ie line in thlI!I eeetion and ill the lirniting cue detennining
Q Y, the reflux requirOO for an infuli\.e number of ~ (eo-eaIJed
minimum relhaJ.
" 0
X. X, XD-X Fc.- the Ieciioo to the left of X" similar 8erifls of tie linea
are IIhoJwD I.o@:etbeI" with their int.enectiona with the line
X~Y"+I' III thia CAlle tbG intemectiona mpn!8ent the COlT"&-
6pOndillg XI.' pointe for tbG reepective t.ie linea. TbG lowellt
0.6
..... 1II11l11,qc~
X .. y....... ....."k:;.lop."- .. _
Of
To Y.
Flo. 323. 0veral1 paphleal c:oIIIIt.r\lct.on 00 .. moI~t.io
dia&:nw for iUuetrative eumpie, put I (p. 315).
20
The point Y 1 illloeat.ed by det.ermiJlin the iol.eJ'!I!Idion. of
-.
tile lme- }oWng tbe point. AD - X .. ADd Y _ Y,,+!. with
the extract phase bnuleh (om 01 ~ IIOlubility eurve (Fig. To Y.
128) at (Y A )l - 0.797 &lid {Yah - 6.
The diflerenaa point X Il may be fOUDd .. followl by llirnila:r f
10 , 0
11
(40.7 _ 1) - 0.27& (266,)
o X. j
, I. -
V' l'DX.i. . (X,).!. - (X,lD (XIJ)t. - 0.181 27
D' - 'r.Y - ( r.s) (Xm,," 1911 (xa4 - O. 6
(266'.4)
SolviDc, ex,,), - 43.1. -20
p
smc. the diflez'eAoe point. XI>. _ (1). IItIai&bt!me X;V,
point X ... ma.J be Iotated. Tbe "alUII 01 (X ... )" II fOUDd to be
0.8M.
The IeOOCId difreftrlOll point maoy _ x". be Ioeated by
IDdmc t.be interaect.loo of lineI XAX, and Y" ..IX ...t point - 30
(I 0.1 Q.2 .0.3 QA. 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.a O.J
(X,Il/l' .. -39 % arY
..
..... ..,Ir,.,' ,
A ..... ...,.". ' . "'"" ........
Tbe crapbieal aoJution for t.hII oUJnber of equilibrium IIt.apI
required .. Ihown ill Fit;. 826. For the tMrwy IJ)'8Wn UDder Flo. 324. GraphicallIOlution for miiUmum reflux for iUuatra-
. ~, the moJr, ratio diaaram .. *>lneWb&t more coo- tift exampe, pM. 2.
MEl110DS OF CALCULATION
,I
....
,-
, ,I
~.
Ib...,.u
To r ;,"1
,,y
J jf-
,
"
/ !A ~
~1/
K Y, Iy. /J /
J./ ,./
xv, rJ~ ~ v., ~.z, ~/.
,
0 x, .x,
~x: I~. "
" A.
ill I~
r
-10
@
-'" .
_..-
0.' 0>
x .. Of y.. , ..... ~ .. "*-
...
Fto. 3'l5.. Graphical eouiut.ioD of illlI5trati ve example, pu1. 2, on. mofe..ntlo bMi&
intenleetion; point m, when oonl\6llt.l!d with X"., ,ivllII the this illustntive problem, there are two liuUUq: OODditJOr.. of
hit;heet value <Jot" (X,,}... Tberefore, ~bia tie li na indkates the operation. One extreme requirel inlioite ownher of .c..-
minimwn m8= reqWmd with an hdinite number of .tac.ea ud .. minimum reftw: n.t.io. Tbr: other extmne ill !.be miPi-
to prodllQfJ thr. l'IK(ulfed resUlt. IDWD. nwnber of equilibrium Rap requirod which ourr.
The poiDt l iiu the ~D&teII; .ponds too total reflux, i.e., DO product witbdn.WIl. ..... !.he
reftWl mtio I n _ , the value for (Xlll.. ~. n.e
!{X.<l)4J.- - 28.3, [(X .oil,,!.... - 0.83] muimum vrJoo of L'. and dill minimum value 01 D' ~
..be.. D' - 0, (lillY - .). By. material. ___ 011
Subei1tutil'l( 28.3 'Ot" (X.do in equation 266'A Above and IlDlYelIoHnIlI bRae correepoodiDa to equatiocl _
""- V'
-_
D"
By equ&t.ion 266'
28.3 - 0.131
199 ,.;. 28.3
28.2
- -- -
1'10.7
0
.1668 V', _L'.+V'+D'
( L'~)
D
_($.7){O.l658) _ 1 _ 6.58 - 1 _ 6.58
rninimum Dumber of equilibrium .~
The oonditiOllf of "minimum reIIux r-Uo" r.ad of "total
""flux" are the liuUtII of operation. Any practical. opera.tioIt
For particular extl.ction, au<::h M hM been coo.idered in must lie 'lrithiD the limiu .,t by lheae twO extftmeIs.
UQUID-UQUID EXTRACTION
BIBUOGRAPHY W. R. E., a nd F. E. DUMOULIN, " Liquid-Liquid
'fiEY1I.u..
Extraction in II P~... fo.rated-P1&le Tower," 1M. En 1.
G. A.",u!.D, G. R, and C. A. Coco}!t.Uf, '"Toluene Extl'action CMm., h, 709-13 (l 9~ 2).
with Water," Ind. Ertf. CW., U. 177- 182 (l950).
20. VALENT' N!l, K. S., IUId G. r.hcLJ::A N, Section 17, of J. H.
~. BENEDICT, toL, "Multi.eta&e Sepwatioo~" CMm.
P&RR!', Clt<!miml E"9i_~' HIPIdbooIr, 3rc! ed., MeG""._
E..,. PTog., U. 41-00 ( 1947). Hill Book Co. (1950).
1. -_ Bl..I.MDlMG, F. H and J. C. ELGIN, ''Limitinr; Flow in 21. V" KT~Il~ ...N, K . A., &nd M . R. F~;s< ~ " Liquid-
Liqwd-Uquid Extraction CoIunuur.," Tnuw. AM. IML Liquid E.":/raction- E ueL QUlIlltitative ReI&ti0n8." Ired.
CMm. E . ... sa. 305-3.S (11M2). ER{J. eM..... !t8, 13.-00 (11)36).
2. BRJOG&, 8. W. and E. W. Cl.'oIINO&, "ElfllCt of Tcmpcl'1l- 22. WIGGINS, W. R., a Dd F. C. H AI..4 ' 'Solvent l':xtnu:tJoo
at ure on Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium," 1M . Bng. Che", . ProoeIiees," J . I .... PtboltlUft T ediltOi., no
18-98 (1936).
II; 411- 17 (1M3).
a. CoLIIVIJ.IoI, A . P . and D . G . W2UH. "Experiment.a1 Study
of IndividuAl Transfer Resiltanoee in Countercurrent PROBLEMS
Liquid-Liquid ExtraetJon, " TI'IlN. A.... Iml. Cltem.
Diphenyloozane j!! to be IleparatOO fl'Om 1000 lb of II mixture
sa.
En{/T' " 179-201 (1942).
containing 0.20 m&S!! fraeLion dipbl.mylhe_ &nd 0.80 ITlM8
4. D.UWENT, B., and C, A. W,NW.u.a, " Tbe SylItcm 1'\-Hax-
frnct.klO doooI!ane by OXtr$.ct toD 1II'ith furfural oontllining
ane-Methyleye1opent&ne-Aniline," J . PA",. CMm., '7,
-2-54 (1943).
0.005 IUaSIIlraction dilfflenylhe xsne a.t 4:; C.
5. ELGIN.J. C., and R. WTNS:OOP, Section 11,ofJ. H . P.UY, 1. Compuw t he compoilition and qua.ntity of the exuII,Ct
C/ltmit:al EngifllW" Holtdbook, Srd ed., McGraw-Hill a.nd ralliullte, when t his IlOlution is mixed with each quautity
Book Co. (19.50). of 10, 100, 2000, 10,000, and 100,000 Ib of 1lO1veot.
6. Ibid., pp. 717- 718.
7. ~'LoIN, J. C., "Design and AppUeatloDli of Liquid-Liquid 2. What il the looI!t qulntity of IIOlvent _ r y k> f orm
Emt.ction;'; CMm. Md. e..,.,
ie, No.:;, 110-16 (1942). twop~?
8. ELGIN, J. C., "Solvent Extraction," 1M. E..,. ClMin. , as. 3. What is the mazimum amount of solvent that 1riU form
-26-7,37-8 (1946). two ph&III'JII?
g. GUlNO'!', H., "M~thode D'Extraetlon et de CoooentraUQn
de L'Acide AreUque de _ SoluUoo. Aque~ Diloo...s," 4. The IIOlution i8 cootacted I UC:fllllively witb t1ll'O bakile!l
ClIi",i" .t i~, 21, 243-61 (1929). of aolvent, 1000 lb each . Compute the oomf'Ollitioo and
10. H uHTEll, T. 0., and A. W. N o\&lI, ''Cbemieal Engineering qUll.lltity of all intermodia.1.O and Ii.naI product.a.
Design of So1vCll.~ Ezt.taetioo Unit. for Relining Lubri-
cat.Wc Oil," TI'OlU. C.v.. E1tIJ. e~ of W""Cd P _ s.. Re~ Problem 4, but for t hree baklbes of 667 Ib, four
n.
CDfI/-. l.ofttIIm, 409 (1004). batchea of 500 Ib, and ei,bt. bAtcbee of 250 lb.
II. MALoNEY, J. O.,..,d A. E. 8cJtURaT. '~Application 6. n.e IIOlu t.ioo ill extraeted in a countereuneQt. e:litl'll.Cl.or
of Rectaacutu Coordinate Metbods \0 Solven~ & tl1loO- UBing 2000 Ib of M\'eIlt. wi!.h t wo equilibrium lltages. Com-
lion Desip," Tr'/l!&f. ..t .. 1..... CIMm. B.... 16, 741 -57
(UKO)~
12. Mu.t.l:tt, a A., aod C. A. M..I.MN, "~t.!.tion of ~
........
pute the comJX.itMlDII IUId quantitiee of too extl1U;:t ..,d
Phillie Syatem. of IDlIIliIeible Liquida," TrIIM. Am. flu" 7. Repeat Problem 6, but wit h throe oquilibrium ~
e . E'II{fr'., 4D, '109-43 (1944). and five OQuilibrium 1Jta..
13. 0"111''', D. F . R. E. WHIn, and E. 1'liurollK, "Liquid-
Liquid Ext.r.ctinn Da..... " '1M.. E..,. C-'tm., II, 1240-48
8. Repeat Problem6, but with an infioJ\e numberol equilib-
(1941). riu I stageB.
14. RA.NDO\LL, M ., and 8. I.oN01'IM. "Separation Proa..r.e- 9. Compal'(! the raffinaw .co mp.;..itioDII oI Pl'Obkrn& I, 4, 5,
~ OOtW'elm Ab.orption. Extnction, Di~tillation, 6, 7, and 8, by preparinll: a plot with I'lI&III\ fraetioll diphenyl-
Heat Exchange, aiJd Other Separation ~," Ind. benne &8 ordinate lind number of It&i61 II 1Ib8cisae.. The'll
E..,. CMm.., 11, 129&-00 (UI39). will be one line for multlplo-oontact extraction and one line
15. RoGi:.s, M. W., and E. W. TIIt ELJ:, "BubbJ&.Cap Column for oountercurrent extraction.
as a~Liqtlid-Liquid Contact Ap,Par&t.wl," Ind. E1IfI. Cmm.,
tl, 629-30 (1937). 10, In the extrll,Ction 01 alcohol from an IIloohol. benzen.e
16. RUTHRUl'J', R.. F:, and D. F. W n.cocJ:, " Solvent Extmo- IIOlution by water, \.en extra.ction vesaels al'(! UlIed in continuoWl
tion of Vegetable Dryinl' Oil.," TrGM. Am.. I IUl. Chem. countercurrent extradiQn of :; t.ona / hr of feed COntN.nil1l1
EIt9"., n, MIHl6 (194l). ~ 0.12.5 ffiII8II frac1,ioo alcohol.. Tbe extract contains 0.400 IIlAIIIII
17. &u:.wooo, T. K, J. E. EVAHi., and J . V. A. LoNocoa, fraction a.1coboI, and raffinate it 0.09 mMS frat:ltion benRI'II!.
"ExtI1loCtion in Spn.y and P~ltod Columns." Inti. E..,. Four of the ve!l'lCls lire pOt out of ecrvtoe by an accideot.
CAma., 11, I J44-{iO (1939). What is the roDoeotraUon 0( aIcobol 10 the n.ffinate, aod
18. Sr.UTH, A. S., and T. B. BRA I1H, "But.... i<loe Purification what is Lbo mt'rllMe in I. . of alcohol when the llix _ I s
. by SolveQL Extraction," l ftd. E..,. c.w ...., ,." UY7~ a re used, compared ...it h t.be qual Len? (Boo _Appendix
(l9U). for equilibri,UD data. )
PROBLEMS 321
II . Six toNI of a 25 per eent i!IOlutlon of acetic acid in w!\t.er returning tht. eth&r at 0.004 ma. fraction &.retic acid for
ill ttl be ' extllU;ted per hour with pure lIIopropyl ether in a re~. H"ffin!iw leave!! a t 0.03 IlUI8iI f no.el.m acetie t.cid,
ooun1.erw.rrent multipJe..eontad. system H<l":' many ideal uagos will be rolJui ~ f?r the lIe),o.l'&tionf
If iel!II than 5 per rent d the acetie ""'1 ill to be bit in \he At which lltage eliould cnch at.rea1Jl be~ inJ.rOOueoJ1~ ' ..
raffinate and tbe .. mount of IIOlvent WIed ill t.o be kept within
. A lubriCllling oil . took having II mooe.ity-gn.vity oon_
2li per cent of !;be minimum lJllount pcrrnillsible, bo...., IIIJilly
8\.D.nt equal to 0.874 ie to be extracted wilJl ~benzene in a
ideal ~ 'Irill be required for !.be en~?
countercurrent multiple-6t11&e 1I)'l1l.em ope~ at 100 G.
12. A OQWl1.ereurrent mtlltipl&-etllp eX\01lctioo IIy$f.em is It is proposed to use 100 volumes d nitrobenzene peT 100
to be ~ fOf' the recovery of ..cetic t.cid from .. n aqueous volllllle8 of llloe\;. Determine the number of stages required
i!IOlution oonl.t.inin, 30 weight per cent uetic acid. Isopropyl if a nUtinate product havill& .. vlaoosity-gnnity ronstant
ether b.u been llelected 118 t.he801venl to be ueed fortbeextrn.,. (Vee) of !l8lS ill del!il'ed. Tbe following data ...ere 0b-
tion. TIle raffil'\atC ill t.o contain no~ more t han 1.0 ...eight per tained from experimental ei~tagc batch extraeoons of
_ t _tie ..cid ,
(0) Wb .. t ill the muimum acid eoncentratiort (mMli peT
MDt acetic llcid) tht.t et.n be ob~ inJ~ eX\ract tf'I?ID the ~
.yst.em! How mllny irl~1 dgetl'<wiu be' requjred1 WhAt. if.
the required ratio of ether to feed?
(b) Determine the quantity of ether required per pound
Lhe oillltock with different VtI1umeI! of 8Oh1'.nt.
S<J1~nt Vied,
Volumell .pef ,~; ~nate P.hue
lOOVolullY)il
of Stook
volume %
I!Olvent VGC
volume %
-p-
IIOI""nt VGe
of feed and the oompo!!ition of the extract if four idesl.sta&'lll
are Ul!I!d.
(~) tffltermine
~Y,.f
the nwnber of
I )'t
idoallt&gcll~. ~ the
"
intact. is toi;mtain 10,Ii 'wclgh't per c:!hi acetic acid. - , j
C W' 1lq l~l /l1l'l .... u !--.f()('.1\\/' I "lI:l~','
13. T'f';fl roF.'~ ot ~~UJ ~1;Ition " of' ~tie ,~ 'f'
ll.Vailable I"'.ehCnuc~ plMl, olle ooMisting of 114,000 IbJhr
Of 0:29 mMS fraclion uetiel ~ad tild OM cOnsisting of .3QOO
Ib/hr of O.lZ mt.88 fraction acetic acid,": r, ,
Tbe acid is to be oonCElnt".ted by exttactioll. with iiIopi'Opyi
~r, 1\\D1()vin& the .~fOOtI: extrac~ a' 0.08 n_ fractfoD -
atlI!t.ic .0.:1, oonoent.rat.in& i~ in a fractiona~ oo1umn, aDd
~ '. u. _
C .~~ 0" (I '" ." 11 .~j /", ... '"p_ )' - I~'
, 'T: I " j
I
-,
.' 1( .'1 .1,)
-o';H ,. ,
-!!' ",'
l'
.....
L I
. ,.,.,-"
,
CHAPTER I. ,',
23
"
EQUIPMENT
tilt t
, -
liquid ,
Flo. 326. ~ Diagnmm.!tic repre:eenu. FIO' ,:rn. DiagrarrunllUa ~Dta- ; FIG. Jig. Dfacrammlltic I'l!pl"l!S8nl&-
tion qt ~Ol1'ted.p:!ate tower ebowinc tion of a bubb~8p piate tower Bhow- tiOO of packed tGwer .
',';.? ",""U~lL ~ inc me;'" dO. . Dllpouts, and CllpI, both .
~ .Jotted &nd I'JerrateU.
liquid 'from the plate to the plate below. At I-he How of liquid pa.ssing dowoward and vapor ~
opposite side of the plllie a similar conduit. feeds upward through ilie column is obtained.
liquid from the plate above. . SUw: plGU, are those in which the hubbJe..cap
A bubble-cap plate is a plate pierced with a number assembly is replaced by =11 holes in the plate, a
of hole~ intQ which are 'fitted risers or "chimneys" typical dimension being :M'f1' in. in diameter spaced"
through which vapors from the plate below may pass. 00 ~in. ' centers. The passage of the vapoMi through
Each of the risers is covered by a bcJl..shaped cap the perforations prevents ',liquid from draining
which is fastened to the riser by'means of a "spider" through the holes. The construction of. weirs and
or other l!uitablc m~nting. The eaps are mounted dowospouts is identical to that used in bubb~ap .
to provkle sufficient space between the riser and the column.s.
cap 'to allow passage Of the vapors. 'The lower edge The operation oJ a sieve or perfOI'Sted plate column
of the bubble cap may he scrrated, or the "skirt" in vapor-liquid transfer is similar to that. in liquid-
of the eap may be pieroed with a Dumber of slots as liquid t.ra.nsCer llS illustrated in Figs. 306 and 326.
shown in Fig. 327. TM paclud tower consista of tl. vertical shell which
In operation, vapor- rises through the chimney is filled with suitable packing material. The yquid
IUld is diverted downwards by the cap, discharging flows over the surface of t.he pllCking in thin films,
as small bub~ from, the alote or notches at the thereby presenting a large liquid surface in contact
bottom of the cap beneath the liquid. The liquid with ascooding gases. The pllCking is supported
level is malntained"on the plate by means Of a weir on a 8ui~ble grid. The liquid is introduced at the
80 that the liquid surface may be 2 to 2.!1l in. above top of the packing by means of a distributing plate
the top of the slots of the bubble cap. Liquid is fed (a perforated plate) and tlH! vapor is introduced
to tbe plate and pasaes across it and down t hrough beneath the grid which IIllPPOrts the packing, The
the downspout. to the plate below, while the vapors advan~ of multiple-eootact. and ~ntercurrent.
pass upward through the plate, mixing intimately 80w are obtained in packed {.owens, althouKh the
with the liquid OIl the plate because ol the dispersion efficiency of COfItacting is usually not equal to that
produced by the mots in the bubble ci:t.pe. The vapors obtained in tJle plate-type towers. Figure 328 shows
then separate at the liquid surface and pa!!I' to t.he a typical p8l:ked !.olver. Figure 32& is a photograpb
plate II.Uove. Thus approximately countercurrent showing a tower packNI with RaschiK rings.
VAJ'OR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
FlO. a28b. V..riou. viewe of Ber! 8Il.ddll'jj used fOJ pa.eking.1 FIG. 328d. V ~w of 5tf1eked partition riniB (1..'. S. dUm&-
ware Co.)
CALCL"LATIONS BY EN"THALPY-COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
may !IO restrict circulation that the liquid baeka-up
into the column. For this reason external reboilers
')r heat exchangers are widely used as they are more
convenient. to clean and maintain in an efficient
operating condition. The mixture 01 vapor and li-
quid i~ returned to the base of the column, the liquid
recil"(...tlating through the exchanger and the vapor
passing upwards through the tower. Diroot-fired
;;ube stills through which liquid from the bottom of
the tower is pumped at high velocities are occasion-
ally used for high-temperature operations.
Condensing steam is wideiy used as a 80uree of
beat, particularly where the material at the base of
the column is sensitive to temperature, or the desired
temperatures may be attained conveniently at avail-
able steam presaure.
For higher 'temperatures, condensing Dowtherm
FlO. azs,. Grid packing. This p9.cking is Btacked m&lll\&Uy.
(diphenyl and diphenyl oxide) vapor, mercury vapor,
(U. S. SWMware Co.)
or high-boiling liquids may be used. The petroleum
Reboil heal ma.y be ;rupplied to the base of a frac- industry often uses hot oil streams from some other
tionating tow,,: in many ways. Heating coils part of the process to heat the bottoms of fractionat-
il18t.alled in Ihe bottom section of the colwnn are ing columns operating 011 more-volatile material.
shown in" Fig.::\29. The heat exchange surface may
become fouled ,,ith long, continued use. If the
CALCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY_
exchanger is arranged so that circulation of the
COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
liquid from the bottom of the tower through the
exchanger is obtained !Jy thermal convection, fouliAg The calculation of the eompooitions of the ;..por
and liquid resulting from a contact depends upon the
attainment of equilibrium or the use of some factor
representing the departure from equilibrium. For
the present only the simple case of the equilibrium
contact will be oo(lS.idered, and the calculations
represent the nl!mber of equilibrium stAges required
to effect the desired separation. The basic concepts
for calculating vapor-liquid trantiler are the sume as
those for ca.lculating liquid-liquid transfer. In rruu I
cases the energy differences between liquhl IUld vaJ or
are so great that they constitute a major factor and
cannot be neglected as was done wit.h liquid-liquid
calculations.
The energy term which is of liignifieance in a
liteady-flow operation is the enthalpy H of each
stream. The relat i v~ enthalpy of each stream may
be readily incorporated with the com06ition of the
stream in an enthalpy-eompoeition diagram, F ig.
330, which shows the enthalpy H per pound mass of
liquid, or vapor plotted vertically, and the oompooi-
tiOli of tho liquid or vapor plotted horoontllily.
FIo. 329. :&ttom Iioe<luon of a 4-f\ diameter oolumn, ahuwing Figure 330 is similar to Fig. 324 or 325 with the
hektinl!: coila. (S. Bliekman. 1m.) enthalpy pe:r unit m8B8 of solution H substituted for
VAPOR.LlQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
the motes of aniline per mole of aniline-free solution The equilibrium compositions which determine
~8 or Ys and the composition of the solution :t the terminal points of a tie line may be represented
or 11 substituted for the composition of aniline-free most accurately by the so-called :t-y diagram, which
solution X A or Y A The enthalpy H is independent is superimposed on the enthalpy~omp08ition di-
of the composition ' of the stream in Fig. 330 in the agram of Fig. 330, BS an "equilibrium line." This
same sense that the mole ratio of aniline X s is inde- line shows the relation between the mass per cent
pendent of the compOsition of the aniline-free solu- of ethanol in the liquid, :t, plotled as the absci88&.,
tion X A in Figs. 324 and 325. The enthalpy- and the mass per cent of ethanol in the equilibrium
c.omposition diagram, Fig. 330, may be used in a vapor, 11, pi(}tted BS the ordinate to the right.
manner similar to that demonstrated for Figs. 32-1
Th~ conttrwction oj em tnlMlw-JIO#ilWm.dsarlf~ a binary
and 325 to compute the number of equilibrium minure u. II simple procedure when the following data an!
IItages and qUlUltities required to accompli8h the available.
desired separation.
I. T he heat capaci ~y Cr - (aH/ dTJr U II funetioo of t.em...
pt!rature and oompoo!!ition.
Enthalpy.Compc~ition Diagram. 2. The hCfI,t iIbJorlx,d 6H, on mixing t!>e two component.
:n,e enthalpy-eomposition diagram shows the aL IIOme convenient tem perature ... a function of composition.
relative enthalpy of mixtures- as a function of com- 3. 'fIlot! initial vaporiution (aod freeWtg) temperatures ...
position along lines of constant temperature. In a function of composition at the desired pnlI!8Ure.
4. The latent hellt 6H of vapori:tation (lind of fUllion) b&-
many easee., the 'chart ill limited to a single pressure, t ...een the two phues at known temperatw'e8 fOt different
but differen t pressures may be included if desired. compositions.
The enthalpf may be expressed in any convenient
VApor pl'ell8Ure!I of the IIOlutione lind d~itiell an! allIO helpful
unit such as Btu's per pound or Btu's per pound in extend in, and checking the data.
mole. Where the enthalpy is plotted in Btu's per For two componen .... two refenmce atat.el! of dilfcrenLrom-
pound, the com position is given in mass fraction positions mullt be ch08en and usigned arbitrary valuCII of
units, and, where the enthalpy.ilI given in Btu's enthalpy. The arbitral)' VIlIUl!ll are \UlUa Uy Laken ... aero for
per pound mole, the composition is given in mole the pure comp<menta at the same temperature, .... tor example,
32 F in COOSU'Ucti!lf; Fig. 330.
traction units. The valllCl!l for the lIMe illOthenn lire obtained from the fol-
Figure 330 shoW'S the enthalpy~mposition di- lov.-i n& e(jUlltion
agram for the system of ethanol and water at I H - H ... +
H" +11I1~ (273)
atm pressure. The reference gtates of relative
enthalpy for this" chart are pure water at 32 10',
where H,l - enthalpy of rnA mIllS uni UJ of A at tempera.-
ture T.
and pure ethanol at 32 F. The line labeled 160 in HB - enthal py of m.
mall! unita of B at tempera-.
1100
"' ~
~~
"-.,.
1000
~ ~, , /
9CIO " ')\ It'
"-
'"
t'---
"'r--L
! f"-"
I
Ii-- / ,,;:: f':::
11'f.:::.<
"> ~~~ ~ ~
V
V
~~
V
~f',
.IV! r'f
'>
f'.,
1')<
f',
$4 /
V
"-.,. If"K f', V "-
V ./ /
.i rI I "" / 1"-.. '"~ ~V V hL 1/ ~ ,/
,
i'- if W-. v--, L...
'" '
/ II
.~ -2
bZ
r"-
~
V
/
JL: pc-) r-,
LL -L
b
b
t--
0.50
/ II N i'- ID'"'
l4 ~ iL If t-
'1: U II 1'-- ta S;
,.,. WI r;
Ij.!,
I/,
v 1/1/
/
VV
L v
,
/
v
.... ,....
I
)
I
a::
~
~- -- rr ,
r- -- r- ::=, --
,
f-- -
~
I'
,.
""" I1JlJMB5S Fra~:~ Eth,nol ~~ .. ~..t"-' M~lur150.1U ~ . "~
FIG. 330. Entha!py-eom pollition diaiJ'lIom for the ethe. nol"at.er syat-em, mowinl liQuid aoo vapor phaeea in equilibrium at
I aoo.
328 VAPOR-LIQUID TItANSFER OPERATIONS 1
By dividlng equation 273 by (m.~ + 111.11) and lotting :t" - which corresponds in form to equation 237 represent-
mA./(mA + mD), ing a material be.lance when no other materie.l is
H H" llB t.H., added or subtracted.
:::--:;-=
101,,+1118
- x "'''
- + (I - x) -
"' 8
+ ::-''7'=-
I'll .. + ," 8
En...,;.... By proeeeding in II manner anaiogoufl to thlll
lhe de!<ired ordinatA.'OI H /("';, +"'8):U"C readily obtained f~ employed in deriv!", eqWLtion 238<1, &how that for an .dia-
different cOlnposit.iom; ;r: for the bMc isotherm. blltic opera.tion
The other illOtherms a", oompuu.-d from the b~ ;""therm
and hct.t CIlpacity data. A particular oompo!lition"'l is ch(wln, L Hv -h,
(27)lb)
..... the enthalpy at fIOlDe otber l.empcrature T, i.s given by P- Hv - Ill.
H
::C-7c:::(at
m;,+mB
%\, Til - - H- - (at
"';, +mE
%\, T) + J," Cj. dT
By combiDing these relationships (274b) with
l' equations 238a 8.nd 238b, for an adi8.batic operation,
- -
whe", Cp is the heat C&pe.city of II unit m!l.l!II of material of Hv - hp hp - hI. Nv - hL
oon,potition :1:\. This ealeulation is repeated at other valuel (274<)
of % until the <.Jcsircd ilIothenNl are obtained. 11 XI' XI' Z y-x
The btJi/iAV !l ...l f~iRV CllntU can be oonst.ructed from the
iIIotbcrrfUI lind boililill &rod froetin~ point dat&. Equation 2'74c shows that the three points having
Ttx. 11(111'0'" ilOl./lw... eIIn be COIL!!tructed II!! straight lillell the coordinates on an enthalpy-eomposition diagram
(Mlluming icklaJ vapor eolutinm) from the known flH of vapor- of (1/, By), (X" hl'), and (x, hL) lie on a straight line.
iution of the pure oomponenu and values of CP. Therefore a straight line on an enthalpy~mposition
The .a.h'l"(lltd IlaJI(K line CAn be:! ounatructed from the vapor
iIIot.herms and the known btlilingpoiPt dllt4, and the 1inee of
diagram is a graphical solution to equations 236, 237.
r.lelting IlOlid from /Ji of fll!lion. and 274a. Stream quantities are proportional to
vertical distances between pointe, as indicated by -
!;toteMl Gnd Energy Boloncea equations 274b.
If a stream F is split into the two streama V and L For convenience the points on the enthalpy-
(or eonveraely iltrea.m.s V EUld L cOInbined into concentration diagrams will usually be designated
strear:-l F) as demonstrated for aoJid-liquid extrat:- by the composition alone, using z to del:ligru!.w Ule
tion, a material balance gives .'point (x, It), 11 for (y, H), ere.
. For the general case of nonadiabatic aperatWn the
F_ V+ L (236)
quaittity of heat transferred to the system of fluid
-- Fx, -
VlI ~+ fA; (237) streams ms.y be expressed as the quantity of heat
added to the system per lunit of anyone of the
and the subeequent relationships, equat~D8 238, I!treams as: ..../"-
. 238A, 239, etc. (pp. 286 and 287).
By an energy balance for such a flow system as
conllidered in Chupter 12,
c-q-Fm- ~m-~m
mgZ mv:l
L>.H + 6g,- + . -- - 1i-1D
q-FQp - VQv-LQx. (27')
2(g,)
where Q - beat added to the system per unit quan-
If there is no significa.n~
change in elevation or tity of the stream indicated by the
velocity and no shaft work involved, t:.Jl - q. , subscript. . -
With the symbol H representilJg the enthalpy Per
In many C88eS the heat may be added. at diffef'Cnt
unit rnllS$ of a vapor ( V ) stream and h represent-
points in the system, and it is desirable to identify
ing the enthalpy per unit mass of a liquid (L) stream,
these separate quantities by an additional subseript.
equation 274 represent.'! an eMr{JlJ balame fur c0m-
Consider a fractionating column with the Quantity
bining o...eam. V and L 10 form 8tream F when the
of he8.t q. added to the still at the bottom and go
beat q is added during the op3ration.
added to the condenser at the top (-qc removed).
Ph, - VH + Lh + q (274) The stream quantities are feed F, bottom product B,
.-nd distillate product D. By an eoergy baLwce,
For a1iobolic operation, when DO beat is added or
rel!loved (q - 0), equation 274 may be written Fh, + q. + qc - DHD + Bi&B
Fh, -'yH+Lh (2740) Fh,.. - DHD - qo + BhB - q.
t.:AU:ULATIONS BY ENTIlALPY~COl\lPOSITlON DIAGRAM
~) + B ( htJ - ~)
The point (X" , hI') in Fig. 331 repreJCnts the
Fh... ... D ( HD - propertics of the stream formed by the addition of
stream~ I' and L when a qU8niity of heat is added
Ph r - D(HD - QeD) + lJ(hB - QSJj ) equal tu !'Qv = [ ,Qf. = FQp.
+ QCF)
F(h, => DHD + B(hs - QSB) The point (y. Hv) repl1'~nt.s the properties of t:le
str('nm for'med uy the subtraction of I>tream L from
.'i'(h, + Qs, + Oc,..> - DHD + BhB stream f' tpoint ~ :r and rp) whc n thc quantity of
Substituting equation 275 for q in equation 274 heat VQv = FQp = WL is Bubtractcd. Simi-
gives larly the point (x, lid rep Tl'&m! s the dHference 01'
P(II, - Q,..) - VH y + LhL (27Sa) Ilubtraction of stream V from slr('sm P when the
SIlme quantity of heat T.Q,. is subtracted.
'" Ph... - VHy + L(hL + QL) (27.5b)
,-
V (h, -Q,) -hL
H" -AL
1I,-(hL+Q.c.)
I: v (hL+ Q.c.)
h, -hL
(Hy +Qv) -4L
(27St) Mus frKtoon of ~-Volatile Component
.:- L
-P - Ifv - (h, - 0,)
H" -"L H,
H" - II,
("L + Qu - (H" +Q,,) -II,
(H" +0,) -4L
('Zl5f)
FlO. 331.
oompollition
Energy and mater"! bo.llLIlel!lll on lin enthlllpyw
dilll;ranl com~ 1.0 equation 271}.
!
I" v'l ~
~
c
equaJ to !be distance ratios X/J.Y2 /XtJ,XI .and X411.1%tJ,%o,
respectively.
Platt 1
I', v.l
. ".. Saturated
Severol. Equilibrillm PloulI or Stages".
~ " " A system of plates plaoed one above another, BB
~ shown in Fig. 333, constitutes a plate oolumn.
Th~ point ro represents a satUrated liquid feed to
the top plate, and the point YII represents a saturated
vapor feed under the bottom plate of the column.
Mus fraction Mor.~VQ/atile Component The sum of the feed streams, La and V e, is repre- _
sented by the point P, so located on the straight line
FlO. 832. Graphkal representation of the qperation of a
liD(le Idoallltage on an 'enthalpy~mpositlon diagram. z.ollto that the ratio of the distances. PYII/P:xo equals '
the ratio of the feed quantities Lo/Vto. Since the
Colculotioru/or Ideal StOgM "'" ... sum of the feed stre8lru! equals the sum of the product
strellJll8 Lr, and Vj , the point P is also located on
Figure 332 represents the operation of a single
equilibrium stage or plate or a plate fractionating the straight line %.sY" and the ratio of the distance
Plld Px" equals L5/V1 .
column. The saturated liquid 1.0 and the saturated
vapor V2, represented by points ro and y~ , re8pOO-
~ve1y, are fed continu01..IBly to this stage where they
are intimately mixed. The mixed pbases separate
)L-.v,1
4!to the vapor VI and the liquid L 1 , represented by IL"v,j
pointa 111 and :1:1, respectively, which leave the stage
in equilibrium. The point y, represents a ss.turated IL"v,j
vapor feed tQ the stage and therefore lie8 on the
v&por saturation line; the point %0 represents a
)'" v.j
I!Aturated liquid and lies on the liquid ss.turation line.
The point. P represents the sum of the liquid and
IL" v.!
vapor feed to the stage and is located on the straight
line YaXo 110 tbat. the ratio of the distanoos P1l,/ PZo
equals too
ratio of the quantities of the feed streams
J~ v.1
Mus Fraction Mot.-yoll~ ~
Lo/ V, . The rum of the liquid and vapor feeds tQ
the stage must equal the sum of the equilibrium FlO. 333. Graphieel rep..-ntation of the operation of .. mul-
tiplHtap iodeal plate colunhl on an enl.h.lp)'~p<*Uon die.-
The bibliOiTBPhy for thiII ~h&pter appeue on p. 395. l!iram.
CAlCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY-COMPOSITION DlAGRAM 331
The difference A between the liquid feed Lu and than that of the bottom product composition and
the vapor product VI! which pa88 one another above the fractional plate esiimated by a linear interpola-
the top plate, equals the difference between the vapor tion along the liquid I!8.turation line.
feed V& and the liquid product Ls! which pMS one
another below the bottom plate. The point Z.ll., Stripping Columns
whidl represents this difference, ilJ located at the A column u.sed to remove the more volatile com-
intersection of the lines %oll.!. and Z5Y~ . ponent from a liquid feed is known as a stripping
The difference between the liquid and vapor p88& column. The vapor stream necessary to accomplish
ing one another above the top plate and below the the desired fractionation may be generated from the
bottom plate il'l also equal w the difference between liquid leaving the bottom plate by means of a still,
the liquid and vapor passing ooe another between as indicated in Fig. 334. These vapors generated in
any two plates of the oolumn, i.e., between Y 2 a.nd the still (by the addition of the hcr.t qs in the sLill)
Lt, Y s and ~, V" and Ls! etc. The point Z4 ls ptl88 upward to the bott()m plate. The desired
therefore the eomroon point of intentl'etiOn .for tbe stripped product B is withdrawn from the still liquid,
straight lines drawn through all the pairs of points or in some cases from the still vapor or the iiquid
representing the liquid and vapor p888ing one an- from the botwm plate. The feed F is introduced on
other between any two stages of the_column. the top plate, II.lld a -distilla.te product V I is with-
The li9uid Ll leaving the top plate is in equilib- drawn from the top plate.
rium with the vapor VI leaving the top plate, and The csJculation of tJle number of equilibrium
the point %1 in Fig. 333 is located at the end of the plates required in 8. stripping column is indicated
equilibrium tie line from the point Yl on the vapor in Fig. 334, which is the '-:Jlution to the following
811.turation line, representing the vapor product. 'The eXlUIlple. \..,
point Y2, repreoen'ting the vapor rising from the
Illustrative E:umple. The ethanol content of '" feed
second plate and passing the liquid E I ! ' is located
eootainina 60.0 mll.l!ll per cent ethanol and. t.he brJance water
at tbe intereection of the line Z6%1 with the vapor ill to be IItrippedia a pla.i.e column c'Wipped with a still to pro-
811.turatioo line. The liquid ~ leaving the second duoe a bottom product containing 1.0 maS!:; per cen t ethanol.
plate is in eqUilibrium with the vapor V; leaving the HeAt is to br, l!U.pplicd to the atiH at tbo rare of 440 Btu/ lb of
second plate IlDd is represented by the point Z2, feed . The feer!, at 70 0 F, ill introdufOCt.! on the top plate, and
the overhead V&pon are OOlIUeIl8OO. to !live a di~tillate product.
located at the end of ~e tie line from the point y~. The column is to- upera.te at I ILtm prel!6Ul'e. The bottom
The point 1/3 representing the vapor rising from the product is withdrawn .!l.I! II liquid from the still.
third plate is loca.ted at the intersection of the line C'"ompUIA\:
Z4Z,' with the vapor saturation line. The plate-to- \. The number of equilibrium pJllt CII required.
plate conatruction is carried out in tbis manner 2. _The 'llJ&ntity of distiUllu, product per pound of f08d.
\ Solution. The feed ill ft.!pre8ente!l by point r, (H,. 334);
until a liquid composition is obtained which is equal the bottom produ~l by point fB on the liquid I!II Lul'&tjnn line.
to that of the bottom product. The point z,' represo"nU! the feed plu~ t he eocrc added w
'Ibe tie line %6116 terminates exactly at the point the system in the still, t he distance Z,, 'Zi' being e<JuaI to 440
X$ , which was located by. the overall material and Btu/ lb of feed. The point Ie,,' also-. represent/! the sum of the
energy balances atoWld the column. This is entirely bottom product B and the OVl'rAn distillAte vapor VI > 8.Ild
therefore the poiol VI is Joc..ted by elttendin& ~he line zp,'
fortuitoWl. In most ca.ees the end of the tie line to the vapor II&turation lin~ .
will not terminate , at exactly the bottom product The ~tripping column ~ho\\'n in Fig. 334 is , imilar to the
composition, indicating that it is impossible to continuous 1-<>e:eS8 .of Fig. 333. In ~he JlrooetIII of Fi,. 333,
obtain the separation specilied with an integral the YapeN' tt.ream V. was known or apecified, whereas in this
number of equilibrium plates. Although the tie tlUllmpie the quantity of heat a pplied to the still for generating
VApor is apocified.. Since the feed stream j' "ntering the col-
line could be made to terminate exactly at the point
umn equalll the rum of the disl.iD .. te product VI and the
X 6 , determined from the material bal8.lloo, by adjust- botwm product B, minU3 the energy a dded in the suD (q!J -
ing the ratio of the feeds slightly, it is pointless to do BQsBl, tho point 7<\8. having the coordinatu zs WId hs -
80 since the number of actual plates required is Q!JI<, lies on the It rai&ht line drawn th rough the point. z" and
)'1 to the staled value ZB _ 0.01.
determined by . dividing t he number of equilibrium
The pOint f4S represent./! the difference between the feed
plates by a plate efficiency. Therefore! as a general entering the top vlaw and the distilla(.(lbvint: ,he t.op plate;
rule, the platc-to-plate construction is continued the differoooz bet",eeo the liquid and vllf.'Ol'!l&I5IIil\4 each
until & liquid composiLion is obtained which is less othec betWf'm any two plat.ee of the eolumn or ..hat rrJ,M.
v APOR-LiQUm TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
1200
r---" r---
1000
I --..
I
I
!;f
800
----- --- y
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
/
rl . /
/
T/ V
1--:,1,
I ---.. i'---..
I / / ';;r'- /
400
/
-t
/
~/ V
I !---:"/
I
I~r--
//
I
200
" " r /
.~
0
.
II" /' V"
'/ I /
I
/ 1/.
- 200
Ft ~v, ~
- 400 ~
II W r--
r--
- 800 Ii
i?"
c-
'L' I F:.'''''''
c=~-~=::
f) B
- 1000
I~,
-1200
o 0.1 02 o. 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.' 1.0
M.S5 FrKtion of EtMnoI
FIG. 334. Graphica! ropl'l'llcnt&tion of the opeta~ion of a stripping column on an enthalpy-oompoe.iUon diagram for t:re ethanol-
water Bystcm at 1 atm.
be caned tho "net flow" toward the boltom of the onlumn. whieh the feed il int:oduood. 1I0WflVCT the feed plate liquid
The plat-,...1o-plate oonsl l'Ur.tion i~ ~ ...rri".j out AB dl'SCribed. composition is not equa.l ~o the feed composition, all MOwn
The number of ~'<lllilibrium p\atcal required is c&lculated &II in Fi&. 334 where the foed oornpoeition z, is 0.50) -and t.be
3.8. The vaponl l~avinK the lItili may u!IUII.lly be &!I!Iumoo to food plate liquid oompus ilion :1:, i, O.US weight fra.etion 01
be in equilibrium I\'ith the liquid in thu !Jtill, and thcJ\d'ore ethanol.
the number of ~'QuilibliU!n p\atcll ... bieh mull. be provided in
the oolumn equalJ 3.8 - 1.0 _ 2.3. The qllll.lltity of distil- R ectijyin& Colum ....
I&te prud~r ~nd of feed is equ.l to the ratio of the A column used to remove tile less-volatile com-
dist.&ncu!l %,r4/1/ :r41/'/1 - 0.782.
nJe distillate flrodue~ bom a auipping colum n must, of ponent from a vapor feed ill kno ....'n as a rectifying
necellity, have . oontpoe;t ion dOfJe to t hat of the feed 00In- co1umn or absorber.
poeitioa, anee t he d ~illat.e vapon &rUle fram the plat.e to Consider the case where it. ia desired to increase
CALCULATIONS BY ENnIALPy..coMPOSITION DIAGRAM
2400
/%D
2200
2000 !s- ., v. 11
- IV
u'"
lOX)
-
-
~
LQ ji/I
1400
~
P~ t- O D
/)1
i'~1200
=,
'- Ii , Of
I I
~ .j
.fj '
1000
r--- /
K ~
1/ V /
/
- N
/
/
_h hr-- .
400
j /
/ / /
/
/
/
/
/
/ r-----..
f/;// 1--/ I
i
/ I
/
.fj / /
200
" /
..
0;
~( i,\~.
';
0
(.., >w
o 02 0.4 o.S 0.6 os 1
" IOs$ FrQon r:I Ehnol
0.7
Flo. 835. Graphical repreeentaQOIl of the operation of a rect.ifying column on an euth&l.py-comp!llitiOll diagram for the et.lw:Iol-
water Bystem at I atm.
the concentration or
ethanol by removing water Usually it is impossible to obtain such Iiquida from
from a vapor mixture of etbanol and water (such as independent sources, but they can 00 obtained
VI of Fig. 334). Smee the compositioo of the readily by oondenaing and returning a portion 01 the
distillate vapor product from the oolumn is largely ' overhead vapors to the top plate. Liquid eo re-
dependent upon the eompol3ilion of the liquid sup- turned is called reflux. A dia.grammatic illU8tration
plied to the top plate, a low concentration of water of a rectifying column equipped with a oondeneer,
or any, other undesirable component is required in l'E'OOiver, and reflux pump to furnish reflux is mown
the liquid La supplied to the top plate of the rectify. in Fig. 335.
ing column (Fig. 335). U such liquid is available it 'The overhead vaporB VI from the top plate paM
may be >.1pplied from an independent soUrce. through the oondenBer where the vapors are ooa-
334 VAPOR-LIQUlD TRANSFER OPERA nONS 1
densed. The OOlldensate is collected in the receiver ponent, and a rectifying column pnxluoos I!. product
and divided into two par1:.ll, one constituting the which is relatively free from the less-volatilc COM-
reflux 4, which is pumped back to the top plate, ponent.. The features o! the stripping column and
rmd the other constituting the distillate product D. the rectifying column may be combined in a single
In this way a liquid reflux is obtained which is unit by placing the rectifying column on top of the
substantially free of undesirable components. stripping eolumn. The cOmplete fractionll.ting
The calculation of the number of equilibrium column include!! B rectifying section above the feed
plates required in a rectifying column is shown in plate (similar to Fig. 335) and a >!tripping sect.ion
Fig. 335 which is the solution to the following below the feed plate (similar to Fig. 334). The feed
example. enters the fractionating column on an intermediate
pJat known as the feed plate, which constitutes the
E:.ample. A vapor mixture containing 35.0 mass per /lent.
top plate of the stripping section.
ethA.nol and the bftiJlnre waUlr IIOJpplied II.t" tempel'1ture oor-
~ponding to an enthalpy of 1000 Btll/lb ill tI.l be rectified
The operation of the stripping section is essen-
in plate column equipped with 8 ronderucr, receiver, and tially th at of the stripping column shown in Fig. 334.
~ux pump. T he disLilla.to produ ct desirod conl.D.iM 85.0 The to\'al liquid entering the top plate of the strip-
IJWjI! per oont etlwlol, and the bottom produ ot is to contain ping section ia oomposed of the feed_liquid and liq uid
6.0 mfLSII pI)r rent etbll.fl(l\. The vapoJ' f~ ill to be introdur.ed
overflowing from the rectifying section above the
under the bottom plate. Tll(! distillate product anti reftlll[
withdrawn from t he receiver ",illbe cooled to a temperature food plate. The purpose of the stripping ~tion is
oo.rrespondi ng to an enthalpy of 22 Btu/lb. T he column will to remove the more-volatile component th)fll the
be Opel'alcd at. I atm prc!lB\lre. wW liquid entering the stripping section in order
Compu to; to produce a bottom product substantially free of
1. Tho number uf equilibrium plate!! required . the more-volatile component.
2. The qlWlt.ity of heat. transferred in the 00Ildcn8er per
pound of feed.
The operation or thE: rectifying section i8 esaen~
Snlut;on . The feed is n-pre!ICnt.<...:I in Fig. 33.~ by point, orr, tially tha t of the rectifying column shown in Fig.
t.bt! botk>m produel by poin~ %/J, and the distil.bU.e product 335. The wtal vapor entering the bot~ plate. of i I
and rnftux by point "'D- The poiM z,', mpre8ell~iDg ~he the rectifying se<:tion is oomposed of the feed vapor
BUm of the ;digtilb.w a nd bottom prod ucts, lief! oi, ~be O<\.f8.ight
8J"!.d the vapor rising from the stripping section below
line i8iD .a.nc:I on the ordinatr. of the point %1, since t he
material cnterint; in the feed must equa l !.be sum 01 the mate- the feed plate. The purpose of th.e reetiiying section
- ri&l Jc..ving in tim produnts. The point .x".' ~ repl'el!ents is to remove the \ess-volat.ile component from the
the feed pl us the P.11crgy added in the condenser. Tbererore total vapor entering the. rectifying section ~ order
the distance z,'zp repl\!8(ln ts the quantity of beat transferred to produce a distillate product !Jllbstantially free oi
in the conoonaer, <or S88 Btu/ lb of feed. the Iess-vo lai ile component.
The point YtlD, havi ng too coordina toR ZD and hv - QCD,
repreeents lIW! d~tiUa\.e product minus the eoofl[Y added in The calculation of the number of equilibrium
the IlOOdcnecr per pound of d istiibl.e product, and &180 the plates required in M ordillAry fractionating column
differenC8 . betwocn the vlO.por and liquid pMSing esch ol.her is shown in Fig. 336, which i8 the solution to the
betl'..""n Any two pla.t ... of tho column (or below 1hc bottom following illl1Strative problem.
plMe) or the "nc1. Bow" up the eoiumn . The dift"~nce poi nt.
I14D is Iooa.ted by extending the lioo ~ to tbo ~tated value nhutratlveElla .nple. A ooIumn containing 10 platee and
:I'D - 0.8.5. The pla.tc-to-plate r.oll.'ltruction carried out lUI equipped with a .till and a pparatWi for returning reflull
deseribed previoU$.ly IndiMUll t he required number of equi-
librium platllt to be 01.01.
produ<:ing a diati.llam product. c:QDwning 00 maw: per rent
ethano). And a ootWm product oontaining 1.0 111M! par rent
ethanol , (rom II; feed oootaining M .O mlU!ll per rent e~hanol
Comple'e Frncti.onadn8 Column3 and the ba1a.nce watl!r. TIle eo1umD o~ at a p~
In mOllt commercial operations, a relatively com- of I at.m abitolu te. The reed is introduood into the down-
spout of the aevenUl plate at II; temperature of 183.01 0 F and
plete separation between two components is desired. f.t the rate of 1000 Ib/hr. The d istillate product. and reflux
This. requi res a column which is capable of producing are wi\hdrawn from the reflull a.oeumuJa.t..or f.t 114 9 F . Re-
from a single feed II. diatillaw product containing flux is supplied to the top plate of the column &t the rate of
only a very small amount of the 1ess-votatik com- 1170 lb/h r. It i8 desin...:I to oompu te the overall plate effi.-
po:.ent and a ootwm product .:ontaining a very eieney, the n.\A:! of heat. tn.nsfer in thf! lII.ilI and condenBer,
and the faU! II.t which Vl!.pOr is produeod from 'he Btlll.
small amount of the more-volatile component. Solution. The feed it a mi:rtllr"l! of liquid a.nd vapor hav-
A stripping column produces a bottom product ieg an eut.baIpy 01 150 Btu/lb, Ibown in Fi,. 836 by point z~
which is relatively free from the more-volatile OOfll- z, _
OIl. the equilibriUl tift line [or 183 . F at 0.35 (_Fi,.
CALCULATIONS BY ENTHAlPY..(:OMPOSmON DIAGRAM
FIo.~. Tbe application of fin enthalpy-oi:J;l1:lJ>O$ition d~m for the ethanolWflW 8)'1ltem to the determination of OfJM*tiq
conditioJU! for lractioJU&tinl oolumn COJntaining Btrip;:rin, and rectilyina lII!etioDl).
VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS I
330). The botWm product, .... ithdrawn all .. saturated liquid and the qllllntity of heat added in t.be still pt>7 pound of
from the .till, is re~nted by ~he poin t ZD. The d istillate bot lom product eq~\e. the ordinate of point 2. min.. the
product and reHu K a.re both. repmeented by the poin~ XIJ , thll oroi nate of point ""B, or hit - (h. - QaB) - QaJl - 179
enthalpy ooordinat,e of .')(1 Btu / lb being [ocatoo by the 1\4 F - (- 993) _ 1172 Btu.
isotht:rm. ThO! Q\'erhead VIIJ!Ot'l!l \()aving the top pIAu, have Therefore, tIM rate of heat tral1!!ler In the ..mdenBer iI
the IMUTM:l oompo!lit>OD U I..he distillate product and are repre- (1%0)(382) - 746,000 B tu / hr. Similariy !.be rate of heat
IIIlOt.ed by the point 1'1 on the satu rated val)Ol" line, at the trn.wer in the atlll ia (1172)(618) _ rn,OOJ Btu/ hr. The
intencction ...ith tbe ordinate ZD, wrueh is ,,1110 4 heat added in the still per pound of feed may be doterrnintd
T ht! number of -equilibrium pilloWs required to accomplish by \OOfI,ting XI' on the line 2BY,),D. The ordin.to nf point
thil! IIIlparation is calculated by the construction shown in ZI' minUli the ordinate of point z, eqU3E h, Q/J r - hr, +
Fig. 336 The t wo d ifference points, idc1lLi6ed &8 l'.4B ....d which equals 0.." the heat added in the BtilI per pound of
'!laD in Fip. 334 a nd 335 for the stripping and roetifying feed. Similal"ly the heat removed by the oondeMer per pound
roiumlUl, relIpectively, must be, located in Fig. 336 for the of food equah the <lniiJlll.te of point z, minus the ordinate of
$trippinlt and rectifym,; 8CCtiOIl&. point 2," which dlffelClloe equab - Qel.
In the reetifying eeetion the diffenmec between the up"'an1 I( t he diII1.illat.c is remnved.u a aturated v&poI". " from lUI
8owinr; vapor and downwud Rowing liquia between any two operation ueinc a partial oondemer 00, or in pIaoe of, the top
plate!! equals the difference between the overhead vapors VI plate, the condition of the distillate is repteeen.ted uy point i'1
IlolId reflUl [-0, arid aIao equal.!! the di!itill&te Ilroouct D leaving rather than ZD, 8.nd the qUllotity of beat remover! per pound
the open.tion mimM! ~he eTIe"C ~ to the operatk>n in the or diatillo.te by the oondenaer would be the Ilr1liIate of poin'
conden8er pnr unit of distiUat.e QeD. Therefore tbe coordi- I/.ID minllB the oi-dinate of point /II, or :nil - 520 - 1.f80
nate!! of the difference point for the rectifying 9OCtioo &l'Il B lo\I. Similarly if the bottolTlll product i8 removod M a 114tu-
rD. fLD - QeD. This difference point 114D ratber than ZD there- l"l'lted vl't.por, ita oondition ia repl"elJenteO I:>y point YB and an
fon! oorreetly ~~pl"CO!Cnt& on thie buill the Pl'OperUea of the additional quantity of beat mUlt be added to Vlporize the
diflt.illate. and poinLe 1'1 and zO ' reprellllDt the OOITeIIpollding bottom product equal IA) the ordinate point of point ". min..
~ie:t of strealJlJ VI and Lt. re9pC<::tively. The relative the ordina.te of point rll.
quantitiefl L./VI -.re, therefore, repre"ented by the relative The required number of equilibrium p1al.ell ill ck!t..nnined
lengt~ ~/1I4D~ Sirnil&rly the relative qus.ntitiea LoID by the plate-to-plate oolllltruction on Fi,. 836, be&ianing with
&l'Il n!~ted by the relative 1engthll l/4D" 1/ YJ:4 The dir. the point !II repreeentinc the roDliitions of the VI40F f tviOi
ferenoe 'point Jf4D in Fig. 336 may be Iocat.ed on the ordinate tho top plate' I. The conditions of the equilibrium liquid
:tD flO thu the ratio of the leflllhll vaDfIlI;;;:;;; equals Lo/ VI. l%ving plate 1 &l'Il indicated by the point 21 located. a t the
The quantity of distilla.te D iB caleula.ted by an overall mat&- inrel"llOCtion of the equilibrium. tie line connecting point /II
rial b.llo.n~e (O.M - 0.01)(1000)/(0.00 - 0.01) - 3S2 It- / hr. orith the 811.turated liquid line. The conditions of vt.por rWq
The quantity of roe/IUll t.. ia ~ven l1li 11"70 Ib/ lu-. Smee from plate 2 ani repre8ented by point IfI 01) the saturated vapor
VI - f) + Lo - 382 + 1170 - 1M2 Ib/hr, t he ratio L./ Vt line at t he inter800tinn ...;th the line t hroud> Y4i)ii, lli.n.oe the
_ 1I7Q/IM2 _ 0.757. The point "aD 110 located has the eo- differenoe point IIl>D repreeenta the difference ~tween vapor
<lniinlltee 0.00, 2000. and liquid PfiSl9ing each otncr betWOO.D "lata! of the rectifying
In the .tripping eeeUon the differenoe between the down- !leCtiOlL This procedure ill eootinued l1li cte.eribed until the
wan! Hooring liquid. and uJl1l'&rd Howinc: v&pOl" between any line ZaB%l1/aD is croseed lioii in 10000000tilli point ZJ. .'hill point
two platell equab the bottom produet B minUll t he energy TOptellent8 a oomposition which nonnalIy should be found on
added in tim still per unit of 8, QS./l. The ooordinatea of the a plate hollow the feed pl1't.te in the strippm,; Ileillion. The
differenoo point for the .trippi", IIOOtion an) ZB, hs - Qu, l1li differenoe point I/.ID i~ W!8d for rnakiDf: enerc- aDd maWial
indicated in equ&t ioa 278. In Fig. 336 thil diff~ point ill ' bala.noee above the feed plate only, and if ~ ....ere joined
identi60d .;" z... . with 4, it foUows tb.at 4 ",ould be lQCB.ted ft.bt.v", the feed
Since the feed F eq uals the III1I'n of D mmUII the energy added plate. Below too feed plate, the difference point ~, is used
in tho condcnlllCf (reprMented by point 1f,a,D) and B minUli the for energy r.na material balut'A!l'l. Therefore, Z4" ill joined
eDeI"Ja addod in the still (repreeented by point 248), the three with 4 to eootinue the paphjc:a.l lIDIution beJoor the feed
pointa l/4D.z,. and %.l./I lie 011. a IJtr&igh~ line. In thiB _ the plate until !.he COIllpo;eitio; l of the bottom product ill
poin~ %4JJ illloo&tod by elltendinl tM line y;oz; to the Inter- reaehed.
IICCtioo with thu venieal line through :rB - 0.01 at hB - Os. Aeoording to doe COflIItntetion of Fia. 336, tht equivalent
_ -993 Btu / lb of botlolll&. Thill line OONJtit.utell an en of about 7.8 equilibrium plalt8 is required. with the feed intro-
I.halpy and m.teria.l balaooc over ,he entlre fraetiooating duced about midway between the fiftb a.n d sillth pt.!., oorre-
ooI.umn with the ordinate of point lIaD repreeenting the en- spondinC to about 5.5 equilibrium plalel down from tbe top.
thalpy euried out the top of the column par pound of If the still produces equilibrium vapon, it ill equivalent to
distilla te, a.nd the ordi nate of point .EaB tepmllellting the one equilibrium pla.te.leaviDf: the equivalent of 6.8 equilibrium
enthalpy carried out the bottum of the column per pound of piau:. in the column with an. indicaled 0ftft8 plate efticieney
boI. ...... ms. SilK"(' the d i!ltilla.te Ioavee the operation with the of 6.8 + 10 or 68 per cent. The Jocat.ion of the feed plate ill
enthalpy of point 7 D. the qua.ntity of heat removed by the OOlTtlct a~ 6.5/ 0.68, the eightb actual pla.te from the top.
condenllCr por pound of distillate. equal. the ordinate of VaD If the aetul't.l feed plate location did not oorrespond to the
nr.inUll the onliM.t.o of :rD, or (h D - QeD) - I.., - -QeD eorreet. ioI'.atiun in termI of equilibrium pIa\ea., otbu ~~
_ 2UIJO - 50 _ 19M Btu. The bottom prOOllCt IMvca the rium feed plal.e Iocati008 mllBl be aaauned and. \00 ~
operation M satun.tnd liquid with the enlhalpy of point "II, BpOPdina nllmber of equilibrium platol computed.. The
CALCULATIONS BY ENTHALPY-COl\1POSITlON DIAGRAM 337
~tinl overall plate efficiency ill thell ueed to check the all- equilibrium tie line from the food pla.te ikjukl." coin-
8Wlled food plate loeMioD. cides with the line to the differenoe point xu. The
A tie line thrwch the point rs interaeeU! the vapor liI~ a.t
too point ~ whieh repreeent.e the ooodit.iool!l of the Vll.pOl' rising column will not opera.te under the oonditions fixed
from tbe still a.od PMSing lobe liquid rrom the bottom pl&t.e 7 if the feed is introduced outside of these limits.
re~ntOO by point Z'/. Since point Z~B repreeente the diller- In the dillCussionB of distillation problems, it. is
mile between the rising vapor y. and the liquid %,.
the ratio of WlUally II.88tlJDed that the feed is introduced on the
tbe~zU"") /(4;y;) - V. I I., aod, sinO!! L, - V. B, the + optimum plate unless otherwise specified.
ratio (~)/(YI%'I) - V,I B - 1.'U. 'fbua V. _ (1.24)(618) -
TlO Ib/hr.
Rejlux Ratio
Feed Plt.u Location.
The term refiuz. rolla may be applied to the ratio
II the oomposition and thermal condition of the
feed, diatilhte product; and bottom product are fixed
La/ V" as detennined, but it ill frequently used to
describe the ratio of quantity of liquid pumped back
and if the heat transferred in the still or in the con-
denser is fixed, the energy and material balances
to the top plate of a fractionating column to the
quantity of distillate product withdrawn (Lo/D).
around the column and the location of the difference
The overhead vaporfl entering the condenser V I are
points 1/I!.D and Xu are fixed. Under these condi-
equal to the sum. of the reflux liquid Lo and dis-
tions the number of equilibrium plates required to
tillate product minus the energy added in the con-
efft.ct the separation specified is a function of the
denser per unit of di.stillate QeD. As explained in the
feed plat~ location.
preceding illustrative example the ratio
In Fig. 336 the feed is introduced between equi-
librium pla.tee .5 and 6. This is an optimum location
because it requires a mailer number of equilibrium La ~ YI!.DIII (hD - QeD) - HI
plates than any other location. If the feed is intra- VI - La - D - JitXO - HI _ hD (279)
duood on equilibrium plate 6, the composition of the
'Vapor ri!in.g from equilibrium plate 6 is determined The liquid reftuxcd to the top of the column is some-
in Flg. 336 by the intersection of the line li6.s%s times indicated by the symbol R .., well.., by I.
with the vapor saturation line at lis'. The fractiona- The ratio Lo/ V1 is sometimes called the internal
tion oocurring from plate 5 to pla.te 6 is then less, reflux ratio, and the ratio Lo/D the extt!rnal reflux
and consequently the wt.u number of plates required ratio.
is greater. Similar:y, if the feed is introduced on Fqr the column whoee operation la represented
plate 7 instead of plate 6, the composition of the in Fig. 336, 41/ D - 3.06.
vapors ri!!ing from plate 7 is detennined by the inter-- If a distillate product of a given eompoeition is
eection of the line 1/I!.DXs with the vapor saturation to be produced, the effect of increasing the reflux
line at Y7' . . The rractionat~"OeC~ from plate' 6 ~ ratio is to inCreR86 .t~ value of hD - QeD. With a
w plate 7 IS then lelll:l. The optimu~ feed loca.tion fixe4 thermal conditIOn of the feed, the greateJ; the
is on that plate wboee liquid compol!lition is less than value of hD - QeD, the leea ie the value of hB - QsB
or equal to the compoeition indicated . by the -m~r~." fl?r a given ?istillate and bottom product. The
section of the I)verail balance line Xt.BXf/'YtJ.D with the. _:. ~ater the dIStance that the difference points Yt.D
liquid saturation line. . ,;. ",~d..,2:I!.B are removed from the saturation lines, the
There are drfinit.e limits to the location 'br the greater will be the fractionation accomplished by
feed plate when a definite 8epa.ration ill specified and each plate, and cori.sequently the greater the reBux
the overall ellergy and material balances around the ratio. ~n general, the greater the reflux ratio, the
column are fixed. In oIuch cases the feed must be smaller IS the total number of plates required for a
introduced at least a certAin number of plates above given operation.
the bottom and at least a oertain number of plata!
below the top. If the feed is introduced 80 far Total Rejlrl.%
down the column that tbQ equilibrium tie line from When all overhead vapors are oondeMed ~d
the feed plate liql.!id coincides with the line to the returned to the eoIwnn as reHlJx i5C) that no distillate
difference point 1IAD, the total number of plates product is witbdrawn, the column is operating undf..r
required is jnfi.n.itely large. A similar ease occurs total reBux. If no distillate product is withdrawn,
where the feed plate ts so far up the coIlWlD that the no bottom product CAll be withdrawn and DO feed
'VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
--
1200
t---
"'" ........
I
----
I
I
I
I
!
"
""
"
--'"
/
-- ~
r--', -,, -
,," " / 1''.-------
I
"" " I I
I
I "" " I I
" ""
I I
200
/
o "
'S"'. " " "
., " '. ' . '.
o 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Q.8 0.9 1.0
M.lss f rxtion 01 Ethanol
FIo. 837. G,?phieaJ ~t.ation on an enthalpy-oonoentration diRgra.m of the operatilij!: oondiUolI8 of /I. column . t total reflux.
Fio. 338. Eat.halPY'<'OO1paeitkm d.iacrIw. for the e\hanoi- ter _)'litem at 1 abn iudtea\inc a ooIwnn ~ at.' miniloum
rdux (infinite~) . t point. A . I
CALCULATIONS BY EN'I1U(J'Y -COMPOSITION DIAGRAM
can be introduced to the column. Thus the capacity below the feed in a system such as benJene and
of ilie column becomes zero although a definite chlorofonn.
separation is taking place.
Under w tal reflux, the reflux ratio LoID is infinite Optimurn Reftwt Ratio
(L j V is unity), and the qU8Jltity of heat removed The choice of the proper reflux ratio should usually
in the oondcIll!er per unit qUaDtity of distillate is be based upon an economic bala.noe. AA the min-
infinite. Thus the difference points MiD a{1d X.i8 lie imum reflux ratio is approached, the number of
at infinite distances above and below the liquid plates required approaches infinity, and therefore
saturation line as their respective OrrlilULtes are plus the investment and fixed charges approach infinity.
infinity and minus infinity. 1be composition of the On the other hand, the operating CO!!ts arc at the
vapor leaving any plate is identical to the composi- minimum since the duties of the cOllde.nser, stili,
tion of the liquid overflowing from the plate above. and reflux pump are at the minimum.
Total reflux conditions are indicated in Fig. 337
which shows that, at total reflux, the minimum
number of plates is required tc effpct a ~iven sepa.-
ration. " The six ideal st&gel or plates indicated in
Fig. 337 accomplish the same separation under total
reflux 9.8 the eight ideal stages in Fig. 336.
Minim"um Rf!jlux .
All the reflux raLio (Lo/D) decreases from infinity
at total refiux, the number of plates required to
produce a given separation increa.ae from the min-
imum value at total reHlix t.o an infioite number at
the minimum reflux ratio.
A.one ~ ~ infinite nymber of pJates (whe~ tJie ReftUJ: Raoo_
change in composition, f':OOl plate to plate is zero) FIG. 339. CCIIIt 01. operation, indudinl; fixed. ehupllor dil"-
develops wherever the extension of an equilibrium , , few.nt reflux rati9l'.'
tie line passes through the point Xu or the point
Y(j,D . This condition frequently arises when the line ~ the reflux ratio istincreaSed Nom the minimum
Z(j,sZFII;, o 'coincides witS the equilibrium t.ie line that the column dia.meter must be increased to tTlaintain
~ e through the fi!ed point XI'. In Fig. 338 the constant throughput, but the 'number of plates is.
reflux ratio is somewhat greater titan the reflux ratio reduced. Accordingly the investment and fixed'
which woold give infinite ~lates at the feed plate, charges dcereue with increasing reflux nLtiOl'l, go
but the fract.ionationsper plate Dear the feed plate through a miaimum, and- agwn rise to infinity at
hM become very small. ; , ' " ' . ,... tot:al reflux when a. column of infinite diameter is
A WIle 'of infinite plates in some systems may required.
develop in the rectifying section at reflllX ratiOl'l The operating~ costs similariy rise to infinity' at
higher than tliat "'hich gives infinite plates at the conditions" of total refillX, since the duties of the
feed plllte. This oCcurs when one of the equilibrium condenser, still, and- reflnx pump approach infinity
tie lines in t.he rectifying section inwrsects the ordi- for a finite amOunt of product. Thus, the u,tsJ
nate Xo at a greater enthalpy than the equilibrium charges of the column per unit of feed miJst plL!B
tie line through the feed point (2:,,). This is illus- through thc minimum value from infinity to infinity
trated in Fig. 338 where the line Ay;,o, the extension as the reflux ratio is decreased from total refiux to
or Ule tie line through A , intersects the line Y;,oXD at the minimum reflux for any glVf-.n separation. This
a higher point thlUl any of the other lie l ines in the is iUustrated in Fig. 339 which shows a typical east
re<:tifyi ng section including tha t through the feed analysis for a given separation.
point. Here th~ zone of infinite plates deVelop!! at
point A before it deVelops at the feed plate lUI reflux Partial Coruknurs
ratio is decreased. A partial conderu;er at the top of a oolumn corre-
Such a zone of infinite plates may also develop spond~ to a ~tiIJ at the bottom. The partial cbn':
,.
VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 1
denser condenses only that part of the upftowing fed undor tbe bottom pb.te at the rate of 0.416 Ib of eteam
vapor stream required for reflux yielding the dis- per pound of feed. FI!Ild ill SI,Ipplied with an enLhalpy of
200 8tu/lb and distillate is to be dcli 'fflred witb an enthalpy
tillate in the form of a vapor. The still vaporizes of 50 8tu/ lb by a wtfll condenaer.
only that part of the downflowing liquid stream Solution. In F'II. 340, oouditkwl of the open steam 1Up-
required for operation of the stripping section yiekl- plied below bottom plate n are reprellented by point ".+1,
ing the bottom prOOuct in the form of liquid. The conditiOl1ll of the feed by point ~" conditiOl1ll of the diat.illate
includin, the heal n!IDOv(,'d in the coadenaer by point l/4D,
coordinates for the difference point "troD are exactly
oooditloo. of the n!lI.ux by point %<I or :t'D which rcP~D "' !.be
the IIIW1(! whether a partial or total condenser is used. diBtillate excluding the heat removed in the condenaer, .rnI
If the partial condenser prooUOOl! a liquid in tM bott.oml! product by %B, . . stated. The IIUIlI of t.be
equilibrium with the'vapor pa8li!ing through the COD- .team and feed OODStituting t he total feed to t be column is
denser, it can be considered as the top plate of the repnwmted by point 0 110 located on the line ~ that the
column in a manner equivalent to the treatment of ratio of the ~bB Oz,/Or.+I equals 0.416 lb of !lte.m per
pound of feed. ~ point 0 .110 repreeent/l t he aum of the
the still as the bottom pla.te of the column. If the bottom prodllet re~nted by point :t'B and the di~tillat/l
column considered in Fig. 336 were used with a znIoWi the enerv added in the ooOOell8el'. The straight line
pa.rtisl condenser to produce the same composition %II) extendo:od to %D - 0.90 inl.el"8eetB the ordinate :tD .. t &n
distillate, point 1/1 in Fig. 336 is also YD and repre- enthalpy equal to hD - QeD at represented by point V4D.
sents the vapor dist.illate product , and point %1 The dilI'erence point between t be down60wing Uquid &n'd the
U~1lC vr.poI' in the IlU'ippin, .-.cUou ",p~ntll the differ
represents the liquid fonned by the partial condenser enoe between the 8te&m a.nd the bottom produot . It there.
and returned to the column as reflux. The reflux fore DB. on !.be exterWoo of the line through the pointll ".+1
ratio RID equals the ratio of too lengths YADY2/ 11:Z-1' ...d Z B. It iH abo t he difference point between tbc feed and
1f the reflux condensate produced by the partial the dilltiUnte minus the energy added in the oon.denaer and
condenser is not in equilib rium with the overhead lherefore i~ k>t:ated at the inter8ection of the linea extended
throut;h the poin tll Y4D, r; and " .. +1, %B at :1:48, havin, the
vapors, the composition of the reflux must be known ooordinal.ell (0.168, -508).
or &sBumed, and XI located on the saturated liquid The p!n.1.t." w.-pIate 00Il8tructJ0rI ill made in the mannCl'
line at tbe known composition rather than at the indicated in Fi~. aID m o"ing the equivaJent ol7.7 equilibrium
end of the tie line a8 shown in Fig. 336. plates l'(lCluire\l fVl' this Mlparation.
n.c, eoordin at.ea of the point 4B IIl'e 3:./ (1 - SJ,
(Ir. - SH ,,)/ 0 - S) wbereS is t he pound, of ~telJD. pet pound
OpenSt_m
of bottom product and J!~ i~ entMIpy of steam in Btu per
Instead of still or reboiler at. t.he bottom of the pound.
column to generate the vapor stream necessary for
operation of the stripping section, the vapor may Comporiaon oj Open and CIoHd Steellft
come from aD externnl source, provided it it! rela- H the same feed were to be 8eparated into the
tively free of the component to be stripped from the same distillate, with the sam.e reflux ratio and the
downflowing liquid. Steam is a very common 8tri~ same 1088 of ethanol in the bottomB but with a still
ping agent.. Open steam eliminates the expense and or reboiler illiItead of open steam, the oompoflition
maintenance of the reboiler which is usually su}).. of the bottom product would be that of the point
jtcted to the most severe cot'!'OSive conditions. It %llJj - 0.158 mass fraction of ethBnol instead of
is readily availlable free from the component w be XB - 0.10 masil fraction.
stripped, and introchlceB no difficulty in t he reoovery The effect of th_e open steam is that of & diluent.
of an immiscible distiDate product as a liquid because Because of this dilut.ion more fractionation and a ,
steam is readily condensed and removed from the greater number of platetl are required wjth open
vapor phase. steam (7.7 compared with 7.3) for too case shown in
When water is one of the componenl:ol!l to be sepa- Fig. 340.
rated, the computatioWl fur a column may be readily
bandied by the construction ' shown in ,Fig. 340, Entroinm,mt
which is a solution of t.he following problem. The separation or the vapor from the liquid on the
plate is never ahsoIutely complete as the vapor
IlIu.t,.tive hample. Compute the number of equi- rising from a plate will carry with it some liquid as a
Ubrium plate. requirtld to aepan.te a miKt ure of 42.2 per cent
fioe mil:!t or spray. The mass of liquid 80 carried
etbaDol in w.w into .. distiUa l.e oootaining 90.0 per ceot
etbanlJ and a bou.om product oontaillin& 10.0 per centeth&nOl by a unit mass of vapor is the entrainmtlnt designated
by. \,l1li of open IIte&i11 havinl an enthalpy of 1:8) Btu/lb 8.. Since only equilibrium platetl are under conaider-
CALCULATIONS BY .ENTHALPY.COMPOSITION DIACRAM 341
-
'000
, y.,
'400
AJ
1200 " I
L~
\\ /(//
1000
800
'"1\ / ''" ,
t-
~
,
.,
V IV
1
11\ V """ r:if"
1
/
1
\ if
/ 1\ - // v; I /
/ / I ~
~/, Iii
1 ' III;',
I ); /
1 I I',
200
1 / 1/
-' 1
" ,
'! "'1
" " " "'1"'."'.
0
I / -
"
- 1
I
1 "
I .
,
/
"
I
,I
- 400
-"'" o 0.1
"'r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Mass Frection of ~noI
F lO. 340, 'I'bo operat.iOD 01 (raetionating oolumns usiD open ami cloeed stearn "i,tb the 8ft.1TIe IOSII 01 eths'IOl in the boUonlll
iDdic:at.ed on an ~nlhalpy~nt ...t.ion diapan. for
the ethanol-water ')'SteIU a~ I atm,
VAPOR-LIQUID TRAISSFER QPERATIONS 1
2000
,-, , - ,
, 1500
,
--
/
V)l
V 1// . 11
; /
t--
1// 1 1/ II
4
1000
t-:--- --1/..:: ~ d / /
f--
~/ IT" ~t.-::: b
/'
i! -7,
.,i I . . /
i" ! vr> / l,?>
II/~ k~ 1/',/
c~
'"
/ /<,
/";
t/ ~ 1/
IF" 1/
- ." " fl ..
-
/ V/ ,
!/; -- ,- ''\i - ,-
, , -
- ~IJ,
;,V -
.
~
FlO. 3~ 1.
-- ,.
Enth.!t.Jpy-COWJCnt.ration diagnm for the ethlUlol-water aystem at I atm, ahQWin~ tbe ooll4troct.ion when ooUlliderill&"
tbe effeet uf entroiwnent o.tl the number of .\ages.
ation, the 'e ntrained liquid is in equilibrium with the 'its effect can be -readily inoorporated in the calcula-
vapor, and a point on II. tie line, such as elO in Fig. tion by colllltructing a wet vapor line I.u replace t he
3-11, represents the combined vapor and entrained saturated vapor line. By plotting points e along
equilibrium liquid rising rrom plate 10 as it is an the tie - lines' 80 tllat the ratio of the distances
addition point for the saturated vapo:>l' 1110 and its ey/u -
e, the wet vapor line is determined as the
equilibrium liquid ZIO' The point elO is looated on locus of the point.8 l!. The computations are then
the equilibril,m lie line .1" IOY , O 80 that the ratio of the made in the urual manner except that the wet
distances e,oilloi el oX lO - E,o. vttpOr' line is u!!ed instead of the B&turated vapor
H the enlt"ainment is known or can be estimated, !ille as indicated in }'ig. 3U.
PROBLEMS ,, 343
Plate Efficien cy n - 1, in this case the bottom plate next above the
In actual operation each plate seldom operates II.S still, is represented by %. _ 1. The point representing
an equilibrium plate. The departure from equilib- the equilibrium vapor, 11" ~ _ I, is on thc saturated
rium may be expressed in a number of different ways. vapor line at the intersection of the equilihrium tie
Th~ Murphree vapor plate efficiency is defined: line from Z .. _ lo The vapor actually rising from
stage n - I, however, is not of this oofllpotlition,
. y~ - lI~+ 1 but lI~- I , located on the saturated vapor line 80 tha t
Vapor effiCiency _ (280)
y~. - 11-+1
Jt~Y._1 .
where y has its usuall!ignificanee. - (Vapor efficKmcy) .. _ 1
1/ indicates the compoeition of the equilib- 1/. 1/ "- I
rium vapor (the vapor that would be in T~e calculation may be continued as indicated,
equilibrium with %..). provided the efficiency is known or can ,be et!timated.
If the saturated vapor line ,is approximately
This plate efficiency may be incorporated in the
straight as in Fig. 342 tJie total vapor rising from a
calculations to compute the number of actual plates
plate may be regarded lis COnlposild of two.portiulls:
as distinct frorn the number of equilibrium plates,
ODe portion a vapor in eqitilibrium 'with th~ liquid
as indicated in Fig. 312. When dealing with the
learing the piaro, and the baJllnce. a va~r 'passing
1200 through the plate without any change in composi-
tion. The fraction of vapors bypassed in this way
. :.",. 1100
would'equal the ratio of the dista~ces y"Y""/~n+11I "",
f'-- Or the Murphree vapor plate efficiency might be
1000
goo
, .
",p""",,"
Vapor efficiency - (1 - rf (281)
800 f'-- )'.-1
where" - fraction of vapors by-passed.
700
II" ':!;:'i
Q ,
j600 '"
. f"
~+-
~~
PROBLEMS
~500
/ /
l. A feed at 10 F, 1 atm. cont.aining W.O IlUIIIII per oent
,
=E-400 IF et.h&nol aDd the ~O& . \t.. l.Cr, ill to be ' lrippedd n a ~te
ooIumu to prodllO& a bot tom ~ut\ contalwlII 1.0 rna. per
" 300
/ cent _~thanol. Oftrhead vapof'll a.re,..ithd,.wll-IUI a dilililtate
prod"",-
200 10:::- / / (a) What ill the minimum '-t req~ pel" pound of
00
-" ~-I
-". _1 s......_..., bottom product to e1Icct. lhillep&ration!
{b} What is the composition of Ule ~te vaPOr'll for
j.hi.s operation!
- I00
0
I I
.II
' T~/
(c) What ill the minimum ratio of v.piX! Ieavm,; tll . till
pot to bottomB product!
(d) What effect will coolilll tIN! feed 'to O F have on the
'aItllwof:l'!! to qlWlltiQllfJ (I., b, and c7
-2()() (~) With feed at 10" F. nd V./8 _ 1.5 time. the minimum,
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 l .o -L corn. .",
Mass Flllttion' Ethanol I" Et1lanol-Water Mixtures
FIG. 342. Entlllllpy-eoncent.ratlon, diqram, Ihow iD'j{ coO- ,' (I) Heat requl(ed per wund or" bottom product.
I
B1ruetion when c::on~idering tOe e1Jeet of Mwphree vapor etfi- (2), CompoBition or distillate v.porl. .
.
ekooy on the numbe!- of .\&pI. (3) Number of ideal plates (including atill) required.
2. A vapor mixture at 1 atm, oontaininlli &5.0 DlafII per eent
vapor plate efficiency the ~cal culati0ll8 are usually ethanol: and the balanQ! water (enthalpy - l{.l()() Btu /lb),
started at the bottom. In Fig. 342, v. represents ill to be ~tified in I. plate column ('WI th eondenaer, nieei'fer,
the Vapol'8 rising from the still and are l88U,Dled to and reflux pump) to produce a dia~ilta~ product at 100 F
coota.inin 8.5.0 ~ per cent ethanol.
be in equilibrium with th~ still liquKl or bottoms %8. (G) What ia the minimum reBux ratio (tol D) a nd minimllm
In this sense the still is the bottom equilibrium coodenaer duty (Btu per pot.IlId of distillate) roecesMI"Y to
stage, n. The liquid leaving the next bigher stage, achlevI! this aepan.tioaf
,
VAPOR-UQUlD TRANSFER OPERATIONS I
,(&) What ill the COlTCllpondilll oomflOlSition of the liquid obtsiood durinj: &n 8-hr period, duriq which llteady... tate
bot\(JQl product and quant.ity per pound of feed? COoditiOll4 existed. ..1.
(e) If the reflUli ratio (4J/ D) it inerea.sed by *6 pet I'eOt
ColUIllD:
over the miniDlUlU, oompute:
Actual number of plates, 16
(1) Condell$er duty in Btu per pound of dmilla.te. Plate 5paelng, to in.
(2) N wnber of Ideal plAtes. :fo'eed introduocod on twdft h pla.te down rrom top:
(3) Compolli.tion of bottom product. Complll!ition, 0.300 IIlMEl fnict.ion ethanol
Raw, 24,000 Ib/hr
a. A rraetionating eulumn ill openu.irc at 1 .tm to produce Telllpemture, 53.6 0 F
a reflux and distillate p"roduet at 114 F containing 78 mole Overhead produ ct: 0.900 Ill&3S fraction eth .. nol
per ccnt ethAnol and the balancc water, and a bottom product Bottom product: 0 .005 ~ftact.ion ethanol
containing 0.4 mole per cellt ethanol. The feed oontainll Condell9llr:
17.5 mole pel' cent ethanol and ill introd uced a t 183.4" F at a W..w rate, U,OOO gal/hr, .. II'IIl&IIllI'ed by meter in water
note of 43.5 moletfhr. Re8.ux.~ It .. " F is ~turned to the line
top plate of the column at a rate of 2!U ll'K>lee/ht. Water temperature: Inlet, 50 F
(a) How many actual plAtes {in addition to the $till} are
, ." Outlet, 12(16 F
required "'ith an overall plate efficiency of 70 per cent?
kIIume the etill ill equivalent to one kieal plate. ,
Condensate temperature, 80 0 F
(&) What are the .... tee. 01 beat t.ran8f~ in the IItm and in the Determine:
......".,,'
(c) At what rate do the vapol"\l leave the still, and wlia.t ill ...,.
{OJ The overall pb.te e fficiency of the ooIurnn dlll'ing the
their oompoBitiQn? (tiL Thttpoint wh!-,te the na.ximum v&por rate is found, lind
(d) To the downapout of which plate sboo.ld the feed he the quantity in pnUnWI per hour.
introduced? A.Nurne equaJ plate el'licieneies in the atripPing (e) The cll&ntre in oomposit.ion of the bottom product if
and rectifying ~tio,..". this !II<.Ine oolumn ill open-ted wi~h a heat exchanger to recover
8Orn<l of the bellt IooIt in the bottom produet by preheating
4. A loed 01 22.2 mole per, cent ethanol 11.1,'11, tbe ba.!lUlce the feed to ISO' F, with the top product unchang&d, the
water, at 1 atm and IllI cuthalp'y or 4860 Btu/mole, ill to he refhix ratio unchanM and with the a88uinption that the
~rat.ed by di!tiUatlon in a plate ooIwnn with open 1It.eam plate efficicnciel will be unellanged.
at an cllt.halpy of J200 Btu/lb and a partial amdeMe.-. The
bottom product ill to conWIl 3.8 mole per oent ethanol, and 7. A oontinuoua, bubble-eap fractionating oolumn, equipped
thll di,tiUate product (saturated vapor) 78 mole per cent with reboiler and partial eono.len.oor, ill to be uaed to recover
ethanol. IO.llb of steam are,UIId pet mole of feed. ethanol from two strelWlll: P, 0 ..50 rruis8 fraction etbtwol a nd
(a) What is the condemer duty per mole of distillate r t.he bal&noe water, at SO F, 20,000 lbJ hr; and Jo", 0.060 nlllllll
prod...., fr*dioo e~ and t.he balance_tel, &t 1200 F, 20,(0) Ib/hr.
(6) What are !.be CIOOIdinatee or the IJ. point MIOciated with . 'The eth&nol. ia to be reco~ ",a vapor oontai~ 0,91 rna.
the botiom of t.be cotumn! Whlit do thele valueI repl'eEnt? fraet.ion e~l The bottom pnxIurl ill tn contain o.clllxn
. (e) H ow many ideal pla.te!I Me required (ineludil1l still and rn&II! fr.action ethanol.
pN'tial ooaden8er)? ,! , The ooiumn ill to he operated at stlOOl!lp heric p!'elllUtl'!.
(i) HO'IV iDBny .~tual platee are - . y aboVl! the :rtillf The va.pIM' streamll leavin@: the pla.tee will entrain 0.2 lb of
A.wne that the still opel'lLtell at. 30 pel' oent. efficiency, the liquid per pound of Vllpor, except for t be V'llpIM' from tbe top
Iy.utial condemter is equivalent to one ideal. pJ.te and if) pla.te ..-here entra..inment will he negli&ible. C&.Icula\e:
8Cparate from the column, and the rest or the tow", 'h as & -(a)" TIle ~nimum reflux t'atio (Lt:,/D) rOr the opemtion,
plli.te efficiency or 75 'per cent. (&) Tbe number 9f ide&! pla.teII required and reboiler
heal duty wben the refll.lJI. ratio is equ&l to 1.5 timM tbe
S. A.C(III.tiII_ Iabol1l.toIy fnw:tioMtiDg uni t eonWllB the minimum.
equivaJe.ot of ru: equilibrium platee .lId in oper&tion 8Uppliea (el '!'be number of platfl8 mquired for the IIIll"ne reftUI:
'.,~ ~flux to the top plate Ilt IOO~ F. It is heated with clO8ed ratio &l!I that ~ in part. (&), if the t'll'O atreAmll 'a re mixed
st.e&m. A Icod oontaining 40 weight pet oent eth&no\ 9.lld the r before intro!1uctlon into l.he column,
bal:owee ",.. ter ie divWod into two portions, one colllliating of
ro pal'll &!XI tbe other 60 p&rt4 pe' 100 parte of origin&! feed. a. TeD tboUl6lld poundt per hour of a 1I01ution at 60' F
The ,maIler port.ion is fed to tbe IICOOnd pUl.e from too top. C(III.taining 40 _ per _ t ethanol and the b&laru:e water
anj the iar&'er portion k> the fifth plate. 'The temperature .re fed to a oontinUOUlll Jract.ionatinc ooIumn operatiDI at
or the food is 130' F. If the column it operated Ilt 1 .. tm pre&- atm('Jflpheric pl'lll!lure. The solution ill to be &eparated Into
eu'll at a re1I.ux I'Il.Uo (RJ D) of 2.0, and the distillate aDd three product. containiq 90, 66. and 5 per oent eth&no~
b:M.t.orn products are withdrawn at equal rates, what ill the ~i-vely. The stream cont&ininl 66 per tlI'!Ilt ethanol ill
COlIlpoeition of ,hi! produel.ll that will bt: Rroducedf to he witbdra1lm at a rau 012000 Ib/hr.
'The oolumn ill to he equir'ped with a t.ot&I. oondeMe.-.
6. A bubble-cap column operated at &tmOllPhefi~ p!'elllurt Water from 1\ cooling to'll'et" available &t 86 F as a cooling
baa been uee4 foc the oontinuo~ fractionation of an aqucoua ,rnediUlll ror the conooD$lll', Tentatively, it estimated that
l!IOI.ution of et4nol. The ooiumn w'" \!quipped with a total a reflux ratio (Lt/D) of 2 will he Wled. Open .te&m.at 310 F
~ aDd a ~boiler. T he rol.lowin& tell. data were ~ to supply tht. beat required 101' the operatiQll..
PROBLEMS 345
SpooiI,. the foUo'lll'inl inlormaUoa: _delVlfl,tfl 1eaving ..the trap at a saturated liquid. U the
(4) Number of idl!al plateR required for the eolumn. cohuna it operatfld at 80 psia, delermillCl:
(6) Loeatlon of the feed plate. (a) The maximum CQnoon tration of a.mmonia vapor
(e) LoeIltion of the plate from whleh the 66 per oent produot obtainablo.
ill to be removed. (6) The number of ideal plate<! requirW in the column to
obtain a top produet containing 0.70 lIUIIl8 fractioo ammonia
9. An aqllOOUll aoiutiotl of 0.15 rnue fraction ammonia is and a bottom product containing 0.005 JnaIIII fl"lCtion
being fed to the top plate of a stripping column at the rate of ammonla.
21,000 Ib/ht. The temperature of the feed is 140 F. Heat (e) The steam requirement (pounds per hour) under U-
is IIllpplied to the reboUer by meana of l~ psi ateam, the conditioM.
"
"
CHAPTER
24
T
separation divided by the number of actual plates
equipment is dependent largely on the judg- required, leaves much to be desired. from a. theoret-
ment of the engineer. The b9JIic information ical point of view, it has pro"Fed to be a convenient
concerning proce'IS variahles such as temperatures, and in most cases a reliable method of correlating
pressures, energy quantities or reflux ratio, and the practieal operating results. Other definitions of
!'umber of equilibrium trays required is subject to plate efficiency based on IJlAS8 tra.."Isfer theory 10
more or less e:mct calculat.ion, as has been indicated. have made considerable progress.~" nut such
The proper design of fractionating equipment in- theoretical methods bave not. yet. rcach.I the point
cludes not only the number of actual plates but, what of development where they can be employed to
is even more importAnt, and without specific expe- predict actual plate efficiency either conveniently or
rience more difficult, the dimensions of the column with con6dence.
and its component parts including risers, down- Since overall efficiencies are based upon perform-
spouts, and spacing of plates, or packing and its ance data, the values reported not only include the
support. effect of the actual plates and materials treated on
the a.pproach to equilibrium between tbe liquid and
BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS
vapor phw, but also reflect any errol' or inaccuracy
An e!TOr in estimating the num ber of plates is in obtaining the data or in calculating the number of
usuaJly not so serious as an error of equivalent equilibrium stages required. When using overall
magnitude in estimating tower diameter or down- plate efficiencies reported in the literature, it is
spout capacity. Once the tower is erected, these important to make proper aUowance for such errors
latter Items cannot be changed eeonomica.lly, whereas and for differences in the methods of culeulatio'l, par-
an error in the number of plates can usua.lly be com- ticularly in multicomponent mixtures whcre approxi-
pensated for by an adjustment of operating condi- maw methods of calculation are frequently ;;-.;ed,~
tions, A primary consideration in column design is For properly designed and normally operated
the provision of sufficient capacity fM' both the liquid columns, the overall plate efficieney is largcly de-
and vapor strromlf, Present information 1,11,111 .. indi- pendent upon the properties of t.he material being
cates that the plate efficiency, in m08~ cases, ill not. fractiona.ted, The viscosity appears to be the
l:Ien.sitive to minor variatidns in standard tTay la.youts most important single property affect.ing the )verall
if ample fluid h'lmdling ca.pacity is provided, plate efficiency, For colwnns operat ing on petro-
leum and similar hydrocarbon mnwrinl!!. the follow-
Til e Number of Actual Platu ing relationship" was found reason/I,bly satisfactory
Although the OVO'all plate ej'ficiency, defined as the
number of equilibrium stages required for a given Overall plate efficiency ~ 18 - 60 log I' (282)
Tho bihliography rot this chfl.plcr apvears onp, 396, where I' - molal average viscosit.y of feed at the
316
BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS 347
average column temperature in centipoi&es. The these values must be used with caution according
molal average viscosity of the feed is the 8Wll of to the judgment and the e":perience of the engineer.
the products of mole fraction and viscosity for eaeb
compooent of the feed taken at tbe arithmetic Column Diameter and Vapor Copocity
averagfJ of the top and bottom temperatures of the The efficiency of the contact between the liquid
column. and vapor on a plate depends largely on the agitation
Columns of model'8.te diametet1! operating on caused by energy supplied by the vapor in passing
volatile hydrocarbon columllB such as natural gMo- through the liquid on the plate. At very low vapor
line sbow overall plate efficiencies of about 100 per .velocities, low plate efficiencies are obtained. This
cent. Low-pressure bydrocarbon absorbers operate may be caused by a decreased liquid level on the
at about 20 to 45 per cent plate efficiency, high- plates (a greater proportion of liquid passing down
pressure absorbers (from 100' to 600 psi) at about through the drain holes), tbe channeling or the vapors
45 to 65 per cent pJste efficiency, and a1coholwater due to sligbt. differences on liquid head at. different
coI:UIlUl8 at 70 to 100 per cent overall plate efficiency.points (1); the pLs.te8, and the formation of relatively
La.rge columns providing multiple contacts of up- large bubbles cf vapor. Higher v1l.por velocities
Bowing vapor with the cross-flowing liquid indicate produce higher plate efficiencies because of thorough
overall efficiencies up w 50 per cent higher than those contacting of the liquid and Y~por. At very high'
given.a vapor velocities, entrainment of liquid by the vapor
Figure 343 is a similar correlation r. which in- begins and the vapor tends tAl ''cone''-the liquid away
. .,
cludes an lidditional variable, the reLs.tive volatility from the slots of the bubble caps," by-passing: the
liquid on the platefl and prooucing low pln.t,e effi
ciencies. .
Maximum plate efficiencies are obtained over a
range of vapor velocities centered approximately
~50 at those calculated by the following equat:on, t'l.e
form of which was derived by application of equation
~30 14 to the motion of liquid droplflt!! in vapor.-
1100.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10
(283)
Relative VollltiUIy of Key Components Ie Viscosity where G is the mass velocity of the vapor [(lb)/(hr)
of Feed (It Average CoIwnn Conditions)
(01 ... ) ( ....... in centipoiRs)
(sq ft) of column cross section].
C is a parameter depending upon the plate
FIo. iW3. Approlliln3te overall plate efficiency M .. fWlction
of the prodoo of relativ!! voi&tility of !.be key components spacing and the surface tension of the liquid
multiplied ~Y t.be ~ of t.be fee;d in (!IlDl.ipo'-.- on the plate.
Ph p., are the densities of the liquKl and vapor,
of the componente be~ ~ted, and is applicable respectively, ..It the column conditions
to a wide range of materials' 8.s well as to'eornmefcial LI1<" (Ib/ cu ft).
sieve plal.e columns frsctioiui.ting acetic a.cid-;"'ater
mixtures, beer, IWd alcohol~water mixtures. The values of the para.meter C may be determined
The overall relativJ volatility is obtained by divid- - f;om Fig. 344 as a function of plate spacing and
ing the equilibrium moial ratio y/z of the more- sUrface tell8ion ..a A suitable column diameter may
volatile component by t:h~e equilibrium ratio, lI/Z of . be selected by using the maximum vapor load in
the leas-volatile component for which' definite limit- ' the column in poundS per hOur. The mass velocity
ing concentrations have been specified in' the dis- per square foot. of column area at which the pla.tes
tillate and. in the bottoms, at the arithmetic average ' will usually operate efficiently may be computed
temperature and pressure of the column. For PUr-~(' from equation 283. 'The quotient of these figures is
poses of correlation this average relative volatility is the total cross-8Ci:tional column area which should
multiplied by the average vi8cOOty of the feed,!UJ.d be used. In making this calculation it is nll."CCSSary
the product used as the abscissa in Fig:. 343. to assume arbitrarily a plate spacing. Suhseque!lt
The exact description cf what are norrn8J operating calcuilitions for liquid capacity determine whether
conditions is subject to wide variation, and therefore or not this assumed plate spacing is satisfactory.
348 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
700 the risers of the plate above. Ordinarily, spiashinl!;
/' entrainment is important only at very high vapor
,/ velocities and with small plate spacings.
600 Variations in plate efficiency observed in ('.om.mer-
ciai installatioIl8 cannot be explained entirely on the
/ ;:;;; wis of entrainment. In one case, entrainment of
/ ./
- 0.4 Ib of liquid per pound of dry vapor was observed,
Al / V' which theoretically would have reduced ~he plaIA!
efficienoy by 2:5 J)"Jr, eent. Actually, the plate effi-
-'/l ciency was reduced two or three times this amount.
/11,11; ~.f,
I/, V
/ Apparently, baaic: changea in the type of contact
between the liqtQd and vapor 00 the bubble-eap
plates such as "coning" occur before entrainment
~ 1,(., seriously aJiecte plate efficiency, and the most
/&:
/Of'" 1 . / .....
/ important effect of entrainment is an increase in the
liquid loads carried by the downspouts.
100
1/ ~\""
1/ V'
:..--
.' Where rigid speci6cationa with respect to oolOf' or
impurities must be met by distillate producte, snfall
amounts ,of entrainment may be very serious, en-
tirely apart from eonsideratton8 of plate efficiency
or capacity.
,IV'
10 15 20 25 30
Oistll'oOe bet'o\leen PllttS. In. " Vapor Llnes
'I11e V&jXlr lines from the top of a oolumn must be
lio. 344. Vallie of C in eq ua'ion 283 for di1Jeren\ pla~ sufficiently -large to pennit pa8SII.ge of the vapors
8pAcinp and liquid M1l'f_~.
witlwut exoessive presstae drop. The pressure drop
may be calculated by methods of Chapter 12. The
Plate efficiency is relatively insensitive to vapor following figures U represent usual commercial prac-
load over a wide range with properly designed bub- tice :
bl~p pla\.eS,' and ooluml1 diameters det.ennined. by
the above procedure provide a reasonable overload
Operatinc Pn.un!
Atmo.pberic
10G-50 mm D1e1'CIlry
......
Vapor Velocity, fps
100-150
caplM!ity so far as efficiency is concerned, since the Below 50 mm mereury 15<>-200
vapor velocities so calculated may be exceeded by
30 to 100 per cent without a signi6cant decrease in Liquid Capacity
plate efficiency, A column operating nonnally ia illustrated' dis.-
In rare cases the vapor lood in different parts of a grammatically in Fig. 345. In order that the vapor
column will differ so markedly that a column oon- from pla.,.te 2 may pass through the bubble caps ~d
structed of Scctioll.8 having different cf'Ol!lHleCt.iooal liquid on plate I , there must be a pressure difff:rential
area may be justified. P2 - Pl . Further, in order that the liquid on ..,late 1
may pa88 through the downspout to piaU! 2, there
Entrainment must be a liquid head in the downspout above the
Equation 283 WII.9 deve.'oped on the concept of a liquid on plate 2 sufficient to balance the pressure
maximum vapor Joad that wpuld just fail to ~ differential producing the vapor Bow lUId in addition
significant cntrllinment by the suspension of a mist to produee liquid Bow through the downspout.
of liquid in the vapor. Where smalJ. amounts of The first observable effect of exceeding the liquid
entrainment are significant the vapor velocities com- capacity of a column is &n increase in too quantity
puted from equation 283 sho'uld not be exceeded and of liquid on the trays and in the dmvnspou t&. When
the d ist.anoo from the top of liquid (or froth) on a the downspout becomes filled with liquid, My slir,bt
plate to bottom of plate above should be used a.8 the increase in the liquid or vapor flow incfelU3e8 the
distance between plates. ' Entrainment mayal80 be liquid level on the plate. The increase in liquid level
cau.<;ed by splashing of liquki from one plate into . on the plate increases the pressUIll differential lCf088
BUBBlE PLATE COLUMNS
(
:: .. .
.,' .
. . .. ..... . . ", . .. ... . "" .
FlO. 346. Diagram illUiltrating liquid heads in the Bow of liquid down a bubbl~ap column in normal operation.
the plate which, in turn, causes more liquid to back 8erious a.nd the rlooding occurs more rapidly. When
. up through the downspout, producing It. lurtJaer the free surface of the liquid in the downspouts is ' .
increase in the liquid level on the plate. The result weU belQW the entmnoo there is Ilufficieot surface
of this accumulative cycle is that the column fills along the walls of the downspout and over the weir
with liquid and ceases to function as a fractionating for the entrained vapor to disengage from the liquid,
unit. This phenomenon is called flooding. and the downspout will operate properly. As the
When tbe column becomes fiUed with liquid 88 a liquid flow increases nod the downspout begiIlll to
reatllt of flooding, the pressure differentials between fiU ,,; th liquid, this surface is decreased, and the
the plates disappear to a large extent, while the pres- point may he reached at which the vapor can no
sure in the still or reboiler will continue to increase longer disengage from the liquid, thus passing down
if the temperature of the heating fluid is sufficiently through thc dowIllIpuut with the liquid. Since the
high. Eventually this pI'e8i!ure will become great density of this frothy mixture of liquid ind vapor ill
enough to blow liquid over the top of the column less than that of t-he liquid alone, a higher head of
tbMUgh the vapor lines in more or less violent froth is required to maintain the seal between the
slJ8BDls. This is known as priming or puking. plates than is required. with li(luid alone. Co~
During such periods vapor generated in the still quenUy the entire cycle described above occurs more
bubbles through the column' of liquid in the column rapidly. Thus it is essential that ample liquid-carry-
intennitteiitly. While vapor is being generated no ing capacity be provided in the oolwnn for materials
liquid 80ws to the stiU or reboiler. When vaporiza.- that tend to froth or foam. A top baffle placed in
tion ceases, owing to the inereue in pressure, liquid front of the downspout weirs so that liquid must p98fl
flows to the still. A flooded, or partially floodPrl beneath this baffle before passing over the wei'1:ha8
column cannot fractiunate efficiently, and it is been found helpful in holding the froth out of the
essential that the plates of a column be spaced at a downspout," and in preventing the liquid being
sufficient distance so that flooding will not oceur "blown off" the plate at bigh vapor rates. This
under the nonna! .variatioos in operating conditions. baffle should extend to the level of the slots if it doee
WherejrolJi'/lliquida are involved this ~ect i~ more not seriously restrict liquid Bow.
350 VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
Ample disengaging spa.oe for the vapor should be Lereloee. Show that the pnMUte drop ~uired fo.' Yapol
provided between the downspout weir IIJld the to fklw upward through the plate ~ \0 tho !eYe! cf liquid i.o
downspout (P, - Pu is given by the follotrinc equat.inn..
entrance to the downspout, as shown in Fig. 345,
allowing 8. minimum time, for vapor liberation P1 - PI _ [<Zl _ Zz) + lis (PI - I)]!..g. .+ iwy (285)
between the lBBt row of CApe and the overflow weir, ~ ~
of 1 aec/ft of liquid depth on the tray,- wbere liDV - friction bIJ in vapor 8o'lrin& through riactI,
Liquid Height in DoWIUpouts. The ma.ximum bubble caps, and eIou (fMb foroef\bol vapor).
height HDA%. olliquKl in the d()Wll8pout from plate .. - beiJb~ of liquid 00 plate 600- rJota OJ" ft(>Or
outlets from C:&pII, Of ISUb~ (Il).
1 above plate 2 in Fig. 345 is equal to the plate 8p8C-
'ing plus the height of tbe weir on plate 1. The ac- Multiplying equation 285 by (P./p{), and substi-
tual height H of the liquid in the downspout above tuting for (Zl - Z2),
plate 2 may be calculated from the various factors
cootrlbuting to pressure differentials in the flow paths ., p [H-h .. -h... -h,) -,
pI + ]
and the dimensions of the weirs areording to equation
600. which may be written lor the 80w of liquid down
the downspout from plate 1 to plate 2 as follows.
.,:' ' - [ +'" (", ::.) + z:t:.) (286)
[
(h' +h"+h')(~)+
PI' 2g g
]
H("::} +"'( ,,:,.)+ /,;;&:)+ ~::.)
Neglect.Wg changes in kinetic energy,
Zl _ P, - PI + z, + (~) lw,
PI' g
1
Simplifying by dividing by (PI - P ..)/PI
where PI - preesure above liquid in downspout (lb
force/sq ft).
h.! + h.+ ... +>.+
(287)
P s - pressure Above liquid on plate 2 Ob H - [ +lWL(-, PI ,)+IWv(- , P. ,)
. fOl'OO/ sq it). \;1 - P. \;1 - P.
ZI "" height of ~ surface of liquid in down- Except for higb-pres8UJ'e operations, DO significant
spout abOve plate 2 (ft). error is introduced if (Pi' - P.')/ Pl is astmmed equa l
Z, ... height of liquid on plate 2 surrounding to unity. The downspouts operate as sut. .wrged
downspout (ft) . ' orifices, and the friction IClBIIe8 lw may be eetlmated
lWL - friction loeses in liquid flowing down by the orifice equation as
and under dOWlUlpOUt (ft-lb force/lb
ma.sa-of liquid). lw - O.06(vL)' (288)
PI' - average speci6c weight of liquid in where VL - maximum velocity of liquid in 01" under
downspout (lb foree/ cu ft) . 'downspoGt determined at narrowest constriction
(minimum croes-eectiona.l (area. Dormal to Row) (fpe).
Rewriting, with the following nomenclature, Similarly, the value for the friction loss in the 80w
H - height of liquid in downspout above of vapors through the bubble caps may be approxi-
plate, mated by the sa.me formula but with II. larger con-
h.. - height of weir on plate, stant .!.II the vapor changes its directioo of Bow to a
h~ ""' height oC liquid over weir -on plate, p-ea.ter extent in passing through the bubble CAp'
~ - hydra.Ulic gradient (liquid "head" tend- than does the liquid in passing through the dov n-
-ing to cause horizontal flow of liquid spout.. The value for the constant will depeni upon
BCr088 the plate), the design of bubble cap: The following is lIIlg68ted
88 a fair average .
Z, - h,.+h..+h, ItoI' - O.086(vv)' (289)
H _ PI - , PI + h. + h_ + ~ + (~) lw, (284) where Vy - maximum vapor velocity through riflers,
, C caps, or slota (Cps) .
B UBBLE PLATE COLUMNS 351
The "head" required for t he flow of liq uid across
the plate, hI" is rclatiw!ly small in columns of small
diame ters and may be approximatf'd or nc~lccted
except ill t he case of large columns which may be
cai(lUlated by more r.ompiex equations II, It or esti
mated in the manner described unde r Plate Design
and Layout, p. 354. The height of t he weir h", is
known a~ it is fixed by the designer. T he suhmer
~~noo hs (see Fig. 3..\5) varies djredly with the height
Over the weir 11_ and for the upstream side of the
plate may be e),..prC!!!!~ as
hs-h.,.,+h'!"+hp - x
where x = diBhlOce from plate to top of :llot.
T he height of liquid in the downcomer H can then
be estimated if the value for hou is calculated or
estimated. Sub:it.ituting in equation 287, H ..,
2(h .. + ho", + h,,) - J: + O.OG(VL)2 + O.085(t'v)2(~)
(290)
wbere Iiy is the velocity of \'upor passing through the
upstream row of caps. 1 Ul' iil taken as the average FlO. 347. A typical bubble-e., p plate witb circular over60...
maximum "elocity Lbrough the Clip:! nn average ,,cin<. (TM / ,l.1l11;m," Co.)
\alue for hp (such as h,./2 in Fig. 345) is indicated.
The head of lilJlIul at,.-er the weir hQIl! is directly pro- change!:! ill liquid load and is preferred for that reason.
portional to the quantity of liquid paAAi ng over the Weirs m'C usually of two t,y]X!s : (1) circular pipes
weir and is invcr.;cly proportional to tllt: length of extending through the plate w the plale below, l<'igs.
the weir. A given liquid level for a particular liquid 346 aud 34i , the edge of the pipe serving all II. weir,
load Howing 3.C1'CIS$ the plate can be maintaineJ by a. and (2) flat plates e.'(tcnding nc rQKS the chord of the
long high weir, or by a low "hort weir. The long eol\lmn circle (chord.type wcinl), Fig!:!. 348 and 349.
high weir gives lcss variation in liquid level with Frequenlly the downspout is fonned by the space
betweell the wall of the column and t he extension of
the elum:l-typc weir below the plate.
In the equations u.lxlI'e the heads have been ex-
pressed in feet. In prnct.ioo t he he-ad of fluid over the
weir is usually given in inelic::!. The const..ants in the
following equations (through 302) are chOBCn to give
the hend over the weir h~", in inches of flowing ft uid.
At low flow rates, with ample downspout enpadty,
thl:' liquid flows over the weir at 0. low head h~ .. and
passes down the walls of the downspouts Wj a fi lm.
The dow nspout is largely empty of liquid except for
the liquid St'.a.i at the bottom of the downspout. In
such C!L'ieS the flow of liquid over the weir may be
computed by the Franei.s weir formu la.~
(29 1)
where (J "" discharge (d!:!).
IV - length of weir (in.).
Flo. 346. V"'w of bubbl<:Kl&p oolumn ~howiDg typical iu.-
,tallatioo of roundetL))!I I\itb circular oownOOlUen!I ami weirs.
ho., Q head above edge of weir (in. of flowing .
(S. BUckman, Inc.) liquid).
VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
Fla. 348. A Ia~e bubl>l&-eap p1a.~ with eireul&r e&pEI aDd dOWIloomel'!! &lid .. cbOl'd-type Wilir. (E. B. Bad~ and &m. CD.)
This equation is applicable to circular weirs provided based on tne following fonn of the weir equation 291.
that the diameter D of the downspout is greater than
four timel:l the h('ad of fluid over the weir. If the h - 30F (~). (292)
ebord-type weir is relatively clooe to the wall of the "W
column, the wall exert.s 11 constricting effect on the
How, which makes the c.a.leulation a trial-and-error
procedure.
p-(;,)"
where h_ = height. of liquid over weir (in.).
L = liquid load (Ib/ sec).
W = length of weir (inJ
IV, - "effective leDl!;th" of weir (in.).
PI = liquid density (lbleu It).
Fla. 349. Chord-type weir. in .. ~m&I.l bubCI_p 001=. Letting K = WI D, eql'ation 293 may be solved for
(SlrotAtrl Wtllf Corp.)
Uf D.
Chord Weir"
A convenient method for est.imating h_ for chord
U - VI - K'
(295)
weirs directly I which avoids the trial amI. error is D 2
BUBBIE PLATE COLUMNS
. And, combining equations 300 and 301,
I
, '" G. _~ _[VI - K'IF' - VI -K'j"
,,
I
I
I
t
I "
/.;';
1/:::-:'--
A C
\lW. w
PIW- S 60KP
Equation 302 is shown graphically in Fig. 351.
(302)
"XI
---- 0.' S
- .... "..,~"'OO r<:lg~:i3 ~~~
~,,~p)'IO'
FIG. 350. Piacram 1U1lllt.rat.i.ng "'tionehip amoDl YRriable. Flo. ~t. Correction r.(WI' ~. for constrictions 01 col umn
in cbord-type -u equatiOI'lll.' wall in a chord-ty pe weir fonnuIa, equ.tion 302.'
And, observing that. V, - U - h.., equation 29"- directly the value of P, which may then be
~y ,be 9O"'ed tor VdD. substituted in equation 2D2 to give hoOD ' The original
reference' should be consulted for alignment charts
--
V,
D
I_VI_K2
2
ho..
D
(296)
for rapid solution.
Plote Spadng
Combining equations 294 and 296, [0 order to insure adequate liquld capacity, good
practice requires that plate spacing be madc .equal
W. _
D ..
[I _(2h..D.. + VI K.. )'] " (297)
to 2H as oomputed by equation 00. This gives an
overload capacity for nonIi-othing liquids oompariable
to the overload capacity for vapor incorporated in
thc application of equation 283 and Fig. 344 when
small quantities of entrainment are not significant.
--
A_
D
VI - K'/ Ji" - VI -
2
K'
(300)
plate, the caps at that point will cease bubbling. No
vapor will pass through these caps and the liquid will
tend to Row, .or backtrap, through the slots and down
Solving equation 292 for LjW2.Ii, the risers to the plate below. Such a plate i8 said
to be unstable. . "
PI
L (h..ID)"
wtJ30KF- (30I )
In exceptionally large r.olumns the bubble cape
may be arranged in cascade or tiers, the plate eon- ~
VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
18 vapor velocity in the oolumn " (fpa), vapor density
p (lb/ cu ft), cap ooncentTation N, average liquid
1.6 , = +
aeal or submergence (hSflV.c) 8", hpj2), and skirt
clearance. Liquid seal is defined as the depth of
1
; ....... , clear liquid above the top of the bubble-eap slots a,
indicated in Fig. 345. Figure 352 gives h,. (in inches
,
2 ,X.
0'
, of water) d irectly for a flow of 1000 gal -of water per
hour per foot of width for a. rectangular plate con-
, taining twelve rows of caps across the path of liquid
.0 ,
< , flow. The average width of a plate carrying ciroular
-
\.,,'
bubble caps for plate stability or balanced operation minimwn resistance usually occurs near the overflow
with all bubble caps functioning is indicated from weir (downstream) aod is ~o +
8... The maximum
experimental data in Fig. 3M . +
seal is h, 8... For. a stable plate with clear liquid
on the plate
100 aP, + s,. ~ h,. + s,.
Actually the liquid on the tray i8 aerated by the
..
90 upflowing vapor at the side near the downspout
(Fig. 345) and ofl'ers less resistance than indicated
by ita depth. At tbe opposite side lit-tie or no vapor
ill risi~ and the liquid is proctically clear or un-
70
I aerated. Therefore, the equation for a Itable plale ill
aP, + oS. ~ h,. + s,.
",
.!
E
50
.P, /: h,. + S.(1 - 0) (300)
-
z 50 whereaistheaerationfactor = (~2 - 6. Pl )/(S2 -81)
or the increlUle in pressure drop through the plate per
20
,
terms of v,pH wbere II, is vap6r velocity th-rough the
~q
MOts and p is vapor density. The pressure drop in / ...-
head of clear liquid at sero 8ubmergence (the g&!i
1"-
Cutwol~
"
pressure drop through. the plate with clear liquid o
level just at top of slota) l!lPo, wthen a direct funo-
tiro of II.pH.
2 4
10 12 1.
Fro. 355. Plot 01 II" IUId 1lP. all Ju"ction of ."pt.i M IIItd in
For the plate to be 8table the minimum resistance
prep!lrilll Fie. 3664." Sixt.eeD rowt of 30m. C&pa. JlIlIIh. 011
to flow of vapor through the plate mwt exceed. the , 4K-ip. equilatenPJ 'riancular eerokrl at COIIItant minimum
mAximum hydrostatic pressure or seal,~. The . ~ -s;. - 1 m. q, _ pJJ(IIlin){h of widtb).
V'APOR- UQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
359, using wl'Lter 88 the liquid.M The hydraulic flP" or in v,pH. for t he different denSity or the liquid.
gradient h,l in inches of fluid flowing across the plate This adjustment is made by multiplying the value
is almoet independent of the density of the liquid, of v,pH. 88 read from the charts by V p';pB.~ for
provided the rate of flow of liquid is expreseed volu~ comparison witb the II,PH: for the vapor passing
met rically. These fi gures may, therefore, be used through the plate. Conversely the value of !I.Pj.oJ
Cor other liquids by making a proper adjustment in computed for the vapor should be divided by
40
30 - -/
f- ~_I l ln.
0
[7 7 [7 17
/ [/
5
II II
0
J I 1t.. _2;n.
5
4 - ,
_ q,.IO 20 30 40 so 60 . lj('!!jU ft of ooidtll)
3
2 4
8
!I.p4$
10 12 \4
" f-- h , .. 0.5 In. 1 tn. 1--- U In't - 1<:';. - 1 in. 1.5 in. _
30
. / 7 f7 I I' _~ II
I ',1 '01 1/ [/
1/
I, /
I : /1
,
-
It" i I I I! AI Ii Ilf
0
/
I
1/ I I II I /
8 j"
+--
' r- "
, ,
r-I- ~ Y+f
? I- .~
'r- E
- b-
r- f
- "
- ,>'
. 8 ~ ~
0
~ ~ ~
r
1-1
1---
f--t
<> -I
2 ~ ~ ~~~s
i I I + -+--+---1
3
o , I I
I ,I 1 8 10 I" \--~-c.~-1--~'C--L--~8--jl~I~0-.J
"' P~ ... p )s
(b) 4~-I.n. centers, minimwn _I S'" _ 1 in. (t) Hi-in. tenter'll, nlllllmum _ I S. - 2 in.
FIG. 356. Liquid-handling cape.elty ch&rtll for- ltable 'operation -.ith 3-in. bubble ca.pII mountOO fiueh, on lIquilat.er.~ triangular
_t.en.... ,..
BUBRLE PLATE COLUMNS 357
v'PI! ~tO to obtain the value of lI,p U to use in the side of the plate may be entirely inactive. In general,
,hatUo. these two difficulties are opposite in their effect on
tray layout, since layouts which tend to produce
lIIu.tntlve Enmple." It L. deeired to deeilll a tower rot' even distrihution of liquid flow ser088 the plate may
stHpPlfiil .kohol out (If dilute aqueous eolutk>ns. The vapor produce excessive liquid grad.ienlB.
load fIi.;te&ln COnmIllptioo require. II. oolumn with I. diameter Figure 357 shows diagrammatically several of
of 84 in. The littuid IIowIIlJ &Cf"OIII the plate (the ..... m of con-
dented IIteIun and of ..ater ClIterina; .,..Ith t~ feed) is 230 &:pm. tbe common tray arrangements. The area of the
A. a first tt1&J, a.ime that the a.m. bubble eaps are. used, t.r&y which tends to beoome inactive as the column
mounted ftush on Hi-iii. equilateral triangular ocnte.... There diameter is increased because of by-passing of liquid
Me illS tapll per plate in thirteen ron. The plate width at is ilhaded. Figures 346 and 347 show simple cross.-
the abortest row of cape;8 fIT in. The &ver&&e plate width is Row arrangements of round caps with circular
{84 + 67.1 /(2)U 2) .. 6.29 ft, and the liquid rate L i, 200/6.29
downspouts also IJCrving as weirs. Note the liquid
- 36.6 gpm/ft of plate width. Tb.. ~a of the eloU in. a ei~e
eap L. 3.12 IIQ in. 110M for eACh plate the tot.l llot area. L. baffies at the ends of the middle row of caps to pre:
198 X 3.12/ 144. _ 4.3 aq n. /" is computed l1li7.2- vent liquid by-passing the middle row as indicated
. F~ 356b fot tbIIcap IIlT&n&ement and a minimum eeal in Fig. 357a. These plates are welded into the
s... of 1.tl in. iboWB that a~ 1'11'14 _ 7.2 and for thirteen I"OWIJ column sections. This arrangement is satisfactory
tJwi liqiJid.:bandling C4J)ad~1 u. only 27 IPm/ft of width.
Therefore !.he plate .,..ill be unstahle. AooonUng to tbe ebart.,
ror rel&tive1y small columns up to 23-i to 3 ft in
the a;mdient will be slightly more than 1 in. UBI! of .. minimlUIl diameter. For oolumns in the range of 2 to 6 ft in
-.l 01 2.0 in. would make this plate ~le ae Fig. 35& indi- diameter, it is preferable t o include an exit weir, 88
c&.te8 a liquid eapacity of 37 gpm/ n at s.. .. :1 in. indicated in Fig. 357b and as shown in Fig. 348.
However, I.e of 4-in. bubble e&p8 ill usW eiLher in WKe To obtain satisfactory croes-ftow distribution in
towen (Fig. 360) or where more than mode!1l.te liquid re.tea in
emaller towen are uea:asary. The plate layout, 84 in. in
larger columns it is necessary to eliminate a dispro-
diameter, hll3 Bl!ven roW8 of 4-in. bubble elI.pe, mounted flU8h portionately large amount of tray space to include a
on 5~_in. llquiJarerai t.rianguw center., uainl !IO cape per sufficiently long chord or wedge-type weir. This
plat(!. With 6.1 &j in. dot &rea per eap, the total $lot area is disadvant~ge is overcome by the use of the arrange-
(90)(6.1)/144 .. 3.8 IQ ft, or 0.098 of th~ tower area. At a ments 8uch as indicated in Fig. 357c, d, and 8, and
minimum eeal of 21) ill. a nd ...p'" _ s.:t ttli. Uw.'er .should
handle II!I.tillf~t ' "'"3 a Uquid rate of 60 gpm/ ft at It. (r&dient
iUustrated in Figs. 358 and 359, respectively.
of 1 in. Since the 8.vera&e plate width ill now 6.75 ft, the The arrangement shown in Figs. 357c and 358 is
Iiquia-baodling capacity of the plate ill 40Slpm of water." quite satisfactory from the point of view of liquid
distribution, but it increa8C8 the length of the liquid
TM plate layout may vary widely hut should be flow path and tends to produce excessive liquid head
such 88 to avoid short cireuiting of the liquid flow gradient across the plate. An important p recaution
acl'(lfl8 the plate which reduces the effectiveness of !D this arrangement is the removal of some of the
the bubble caps not in the direct line of flow. It caps at the end of the baffle in order to a.void undue
should also aVQ~d build.iI!g ,up excessive liquid level constriction of the' liquid pa.th at this point, as is
differentials .'croI8 the plate which, as bas been illustrated in Fig. 358.
discussed, may cause the vapor to flow through on1y- In the radial Bow arrangement shown in Figs.
those caps having the lower seals. This condition 357d and 359, the liquid flows to and from the oenter
produces spouting and excessive cnt rairuqen t at t he on alternate plates. In exceptionally large columns,
caps with low liquid seals while the caps on the other BUch as in Fig. 360, the arrangement illustrated in
,
--
0 0
/ \ I
\
- 0
0 +0-
, 1
0 '
.d 0 0
('J it) , 1" (. J
FIO.357. D iagrammatic illustration of several oommon types of bubble tray Ia.youts. Shaded ~113 tend to become lu.cti",
113 \.ower diameter is inucllll6d because of by-pauing 01 Jiquid.
358 VAPOR- LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
plDded" view of a typical removable castmeta.1
assembly.
Although a brge number l)f difJerer.t types of caps
are used, the most common type is the round bell-
shaped cap, ranging in diameter from 2 to 7 :n. The
caps are cast iron or shoeL stt.'d, as shown in Fig. 362.
" ' here necessary for corrosion resistance, other mate-
rials are employed :mch Ill! copper or nickel. The
advantllgc of cast-iron caps over steel caps in corro-
sion resistnnl'e is lIot so important:lS might appear,
since the major area of corrosion in a fractionating
column is usually at the vapor-liquid interfucc at the
shelL The sheet-metal caps arc lighter anu may be
more closely spaced because of thei r smaller bulk.
Another type of cap (',ammon in the Pl'troleum
industry is the 5<H!allcd tunnel eap which fits over
rcct.angular chimncys from 3 to G in . wide and from
12 in. to several feet loug. These caps are casy to
install and to maiutain hecnuse of the fewer parts
involved. However, better plate efficiency, lellS en-
Flo. ass. BuLbie-eap tny sho';\ill,l baftle lIorrangemE:n~ of
liquid distribulion. (Th-e LummUi Co.) trainment, sud more stable performance is usually
olA.imcd for the round caps.
Fig. 35711: is effective, particularly when combined The spacing of the caps on a plate should be such
with the feature of cascades. 88 to give ample turbulence to the liquid around the
Bubb le Caps. A bubble-cap a.<sscmbly consists caps but not so close as !.O produce spouting or jet-
of a chimney or riser, the cap which is mounted over ting between the caps. Tn general. round caps are
the riser, and the means by which the cap i.s held in spaced on the vertices of equilateral triangles, usually
place. This is illilstrnted in Fig. 361 as an "ex- giving a wall-to-wall dis tance between the caps of
1'lG.dS9. Radialfiow type of bubble-eap tray. (V~ Coppc- and Supplll Co.)
BUBBLE PLATE COLUMNS
FlO. 360. A .ection or a 33-ft diameter eueade tny. Each \ray hAll over 5000 bubble eaP4 4 H in. in diameter. (Pritz W.
Glil.lch and &M.l
1 to 3 in. Particular care should be taken to avoid the downspout.'l, UDsteady liquid flow over the weirs,
locating the caps too close to the -weirs or downspouts and the possibility t ha.t vapors may discharge under
because of spouting of the liquid over the weir into thc downspouts. It is some.times desirable to blank
off the slots in the sides of the caps nearest the down~
spouts. In small oolumns it may also be desirable
to place baffle plates from the plate above in front
of the exit weir to prevent splashing of liquid over
the weir.
In general the design of the cap is such that thtJ
area of the chimney is equnl to the area of the
""..
Spaein&,
001,=
DilImet.er,
CoJ=.
COO
PACKED COLUMNS
i~ As in the design of bubble plate colwnns, tbe
12.9 "
1M
12.0
m,coo engineering design of packed towers requires con-
13.5 ",COO siderat.ion of the factors inBuencing the efficiency and
14.4 10.0 37;000 capacity. The height of packing required for any
15.3 8.' 29,500
particular separation is a function or the number of
20.' 7.5 25,000
25.0 7.' 23,000 equilibrium st.ages nooessary and the efficiency of
30.' 6.76 24,000 t.he packing material. The efficiency is, in tum, a
'M 6.' 25,000 function of the size, shape, a.rra.ngement, and surface
characteristics of the packing material, of the rates
As plotted in Fig. 3M, a plate spacmg of about
of liquid and vapor flowing, and of various physical
26 in. is indicated as the lowest cost column for this properties and distribution of the two ftuids. The
job. relat.ion between the packing efficiency and these
ILl variablee is not simple, and this subject is discussed
1\1 later as a phase of the rate of mass transfer.
The approximate ranges of the height of packing
,
equivalent to an ideal stage in vapor-liquid transfer
are given in Table 3.5.
2S i' Paeklnp
Height Equiv.Ient to
ldeBl8ta&e, ft
'" 10 " , ..; ~35 Wetted-wall oo1u.m.rI
Rings, saddJe., tpeeial tilell
~X~iu.
0.1 - 5
0 . 1 - 0.6
Fro. 3M. Ett"ect. of \.ray apaelng 00 origin&! ~ of a r~ .!-lin. 0.2.a- 1
UonaUIlI ooIUUUl." 1 in. 0.3 - 1.2
2 in. 0.6 - 2
Plat Spacing 3 in. 0.6 - 3
Other faetors than the eoone-mies of design enter Drip-point ,rid tile
0.5 - 4
X U in.
Single-tum heliotl, ~
0.1 - 0.6
into plate spacing. Columns which f9r various
reasons are to be houlled are frequently designed with Fibergl.a.s
S"""". 0.06- I
1 - 10
dose plate spac.ings of 12 in. or less to save headroom
when a large number of plates are required, and it is Colu m n Diameter and Capacity
preferable to minimize height at the expense of T he limiting capacity, or flooding point, of a
cross pection. Where oolumns may be placed out- pked tower is thq Otlndition at which the liquid
door!' the column height is no loc!Elr of prime im- begins to accumulate or back up at any level in the
portanoe and the plate spacing is frequently set at packing. Such a condition ma.y result either at a
24 in. 01" more, simply to allow the installation' of constant liquid rate by an increase in vapor rate to
manholes on each plate, an important maintenance the point at which the net liq,uid Bow downward
feature, since it permits the use of cheaper materials begins. to decrease, or at a cooslADt vapor rate by
of 'aooatruction. In general the cost 'of increased an increase in the quantity of liquid flow to the
Jle.ipt and smalJer CI'068 .section as compared to lo~ point at which the net liquid ftow downward becomes
VAPOR~LIQmD TRANSFER OPERATIONS 2
coosta.nt or liquid_begins to accumulate in the pack- tion OCCUf$ at the packing support. The methcd of
ing. Thus, for any given system, liquid, vapor, and supporting the packing should be so designed that
packing, tile locus of flooding points can be repre- the support ~ a. Clipacity for passing liquid and
sented by II. single line on a plot 01 liquid rate versus vapor ~t least equal to that of the packing.
galS rate (Fig. 366).
TABLE 36. CHARACTERISTICS OF COLUMN
"',000 I
PACKING
JOJlOO Packin&: M aterial VII.lueof(;. )"
Floodirlg lOne
120,000 }{-in. RMchi& rinp
J+in. RMcbig ringll
23:10
406
!~
Nonf\oodi ng zont ~ -ill. RMchig rinp 214
I-in. Raeehic rinp IS'
10,000
',000
Hi-in. bchig rinp
2 in. Raachi& rings .,
100
...
~
!6.ooo
. U -in. Berl ll&ddlea!
)i-in. Berl saddIee
Ji-in. Bed saddJea
(approx) 4200
185
1-in. Berl saddB 130
Hi-in. Berl flll,ddles 71l
G - lIUrlaoe area. of packiD& in equare Jee~ p!'C" cubic
foot cl packed volume.
X .. potOBity of bulk pr.ckin&.
IJlOO
100 200 300 500 700 1000 :ltXXI 3COO The pressure drop through a packed column may
Nr Rale, Ibj (hr) (sq ft touItr cross sectiOrl)
be estimated by the methOOs of Chapter 11.
Flo. 300. I..oeuII or liqui d and vupor I"IiI.ell at the flooding
point of a tower pad,eel with I-in. RMchig Mil! (alX' _ ISS)
and operaUq with water a ru) air at 60 F &Del I atm.
L-______~------------- ~
o
FIg. 368. Contl"Ol.~tem for a fraetionatin& tower producing bottolllll liquid with a co.tanL v"JIIlI' pnlI!IIIW'e. ",l'bf) oves-bMd.
vapors are partially eoade!lled.u
ture controller C has its temperature tap located located 88 shown in Fig. 369. Under these conditions
between the feed and the bottom at a point where it is better to use the arrangement shown in Fig. 371,
the temperature gradient is steep. Ir the liquid controlling the temperature by the large volume
distillate withdrawal through valve 4 is very small reflux stream rather than by the steam supply to
wiih respect to the amount of reflux, large variatiol1.ll the reooiler. It should be clear why the temperature
in pressure mfl.y resu l ~ with the pressure control tap bulb or controller C ill placed below the feed when
operating on the reboiler (Fig. 369), and above the
feed when operating on the reflux (Fig. 371). In
either case the pressure-control tap should be locat~
,,r------- at or close to the location of the thennometer bulb.
:,
,
.... Figure 370 shows the temperature bulb located
between the top of the column a.nd the feed when
operating the motor valve 3 controlling the heat to
,: <1) the roboiler. This ty~ is 88.tisfactory provided thert'l
are not so many trays between the point where the
'I'
:
--.IFilei temperature bulb is located and tbe kettle as to
cause a lag between the control point and the point
J L-
.C'-'G:-=::';:-"'1 of beat application. In any case the lag will be
greater than in the arrangement shown in Fig. 369
or 371 , which causes this control (Fig. 370) to lack
sensitivity compared with the other method.
The pressure control indicated in Fig. 370 depends
on flooding the reflux condenser so that only suffi-
cient surface is exposed to vapor condensation to give
FlG. 369. COD\tol.yetern for a. fractionatin& to1l'eI" producing the desired condensation . This methoo of pressure
pure overhead produdl.l control, as well as the method indicated in Fig. 369,
,
PROBLEMS
,-
,
----l
II
!l!
,I ~
-... -
"" I ~ "" 0--
'h
,, '
1-'---~~-""~"::%,j "ue
....
w:
_------
. ~
._' *"", ~
@ - -
_ . --- - (j)
Il...;""---
,
CHAPTER
7
VI
-..# II, ..,
by the application of plane geometry to Fig. 372.
The ratio of moles of liquid overll.owlng from plate It,
L... to the moles of vapor rising from plate n + 1.
~ equals the ratio of the- leDgths Y.6.DY,,+1 to
Y.6.~.. whiclt is the ea.me Cor all plates. Therefore
;f,A /' / I the ratio of liquid to vapor PEl8Sing countercurrent
tl,// '/
between plates L/V is a constant. By a material
bif/
-. F Ii
/
I b&lance around the top of the column,
Y ..+1-L,,+D (3Q.I)
0 ~-
-.
o 02
&. _L
. . ..
h_1
I.,:II.,
b ~
~
VV
V ~3.X.J
, A ~ #~:v
fJ>:'?'t&-s..
i7 ~ .:[, 1 ~~ t/
Vi/
~
b . "' I
II
1-1..r:., v - fY lI.}
i/
,
o3 / ..'" I
1/
,.
!Zr
"""J 0\' ,
b1,~,t
tV
.' :"\
~
V
1/ -
0.1
. "
"'rA!.. II. J
I
I
I
I
O~""',J.,I :i.,
"'. " fI.5
., o.s ., LO
Flo. 873. Fractionation caloulaUoml Qt! vapoNiqWd (y verI!UI z) di'lJ'&lll for ~ etbanol..".ater ayatem .t 1 atm, ...umin&:
OOIlI!It.ant lllOlal overflow.
01 the vapor and liquid streams pa88ing each other stripping 8OOtion ~!>Mds upon the condition of the
be""" a plate are repreaeoted by the pointa on the feed. This relation may be expressed as :
operating line below the corresponding equilibrium
point, and the compositions of the streams passing
L' - L+ qF (308 )
each other above a plate are represented by the point
on the operating line to the right of the equilibrium
'" v - V' + (1 - q) F (300)
point. where q - the moles or 8fl.turat.ed liquid formecl 00
The relation bet ween the qll&fltity of liqWd and the feed plate by the introduct.ion of one mole of f:...d.
vapor Howing in Ule rectifying IIOCtion to that. in the If the (eed is saturated liquid of the same compotli-
GRAPHICAL METHODS
tioo and temperature &6 the liquid on the feed plate, and the line intersects Lbfl diagonal at. y" z" as may
q _ 1.0; if it is saturated. vapor similar to the vapor be seen by substituting x, for % in equation 311 and
rising from the feed plate, q ';' 0.0. With cold multiplying through by (q - 1).
liquid feed, q > 1.0. With superheated vapor fee.:I, The iIlU3tl'Utive example on page 334 ill rooal..
q < 0.0. culated on a mole basis in Fig. 373. The distillate
By substituting (L' - B) for V' in equation 3CJla product oontains 77.85 mole per oent, the bottom
and then substituting fot' L' from equation 308, product 0.393 mole per cent, and the feed 17.38 mole
per cent. of ethanol. From an .mergy and material
L+qF (310) balance, the feed of 43.7 molesj hr contains 42.68
'_.+1 - L+ qF 81;.
BZB
L + qF - B moles of liquid. Thereforeq - 42.68/ 43.7 = .0.9766,
Equation 310 gives the slope of the operating line and the slope of the q line, equation 311, is - 41.4.
in the stripping aeotion as (L + qF)/(L + 'IF - B) From an energy and material balance around the
which may be determined from the known operatin6 top plate with 29.4 molesfhr orreflux at }14 F, the
variables. One point on the operating line may be "internal refJulC" LI is calculated 88 32.9 moles/hr
located by substituting %s for x.. in equation 307 and the vapor rate V, as 42.46 moles/hr. Tbe slope
aod &living for U_+!. By substituting from equa.- of the operating line repreeenUng a material balance
tion 305, around the top of the column (equation 3(00) is thus
L/V _ 0.775. The intereeetion of thi.s line with the
and. q line (equation 311) determines one point on tho
opera.t.ing line giving a material balance around the
and it followa tl!at the point QIl the operating line bottom or the column (equation 307a).
represenilllg the compositiOllB of the streams LB and The ealculation of the number of ideal stages is
. VB +1 lies on the diagonal aOO bas the coordi- made by drawing the steps 88 shown in Fig. 373.
nates ZB, YB. The operating line may then be The point WI, xo) on the material balance line
drawn through this point with the known slope (equation 30&) represents the vapor stream rising
(L + qF)/(L + 'IF - B), The vapor from the re- from the top plate and tho liquid reflux to the top
boiler is in equilibrium. with the bott0m8 product plate. The composition of tho liquid XI in equilib-
(Fig. ~) and ba8 the composition represented by rium with the vapor VI is determined by drawing a
the intersection of the line ZB with the equilibrium horisootalline (11) to intenect. the eqwlibrium curve
curve. From t.hia point. the stepwise construct.ion at Wit ZI)' From point (y1J XI)- a material baJanee
may be continued up the stripping column. is made to compute II, by drawing a verlicallioo to
A more convenient. methoo when treating a c0m- intersect the material balance or operating line (equa.-
plete fractionat;ng column is to find the locus of the tion 306a) at (112, X,). This stepwise graphical
intereection of the operating lines at the feed plate calculation is continued, uaing the equilibrium curve
(equatioo 311). This may be done by eliminating L and the line of equation 306a which is a material
from, equati0D8 3060 and 310, giving the locus or balance around the top of the column above the feed,
points common to both operat.ing lines. Substituting until the q line is cfOB8fXl. From that point. OD down
from equation 304 for V in equation 3O!l, the colWlUl the material balance is made including
L(1I - x) .D(XD -11) the feed, or around the bottom of the column, by
using the line of equation 307a 88 indicated in Fig.
From equation 310, 373. The completed calculation indicates almotlt
L(II - x) - qF(% - II) + B (II - %B) eight equilibrium stages in close agreement with the
Since B = F' - D and BXB - fI%, - DXD, results of Fig. 336.
At total reHux, L - V IUld L' - V', that. the
D(XD - y) - qfl(z - 11) +
1'" - VII - Fz, + DZD 80
operating lines coincide with the diagonal line. As
Simplifying the reflux rate is decreased, the operating lines depart.
Xp
- - -x - - - (311) more and more from the diagonal line until at min-
q-l q-l imum reflux at least ono of the opera.ting lines
Tbis line giving the locus of the intersections of touches the equilibrium line. In the above example
operating line is frequently called the q line and 88 reflux is reduoed the operating line becomee
depends only 1m q and 'x,. 'The slope is qj (q - I), tangent to the equilibrium curve a.t point A, ~
37. VAPOR.UQUID TRANSFER OPERAnONS S
. .
clueing a zone of constant composition at that point Calculations in the dilute end of the 7r1J diagram
eorrespooding tQ that. shown pre\'iously (Fig. 338). may be 'made by el!:panding the scales, but in general
Where there i.I! no point of inflection in the equilib-" this is not convenient.. A more satisfactory pro-
riurn curve, the zone of constant composition de- cedure is to use a plot of log y versus log x, as illus-
velops where the q line intersects the equilibrium trated in' Fig. 374, which shows the calculation of the
line or, in oUler words, at the feed plate. number of plates required to reduce the ethanol
This procedure, known 88 the McCabe-Thiele concentration of liquid in the stripping section of a
method, is widely used. It is a simple, rapid method column from a mole fraction of 0.02 to 0.0001 with
which gives results usually sufficiently accurate for reflux ratio and other operating conditions the II8lJ)C
.:.:aB$
as in the illustrative example on pp. 334 and 369.
When the quantity of the volatile component.
0.04 _ _
transferred is rela.tively very !IDlall, as in the case of
dilute solutions, the operation approximates isG-
..-" thermal conditions. For dilute or ideal sblutions at
.02 "
.,,<;i ,
!.e y I a constant temperature the equilibrium ratio (y/z,).
is a construtt for each compOnent. This means that
1
~
0.0'610'"n'
0.006
0"",
-
~~
"iI-.'<>~~
<'
the equilibrium line on an x-y diagram is a straight.
line passing through the origin with a slope equal to
,,/x, and on a log:&: - log" diagram the equilibrium
:~v.:I
_ I' .~
line is a straight line with a slope of 1.0 for isot.hermal
conditions. Thus one point on the equili~riurn liue
I .....
~ 00006
(:I: - 0.01, Y - 0.104 for Fig. 374) suffices to deter~
mine the equilibriuJJ;lline. The position of the oper-
ating line is calculated from equa.tion 307a.
Three Com.polU!n.u
If the temperature is constant, 88 in Iiquid-liquid
extraction, equilibrium relationships are the arne
for all stages, and calculations for three components
Moll Fr.Jttion a/ lNrIoI .in. ~ in vapor-liquid transfer may be treated in exaet.ly
FlO. 314. Fnu:tiol1&tion Cll.icul.(l.tione in the dilute regiun on II the same manner as tbree componenta in extraction
logariUunic vapor--liqllid (y ve"W1 z) diagram for t~e ethanol-
(Chapter 22). Except for 'dilute solutions or for
water BYlltem at I atm.
solutions of components having approximately the
engineering work. In most cases, it b not necessary same boiling points, the temperature is not the same
to oalculate the number of equilibrium plates with for all stages in vapor-liquid tnwsfer, and other
great precision beea.use of the tmcertainty of avail- methods are employed. to allow for changing equi~
able data on overall plate efficiency and because librium conditions from stage to stage.
additional plates are UlIUally provided 88 a factor of
safety. The method may lead to the unwarranted ANALYTIC EXPRESSIONS
888umption of COll$t.ant molal overflow in cases
where it may not exist fUld where the assumption Where the liquid is an ideal solution, the equilib-
may be critical. rium between vapor and liquid may be written in
the form
mluw SolutiON
The McCabe~Thiele method lli accurate and pILl'- where K A is the equilibriwn constant.. The " relative
tieula.rly advantageous in fractionation ca.lculationB volatility" of component A with T(l8pect to com~
involving extremely dilute eolutions where the ponent B is
aseumption of constant molal overflow approacbea
actual conditions more closely, as, for example, in
reducing the et.hanol content of !l water solution to !L
0J/ X)B Ks
Lole fraction of 0.1)001. and is frequently designated by aAB or tUB .
ANALYTIC EXPRESSI ONS 371
T-wo Component. of the operating line with the equilibrium line, be.
For a binary Bystem where A is the more-volatile con~e (0, 0) and (1, 1) on the new coord inatet! (Fig.
component 375).
The pointe (xt, vr) and (%U, yn ) lie in the z' plane
KA _ a _ /~)(~)
(Fig. 3150) and the pointe (0, 0) and (It 1) lie in the
Ks \; l-Y
t' plane (Fig. 375b). The transformation from the z
The equation of the equilibrium curve, Fig. 373, plane to the 1.' plane may be performed by use of the
.-
may be obtained by IIOh 'ing for II
-
1 +(0 -1)%
The equation of the operating line is given by
(312)
equation
"-:'--", (z
(1.11
-~ )
rr}
tq~tJon 312
trlnsformed Into
t, eqUltion 314
- .1
- Equation 30611
tr, n,formed Into
,1~.1 .s~
-- --- -- i
(.,,- '. o
,'-
(0'
1
Flo. 376. TTanafonnatioo of ooonIinateol in ooonectioo with equatio.. 312 aud 813.
a72 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANsh;R OPERATIONS'
SolvinK for y' and BimpliIying, The number of stages required biJow stap Ii tof
a deflired separation is
i/- z.;:..:e,; {l+<a-l)XU] xo' (1 - r')"
XII - XI 1 + (a - 1);t log
x,,'(1 - x')o
n- (315)
-z' -:: '
.1 c:+-,("~-..:..:,I),:",:' loge
1 + (4-1),r The relation between x and r' is given by equalit...i
Substituting r (rtl - ZJ:) + ZJ fOf:t and simplifying, 3130. The values for :tJ: and XII are the two roots of
the quadratic equation obtained by eliminating 11
. [- l+ {a-I);tu ] from equations 312 and 306a.
.-
1/' - ;t'
1 + (a - I)[(Xll - XI)X' + %11 EK .....,i..... Show that (or the rectifying section the .alUM
11 + (a - l}xnlx' of %1 Bnu %11 &re the two maUl
.
1
( ::t:~[~ -
1 + (0 - l )zr + (a - IHzlI - :t):)z' -[~-.+ (.-,) ~ ,.l
Le"
1_..:+_(""_
C-- ' -...::1):::""::
I + (a - 1)X(
a + (a - I)~ %D
L
r- 4:zma - I)
- c(~)
This analytical method is most satisfactory when
1 - z'
changes in composition from plate to plate are small
or the temperature iB fairly constant, and it is par-
Combining the last. equilibrium equation with the ticularly applicable to those separations requiring a
operating equation 11'. +1 ... z.' gives l&rge number of plates.
-A'-I)
V,,+l - moles of vapor entering abeorber.
The vapor and liquid 1ea.ving aD equilibrium plate
Y
( --- Y .. H + ..4.,,- 1 __
_ A-I
L, X,
V"+l'
are in equilibrium, and ..4.,,+1 - 1
t'.. - K.,;:.
" - 1
where ~'" and r ... - mole fractioDll in equilibrium
vapor and liquid, respectively.
Y,,+I("', - I) + "',,-I(A - 1) ~Xo
Y" _ _ V .. +1 -'(321)
X..Lo . A,,+I -1 '
z.,---
V. . 40 .By a material balance around the absorber of 'I
plates,
Y ... _ V", tI_ Y".Lo .. K .. Lo V.. X. (317) Lo(X. - Xo) - V,,+I (Y,,+I - Y1)
Y .. +1 z .. L.. L. V,,+I
Substituting for X" from equation 317,
By eubstituting in equation 316 for X .. and X .. ..:..l
from equation 317
40_, Y
_Y",+I + .-1
y. -
____~K~.~-~,~y~.~-~'-- L, L,
40 - Y , , - - - XO- Y"+I-Y 1
1+--K.V..
K .. V" V"+l
DoIIDino A - ,LI KV 80lrilig forr Y. aod. subetitutinl A. for L .. / K .. V..
,
,y~.~+~,_+,-,A~.=-=,~y~.~-", L,
Y.. - Y.+ 1 - Y1 + --X.
1 +.4. .. ~ V.+1
For a OD.~plat~ absorber y, - (322)
L, A,
y,+ -'-X. Subatituting the averace effective value A for A ..
V,,+I
(318) in equation 322 aod equating y. from equations 322
1 +.4. 1
and 321,
For a two-plate absorber L,
Y"+l-Yt+VXo
Y .. y~
"
) ..:+"A=;:.'Y",
', (319) ,+,
1 + A,
- I)A + A"(A .- 1) ~Xo
S
_Y,,+l(A
Substituting fo~' YI from equation 318 in equation
3!9, and rearranging,
" . L,
- __________~~--c---~v~.~+~,--
..4.,,+1 1
_
(AI + l)Ys + A)--X, .
y. - __~~~~--~V~'~+~'-
AiA, + A, + 1
Simila..-I.y, for a three.phite abeorber.
, L,
(AlAs + As + l)Y, +,AlA, -'-X,
V .. + 1
Y.--~~--~~~~~-
AIAsAa + AtAs + (i,1 + 1
(320)
314 VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
Equation 323 gives directly the moles of a com-
ponent (per mole of entering gas) not absorbed, YI ,
'us a function of eompositions and quantities of the
(!Olering streams, t.he llumber of equilibrium plates,
and efiective operating' c.:ulldition~ Il.!! incorporated
in the absorption factor A .
.~rd"". By a 1li00iiar procedure for .. IItI'ippinc eolumn, (325)
aho'" l lutt Y. +1 - Yo A,,+ I - I
. >(S-I) v,,,( S' - I)
S~"'T"":'\ + YH I -L;; s~+1 _I
.\ ~ - .\ I (324) where Y. + 1 - YI moles of component absorbed
-
per mole of entering gas . .
whero S ... U/Crt\.gtl ~ff(), Ii"",
stripping f .."tor, KV / L.
X .. _ molell of & cvmponcnt per mole of Cllt<.:rin!,; liquid Y" +1 - Yo' ",. number of moles that would be
IIfA Ktn I!pcu , lliJ&lrbeci" if it were possible
to IJrmg the gas leaving the
From equation 317, ass.uming an average effectiv(,
abtloroor into equilibrium
va.lue (or A - L/ KI' ,
with the entering liquid.
Similarly, from equation 324
Xo - X,. S,.+l - S
(326)
Xo - X~+l S"+l - 1
Figure 376 p~oviJes a convenient graphical solu-
tion for cqus.tion 325 or 326.
-.
,....
Liq~id
,
"
100' F'
--- .,...
Com~"," Molo atoloo of
M~ Moleo 0/
F ... . -
a __
Diotirlo.", , ._-
r.... lion Fr;,otio" "AoIU<ln..
,....
;,
or ",Oloo. ;, ~~011 " Mole Try 20ij pKia Try 100 pllia
O1.\l.IIo ... Mole '"
au ,"'ract ion
Com- "
,'> ., ponent
;0
Dist illate K at
II / 1\ Kat
I IK
'" '" t"
'" Ou 1000 . ' " _ oJ! 100. .. II - :r
C,",
CIH ,
,....,
0 . 2714 ..
......
.. ...
O. t lllD
0.0&00
0.08lI0
,(1.2114
p .21RO
01----- - - - -- --- 0 .0677
;-C, II" ,.~ O.0I5:!3 0."" 0 . 1013 1).007 C,H. 3.0 0.0727 3 . 22
.-e,H .. O.I!!3.5 0 . 3201 0 . 18113 (U)OIl7 O.()(IIO c,H. O.66!iO 0.95 0.009 1,.001) 0.600
;.e. .. 0.0732 0.l2'38 0 . 0732 .. .. , ' , i-C 4RICI 0.1073 0 . 42 0.2.57 0 . 411 0.2415
, ,,..
-e,II " O.l:lQ8 0.20-\0 O. I:108
..-etHIC 0.00!l7 0.3 0.0323- 0 . 3105 0._
c.,H,, + 0 . 171 6 0 . 171 6 ... ... ... ...
T. . .. I ..=
~ 0. 611111 .. = O. C081 Total (,000 1.0610
"
(,000
TABLE 38. STEPWISE CALCULATIONS FOR TOTAL REFLUX (MINrMUM PLATES) FROM PI.AT~ 1 TO 9
,-...
~, ."
I ....
" ro
. ..
... .-.
.... ... ,. .
.-..... .-w
... ,. ....
"
,. ''''''' ,.
"
FfOClOooo ~, - rt . - ~
;~ K.
VOj'Ot
,- i. Liqo;d
,. ""''''' ,. ,. ..
"-' '"
, 1 ..."
"' ~,
.....
~
,~ ;. Uquid ,
.
. "' ,..... '""' . . "' "' """'" ". '""""
K. ~
I. Uquid i. Liquid
rr ..o.iooo
1ft LIo;,uid
". .... ..-
i. I.iquid
in Liqllid in" Liquid
!'o<v<!.I~ "
Ei,htlo
~
I ""
in I.iquid 1
, rom. Tot, I TW.
1'101.
"'" ,."
"..
"'. "'. "'"
Ninlb
"'.
'" "I'~-
., ,. -
......-I",.
(14) Ut ) "0
.._ - - --
(", II, ' .01_ U
....-.. . m .- .. 0.0011 U
, ..... .
...,
- .. .. . ......
... .... -
. .....
C,II, 0.P7~
. ..
' . Im 0 ._1 I. tl W 0.""
- ,- '.000 00..51.
.:.c.H,
...,
O.DU to.tlS t .3121 0. o.~ I .IIM 1.01 0. 7'0 >.W 1.11
r- I0._- ,...
,..( ' , U, 1 0. 0JIlI 0 . 411 . 1."'17 O . I ~I 0.18M ~ _ O.$~
.. I-- I--
1',1ol jI.WM ,.- , .. I.OOM 1:0001 1.00 ) ~
"
MULTICOMPONENTS 371
TABLE 39. STEPWl SE CALCULATIONS FOR TO'fAL REFJ.l'X (M INIMUM PLATES) FROM THE BOTrOM
UP TO PLATE 8-7
, ..
yalt FrocUo.
... ... , .....
..~
"-
- <8_ . -.~
.. Roboo_ ,
.- ZB ... M.1t 'a
......
........ .... "-.. "...
272' F F, .. tiocI
C""""' ... ,
...
~
...
I.
'" ....
Vapor .. Wole
. ~io.
. 2U"F io""'~
""., Lillaid 215 "
K" h~
in Liquid
<0.
io Liqold
K" I. \.iQIoid
to" r
K"
IOII' F
..
i. Liqwd
<0.
mo, u,.;.
l.iqWd ...
T~ird ,~.
nl~
....
Si.\~ So.",th
.,
(B-1)
., -;;;;-
-
~
..
1<) 10) m 10) (II) (14) n.)
'"1'1 (10) (12) (L')
'"
..... '.W .. . .. ...... .... .......
- .....- - ...-- ...- ..- ....-
......
-"
;..c,B"
..c..H ..
CoH .. +
,~
0. 1238
,.~
I. '
' .H
.
....." ......, .... .. .* ....... --
0.1201 I.U
0.'1Ot
....
o.lm
O. IM
........, ......
...... - ...... .- ....
... -.....--
0.$1. 1.21
1.1i11
0.1"
O.IINT
I . ter.
I.U
I."
1. 41
.
.m
I . t~ O.OIU
u
0.01
~ I. US
O. U
.. 4211 .
1.1100
. .....
I.OO LO
,
O. tU
UUO
0. '
0.11)11
.. ... .
---
I.'"
column. At thm preeIIure the temperature alld oompollitiOIl volatile eompolll:llltll are miMing in Table 38 bt.'C!l.\W) they weft!
of the liquid 011 the top plate are ozomput.ed aa folio"". II.SIJUIIled to be abeent from the overhead di~tiUate. The more
volatile oomponenta are miaing in Table 39 bec&USl'l they '1ieI'f!
AllllUmed to be abeellt from the bottoms.
Mole Mole n- ~buted components CII,D be eoMidelcd in
Component
Fraetion Kat 215
pllia. and
"".Ioa
in Uquid
the ~ . bown ill Tables 40 and 41. The i80pentADe waa
arbitrarily illtroduoed at plat.e 6 at a com:entnt.tlon of 0.00026
DiBti~ " 1()90 F 00 Plae.e I, &lid ""1l'OOt.ane at. a oonOlell.tnu.ion of O.(l(J(I()4,8 aa indiC*ted in
'VIK _:e oo.Iurnn 2 of Table 40 compared with oo.Iumli 12 of Table 38.
" The CtH I1 + aboV!i the food is pm!ellt Ut lUeh I1DAII oonoen-
tration that it may be neg)e()ted.
CoH, 0.2180 3.08 0.0708
C.H. 0.6650 1.00 0.0050 TABLE 40. STEPWISE CALCULATIONS FOR TOTAL
i-C1H1O 0.1073 0.458 0 . 2348 REFLUX FROM PLATE 6 TO PLATE 9 AFTER
n-C,H1Q 0.0097 0 . 32 0. _ IN1'ROD UCING PENTANES ON PJ.ATE 6
_. .-. .- .
.... .-. .....
,.....
.....
,.....
w
.........,.
II " ' "
, 1'_
...
<>0- h K
.. Liquid III" i. \.iQIoi~ Ill'!' . i. Liquid '" u..;.I
., ....'" '"
1M" j.
Mj"ftim_ ;II'IoUI1'I"Ioe&ftII ""tal reflUJ( or D _ 0 a lld B - O.
UDder t.beee oo.witione .JqUaUon 30f ciWAI V..+i - L.. I.IId
_ 1Ii.U.
d-
...._Hi"""
tquat.ioIls 306 and 307 become ""+I -:eo. and 'V-+I - z.,.
,.
---
..... ,..
m m
Ullinc the composition of the liquid on the top plate, :el, &II
'"
the compoe.itioll of the "apur rising from the IIeeOlid !Ute, tn,
the temperatUJ'e .md eompollitioll of the liquid On the IIeCOlid
plate roIlY be computed in the rnanneJ' outlined. Thil proceM
' ...
;..coUll 0.1070
....... - .... -
O.ottl
'.M ...... ,....
1. 11
t.G IIt
O.~lgo
... .......
.... .....
L.II
-
- - ..
lIlI.y be J'f!pe&ted for ee.eh llUooe!!IIive plaIA!! .. lhown in Table ...coU,t O.lm 0.3N5 . W O. 4W o.5:t111
SS for DIne ideal plata. >-CoB'l '.OOOZI 0. U8
O. ~ 5 8.00111
..
The sum of the mole fractionlt ill lIot eaotly unity in the
e&!culatKma of Table 38. Generally thlt Ie DOt ~ 110
1on( M tbetoe lUII'LIaver"llp within ::i:l per oea.t '0 [ unity.
...coB"
'''' ..
- --
0.00014
..
- -1.OOles
--
o.n
-- - -- ....
0."11
A eiimiLar pf'o ol."d ure startillg w;th lbe liquid bottom product.
(the rrtabilised paoline) of Table :n I.IId compql-illl upward III lbie way the composition!! of plat.e 9 (Table 40) MId
lor .evell plat.e. is followed in Table 39. p1&1.e B-7 rfablc 41).", bl'OUgh~ in"" Il&"'Cment in n:epeet to
Compan.on of 1M liquid on 'plate U (TaNe 38. ooIumli 18) all oornpooentl Illt'ept the two dilst.ribut.ed or' key compo-
with the liquid on plate B - 7 (Table 39, coIumll Ie) Indicates nellt.s, itobutane aDd 1l-but.a1lC.
that ~ cornpoeitiOIlS are approximat.,ly the arne in 110 far TIle data reeulting from theso oomput.atiollA of Tab"'-
.. ieobutane lUld nonnlll butane are oonoemed. The J,es:, 38 to 41 are plotted in Fig. 377 which .howl! tho cnmputcd
378 VAfoOR-LiQUID TRANSFER OPERATIONS 3
TABLE 41. STEPWISE CALCUUT:IONS FOJi 'l'OTAL; REFLUX FROM PLATE 8-3 TO P,LATK B-7
AFrER INTRODUCING PROPANE ON PLATE B-3
.~
.Mole F'metion VIl_I ... ZB ....... Yll-t. -Z8-t VB- l -:I'D-II 8 ....... ZB_1
Com- in Liquid on K" Mo. K" Mole
ponent Third Plate
K" Mole Kol Mo.
207' I" Fraction 201 " F Fraction 198" F Fl'IIAltion 197 F Fraction
above ReboiJer in I.iquid in Liquid in liquid in Liquid
or PlRie. 8-3
---
(I) (2) (3) (0)
.
_ _ 1- (') (6) (7) (6) (0) (10)
fi ~:,, :1
B-
9~~ _ C. H II
~c'li..
and ft-but&oe, n:lIlf)ecijvel,y, oW!r the r&rI~ 01
temperature in the ooIuDln.
If this equatioo ill applied over the entire co[umn UMg
C. H" . ~
S-
S- :~ ~. H,
i~C.~" ,#C.'f" i- ff. .. eompol'ition data taken from Table 37 and equilibrium 000-
!!.tanu, aven.pd between 109" F and 272 F, the remit ill
S- I
o 0,1 02 0.3 0.4
Mole FrllCtion in ~id
0.5 0.6 ., .- 0,
I
(O.J073)(O.3~l)
(O.0623)fO.OO97)
]otI: 0.458 + UI4
FIG. :In. ComflO$ition of liquids on . various plates at total .0.32 + 1.62
re8Ult for 'he iIlustnltive example of Table. 38, 39, 40, 1100 41 .. Ioc (56.9)
loe 1.236
compollition of the liquid on each ideal plate "hen operating 1.75511 . .
at I.<>t.a' reflux . It can be s:!eIl !.hat the composit ion of plate - 0.002018 - ID equwa\cn\ I~I p},.\es
9 !Table 40, ooIumn 8) ill a1moBt identlca.l with that of plat.c
B - 7 fill liven in Tabltl 41, column 10. By interpolation it Si nce the eo~ tions W!ed were thOllO of the dhltiliate and
woukl appear that a composition identiea.l UI that of ideal b"ttoms, eIflli taken &II a liquiq, the 19 idea.! plate. mtlude
plate 0+11 would tle computed at an ideal plate equivalent t ,e partial AOndcnaer and the reboile~. Since each of thelle
I.<> B - 6.7. Therefore the minimum number of plates re- i8 calculatt'CI. as oneidcal plate, the result of &p.I)lying ~quation
quired fur tm.. ",-,pIU"Iltion of Table 37 would bG equivalent to 3 1S over the en~re column is H) - 2 .. 17 equivalent ideal
+
,j 6.7, or 14.7 idC&l atageIJ including the partial oondenser plate!! compared "dth 13.7 by the tigorou~etcp~i8e calcllllltion.
wt not the rcboilcr, or 13.7 idCl!.! platee in addition to the :'Iluch OOtw rosuIk .Ill&y he obtained if the vallK'll for
partial oondell9Cr aud roOOilcr. Q - K,IK~ over the ,temperature tIInge II.rI; a vct"l&(ed rather
M ~ above, eqlUtion 315 nv.y be applied 000- than usinK the .v~ of the K '.diIWlLIy. In th~ _equ.- .
tiOl"l 315 ~e. ,
venieDtly t.o t ...o oomponenta 0111. complex mixture 1.0 estimate
A,.,-. log
;~~~1~~(~"~'3)~~~
the mi nimum number of ~ plate.. in this _ 01 I.<>ta.I
.-.t1ux equation 315 beeomeI!I , (O.458/~.32 : 1.0:.4/ 1.62)
klg (:rJ'(:r,tl ~
(:r. ).(:l,I)u ]og (56:0) 1.75511
n _ -log:{I.314) - ~
..... 14.7 equivalent ide!!.l pl at8!\!
MULTICOMPONEI"'TS 379
1 ceontin~y the number nf <!Qui valenl-Kksl $I.&pe eomputed- foc t.he 8epatalinn of T able :fl. the ininimum reflux is usumed
for ~I.., onIumn itaelf ia 14.7 - 2 - 12.7, compared ..... ith 13.7 to be 0 .65 mole of liquid per mole of food (~pondiD \.0
oomputed by the rigorous method. 0.408 mole of distillate or L t V _ 0.61 6).
For beost results equs~ioD 3 16 ehould he uaed only over that-- The t(lmporature nf t be con~tan t oompoilition Inne for the
portion of a oolumn ..... bert! the temperature cradient ie linear. a.ssumed m inimum reflux is al80 lUlSumcd and t hen chcekQd
V,uaUy t his oondition exists under QQDditioN of total reflux by tbe additional relation4h,ip that lJ: .. I. T he oorl'~ct
below the third or fourth plate below the top, And ..hove temperature ill indicated when the aummat.ion of all the vII1Ul)l
.. bout tbtl third 01' fourt.h pla.te r.boV1'c the bottom. The pia\&- for z eomputl.>d by equation 327 0If 328 equals uni ty . As a
!,Oopl-.te eal.cub.~ioll8 shoukt therefore be m-.de for I t least guide in usuming t he tempenilUte, equat ion 300 indicate.
t ....o but not more t ....n three or four ~te!l at eaeb e nd of !.he that too va lue of K equals L t V if ~D is tem a nd z is not ICro.
:..olumn befOl'l'! applying eqUAt ion 316. If ~he aup\\'1.8e wcu- If ~he mole frael ion of .. -but.ne in the d iJ<tiilat., ....,1'\) lero,
latioru! In! carried too far en'(>1'8 may be introduood ~UIJe the value of K for n-.but a ne ;1\ thcl oonl\llnt <:om"""iti ...... :wne
of nealect of nondistributed oomponents.o would be eqU>t.l w (LI V).. orO .615. Actllruly t he value for K
For the pregent prohlem equation 315 will 00 applied be- will be some ..... hll.t IIll)!;er than 0.615 !.Kit:""I"'.' crn;$ gn'ster than
tween plates D+3 and B-2 uslnl): data from eolumll& 7 and 8 lero. If K is fJJ!!umcd to hl\ve a vu lu'l of 0.62 a temperature
in T ..ble as and coiumll8 8a.nd 9 in Table 39. of 100 F il indiClloted for th i~ lone. l'~;n~ eo templ'ratul't! 0'1
tOO F for t.b8 sane of co~t.nn t eomJlO5it ;nn . t h" composition
(0.:;08){0.628) m.
.-~
of the lOne is oompu led by cq'uII, ;" n
log 14.35
2
Component.
Kilt 215
pIIia
100 F'
.r~mE
u,Ulltion
339 fulVl"",d
~
- log 1.3
1.1668 ,
- --
0 . 114
-10.1 c.n, 4 . 2!'> 0.0232 0 .0232
Co.. I.'" 0 .2U2J 0 .2625
The to.l equivalent ideal plates 80 rompu ted inelude plate i-C.H. 0 .711 0 .236 0.2300
B-2, T berofon:: 10.1 + 3 +
I tH' 14.1 equiva.ient ideal plates n-C,H II 0 .622 0 .500 0 .4.7113
are oompuWd by this OOITeCt UIIe of lIqu&tion 316 over that
Pllrt of the ooIumn when! the temperature cradient is approxi- TotAl 1.0217 1. 0000
m .. tely linear. The ratio of the .... verage valuell of K for each
key eotnpl'lnent is not QQnstant unless the temperstufI) gradient
i~ appro:rimatdy lineat. Th e vOlJ I.II)II fnr Z from equation 327 are high . A sliKPlt
Miniltt4m rtjlu:l. is obt.a.ined .... hen the n umber of plalet! is change in l.empel'll.ture or in K (or nbut ADC JM.k"" 1l1't!1at,ivo{y
in finite. With all in fini te number nf "latee the~ m~t he II
lOne in tho! column "' he~ then': ia nO. change in composition
from one pl&l.e to tM next . Equations 306 and 307 may be
written tor ideal 8~
...
IIlJ'lll change in mole fl1lCtion of n-b Ulll IIC. T herefore , t hi!<
mole fraction 01 n-butape is reviacd u gi""n in t he Jut, oolumn
~.
The \&at oolumn gives the eomJ"'lllition of the liq uill
O'l the
plat ~ in the .onP. of 'eonstllnt compo6i tion when thl! n :fln s
V"+ IK,, +1Z" +I - L..r..
- '
+ D;zl)
. ~,
ratio (L / V) il 0.6\5 lind no. pIlh tllne8 liTe pn,..'nl in Iho
dilltHI&U! .
V'.. UK.. + IZ..... I - L";',,,," - &B
In the nf OOnstlUlt e&ompoontion "_+J _ :r. and TARLF. 42. CO~IPUTATTO:-l OF CO:\ IJ>OSlT ION OF
.-,
.oDell
J
LIQUID IN WN E OF CONSTANT CO:>OlJ"OI:iIT IO;>.;
q(D + L)K - LJ - DXD or 0,"","
KD +""7'S----,,,
UK - I)
(327) BEI.OW THfo; FEED
-
Ibll
ZJ
~- -
(J) I
-- - -
C4J I tl ) I (8) i .n
---
--- - - - --_.t_..--- -- . - t'-'---
III
I
,
I , -" r- "
I ...I ..,I
...
Flu.
T__.",.. ..,.,
,... ,
.
III1l' F
-
I
,,+3
,.,., .-
Co",_~, ... ,
......
~.
v_
Lc.+~1>
_Vh.,
....
...
K U 21$
I, , ,
V,
X
LiooJuid
~
V_v, Liqllid.
'"
V_v, Liquid
'"
C,H ,
CoH,
;-e.H,.
_-e,If"
i<:o.lf ..
~.(:.H"
C,H,,+
,.-
0 . 2714
,,.-....
O.Dln
,.~
0.01~1
0. 1101
O. IAS
,.......
O.IIOS
_.ooom
O.IOtI
0.4422
0.11170
........
0.2,n
'.ooom
'.e
"y
' .H
,.~
0.21
o . lUa
,.-
. - .... ....
0.0204&
0 .,.Il10
0 . 1lOOfI82
O.lIIJOZiI'
,
0.0151
0 . 1"1011
0 . 1i33
O.II~
0.000171
0 . 10n
0 . .,2
o.lm
,
0.114$
0 .000171
0.01~1
0 . 1108
O. l S33
o.al05
...,.
0 .00105
"
O.IOtI
O. H22
0 . 1970
0. 3 1U
0.00105
0 .000128
0.0151
0 .1701
,.....
0. 1M3
0.31IM
0.00107
...,., ..,...
,.~
I .-
I ..
I~
To.. t
.....,
~
...,
1.0571
""" O.Mla 1.05-'i13 0.6528
~qJ""for~
I I .WJII 1.0611 I . OM ' 1.0l8 1 0 .6.-.00
, .
.....
T_,.....,..
"
.H
1111' P
"
.
.+0
1M' "
"
I
"
...
I""P
" " "
,....
+,
" "
,
.....,
.
n
V_, -
Componeo.t
Vapo,
v.
.....'" Vapor
"
...... ,.-., ,.
",.W .....
+~ .... KU215 V,
,.
Liquid V._
.. I'll, .. ,
HIli' P X
"
CoH, O_lot l 0 .0'50 0. 10t0 0 .01. 0. 1030 ' . 0 141 0 . 1037 4 . 41 ,..... 0 .0 144 0 .10S4
".
-
C,H,
0._.
O.U H O. 17(1tl 0 ..... 1$ O. let. 0.4_
~
O. U71 0.4. 0.4,,"
,.....
0. 1513
;.c,H,. O. g70 o.n
-..
0. 152 1 0.1958 0 . 1607 0.11144 O. HM 0.1l1li5 0.1372 0.111
_-e,H,.
i-C,H " ..
O.l ln 0.3O'.l.~
,.-
0 .1.041
0.311.-'5
o.oon
0 . ~'iO
0 . 00lI01
..
0.00lI01 0.0152
O.lNt4
0.0132
0.e7S
'.M
0 .4405
O.CIUT
0.2no
D.OZ1.~
(1.1760
0.0215
_-eoK"
C.H,,+
0.00107 O.OO2e3 O.nM41
0 .001"'.'12
0.00II47
~
1) . 0153
..
0.00047
0.()U3
0.00047
0.273
''''''
O.~
..
O.MH O.03U
I,,~~
0 .0109 0.00II7
, , , ..
T_
"'"
.-.,
....
.-,
......
.-.
"...
M
.-
",.,
. "
U
.-,
.....
U
.-
"'.,
. " "
.-,
m"
-
- ...... Bo. "'"
'- ,>-.
+...
V'r_,
K~ 'I'
..... '" ..
'- ....... .......
", ", y, '- " '- ..... '- ......,., ,-", .......', '-
V, ,>
"
-- -- -- - - -
:au"
. ,,~
- ---
..... .. .. "" ...... ....... .. .. ..'" '.'!'.!' ..... ..... ,
,....
CIII.
.. ..'.411' .....
--
u
.....
I .GOID 1.0011':: 0.111 .. OliN 0. 11. 1.0110
-- -
....c.H,. u:t.S
"" .. .....
O.(IM o.n,:! Q.pIO '.nel o.am
'.M ....
.. . I.IN .~ 0. 7100 '.6241:
...c.H,. . = ..
...c.KlO O.IIN .~ 0.1171 0.7UG 0.1210
. ..'" .. .. .. .. .. m
-
..... - - -- -- - -- - - --- -
G.IWI 0. 1m' O.IM '.OMI 0.1.1
"" "" "" 0. 1" 0.1!114
.. .....
Co.H,,+ 0.171' O.ltto O. ' IM - 0.11' O.MII 0.'1. O.lIM D.N" '. 0138 O. leu 0. 0113 G.IIM ' .OW O.IIM 0.0138
" .. ~
" M
" ~
" " I I
....-., .....-. .-..
_. -
. _ 11 .-U . - U . - 14
"'" -
, ,,..,
. 'r,
.t')'
121"
""'
... .. .......", ....... ..... '-
'- L', r, V.
-
.......
.
..... .- .... .-.-.... ..... - -
-
..-
I
'- ....... V_
"
.-
r, L. ,.,
" '-
"-
r'-..II
..
y+'"
~_H
,
K.
...
...
.. . ,
n', '-0>
',...
i-C.n"
...coli"
.....
"""...
-..--.- -.-
... ..... .....
0.71011
...... '.074' .....
.. ."" ..... ....
....
1.110&
..-
O.toll
....
.. . ,,, .... ..... .... ......
.....
10.1515
..... ..... ......
.. "'"
..
,-
1.1U1
.....
..
......
..
UU1
,." .
...... ." .. ...,
O. U7a
0. 41...
una
'.D .
.....
""
.-
.....
-
o.m
O.IMII)
10.1310
I . IMII)
0. 2738
0.11 .1 .-
0. 17&1
00." .....
-
1. 1_ 1.1272 '. l D o.lIIS
-
'.1212 0.... "
,;W7
-0."
'.ITII 0.17 '.11~711 I.U.
-
uw. um usn
-
1.10511 1.01" 1. 617'1' C'*" C...
.......
.... ..... .....
."".
uil I I I I I III
N+ 1
I II I I I I I
, /- i' H"~ ,; j~
,;
U
N+ !
""'-
N+
"" "' ~
0-1 I
C,".
I
0-1 1
.....
M- , l./' ~ "\. . i'\.~ -
u
,
,; ,;
y;. \~
0- 1
HIl
'-20
i 1111 III I III I III i II
k' ,;
'. u,
o
1'-' "u ,
8- 10
5
,' .
\
.-.- I-t ~
:;I!
/
~ 5
. ~
1 .....- .
0.2 03 0.4 0)
MoIn of Component i:I VJpor 1* M<*I of fted 0.7
F l O. S78. Composition 'of vapor .-jai nl from plata in a column containin& &.D. infinite nu.m"1(!I" 01 plata ~ in InOJto1 01
oompooeot pel" mole of feed..
MULTICOMPONENTS
quite lI'Teet IUld: IIOOle adjUBUnellt in the penl.&nM - and plate ,,+6) nlUlJl be tbe !I&m8 all the qUILlItity in the Vapof
" heuDeil pi.." mU8~ be made in tbe eornputatiOM 101' \be Nine from plate /- 1 .&II .tw..... in column 6. T1I6 total
rectifyiog eeer,ioo o f t~ column. qUILDtily of rna.teri.aI ;0 the liq uid overflowiog from plate
The purpoee of introducing thea componenu in the 00Dl- ,,+6 ill given in column 1, Table 45. Thill ill computed by i.
putatk!n. of Table 43 is todew.-mine wbMefJeet their p1"I':geDDe addinB; to ~he ethane, propane, isobutane, and normal butaDe,
mi&ht M ve on the temperature an d the fnoctionll.tion OOt"'oon Ill! computed fOf" plal..6 ,,+6 in Table 43 (column 11), the quAn-
\mutalle and nOl'mal butalle between the zone of OODBtant titiea 01 iIIopen~lllIe, normal pent.&nc, and " hexaDe piUI "
oompoeition and the feed plate. The computatioDB of T able computed fOf the vapors rising from plate f -1 (column 6,
f4 may be e):tendeci upward to the next plY.w, which ill the Table 46).
plate aboWl the fO)Cd plate, ffiBiiIllLwd p1aw f -1, in the T hese adj1.lSt.!l"lents or changes in the cornpoeitlOlll of the
nWlller eet forth in the first few colu mns of Table 45. In pentanennd he:u.nell lIhown in Table 4fj MlIiO 8uWI comp≪d.
makin, this computation it must be remembered that the with the compositions IN the COm!3pOndint; plates computed
plate above 011 - 14 is a plate a bove tbe feed plate and iII. Table f.3 that there ill no I>eOelIeity in coMinuina the8e
the maWiaI balanoo, if made around the bottom of the adj\lStmenle farther up lhe column. The quantity of u-
oolwno, mUllt ms.ke proper alIOWI.llQe for the leed, which in adjooed oomponentl is IlUflicillIl lly ac1:urate beeauae the. t.ot.J
tm. _ &mount. to 1 mole of liquid al it. boiling point,. TIle of a U componen t\! ill 0.656, wit hin I per <lIVIt of !.be 00I"Ted.
oomput.ations !let fOl"th in the finlt aix colum llS 01 Table 45 a mount, 0 .66.
have been made in thiB m&nnI.!I", and the quanHty of ~ ComputatiOflfl are t hen continued from t hia adjusted plate
pent.ne. normal pentane, and "hc:unee plUII" lIhown in the n+6 Ill! liven in column 1 of Table 45, WOI"kill& down tha
vapor risina from the plMef-1 in
column 6 m\ll!t be COlTC<lt column in the.arne mannec IlIIl!et forth in T.ble 43 to obtain
beeaute they Are based upon the known oompoaiuou of thcij(! rnvi8ed quantitiee for the vapor MII& from plate 1'l+8 "set
compoundfJ iii the bottoms product. forth in column 12 of T.ble 45.
... Becauee theM ill no isopentane or normal pentane in t he TOO temperatUl'e of plate 0+1 in Table 46 II 169 F, com-
IM!Tbellod dilltillaW, the qUlLntitiel! of the8e materi&ls in the pared with 1 68~ F for this plate IIo/J computed in Table 43.
liquid overfiowing from plate f - 2 (or, for t.hb. computation, Thi, difference i, dtHI to the different qUAlltltia of pentanct
TABLE 45. REVISED PLATE-'J'O..PLATE COMPUTATlONS ABOVE FEED PLATE FOR THE ASSUMED
MI Nn-fUM REFLUX RATIO OF 0 .616
,
I 2
I 3
I I I 6 7
I I I 9 10 11 12
.j _+6
P.... tn - 14 /- 1 " or / - 2
_+7 _+8
"
Temper- ISS F
188' F 169 F 164 F 169 " F
.,~
I I
K at K at
(Col 33, V' . ":u 215 Rc vifICd 215 V,
Co~ V..,.. Vapor Uqllid V.....
""'., T aMe -14)
YII-_u
lhD -
141_1 .
,.~
.,d
160 F
KL<
V, Liquid
U.
Vr_., poi.
d
169 F
K
u. V,
o.H, O,l02ti 0 .0136 4 .45 0.0600 0.0976 0.0141 0.1037 4.45 0.0233 0,0143 0 . 1033
o.H, 0.42\1.6 0 .1581 J.7 0.2690 0 .4~ 0.1671 0.4385 J.7 0.2580 0 : 1587 0.4301
;..c,K" 0.1784 0 . 1347 0.86 0 . 11&9 0.1883 0.14M O. 18!),'j 0.86 0.2200 j &.1353 0 . 1190
"'4H.
i-C.H"
0 . 2800
0 .0316
0.2700
0.0316
0.68
0 .346
0.1878
0.0109
0.'3)55
0.0178
0. _
0 .0178
0 . 2974
0.0 178
0.68
0.""'
0.4370
0 .0514
I .2690 0 .2730
0.03 16 0 .0316
n-CJ(11 0.038 1 0.0381 0.277 0 .0106 0.0112 0 .0112 0 . 0 112 0.277 0.0620 0.0381 0.0381
C.8 14 +
T....
0 .0070;
1.0671
0.0070
0._
0.044 0._
0.61>45
0._
1.0&19
0.0005
0. _
1._
0.0005 0 .044 0.0114
1.0631
0._
0._
0 .00'/0
H
1.0021
eon.o.
"I~
for wtal
, 1.0581 0._
-
0.6500 1.0581
-
0.6500 1.0&81 1.0581 0.6000
1._
3M VAPOR-LIQUID TRANSfER OPERATIONS 3
.nd.. t.xa.nee on this pl&te, which quantiliet! were not eorrec:tly If the dillel"l'!l:ces hetween the raliOll of the key oomponenta
intl'Oduced by the arbit.rary introduction Wied in the calcula- in the feed pIaU Vl!.p!)r1I are plotted IIgRilUlt thil &8!!urood
tion of Table 43. The ~ncy of 1-, howuvcr, i, not minimum reflUJ[ ratios ( Fi~ 379), the ea rred minimum
aafficien\ to cautoe any significant ditl'eren(le in the ormlpolli- refl\lX ral)o ill indic....ted && 0.618.
tiolll of the w..uanc and normal but..&.ne. 0J)5
1110 makil\& tbelle trW-fltld ...,rrur, plato-\.o-pbte eaJeulatio!'S.
it is U/JUIlJly boat to &im at an agreement between thI! com-
pounds more '!Olatile than the key eomponen\.ll and le$& o \
volatile th1Ul the key .... mponenta, pT'OI)OO(\ini\: in the manner
&/I outlined in Tf\bk'll 43 &nd 44. When tbe!!e componcnlM lave
been bonuJ:ht inl.O MiI>mxilJlllte agroo.Illcnt,. the final adjust-
ment may be made ... described In Table 45. If tt.e
key
"H-005
"2
\
\
~mlonen\.ll()()lJllM.l1.ed dow!!. from the tnp (ooI.umn 12, Table ~'S -O. IO
-IS) are aLeo in ~roemcnt ,,-iti> the key oomponcn l:/l eomputOO.
up from the oottom (column 2, Table 45), tbol lIIl8umed
minimum reflux ie C01TeCI".
~~
~ - 0.15 1\
This agreement is not l"C,fl...,t as the ratio bet""I.'CD i-bl!blne
MNI .-butule is O.MS on pla te ,,+8 ... tI 0.637 on plate -ll2O
10\-14. Thel'er.. ro, t he MllUmoo minimum rufiux ia not ftuite 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
eorroct. The Mrlnai butane l1li oontpuul<! for plate 11.+8 Ass.umed Minimum
(column 12, Table 46) i~ ahout 3 pi!!' ocnt I.., than is roquin.ld ReflLQl Ratio. L/ V
for agreement \\'ith plate ",-14. Th41 higher ratio of i-butanc FIG. 379. Graphic intcrpolatJ.on for oorred minimum reflux
'Q lIbutane in pllLt(: 11.+8 indi Clltt'S ,hilt II. "'ightly croealer ,..tio.
I'Ieflux is l\'quirod 10 r"t1uce the Il-but.lLne In the b.. uom of !.he
l'IeClilyinc ~ \\"ilh infinite pbleS wben producing the
For oaual operating conditioM the reHux ratio Lj V
'fIquired distillate II.nd bottoms. is less tban one and more than the minimum. The
To determil'lI! the correct minimum reaux, the entire calc:uJa.. number of plates required for a particular separation
.ion may be repeated, !l88UrninK .. higher reflux. The re!lu1t1; and reflux ratio may then be computed .by a single
If 8Uch eslcuJatioM for .. 0.727 (LI V " 0.641) .. re ijiver piat.e-to-plaw calculation starting with the distiliatA!
II Table 46.
and bottoms with. the introduction of the non-
TABLE 4(). UESULTS OF PLATE-TO-PI.ATE dist ributed components as indicated in the illus-
CALCULATIONS.."-&SUMING (LIV)"'k>" 0.641 trative example.
A reliable short-cut procedure based on empirical
,
-~
rclationship8 which also gives the numher of plates
2
I, 3
required as a function of reflux ratio incorporates
the following steps:
fOlllperatul"l'! IM o F 226.5 F 187~ F I . Compute the minimum number of plates using
1 equatiun 315 and stepwise calculations as demon-
strated in the example aOOve.
Moles Liquid in 1,'00<.\ Plato Vapor
2. Assume minimum reflux in the rect.ifying s<.c-
lnfinjle Zone Computed
Com."..., lion and calculate the liquid composition in the zone
of constant eompoeitioo as in the above example or
Above Bolo. Down Up from by equation 329.
F"" Food from Top Bottom 'D
LA. L';r.. VUOO+lD V1l- _ UI
X. - ;;(K
"V7/K h ").",.'--+
" ,')-.---";;](;;L'/D -:-7(K"/'K"",' ).-;-(Z,W/ Zd,.)
(329)
Co"' 0 .0163 '0. 113'7 0 . 1042
3. By energy balance calculate the increa.'ie in
Co", 0.1776 0.4356 0.4300
i...cJl lD 0 . 1668 0.47M 0.1833 0.2170 liquid load (I/ - L) at feed plate.
A-C~HlP 0 . 3373 0.7440 0.3300 0._ 4. Calculate the liquid compo~ition in the lower
t.ciHu 0.130\ 0.0324 0 .0324 zone of constant composition as in the above ex
ll--Ci HI1 0 . 1893 0.03ll0 0 . 0300
ample, 'or by equation 230.
C.HI~+ 0 . 1856 0.0072 0.0072
zB(K ./K d) ...
o.nm
(L'/B)~iD. + (K/Kd)lIIG:~)
roW 1.Tl1 1.1402 1.1348
.J:.,. - {K./Kd _ K / Kd) ...
Correet total 0 . 7270 1.Tl1 1.1351 1.1&51
(330)
MULTICO~NENTS
..
1.0
0.'
C. n fK./Kr I) KIK~
<1..,
I c!OA
, .,
0.2 H -t-+l1-ttH+H--+---t-t-++t+t-t1-+-H+-,-+--+-++-H-H
0.1 /
om o.G4 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.15 Q.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4,0 5..0
(K"K~- 1) K!Kl,fX (KJK~ -I)KJK
Flo. 380. Chan fOl" determl'lling values of C,. and C. for equation 3.31."
FIG. 381. RelatioIlilhip between the refiUJ: ratK! and the number of ideal IltacN for f..ct.ionating eo!UIM. (kne ..... ly valid
if the ntio of sta&es in the ~t;:rying eeetion to .ta~ in II1.ripping section (nlm) ill greater than 0.1 and ley than 10 and
neither product hu pr&l::t.ically the DIlle oompollition lUI'the feo!d." --
PROBLEMS 387
by using average valuee for L and V over parts of mole per rent n-liept.&ne and a bottoom product oontainin&:
the column, or eliminated by making an energy 2.0 mole per rent ra-heptane At 1 attn ~ the ratio of the
vapor-liquid equilibrium oonet.a.nUI K _ _ (KmeUI~"Y_
bala.noe around each plate. The la.tter procedure is 1.07.
involves t.rialand-error procedures for both equilib.- State IIIMlmPYon. m.&de aDd Bhow iD 1f&Phic&1 fonn the
rium and energy balanoes. It. is too tedious for most ndat ion hetWf!len tbe number 01 equiHbrium at.agell required
design purposes and .is seldom justified. AD analog IIIJ a function 01 re.lhu: ratio.
computer baa been developed" to eolve such prot? 6. Natural p i lot 93" F &lid 835 peia of the comrosition
lema and promises to be or considerable U8e in speeial given below ill to be treated t.o reoove at. i6ut. 9B per cent of
the iaobUl&M wit.h ablorpUon oi l of the eomPll'it.ion giveD below
""'" PROBLEMS
and available at ga o F. It ia e81im.t.ed tbat tbe)el\.ll pIJ will
te.ve HUI! abeorber at tOOF .. buve that of tbe Jean oil
1. Work the problema liven at tbe ~ of Chapter 23,
~ ~t \XIOlal over&w. Mole FraetKln in
Com-
2. An. iBothermal abl!orber ill operatilll at 300 0 F and .400 ponent
Riehe ... Leu. Oil
pai& with pure pentane &8 the ablool-binl fiuid to recoYN
propane lrom 100 rntlJo./hr 01 a IItre&m containinl 20 mole
CR, 0.0000
per cent methane ADd 80 mole per cent Jll'CIpaM. The off
C,R, 0 .0618
pi! cont&in@80moleperoentmethaneonapentane-freebMi&
C.H, 0 ._
(II) Wh&t ia tbe minimum pentane required (moles per
"""')!
i-C.RIO O.oon
ft-C.H IO 0.0089 0.00026
(II) What ia the pentane requirement for III!paration with ;..c,H II 0 ..... 0.00108
four tbeoretiCiU IltageI!'
(~) H ow mu oh penta.ne i1110et iD the off 1M in part
(d) What ill the peroent.qe of propane in the rich (inlet)
b' """".CtHlf
C,H.
0 .0018
0.0024
0.0016
0 .00139
0 .00000
0 .00925
p i that ia recovared In t he rlcb oil'
Oil 0 .98302
3. A lithogra.phlng COlloem UIIeC wive"" M the vebicle fw
a trallllp&l'eJ1t DOI.t.i1ll in II. paper-lilliBhiDI procetiB. The air-- Total 1.0000 1.00000
toluene mis.t.ure obtaine<llrom the ~ driers ill to be treatM
for recovery ohhe toluene by beinc eooIed to 00 F and tben Can the desired re.ult be aooompUllhed with 0.18 mole of
pa-.i throu&h a "ecrubbiD&: tower" in which tbe toluene ill Jean oll per lIlDle 01 rich pet If.o, bow many kJeaI platA:8
abIorbed in an oil whteh ia noovolatile Wlder theee operating ~ required?
moditiona. The air-t.oluene mixtlU'e leavin the cooler 111m-
tam. s votume pI!I" eent to!1JeDe. Onder preIIent eonditio_ 7. In the alkylataon by IUUuno acid \*taly" of iIobutaoe
332,000 ataDdard eo. ft (~. r and 760 mm) per boor of the with butyle.ne t.o prodooe iao6cL&ue. t.be feed of bo.it ylene and
~ wiU haft t.o be treated, and 91 pe.r cent recovery iBobuta.ne conw_ tome normal but.ue which builda up in
of tbe tome_ it desired in rich oil 00IItaiDin& 30 mole per the alky1&.t ion and mun be removed with the alky1&.te by
eent of t.ohtI!ne. fraetionation from the id>uu.ne e\n:ult.ted throuh the
The tol~ree absorption oil baa a moleeuIar w~' of ai1r.y1&.tioo unit. The composition of thfJ feed to the column
180, a IIpeOilie p9ity at go o F (~ened too watN a' 60 0 F) ....ould be tbe saine &8 that of the hydrocarbon cin:ull.t~ in
of 0.866, and a kinenur.tM: vieI:loeity of 1.8 oentilltokel!l lot the alkylation unit, or about:
operatiq ~mperatu",. The &beotption oil eutermg the.t.op
c,~+414 o . S mole per cent
of the toower will contain 0 10 mole per Dent t.oluene. The
CilIa + CaR, 12.7
toower ill operated iIotbetmaUy at 90 F. Determine;
i-CJrIll + ;..c.U, 61.0
(a) The number 01 ideal aud of actual plates required.
(b) Thf! required column dia.me~r aud downapout dimeJl..
~HIO + n-C.H, 31.8
c,n" 0 .2
Ilion. if the plate ~ .. IS Ill. Alkylate (equlvaJellt
4. It ill pro~ t.o reC0ger 90 per cent of \he ethane from a too heptane) '4 .0
refinery pi! etream at 200 e F aud 200 psia containing 40 mole
A fraetionating column ill available with an alio1l'll.ble work
Jlf'~. Dent methane and eomole per Dent ethane. The .beorbing inI: p rtlll!!ure of 160 pma, containing 35 pla.teI not counting
oil bU. (IOOlJlO'ition of 98.36 'mnle per eent pentane, 1.48
the reboiler a nd partial condeneer. Are there enough pI.. t...
mole per Dent ethane, m 0.164 m<;J!e per cent methane.
in this prellent column if they ue 100 per re.}t efficient to
For eaeb 1000 molee/hr of rdDery 1M, bow much off pi! ill
fractionate thi. feed IIII.terW to that tbe bottom product
produoed, .nd lean oil required in column eontaining 7
will oontain BUhatantially aU the alkylate and not more than
pla.tea of au flItimateci onrall efllcirJncy 01 54 per cent'
What ia thfJ compccitlon of tbe neh oil'
+
0.3 per cent of the ;..c.all i.C.H, ill tbe feed and prod_
an. onrbead dist.illate oontaininc not core \.ban 10 mole per
6. It it propoIICd t.o llepant.e by fradionatJon a qW.:ture eellt n-e.H .. + ~14 for return to the alkylation unit?
_taininc 110 mole per oent ~ aDd 50 mole per cent What operat.in& condltloll& (temperatu,", p..-.re,relhP:
methyleyclobeune into a diatIDate product. cont.&iniog 98 ratio, number of Haceal ate requirGd for t hill &epIll1ltiont
CHAPTER
26
IMPLE distillation is the opernt ion of produc- Substituting y/K for x and solving'for 1/,
--
-p
p
and p re88Ur'e before undertaking the calculation fo r
equilibrium vaporisation.
2 . .l>ijferenl.ial dillillation involves tbe removul of
where P is the total pressure of the distillation. the vapor from contact with the liqu)cl &8 rapidly
11 is the vapor pressure of the component at
the u,mperature of the distillation.
, .as the vapor is formed. In differential vapOrization
tlie liquid loeee and the vapor or distillo.te gains a
. bISl1LLA110N AND CONDENSATION
,.......
Etaa- (Ct> 0 .007\l 12 .S 0 ."'" 31.8 0 .003\ .28.0 0 .0036 .... 0 .0008
,
f
.......
Computed
- 0.0614 ... l.~.
0.05
i 0.0007
' - - _ 101
0.06 '.
0.07
-
0.07
- 1.00
....
Computed ::.. AlBumed
36%
0.0007
111%
0.0000
,
.
different ial quantity of matetial, dV - -dL. By a. Eu..o.e. Show that, i~ II ... Kz,
material balance for an in6tantaneous d ifferential '
npOriaation, l
4"J::z, -K-I
In - _
LI
' 1- din. (337)
(. - .} dL - -Ldz ...,
frol'll COIlt.act with t\le vap!l! .... rapidly .... the liquid ill (orlflt.'CI,
V, _
ID- J:'- 1 all
JL dL - J--'!:.....
y-:r
VI '1 Z - 1/
(3370)
,.,<
The material balance may be made on the blU'is
of total qu ant ities of each oon:tPQnent rather than
kL,
--[ '--d>
l' . (336)
LI ' ~ ' 1/-z on the basis of compositions. If 1/ _ Kx,
FAua.tion 336, ,Iu!qwn as the Rayleigh eq~tion,
can be integrated .- graphically, giving the final
composition (or a. specified quantity of residualliquKl
1/.
.-.
1/~
--{t.. ;.-
Kc x.
if the relationship -between ,. a.nd:r is known. For -a For a difI'~rential vapori&ation the instantaneou8
,'-inary system this relatiooabip is given by the deereaae in moles of M Y component in the I,inuid
t..luilibriwn diagam sueh &II Fig. 373. ~u&la \he moles present for that instant in the
390 VAP,OR-LlQUIDi TRANSFER OPERATIONS"
vapor and IIJince the ratio between the mole frao- of distillate product to the storage tnnk, neglecting
tians ~ua.b the ratio' between the number of moles, holdup in the'system, may be written
--dB.
--
-dN.
K.N.
--
K . N.
., dN. K.dN.
(338)
-d(Bxs ) .. d(DxD) .. %n' dD
dl dl dl
(343)
~-C-~-"~7~~"~-c--
"::
N.,+ Nu + N .2 +. o.
.. %.,2 (341)
f. B dB
s. B
- -
i<' dxB
~ .. %D ' XB
(344)
wilen N _ number of molell in the vapor'.
Equation 344 is identiclll in form with the Ray
BATCH FRACTIONATION leigh equation 336 and may be integrated in a similar
Ill8llD.er. The Simple equilibrium relation between
Where reiatiy!!ly small quantities of material y and z in the denominator of the right-hand side of
available at indefinite times or having widely varying equation 336 or 337 is replaced by 11.. relationship
compositions are tQ be llepB.rated by d~tillation, between ZD'_ and xs
involving the reflux ratio at
continuous unita may be uneconomic, or inflexible, w~ich the column ie operated and the nun.~r of
leading to the Ulle of bA.tch unita. Such units may. equilibrium stages 'in the column., such as equation
consist of a still of relatively large vollllIle, a plate 315 or a KI'aphical relation.
column, and the usual auxiliaries for returning re8ux_. _ Tbe operation 01 batch columnll may be elueified
and for product lltorace, &8 indicated diagram- &8 operatioo at "OOOItaI1t re8ux" or ' at "constant
.IIl&tically in Fig. 382. product cc:mpoeitioo.." M. the name implies, in
'The relatiOnship be~ween the rate '!i depletion 01 cooatant reflux operat~ the di.etil..late product is
material in this still, the rate of aecumulation d removed from, and reftux is returned to, the column
material in produet storage, and too rate of. transf"er at a constant rate.... M a result i.he mole fra...--tioo
VAClJlm;f AND STEAM DlSTlLLA TION 391
of a more-volatile t':OIIlpooent in the di.e:tiUate pnxluct Differentiating equation 345 with respect to time i
%D decre88el! continu..ously from a relatively high
value at. the beginning of the operation. When a
column is operated at "constant product composi.
tion" the reflux rate is increaeed oontinuously ftom
--
dB
ell
P(xp - z,) thB
(2:D 2"B)2 'di (346)
-: relatively low value at the beginning of the opera- Assu~ing constal. . molal overflow oonditions
tion eo as to m&intain a nearly OOllstant dietiUa.te throughout the length of the column at any iMtant,
compositioo. '
MOIIt. industri'!.l operatiollfil, particularly those ~- L - Y - - (1 - ~) V (347)
~p&rating mixtures containing lleVeral components,
employ both types of operation. For example, in when L - moles of liquid per unit time at any see..
the aeparation of bepsene, toluene, and xylene in lion of the colulDD.
the "light oil" obtained from coa1, the early stages V - moles.of vapor per unit. time at any sec-
of the fractiooation involve bringing the unit "on tion of the column.
Stream" by operating at virtually total reflux, lol.
Lowed. by the removal of the light ends which are Substituting the yaJue for dB/ dl givcn by equation
more volatile than benzene. A top plate ,temperature 347 in equation 346 and rearrangiog,
Bubstantlally equal to _the bubble point of bensene
at high reflux ratiOlil indicate. that mOlit of the
{"dt _ -F(xD - 2"F)1'1I d2"B
10 V J"I' '(:-1-L
";""v" )';(Z'-D- - -Z-S"')'
light ends have been removed. Accordingly the
reflux ratio is then reduced, and ben.ene is removed (3<8)
at a ~lati~y rapid rate. When the temperature
on the top plate or, better, aome lower plate ,hows It. If the diameter of a ci:llumo is known or fixed , the
tendency to inerease, thereby indicating that.' mOllt "'aloo of V may he estimated and the expression
of the benzene has been removed, the reflux rate is integrated graphically ! by relating %D. :ts, and I./ V
increued hy <if>1'" ..Bing the rate at which distillate and the number of .!lta.ges in the column. Tilt:
product is removed. In order to maintain the com- minimum oumber of sto.ges which can be used is
position of the distillate constant (euiJetantially pure the number given by the separation between 2"D
benlClle). the operation approaches toLai reflux (no and Xs at th~ end of that separation at total reflux.
produot withQrawal). As a practical matter, when If this mioimum 'n umber of plates were used to
increasing the reflux rate to maintain the product integrate equation 3-48, &Jl infinite time would be
oompooition becomes uneconomical, the column is indicated. Therefore, the number of pla.tee chosen
operated at coostant reflux, taking overhead a must be greater than the minimum. The larger the
"&lop" cut until the temperaiure on the top plate oumber of plates, the less time is required.
reaches the boiling point of toluene at which time The effect of holdup in balcb fractionation is I\t
the entire procedure is repeated. present not. fully understnod. 11 Although holdup
Wheo a batch unit is operated at cvnstant distil. may have an obvious adverse effect on the recovery
late compoeition. and at maximum capacity, the in product storage beca~ of the presence of.desil'-
moW rate at which vapor passes upwards through [,hie malerial in the column, it mj,l.y sometime pro-
t.he oolumn is approximately constant, more and duce a ,compt!nsating improvement in the fradion
more of this vapor being returned as the reflux rate stiog ability of a column.
is increased. Under such circumstancea, the time
required for a given separation may be determined
VACUUM AND STEAM DISTILLATION
8B follows:
(3<5)
Many substances are
difficult to purify or separate
by distillation at ordinary pressures becaust> sucb
high tempt;lratures would be requimd to VI\porize the
where P - m_ of material originally chqed to material ae to decompose the material or make the
the still. operation impractical because of excessive tempera--
%, - mole fraction of a given component in the tures. One eolution is to distill in a va.cllum or under
original charge. The bibliocraphy for this chapter apP<M"l on p. 395.
392 VAPOR-UQUID TRANSFER OPl;RATIONS 4
tow pl'l'i<&lre, therehy decreasing tl~ required tern- l' and y. The value8 for Land :t are then computed .
pcrntllreaccording to 1he vapor pressllre--tcmpc.rnlure on the basis of the liquid' phase 'carrying the distil-
I1'lat ion>ihips of the mat crial~ befng dist illed. An- Ia.ble cOmponents only , the liquid inert being ent irely
other ml'thod u~alMle OT in rombinat ion with Ii neglected. But , since the partial pl'Cl>5ure of t he
reduction in is Lo reduce the partial prcs&lrc
P l'('AAl ll'(' inert is most easily eOIT'f)ntcd for t hese tonditionB,
of the vol~ tile ('om90ntmts by introducing an inert it is .U!mall.V simpler in the p resence of t he liquid
vapor whieh ha.... no !'iignilicnnt effect. UPOIl the vapor inert phase to s ubtract the pa rtia l pressure of
pressure of the li<luiti components, likewise reducing the inert. vapOr from the total pressu re and then
the temperature. Tht' addod vapor should be immis- proceed to mukelhe. ('.alculalioll ~ tIS if t.he inert vapor
cihle wit h 'he li(luiJ C(lfflponcn h; heing d istilled. ~"Cre oomplet ~ly ~t and the distillation went
Steam is widely employed for this purp<ISe as it iii conducted under a reduced to!.al p~re equal to
readilr ava iltiblc : the oper&tion is t.hen called steam the partial pressure of the oomponents being dig.::
distillation. The tli;(' ()f steam is advnntageolls tilled, P - Pi..
because it is immi~ibl e wit h many high~boiling In ste:lm tltripping or v!U:uum distilling operation!'!,
, it ill readily. available at low.
organic cOIllp<l1l11ClB. the partial pressure of the <ii8tiUing cOmponent in
cost, it mH)' he rcmov(>(]' ell,'Iily from most syl:;tems the Vapor will in general be 10w. Therefore, thil:;
by conJt'n~ti(Jn , and under the' ipr;)Per conditions partial pre~sure wiH be scnSitiVe to slight changes in
it can al!;o furnish the nt'(;C~"lI.ry heat uf vaporization. pressure 'or to changes in I,he quantity of volatile
Pruvidf!(1 t.he p artilll prr.'!riure ('o f the inert vapor is component in the varNr contH.ining a relatively large
less than the sat.urated \'aPQr fJressure of the corre- quantit.y of inert vapor. In the vacuum distilb.tion
sponding liquid at the operating tf'rnpen..tures, there of long-chuin fatty acids the 'absolute pre!t!Ure at the
wjll be hut two ph fUl('~ prcl!Cnt: the liWlid com~,nepts, wp of a 3O-trtly tower is tt..Oout 5 mm of mercury.
and the. vapor phfUIC in r luding th~ components iwd Even the modera te pressure drop per tray of 1.5
the inert vapor. un<i('T these cooc'litions, when the mm will result in It. tenfold incl'et\80 w !' pI'C!lllurc of
vapor phil.!!/.' may be rcglu,It...1 :\,'\ an ideal solution the 50 mm of mercury in the bo.sc of the tower . Conse- .
effect. of t he inf'rt vapor JIl!jY he must conveniently quently, the effect of changes in preS6Ure must be
ta ken into consideration by simply recognizing its COI'lS.idered at each t ray in this easc. In a graphical
presence in the vap.:>r phMe in computing va1ues solution on an enthalpy~ncentrati~ d iagram this
for the mol~ of vapor V, and in computing values effect of changing pressure would require different
for' mole fractions of the components y. This sati.lrated liquid and vapor curves for each tray
~mes that 'the 'ihert vaPor is insoluble in tlK- wherever the ohnnging pretl6ure has an appreciable
liquid' pfiase or i.~ suluble . to such a limited extent effect upon the number of equilim-ium stftgeB neces-
8.8 W have no signir.cant effect on values of L or x, ""Y.
which condit ion is usually met in such operations. The design and operat.ion of a continuous steam-
If the partial pressure of the inert vatx>r is equal distillation or stripping column may be identical
to the saturated vallor pre!l8I)'"C of the corresponding with that of a fractionating tower (Chapter 24).
liquid at the operating temperature, there will be The heat may be supplied by 'a rcOOler or by the
three phll.':lPs present: the vapor phll8e, the liquid condensation of part of ihe st.eam supplied, or by
components being dis1 illflCl, and the liquefied inert the sensible heat of the liquid to be st,ripped which
vapor (water). Under these conditi1?nE, the partial frequently enters th~ column superheated with'i re-
pressure of the inert vapor is equal to the saturated spect to the saturatkm temperature corresponding
vapor prcSi-!ure of liquid inert., and the Hole fraction to the partial preS8ure. within the tower. If the
of inert va.por in vapor pha~ is equal to y "" PiIP, operating conditions are such that the inert strhping
where Pi - saturated vapor p re!\SUfe of liquid inert, vapor will condense in the tower, provision must be
and P - total pressure. . made in the mechanical design of the tower to pre-
With this vniu{' fi:,r the mole fraction of inert in vent a.ccumulatiOn of the resulting liquid . on the
thc ,'apor, it is poosible' to follow the same proeeditre trays. This aceumtllation will tend to reduce the
as outlined in the previous paragraph for ~omputing trey efficiency and may be h.uardous &8 the lower of
AZEOTROPtC 'AND EXTRACTIVE DlSTlLLA TJON 393
two liquKl layers hM a tendency to superheat and AZEOUWPJC A~D EXTRACfIVE
" bump" violeDLly. DISTILLATi ON
If water is present beneath a liquid hydrocarbon
phase on a tray in a frR!o-tionatin, colt,mn, the water An azeotropic or "colllllant-hoiling" mixture i8 a
may cover the slots in the bubble caps a nd overflow liquid mixture whOl:!C _'Ompositiun docs pot change
the weir ' into the ~ownspouli, preventing proper as vapor is gencrated,.,from the mixture, Since the
contact of the vapor with.. the liquid hydrocarbon composition of dle liquid does not changf! as it is
and interfering with . the flow of ditltillnble liquid. converteP to vnj:)(w, the VI).P<'X has the same .compoei-
In severe cases, t.he liquid water may flow down to a tion as: tho liquid, and the ooiling point remains
lower plate where the .temperature is higher and constant as vapor is.~ncratoo. Azeol.fOJ)C'S which
vaporize at that puint" only U) condense agai n on exist as one liquid pb~ 10 (.'quilibnu';'n with Vapor
the highe r plate, in lhils way short-circuiting . those may be calied homogeneous azeotrope,s, Q.S djg.:.
infP.nnoouuc plates and preventing their functioning t.inguished from those existing as two lW)uid phtlSt';l
by preventing the proper How of hydrocarbon reflUJI. in equilibrium with vapor whi{'h may be tolled
through that par~ of the column: heterogeneous II.zeotropes. - .
Water may be removed from such plates by pass- Figure 383 ;J the tempcrature-eompQ8ition di:
ing the liquid overflow tbrough a separator and
draining off the lower water )aYe[, allowing. onIy -
agram for thr sy"tem henzem.>-ethanol at I aIm
,
hydrocarbon liquid to How down t Q. the lower plate.
By proper choice of operating Iconditions, it is
, /
Ul!WI.lIy potMible to preyen~ the coodensat.ion of
water on. the plal.esi\\'ithin the column.
,~
.
" !I
6 _\
Bakh 8t~ di.$tiUati may be oondlictOO 88 a u V SJt"'I~led nJ)Of
ms _ Jts P~
67.8 C, containing 55,,:,2 mule peL .cent henzcm~.
. mA MAPA. Figure 384 show8 !.hl! telfll>eratuJ'&{!Oql.po>I.itim! di
2. If thll iller(. compotl(lnt is ~n~ &iii .. """" nil liquid agram for the system ~.b~tanol-~n.ltt'r, at t ~tm pre&--
pn"'*l (water), sure rwhich fonn", a heterogeneous 3Z(.'Otropc , at- ,
92..25" C, consisting of two liquid ph~, both of
which are in equilibrium, with the vapor OOlltaining
lI'here '" _ 11_ rtf OOlnl""lI.,nL ,,*,lfnti..,d or eal1ied io the, 25.0 mole per cent n-.buto.nol. .
V"I~"' Ireterogt'neous azcot-roJX's mlly be iK'j>ars.tf'(.) in two
M _ n\Ol' ...ul;or ""'i",ht, convent.iooal CQIlImmi by taking advantage of the
P _ 11IIrtiai !''''''''''"'"
P _ 1<>\111 I'n.~rc.
S all<1 ,I "" ..ubo;"ripl~ i",li ..",t., ;",:r, vllpo r and volatile
wmp')!\<'nt, ,,,,,!)<.'CI;\,.,]y,
394 VAPOR-LIQUID' TRANSFER OPERATIONS ..
120
no
,
/' -/
products containing the third component. Whe~
the third component appears in an appreciable cen-
cent.ration in the distillate product, the operation
is &rbitrarily known as "azeotropic" distillation,
whereas, if the third component appears primarily
in the bottom product, the operation is arbitrarily
~
100
/ termed "extractive" distillation.
i~
,/ ternary ueotrope. the separation may usuaJly be
accomplished as in the separation of beterogeneouB
binary ueot.ropes, since t lVO liquid phases 0[ widely
diffltrent compotlition at or below the boiling point
are available as feeds: t(f two conventionaJ columll8,
80 Be indicated in Fig. 385.
The basic princi,~ 0[ ueotropic or extractive
distil1a.tion are identical to thOlle already explll.ined.
70 It should be remembered that the formation of
o 20 40 60 80 100 azootropes is simply a. peculiarity of the particular
MOle Per C.nt Butanol solutions concerned and offer! no particular difficulty
--.
Flo. 384. Tempel'1lotum-oompollidoD diqram at 1 .trn pm!-
au.re for the n-but&Dol-WIW!r tyltem, which forma .. hetero-
-
form a. ternS.ry mixture containing no a.zeotropes or
constant-boiling mixtures. If such a third oompo-
nent can be tound, one component of the uootrope
may be recovered as the distillate &lid the other
.-""'"
Fla. 385. F10w diacnm for the fraetiOl'lll.Uon of the n-b\ltanol-
eom.ponent &15 the bottom product, either one or both "II'&t.I\r 1)'Btem, which fO/"UlB & heteroaeneous ueottope.
Bmi.JOGRAPHY 395
I . ABKlIOF, F. A., T. L. CuBIU,OZ, and: R. L. HlllfttNO'I'Ol'I, 24a. KQlP, H. 8., E. J. du Pont de Nemour!! ml<.! Co., privat.e
Iw.d.~. CAem., Ie. 1088 (1934). OOlIlmunicatk>n.
2. BooAB'l', M. J . P., T~M. Am. 111.11. Chem. Eilgr. , II, 25. KEns. D. B., lWd L. Bnus, Utl;~. of lUiMi. Ellg.
139 (1937): Ezp. &0. Bull. 328, p. 28 (May 6. 11Hl).
3. Bou.a., W. L.P~ &/iMr, II, 613 (Deeember 1948). 26. I\IRuaIDE, C. G., PdTokum TUft".,'!', tI, 321 (1944),
4. BIlOW!(. G. G., T,-.. Am. Irwt. ekm. E"9"' " 12, 321 ZT. KRENSEB, A" NCIl. Pdroku"., N_. til (May 21, 1930).
(1936) 28. LoIlO, W. E., L. FIUENII, F . HASH),tAt.!., and F. ZEN!,
~. BaoWN, O. G., .. nd D. E. Houx".., P~m Engr., 11, Trani. Am. lJUt. eMm. Engr. , il, 603, Fig, 43 (\9%).
N<& 10-13 (l940), 29. Mce....t:, W. L., and E . W. THIELE, Illd. E1I(J. CAetn., IT,
6. B~WN, G. 9.., an,d F. J. l1I:lL\.W!', Tram. Am. ln~. 605 (1925).
C~~Engr ., n. aa (11l43). 3':1. MURrtIlU:t; E. V., I nd. 814ft. Chem" 11, 747 (1926).
1. BROW", O . G., and M. 8ou1lEBII. Ja., Ind. Eng. CMm., 31. NELSON, W. L., Pdroltrum &fi1U.rll ~WJil\wing, 2nd ed.,
U. '519 (1932). p. 480, McGrawHiIl Book Co. (1941).
8. 8I1OWH, G. G., and M. 8ouPI':RlI, Ja. , T~ lkimt:.e of PdN>- 32. O'CoNNE LL, H.' E., TrQlU. Am. frud . Cfull'l. Engr~., 42,
/eum,.VoL II, p. 1544, Oxford UniV(!f8ity Preae (1.938). 741 (1946).
9. C.nT, J. 8., J . GII.I' '''OI.D, W. K. ldwI:a., and W. H. 33. PXo\VT, C. C., and E. M. SAUR, Ind: Eng. Chan ., 19,
McADAt.I~, Tran,. Am'. llUl. CMm. Engr. , $0, 604 (1934). 1056 (193'7).
10 C1tn.u.lI,. R. B., and H. M. WEJR, Trmu. AIIl. lrut. CMm. 34. P a IlKT, J. H., CA.mtioot Eft(JI,..,.' Ho.ndhooIo:, McGrawUiIl
Enw'" II, 79 (1929). Book: Co. (I(50).
11. CICAL&S.E, J. J ., J. A. 0,\\, -. P. J. fu"lI(~, G. 8. 35. 8H....wooP, T. ~. , and F. J . J SNRJ, Ind. E'Ilt/. C.v.n., tT,
HOUGHLAND, A. J. IhTI"ClUNI!OIf, and ;r. J .. ,WA,U!H,' 265 (1935). -
Proc. Am. p~ l lUL" It, III.181, I~. 36. SIlQWOOD, T. K., G. H. S IIII'LST, and F . A. L. H OLu)-
12. Co~ORN, A. P., &lid R. F . 9rt:A.RNlI,. TF'CIM. Am. 1'M4. WAT, Ind. B~. CMm., 10, 765 (1938).
CMm. Ey. , 11, 291 (1941). 37. SiKG~'" C. L., Clatm. Md. Eng . 44, 493 (1937).
13. CoIAUIlN, A. P., IIttj. 81111. CAea . 18, 5~ (I~). 38. BMoua, E. H., Tram. A>/!- frun. Ckm. EngT~. , M, IllS
14. CoLBVRN, A. P.,' TnJJI'. Am. I ,.,.. CMm. Engr. , 11, (1938).
In'; (1941). 39. 8oRGA,'I'O, I ., "DiatilJat.ion Equationa." Claimico e indw-
15. DAVIE!!, J. A . "Bubb\eTray HydrauliCll," Ind. Eag. mo. (.vi/t)n). 10,zn (September 1\)4,8).
Cw.., _. 774 (Ju~ 1947). to. 9nA1'IO, L . 0 . TmlU. Itt. CMm. Engrt. (J..rmd<m), 11,
16. DIUC~"J:JI" H . G . and J. R.BIIAD.oIlD. Trmu. Am. 169 (1934).
1.... ClIc>JI. E..,..... Q, 319 (1943); p~ /UPttIr, II, 41. UIfD&JlWOOD. A.J. V., Truu./ra. CM ..... B,.,. (L.ondoo!.),
17.
18.
105 (194a).
G....
.
Ff:NSU. M. R, Ind. En.,. C.v-.,
n., ".482 (1932). ..
H. J . and F . LaaMAN, TraM. A",. I,..,. CMm.
10 (112) 1932.
42. UKDUWOOD. A. J. V., CIwfI. Bn9. Prograa. " ' 603
(A~ 11148).
E"9"" '" It, 113 (1943); .J 43. WAL'l'KP., J . F., and T . K. SORWOOt>. 1M. EAf. CM"'"
19. G~DI:&, R. h., T_. A .... IJUL a.-. Ertgn., 41, 70 iT,747 (1925).
(lIKe). , 44. WHITE, R R. , Noll. PdrcolftI", N_,. 16; 731 (I9-W ).
3:1. GooD, A. J ., M. H. HI1'I'CU1NI5OI'I, and W. C. Rose_u, 45. PONCHON. M., T o\. Modtrru. lS, 20 (1921).
bul. Eng. CMm., K, 1446 (1942). 46. SJ.VA'fllT, R, A,..,. ~ Metitr., pp. 65, 142, 118, ~ aI.
21. B.nDT, W. D., PtVol.n4 m PTotIHIi,.,.
l, 610 (August (1922).
1947). 47. MARTIN, H. Z.. and G. G. BaowN. Tram. Am. 1",*.
22. HOLII~'" G. E.. aDd E. M. BAD:a. 1M. E",. C..... Cllnrt. E.... iii, 61'9 (Oc:tober 1939)
.--- 10M (1934). 48. 6oUD1)R6, M., aDd G. G. BROWN, lAd. Eng. Clum., lI:6,
.28. HOaTON, GBO., and W. B. FllAlflu",,,,. Ind B..,. C"-., 98 (1934);
as. 1384 (0ct.00er 1940). ., " 49, LP18, W. K., an4 G, L.~ATMEIioNJ Inri Eng. Clum. , 1'-
24: KEM" H. S., &rid CJlIOS PY. .Jl, "Hyd~ GradieD'" 494 (1932).
A_ Various Bubble-Gap Pia...... C..... B.,.. Pro,., 60. Gosu, G. W., and J. F. Cll'/En', Am.I'Ml. Elm. Engrl.
-6l, Q6 (Jul.)'. ING). - ....!-- - Technical Paper 6G-IS (UI60) .
.~-',
"
..
--
...
JO
three equilibrium lltaacs (including the etill). A binary
mixture containilll 60 mo1e per cent .4, the ba1ance B, ill
eharged to the .till. The volatility of oomponent A relative
to component B Ie 3.0.
A dietillate product is withdrawn .. a .turated Uquid
from the t.op .u.e. and reflux is returned to the t.op stap
. . . .twated I:iquid 110 tbat. the utemal reflux ratio (L./ D)
.. 2.0. A.;de tuum .. witbdl'awn lrotl1 the ~ IWop .t
2. A etream of 1000 Ib/hr of 30 per (!Cnt a.loohoI by weight. the _ rate (mo&e. per unit time) .. the o-.ert-d dilltillate
at 103 F .. fed with 350 Ib or . t urated IIu.rtI pet hour, aup- . produet.t all time&.
pl ied at tOO pllia w an inallatcd teptLRtor at at.mOepbcric AlIIulninc CIO'AIWit moW over1low from . tbe Itape .nd
p~. neglcctins holdup, what .. the compolitJoo or the liquid in
Whlt.1 an:! the quantitiel and OODlflOllitlona of the reeulting the llid&--etrc&m run-down t.I,nk when one--haIf the feed cbarpd
equilibrium vapor and liquid? to tbe etill hM been diltilledt
3. Throo etreamll are fed w a lICp&raWr .t 1 atm prelIIure
9. A mixture of benzene -.nd toluene CJ)lltainilll 0.600 mole
l1li (011011"': frection bensene &rid a small amount of _"t'OIatile impurity
1000 Ib of ZO per oen! aloobolat 103 F ill to be purified by batch fractionation .t .\.InQIpberie
233 Ib of 15 per oent alcohol .1. 910' F pn'S\lre.
128 Ib of 5 per oent akoboi, 4~ per :::ent vapor The equipmellt to he UIIed eolll!lilltl!of
with ZO plata (plate ~ng, 18 io.), t1.il1
...,t
ctitr.met.et' oolunm
keule with
TIie npor from t he !lepantor is cooled.oo fed to tepfnt.or B,
while t.M liquid ill he.ted aDd fed to lIe~tor C. TIle liquid _ eapIlcity of 16,000 pl, .00 a tmal condeoaer. "nMI IIt.il1
from B is a.Ieo fed W C. The"'l&JlOM from B.oo C.." com- kettle .. pro"rided with '-ting IIOU. which II1iI .... ppHed with
bineo .nd form. ilt.ream containinl 39.6 P.M aent alcohol t1.eIm from a 150-pIIia main.
The liquid from C contaias 4 per cent alcohol e 'The frlCt.ioN.tion ill eoDducted 110 that the fIrtt, cut is tabD
Compute the he.t duty in Btu per hour, on the 000_ .t oolllltant distillate compoeition of 0.996 mole fractioo
and heater. ben.ne. DurilIc thiII cut., t.he rate 01 Mat input to the.tm
is maintained oonItant at the value corre.pondina: too the
4. It Ie neoeB!IIIory to reduce the propane oontent to 3 per maximum . llow.ble vapor velocity. 11le liquid holdup in the
Ql!nt In order to market 1000 Ib molee of propane-pentalWl column may he IWlg1ected.
mixtu~ conuining 20 mole per cent propane. Two different The relative volatility of heruene witb rmpect. to tool_
methods An:! being considered: iaothermaJ weatherinl .t may he oollllidered oonetf,Dt and equ.al W 2.471 ,
60- F, &rid efficient fraetioruo.tion in f"",I,~tina column. The ove.....1 plate cfliciency of the fractiont.tinc coIUIUIl ..
For the weatherinfl operation, epccify: 75 per oenL.
(0) The ori&iDaI p~. The density of 0.500 mole fractino benaene lIOIution at
(/I) The finaJ pre.ure. 26 - C .. 0.868 sram/ oc.
(e) The per rent recovered I.I!I. liquid. If the rc8ux ratao durin& the cut is nried oontinuooaly
(d) The lOIJI of pentane in the mpor. UlItil L / V is &qUIll to O.80.t the end of tbe cut., dewrnU:.1hII
For the fractionating column, llpecify: per Ql!nt recovery of the benaene, where
(4)" The minimum prell8UTe required 1f cooliII.r ....ter is
available at 60 F. Quantity of benzene in di, t.iUate
(6) The per OIlnt recovered l1li. liquid. Per cent recovery - 100 Quantity of beneeM iD .till chatp
PROBLEMS 397
10. A new plant ill to produce aoet.one at an average rate sta.ndud pipe, 20 ft Iona, and the liquid hn 1-lup in the L1Jn-
of 13,700 lb /24 hr. M the final step in the ptOCellll, acetone ,dcllII(!r ill I)I!t ima ted at alx>ut I gal. The t"w l lifluid hnl<.!up
muat be 6ep&rnteU from a solution of &ootone in acetic &cid in the d i.s lillatc and reflux IinCft i.'Illl<o about 1 g<ll.
whieh eontaillll 0.650 mole fnldion ace tone. The atill iB charged "" ith a batch nf 42.6 pi (II'lCMUrcd III
I t is pmp!Jfle(l to perfonn ~hiB IeJNlntion by II. bolteh frao- lOOQF) of an et ha nol-water mixture con t:tning 24.3 \\..,iJ;hl
tionatioo a t at moospberie pressure ('!()Oc;Iucled I!O thu 96 per per cent ethanol. The reflux !>Oml' and OOIlUcruocr an' oper-
cent ol the acetone is rooovered ftI !.(Ip product with .. c0m- ated BoO that 1 gtlJ of roflux at 100' F is aUl'plicd to the wI'
position of 0.995 mole rra.ction !\retone. An intermediate plMe per pilon of tfuolillate fed to th.., aiill. 81C:l1ll at 2':; Il$i,IC
fraction, or slop cut, of acetone and ar,c tic acid i.o! then ta ken ill __uppJicd to the ~till coil tI;hieh euntains abtlut 5(} &<J ft of
off aa top product II.t" OI>n!!tant reflu '\: ra tio until the aoe l.Onfl llWfaet!.
eonteDt 01 tbe re-idue ill 0.006 mo~c fradion. This inter- (o) FAt imate , be rom r-ition of the di>l, illa te p roduct
mediate fl'llet.ion ill to be recycled 1.0 the next batcla. ""he.o .ceady oontlitiona IuIve been auaiood.
If the platels are spa<!(!d 12 in. Iml uf ,,.;,d de$ir;n, . pecify (b) Estimate the quantity of dilltillatc fed Ul the st ill per
the dia meter of the column and the numbe r of Mtuai plates ho<u,
required. Tho effect of liquid holdup lI1lIy be neglected for
12. An Abeorption unit with' a rieh oil fL'lJIh cilllmbcr is to be
the pu!'pOI!e of theee enleuilltions. To allow for irl1!~~t)es
desilned for tlHl recovery of ctune from a rdinc.y ~tren.m at
in opcn\tion, fimn, "nd pruheatina: the chal}le, IUld pumping
IOO~ F and 400 psia oonl..:l ining 300 mob / hr Qf clrumc and
out msKtuc, the liM ] rlr.!oign should A11o .... for 50 per (!tilt
200 n.oleeo/b. nl methane. The neh oi l bvinlC t he al..o'l>t.iool
vea1er Cllpacity than C.<I.l11&.loo for ideal openltion.
column is throttled la a 10.... pressure 9nd "'-"fit to a fl9sh
chamber to effect a IJeparation bet ....een the oil ("-octane) anu
COST DATA ON COLU~IN8 (ALL COPPER ps (~thane and ethane). Th~ oil from tho fln~h ~hamilocr
CONSTRL'CTJON) " ill pumped hAc k JlIl leon oil to the top of th~ nh"nrptlolL tower.
Mume t hat theentire operaliool is isothermal AI IOO ~ F . The
Damctcr. Cost per Square Foot of 011' PlI shall rontain only 20 mole per cent ..-tlll\DOun an oil_II1'o:
Tray Area, do~
I.," "{)
ba><iJ!.. ~me that all melhaloe in t he rieh oil is tI:u.bcd Il1W
none remrullB in the lean oil. The fIMh chamber i~ to) opcr!lll!
2
3
, .
125
""
"
at llUeh a prof!l'luce IMt the plutinl preSllure o( Clio" ,... lIIul oct'UIIl
is SO psill. The m.... keup oil ill pure 'I-octanc. llich oil eon taiM
1.5 molee ~ tane per mole (metlwle ethane). +
(0) Sketeh III treat s--.heet of this prorele.
(b) Make a complete material ~1llf1ce.
11. A labon.lory fractRloating unit 1'lOll8i8t.s of .. kettle- (el Wbat ill the lcan oi l "",<,:in:ultl.tion rate?
type still fitted .... it h .. dosed steam coil And .. plate (IOlumn Cd) What is toe makeup nil raId
containing eix plates. The ovcrhead vapor& are J)M8e!l (el How many idelll pl:ltes are rcqllirod in I,he II.beorber?
t hf'OU&h a oondenaer to a refllllC . aeeumulator from ""hieh U) What ill tile total ~1I'>Unl of t he Itoah ctw.mbcr?
reflux iI'I pumped to t he!.op plate of the column. T he distillate ta. CoD.tnlcl 1\ ror. t an~ 11U' mole ral k.> diagnun for the
produet ill fed!.o the &t ill. Previous upru"ienre witb the unit system methane, prupa.nc a nd ptntanc al 300~ F a nd .KJO psi..
indiCAte!! t hat with ethanol-"'ater m.i:J;:tur08 the overall plate and IJOJve problem 2 Ilt end or O!&plcr 2.>l"y the mole ratio
efficiency awraps about 67 per cent. The inside diameter diagram.u incii(,-Ated on page 319. It i8 he"t to C)\pl'l~ com-
of the column ill l.Q ft, and the plAte "pacing ill 12 in. T he poI!itions on a pcntan" frt'c II.L"i~.
platei'! &I'(' fitted with wedge-type dOWMpoUt4 80 that under
normal operating eonditiOtlll the liquid ho1d~ in the column 14. SolVl' pl'<;>hlO'm 4 on p.'I.gc 3&7 1100 problem 12 abo,\:, I,y
ill about 1 loll per plate. The overhead ""por line ill +-in.. a proeeduro, ei rnilar to t hat ootlilll'd in proI"lem 13.
, ,
CHAPTER
27
Adsorption
HE unit operation' of ~rption is conremed 11M! commercially impoi1.ant 1I01id adsorbeots and
'"
EQUIPMENT
In all I'rotiesses involving adsorption three steps IIOlid is dumped and. sent to' killlB for revivication by
are neoessary. burning. A typical cycle is as follows.
] . Contact. of the fluid with solKl adlWrbent.
Char&e with oil 6 hi"
During this step part of the fluid is preferentially Shut in, allow air rdeMe 2 hI'
adsorbed on the adsorbent. This adsorbed fluid is Running tillle 100 hr
tenTIed the adsorbate. DrAi nin.r; 2 hr
2. Separation of the unadsorbed flu id from the Soak with naphth. " br
W..h _ilh napht"- 8 hI'
adsorbent-adsorbate. Ste&m 13 hI'
3. Regeneration 'If the adsorbent by removing the Dumping 3 hI'
ad.sorbaw or discarding used adsorbent and replacing
it with fresh material. In a typical .umJ.ad plani II (dispel"8>l!d contact),
The principal difference between adsorption and acid-treated reduced crude oil is mixed with adsorb-
8OJidliquid extraction is that extraction involves ing day in agitators, and the mixture is-heated to
the transfer of material from the solid pbase to the
liquid phase whereas in adsorption the fluid phase
gives up material to the solid phase. Like ..solid-
liquid extractioo , adsorption may be a.c..;omplished
(1) in a stationary bed of adsorbent as is done in the
"percolation" plants, (2) by "dispersed contact"
and then separation by sedimentation or filtration
as in the "eontact" plants, or (3) by a continuous
flow of both solid phase and fluid phase, usually
counterc urrently, 8ij in the Hypersorption proc-
"....'
ess .. .. 'lor in the flu idizing process for IIeparation of
Tratled oil
10 dewa~i n ,
The third step, regeneration of the adsvrbem, is
performed in a variety of ways, depending on the
nature ~of the adsOrQate. Ga.ses and vapors are
uSllally desorbed by either reducing the pressure or
.'"
raising the temperature of the a.d.sorbenlradsorbate.
Steam is often u~ to perfonn this desorption, and,
t<'\G. 386a. Flow of n pcreolalion procesol fot trcatin&: petro-
in the case of adsorbed water vapor, hot dry gases leum oiL"
are &Ometirnes employed. Adl:lOrbed materia ls from
refining oils or petroleum products are orten removed 450 0 F in a pipe 8till . T he hot. mixture pa.s&eS
by burning. Chemical treatment is also used to through a vapor separator, is cooled to 300 F, and
regenerate many of the adsorOOnts. i8 filtered. About ' hi 10 blearhing clay is w;ed per
gallon of oil. Further treating is neccs;my for mak
ing lubrication oil.
EQUIPMENT
An activated Cf4"bon pJan.t for the rtCowry of 8Olucn!
The pn-cnlation proceM 'I uees a fixed bed of !>aporB U from an air stream consishl of nt h"~!Jt t.wo
adsorbent (Fig. 3800). For removing color fron adsorhen! and condensing and !eps.1ation. equip-
petroleum oil, with i uller's earth or activated ment (Fig. 386b). The cylindrical ' adtJorbtors mAy
bauxite; a cylindrical tank about two or three di be either horizontal or vertical, with 8haIl0\\', hori-
ameters high con'tains the solid granular adsorbent. zontal beds of-carbon 12 to 30 in. thick. The vapor-
The granular earth may be of various sizcs, depend laden air is sent down tht'ough the beds with the
ing on the viscosity of the oil, and is usually from 'denuded ~i r 5eaving the bottom of the vesfiel. After
about.- 16 mesh t,o 60 meMo The oil flow is usually the carbon bed bas a.cI.soJ-bed 80 much eolvent vapor
downward by gravity. When the adsorbent is ready that the effluent air oontaill!l more than the desired
for' regeneration, the oil is' dnUned and pumped uff. amount of vapor, the vApol'-iaden air stream is
Naphtha is then added to recover the oil, and the then switched to Mother adsorber and the first
bed !s finally steamed to recover the naphtha.. The abMrber is stripped ant' reaetivatOO. Th~ rear.ti-
<- .... ADSORPTION
,
vation and recovery of fIOlvent is aceomplished by nized for many y~a.rs and used ior ana1ytical pur-
pas8ing low-pressure steam up through the bed to poocs under the name of chrf)matographic analll.t4.
dCtlOrb the solvent. The steam-solvent mixture is It is now being applied as an effective means for the
condensed and separated by decantation or distilla- commercial separation 1 of complex materials.
tion. The operation consists essentially in adsorbing the
DthydratWn 0/ gaat8 I can be ~ out in equip- mixture to -be separated in a la)~er at the top of an
ment similar to that used for the recovery of solvent adsorption column. Pure solvent is then supplied
vapors. In addit ion to the two adsorbers, heaters cont inuously to the top of the column. Each com-
are required to supply the hot gases neoossary for ponent of the mixture at the top is desorbed into
reg!neration. Since many adsorptive dehydration . the solvent according to th~ equilibrium expressed
by its adsorption iso!'l.erm. As t.hc solvent carrying
.......
EdI.ust .... pot. fretI air
these solutes moves downward, each compound is
again adsorbed by the adsorbent a.cconling to the
equilibrium conditions. In this way each component
moves down the column as a horisonta.l band at a
rate inversely proportional to its adsorption coeffi-
"",bot cient and may be removed separately from the
bottom of the column. As any highly adsorbed
component will '"r" emain at or near the top of the
oolumn, the adsorbent shouk! be mildly active for
t.hoee compounds it is desired to remove separately
s,... from the bottom.
Vapot- The operation is' essentially a countercurrent
multiple-etage transfer between a moving solvent
.....
."""" phase and 0. stationary bed of solid adsorbent. In
some eases the stationary bed consi~ts of 0. 80Ivent
adsorbed on the solid with the transfer taking place
between the stationary solvent phase and a seoond"
immiscible 80Ivent RowiAg through the bed. Be-
w'"' cause one of the active phases is hekl stafjonary &
10) 0. 386b. F1o. diacram Cor t.he recovery or aolvent vapors
by activated eamon. (C\1rOid, oM Carl/on' CM-.i(.QW Corp.) great many contacts or stages are proyided in a short
travel.
units operate at high pressures, greater pressure The sta.tionary phase may consist of a Atrip of
drops through the adsorbers are allowed than for filter paper which carries an adsorbed water-rich
moot solvent recovery pIa.nts. This pennita 00Il- phase in equilibrium wiLh the immiscible moving
atl'tM!tioo of deeper beds and operaLion with longer phase" The solutes to be separated, identified, or
cycles. . analyzed are then placed at t he top of the vertiea.l
Ouomatograph:Cl Adsorption. When a stream stationary. phase in the form Jf a small drop or
of natural gsa containing methane and the higher narrow band. The immiscible moving phase free of
homologs is passed through an adsorbent bed of 80lute is then supplied at the top of th'" vertical
active ch&roOai, all the gas is at first adsorbed. In a column. AP. this second 8('lvent moves down,
few moments the effluent gas appears, composed of "countercurrent" relative toel-he stationary phase,
pure methane. A few momenta later ethane appears the solutes an.. ('!lrr1ed downward with the moVing
" ,jt.h methane in the effluent., later propane' appears, phase at rates which IlJ:e proportional to the ratios
and flO on, each component appearing later in the of solubilit.ie8 of the 80Iutcs in Ule moving ph88(. to
order of its ad!JOrption coefficient, i.e., the quantity their solubilities in the stationary phase.If If the
of adflOrbate retained per unit of adsorbent at equi- solute is soluble in the stationary phase and insoluhle
librium under specified conditions of temperature in the movin"g I hase, it remains stationary where it
aoo ftuid phase. This ability of a stationary ad- was placed at the top of the vertical column. U the
&Orbent bed to releue duierent compounds in the solute is soluble il"! the moving phase and iru,-.lub1e
order of their adsorption coefficients has been reeog- in the stationary phase, it is carried downward at
F.QUIP"F.~T 401
FlO. 38':. T'II'o view. of !.he fiI'IIt eommercial HYpenIO'1'tiOD uuit buill ror tbe recoverr or ethylene. (FOIIcr- Wlu,,",u Cc'p.)
the same rate as the mavin" phase moves down about 1 cm for the best distillation columnll in which
ward. both fiuK! ph&'j!1l are in mot.ion relative to the HulK!.
When UBCd for analytical ptlrposes the operation phase. The method is applicnble to Do wjde range uf
is stopped w~eD the advancing front of the moving materials from simple solute;; to complex proteins.'
phase approaches the bottom of the stationary phWJC. In practical operations considerable variat iODl:; in
The po!!ition of the various solutes along the vertical the pfocedure are
possibl.e to ob\lI.in the d~l'ed
column is dctennined by observing the positions of. results. For example. tbe fc!lowing steps &t'e l-e-.
centers of color or otbpr inJ icatiOllil of the location ported ~ for an opward flowing operation.
of solute. The ratio of dista.nces covered by the L The columns are charged with solvent A.
solutes to the distance covered by the moving front 2. Conoentrated erode extract in solvent A is
of the moving phase is characteristic of the solubility charged to the bottom. disp'-cing sotvent A to
r&tioa of the solu tes. 8to~, and pumping is continued until the first
T'he height equivalent W a.n equililxium stage in solute appears in the effluent at the top.
these chromatographic operations is very small, . 3. Pure l'Olvent A is then charged to the bottom,
apparently of the order of 0.002 cm l~ compal"ed with and pumping is continued until aolute 1 is fitli>ilied
llCDOI! the name .. ehmm&togr.I.t ....ie &nalY!lia-" or solut.e.2 appean; at the top.
...
4. Pure solvent A is introduced as long as effective
ADSORP110N
1. The tube aide of a ,beD &lid tube heat Uehaqer "here
aepa.ration of compounds is obtained. Then the it ooo1ed with .Iter on the shell IIide befon!! enterinc Lhe
deorbinl eeetionIJ below.
column is drained. 2. An a.daorption lllletion, where It fir8tadeotbll from the
5. Solvent B is then charged to the bottom, and upBowinc p i stream IIOme of the more-volatile compolUlnta
pumping is continued to separate thoee compounds (tbe __volatile eomponentl ~ not preI!Ient in tm. portion
DGt adoquate1y desorbed in so1vent A. of tbe colwnn) and dMln lower down deeorl. to the paltreaD1
the moet.-TOl&tile eompooent.. while ad.orbinc aome __
6. Solvent C is then charged at. the t.op to desorb
ftla.tile eomponenta. 'l'bit adeotption and deeorptioo ~
and remove the bands of compounds left at the ill a OOUllteretllTen\ operation w:lth the IN Itmam. &wine
bottom of the co1.wnn. upward t.o a difJenPIPnc tray wbere p&rt. of thill IN Itrer.m
. ~lbe Hypenorptlon Proee..."" The Hyper- which cont.ahUl only the more-YOlatile OOmpooenti It removed
aorption procesa &UIIO depends upon countercurrent all a product !tream (dillcharplN) aDd the rema.iuder p.....
up to dry and cool tbe earbon BowiDt; down through t.be
multiple-stage contacts between &. fluid phase and
beat exchan&er.
an adsorbing solid pb.a&e. The operation is conlin- 3. A feed dietributilll plata.
uoua and ,includes a moving bed teclul,ique with 4. A rect.ifying eectioa wbere the ID(H'e-TOJa.UIe component..
reftux in a manner quite aimilar to abeorption or continue to be deIIoJ'bed and tbe carbon IMiIIo:H't. tbe bt-
fractional distilla.tion with a down-Howing adsorbing volatile component&.. nu. fractionation operation takinc
carbon bed i.nstead of an absorbing liquid stream. plaoe below the feed ill poeeible bect.\IIe of tbe reflu produced
in the next lower aectioo..
The unit shown in Fig. 387 was built to recover 6. A . tripping or .team.inC eeetion, in which deeorpUon
ethylene from a gas stream consisting of hydrogen, ~ At the top of thie aecUon is a di:lenp.ci.n.c t ray, where
methane. about 6 per cent ethylene. and traees of u.e .trippi", . team and _Y01atile pr.duet.B Aft removed
other g.aaes more volatile than ethane. The column in p&rt. as bottoma product and t.he balanee Pfo-' up dMl
is 85 ft high and 4~ t in diameter. In this opera- coiWllll as retlu.
6. The tube side of aleOOJld!hell, and tube beat exchan&er.
tion the activated carbon pa8ge8 down a column
wbere the carbon is beated by a hich-temperatlll'e lluid, web
successively through the following sections (BOO &II Dowthenn, on the shell Iide t.o complete the deeorpUo.1.
Fig. 388). Steam is introduced to tbe ooI.wnn belo1r the beat exebancer
...
I PC._._.......
T1IC. T_ _ - _ _ .'*""'Iw
rRCn.. _ _ _
Fig. 388. F10w dia&nm of a HyPef*)lptioo unit built for tbe J"eCDTeI')' ol et.hyleoe.lI
EQUIPMENT
~-
,
HyvenllJrller.'
, -- --
/ ' $law. . .;
approach to equilibriwn varies widely and i$ gre.ter
for sma1ler sile of adsorbent partkles, higher tern--
peratures, lower molecular weight adsorbates, and
;Vo 10
these curves vary consKIerably for different 8)'8tema,
in general the amount adsocbed increases .itb in--
creased pre88l.!i"e and decreased temperature."'I'
Trne, o.p If the solid adsorbent is exposed to a vapor mixture
'. Flo. 390. JlIOthfJ(1ll&l and i.<nbaric ad.orpt.ion of _ter on in which only. one component is adsorbed, the quali.
.mea gel at~ F and 1 at.m at a funet!on of time.1I tative relations discussed above still apply if the
EQUIPMENT
concentration or partial pressure of adsorbed com- and the isobars beoome lines of conRtant liquid phase
ponent in the unadsorbed phase is substituted for composition.
tot&! pressure. Although the discU88ion above is A convenient way of treating adsorption equililY
aimed primarily at the adsorption of vapoN, the rium data. ~I is indicated in Fig. 391b, where the vapor
same relations apply to the adsorption of coloring pressure ,of water ad.oorbed on silica gel is plotted
matter and other impurities from liquid solutions. against the vapor pressure of pure water at the same
The ~rption isotherms in these Oa8CS usually have temperat\l~ with Ii.nes of const.ant "saturntion"
concentration illl!tead of pressure as a coordinate, (quantity of adsorbate per unit mass of adsorbent),
20
10
. ,. so
Temperature, 'f
100 120 140 ,,. ISO 200 220 240 260 280
,
3 ~l'
, 1/ o <Il 1/
1/
~. Q<9:.
.,
, ~~ 1/ ~V
~<> "
,. .;.
...''"
# ..#
:j)
,~
~ "'/
.,.
1A~
"
2
:/ 0'
1/:/ <!>/
0'
~
IV1/ / / ,~
.'.''"
~
~08
~"
~
~03
.
/
V
, /
02 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 I . 234 6 810 20 . 30 40 60 80 100
Viper Pr85$Ul'. 01 Wtttr, In. Hi:
FlO. :Wt/). Vapor pl'l'!!!8t1r8 of water .chorbed on sill..... gel 11.8 & function of the vapor pl't'lSSure of pure ",al.er at the _108
tempem.t.ure. ..
ADSORPTION
of magnitude as the heat of reaction.11 The h(>80t of
adsorption may be computed thermodynamically
from vapor pressure data by a method similar to the
I~" , calculation of the heat of vaporizatioo of liquids.
For this purpose, vapor pressure-temperatllJ"'e-eOlIl~
.~ poBiti'Xl relationships such as thOse &bOWD by Fig.
391 may be used. }O~ igure 392 gives the differential
,
beat of adsorption at 32 F , that. is, the beat liberated
wheo the indicated quantity of gas is adllOrbed on
-10.000
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
an infinite quantity of ndsorbnnt so that t.he "satu.
ration" remains constant during the adsorption.
ConcetItration of Gas,
t>/Ib ot dlY adsorbent Figure 393 gives the enthalpy per pound of dry silica
gel for gel containing up to 50 per cent of water and
Fw. 392. DifJerenti-.l heatll of ad.!l(lrption. Coooanut char-
coal at 32 F, benzene (1,2), oth&.nol (3), 1UtUl\Oru& (7). Silica at temperatures from 32'" to 270" F.
gel at 32 F, w&.lJ!r (4), ,ulfur dioxide (5). Blood carbon at Most commercial adsorption processes are dy-
14" F, sulfur dioJ<idfl (6).
"
so
J
.<
e. yI_"-~
withbed
~ o'I"-'~ _ _ __
_ Top
Top I'o5ition III Bed
A About HIlt-WI)' C
FIG. 31M. CooditiOllll iu bed-bed .diJorption oJ w.\el vapor ~ as dew point of air and dew point of ai r in equilibrium
with 'aolid bed.
namio rather than static. Equilibrium conditions for the illustration, the tOOt air has a 0 0 F dew poipt
are complex and may be illustrated by considering until the bed is about SO .per cent saturated with
the isothermal dehydration of air by passing it respect to air of 500 F dew: point. The bed eatura-
through a bed of silica gel. At the etart of the tion (actual adIIorbate relative to quantity adsorbed
operation the entire bed bas a residual water content if the entire bed is in equilibrium with the incoming
which ia in equilibrium with air with a dew point fluid) at the " break point" (point of operation when
of 0" F . As the air wlth a dew point of :;00 F cnters the concentration of adsorbed component in the exit
the bed, the first volume of air is quickly debydl'l1ted ftuid st&rt8 to increase) may vary anywbere from
to a dew point of 0" F in the upper part' of the bOO under 20 per cent to over 80 per cent, depending on
and J)MeE!8 on down through the bed in equilibrium the depth of bed, rate of flow , temperature of opera-
with it. AI!. more and more air passes through the tion, kind and mae of adsorbent, dew point of enter-
bed, the upper zone, which has adsorbed waUlr until ing air, and other variables' (see Fig. 395). Figure
it is in "equilibrium with the entering air, becomes 394 shows that the adsorbing capacity of a bed of
deeper and deeper until some water hns been ad- adsorbent (when producing an exit fluid of conatant
sorbed by the lowest layer of the bed and the exit composition) oannot be obtained from equilibriwn
air has a dew point greater than 0" F. This sequence data alone. A further complication which will not
of events il!I indicated in Fig. 394, where the dew be discussed at this time is the result of adiabatte
poin-~ of the air IItream and the dew point of air in operation in whieh the heat of adsorption contributes
equilibriwn with the silica gel, are plotted againat to a varying temperature which is added to the vari-
too bed position. In this iUustration the air Row is ables di&euseed above.
from top .tv bottom of lbe bed. It is apparent from
Fig. 394 that, for the particular conditions chOflen
METHOD OF CALCULAnON
The variables associa.ted with the design of a
jiud-bed ad80rber are discussed in the preceding
50
paragra.phs. If the rise in temperature of the bed
! and exit fiuid during the adsorption portion of the
t"
cycle is known or can be neglected, the design calcu-
lations can be readily made from feed and product
1"' 20
specificatiOll8, equilibrium data, and knowledge of
the bed saturatwn at the break point under the
deaired operation condiu0D8. The intenoelation of
10 these variables i8 80 complex that method8 of deaign
o ., 02 .3
usually require experimental or operating data.
Particle Diameter, em
FlO. 395. Errect of pRrtlcle size on the bru,k time in the Ulu.tratbe Example. 1,600,000 cu ft/ dAy (standard
.diIorption of phOtigene on activated rubon in Ka&-mMk C8.n- oonditiohB) or natural gJUI at .500 F and 225 pHIl!. eontainiui 51,)
u.tel""/l." Ib Qi water per million eubicfeet (Bt.&ndMd oondidolUl) ""' to
ADSORPTION
be dried in an aetiV&ted bauxite unit 1 ~lIting of two reverse of a leaching process in which the solid phase
adaorbe.... Tb.!o regenerated IIOJid i!I in equilibrium with glIII adsorbs material instead of losing the solute, the
oontainilll leal than om lQ/ million C\1 ft. Tbe break point
(Il888 fraction of unworbed (or nearly so) compo-
0I'leI11"I ",lin the dry bed bas adsorbed 3 per cent of ,.lIter
by weiht (dry basit). The bulk density of grllnular Osuxite. nent should be plotted lUI the ordinate.
ill 50 Ib/ eu ft. Experience indiell~ that a 8uperfiew gas 2. Adiabatic adsorption and desorption (or proc-
velocity through the tower of 30 rpm is llatisr... ctory. U8fl .. esses with known rates of heat transfer) in a. three-
24-br cyde to allow eo.ough time to reactivate II.Ild cool the component system in which the adsorbent d0e8 not
other taofel'. Determihfl the toWel' dimellfJiOfUl r.nd tot&111lM11 enter the fluid phase and one component is unad-
of &ttivated bauxite requirnd.
In .. 12-lir adsorbing period, (60)(1.6)/2 ... 40 Ib of water sorbed, that is, only one component uppe'U'l! in both
IIl'6 removed. This requiTes (40)(IOO) / 3 ... 1330 Jb of desicct<nt pha..."s. This group inchdcs only those sy~tcms in
"' .....
in eAdI tower, or .. to\lll mass of 2660 lb. The volumetric rate which the equilibrium conditions vary with tem-
perature. The straightror\vard solut.ion of 9. process
(1,600,000) 14.7 510 70 f consisting of u single flqwlibrium stage can be
(24)(60) X 225 X 492 ... cm
obtained graphically 0 11 a. modified enthalpy-eom-
position diagram ..
With an alklwab1e velooity of 30 fpm the I'!!quired IIl'6& is
7OrJI) ... 2.33 eq h . This- ~ndII to a dia meter of '.11.7 Since the adsorbent is assumed to be entirely in
in. UIIII a tower d iameter of 24 In. (radiul! ... 1 t tl. the solid ph8lle .&.nd the third component is com-
Th'a bci@;bt of the towe ... un be calculated from tbe m&85 pl~tely unadsorbed, each Pbllse contains only two
of b&u>tite, its bulk deDllity, and tbe tower diameter. components. The llli\lal enthalpy-composition di-
1330 ~ agram CAD be COllStruCted for each phase from the
.(.00)(3.14) .. 8.5 ft of.baUlrite necessary thermal data (Fig. 392 and steam tables).
Make thl:! towerll 10 ft high to al h w for free 1Ip&.ee ..hove &nd If the diagram for the solid phase is plotted with
bPlow the bed. enthalpy per unit mass of adsorbent (adsorbate-free
basis) as ;.he ordinate and maBH of adsorbate per
ldeol or EqUilibrium Sto&e. unit mass of adsorbent as absCissa, the lower half
The calculation of adsorption equipment of too of Fig. 300 ia !.be result. In a similar IlUUlDcr, if the
contact type or of the countercurrent type exempli- diagram for the fluid phase is plotted on.a soJut.c-free
fied by the Hypel'8Orption prooeaa lD.II.y be facilitated basis with enthalpy per unit mass of t.he unadsorbed
hy means of the concept of the equilibrium stage as. component and m.11.S6 ratio of solute to unad80rbed
U88d previously. For convenience !.he operations component, the upper half of Fig. 300 results. From
are discussed in two groups. the availablo;! equilibrium data, Fig. 391b, the neces-
1. /8QtkrmaJ. adl&r'ption from, and desorption to, a. sary tie lines (several for each isotherm) are plotted
binary Suid phBatl" in which three components a.t"b on this diagram. In order to separate the two
involved , aU of wbicb may be in the condensed phase. diagrams for convenience in use, the reference tem-
This group also includes all processet: in which either perature for the unadsorbed component may be
the heat of adsOrption is negligible or the effect of arbitrarily chosen at a low va.lue. The coordinates
I.eclperature on equilibrium compositions is negli- are 011 an adsorbate-free or solute-free basis since
gible, and it may include adsorption from a multi- on this basis the outlet stream quantities are equal
component fluid phase if the component8 can be to the oorrespondiilg inlet stream quantities.
combined into a pseudo-binary sy8tem. COI13ider the single equilibrium stage In which the
For these operations, the methods developed for following nomenclature is used.
80M-liquid extraction and liquid-l.iquid extraction
can be wed directly The equilibrium data may be 1..0 - mass of ad!lOrbata-Cree a.deorbent entering
plotted on a rigbk.~!ia.ngle diagram with the m &8S the stage.
fraction of adsorbed compon8Qt as the abscissa and Ll ,. mass of adsorbate-Cree adsorbent leaving
the m8088 fraction of either a.dsor~t or unadsorbed the stage.
component &8 the ordinate. If tht: adsorption opera-- V 2 .., DUI.8S of solute-free fluid eote.';ng the stage.
tion is considered. as an extraction process in which VI ... mass of solute-free fiuid leaving the stage in
the adsorbent is the solvent, then the m8.88 fractioD equilibrium with stream [~.
of adsorbent should be the orQinate. On the other X - mass ratio of adsorbate to adsorb:-nt in an
hftlld, if the adsorptioo prooetl8 is coosidered as the L stream.
METHOD OF CALCULATION
Y _ mass ratio of solute to solutefree fluid in than on~
equilibrium stage, hut then it requires a
a V stream. t.rial-lI.nd~rror
procedure.
h _ enthalpy of an D tltream, per unit mass of Allowance for heat transfer may be made by re-
M sorbate--rree oosorbent. locating the J point according to the equation,
H = enthalpy of a V stream, per unit mass of
solute--free fluid. .
L oXIl + 1'2 Y2 = .T(hJ - QJ) (352)
J = an addition of two streams, such as Lo ..l.. Vt . where QJ is the heat added to thc stage per unit
m a::18 of (adsorbate-free ad w rbcnt plus solute..free
Writing a material balance on an adsorbate-solure- fluid ).
f roe basis, ' Pounds of Water per Pou nd of Air
600 002 004 006 OOS
,,~ , JoI.r!, I
Since the adsorbent does not appear in the fluid
'Y"r-lf/ 70'F
phase, and the third component it! unadsorbed,
.
Oil
~~~,~I ~'/ ~~~'~'-+-+-+-+-+-+~
I I I I y,_+--+_I-+--+__I-+-+
ond
~ '" ~/r/
Writing a mu.terial balanct; on the adsorbed com-
ponent, ~
, VI ,
~
If t.he :ty3/em U! IUbject UJ 'the limitation, oj both These methode M applied to adsorption (eolid-
graup8 1 and ! (tJut.t is, Uo/Mrmal operation oj a vapor) operations are identical in principle to thOfle
ImI.aTy 6flMem with only orw! component pruenl in for 8Olidliquid, liquid-liquid, and vapor.liquid tr&n&-
both ~), then equations analogous to the distilJa.. fer operation. In fact the last method desCl ibed is
tion equations for constant molal overflow may be used for vapor-liquid absorbers. All these t ranafer
U8ed w determine the number of equilibrium stages operations are computed in the 8&me manner by
required for a specified separation. If equation 350 ideal stages, the different operations exemplifying
~ II01ved for Y2. different applications of the same basic principles.
LI
y, = - X 1
V,
V1Y\
+---
Vi
LoXo
--
Vi
(353)
0-01
DrioI Coy
lir~ ~~X.in,
Y l
or, if written around the first 11. stagee, 001 .~
L,. V\Y, LoXo
Y.+ 1 - --X.+ - - - - - (3M)
V. + 1 V.+1 V.+1 -
Since all the L'8 are equal and al80 the V's, equation
3&1 may be written
L
Y"+I - -YX,,+ (
YI - LoX,)
V (355)
0
.~n, f +gelw:.t,
Y~ +I x.
vC'- I,;
,~~-
A plot of equation 355 in which Y"+1 is the ordi- I
nate and X . the a.bsciasa gives a straight line with a
slope ~ua.l to L j V and an intercept equal to
-~;
I
V
Y1 - (LoXoI V) Thie "ope~ting line" (Fig. 397)
when used in conjunction wit.b an eq~ ilibrium line
(a plot of Y. VB X.) caD be used to step off the .
,,7 I", V
/'Y, ~
- 'f!
number of equilibrium stages in a manner similar to
the McCabe-Thiele method for distillation calcuIa.- p"
Y~
;/ ,~ .
sYr
, lions (Chapter 25). This procedure is not nece888rily
limited to isot.bermal operation, but in any case the
temperature variation andcorrc6ponding equilibrium
data must be known. 0
o 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 025
IU ua trative Eu.m.p.... Two hundred poundt per minute Pounds of w.ter per Pound of 0Qt 5iIic:a Gel
of dry air &t 70- F, canying 2 Ib of water v ..pw per minute Flo. 397. GraphlealltOlutioll of ilIuatrative eumpk on moll
III to be dehumidified with eilict. ael to O.oot Ib of w..ter vapor ratio plot., . .u..mi.nI ieotbennal operation wit.b only one oom-
pel" pouDd of dry air. nu. operation ill to be ma.dueted. poaett.t JOI:uble in hl"O pm.-.
PROBLEM
BmUOGRAPHY 19. M,l..1t"fIN, A: J. P., a nd R.. 1... ;;.1 . S Y"m:. 8ioc~", J., iii,
ISM (1941).
1. AwEIW, R. C., J. W. MooJU:, and R. O. CAn!.'-t "Def!i~ 20. RAy. A. B., "Ad$orp!.ion," Ind. EIfQ. Ch.t:m., 39, 12-13,
Bnd Ulle of Adsorptive Drying Units," Ch~m. Eng. Prog., 32-6 (1947) .
' 4.3,349-70 (1947). 21. Sr&DDINO, F. H., ft al . "The SepBration of the Ran:
2. AimNT.'\Iou~ "Prooe8I Engineering-Chromatogttphy," Eartha by Ion ExchAnge," J. A M. CMm . 8., 69, m7-81,
Chem-. E1II}., 6Ii, No. tI, 117-8 (1948). 27~, 2812-18 (1947).
a. BEHl5ON, R. E., and P. H. CoUROtJLJr.AU, "European Prac- 22. TOMrKlss, 1:. R., d ol., " Ion E.~chllnK" as a Scparatiull8
tice for Solvent Recovery in Prinlin& IndullIy," CItvn. Met bod," J . A m. Chml . &C .. '9, Z169-27n, 2792-2800,
E1tf. Prot.Jr-, . 4w-t68 (I948). 2859-28M, 2866---2874 (1047).
4. BEIW, C!.YD&, " Hypersorption Pto('.ICIIS fot Separation 01 23. TRTHORN and WYA'!'T, r,.,.",. Faraday S oc. 22, 1M
Light GIISe!I," TraM. A .... INt. CMm. Eng., U. 666-80 (1926).
(1946). 24. ZECnM''''~"I'r.lI and CHOLSOItY, m', Ch>"omal"V'ap1!itcA,
6. BEIte, C!.YI>I'J, H!lptf"_~Wn, ~nted at ABEE Su =r A.~rp/iQIf'Irn'/Iw<k. Vienna. (11:136).
& hool, Univenlity. oI Wl3colllJin (Sept. 2, 1948).
6. BoYD, C. E., rl at, "The Exchange AdJorptiotl of Ions
from Aqueous Soluoone by Organi c Zeolltce," J. Am.
CAem. &c., 69, 2818-29, 2836-38, 284I)..MI, 2800-12 PRODl.EU
(1947).
7. C.V.PBE!.r., D. L., H. Z. MARTIN, E. V. M URI'HUE, and By tbe l'"&phimi method .te velolled for soihlliquid eJCtrau-
C. W. TY!!ON, "Separation of G&IIeII," U. 8. Patent tioo problell1ll, <'Alcu:.I.te the number of c"",ntercurrent ideal
2,446,076 (July 27, 1048). stagee IInu Itl,Ii:IS of fresh ch!lr I"!'luiroo for the iSOlhcrrMl
8. CARBIDE AND CAIlBON C HE14ICAUi CoRPOlUTlON, "Sol I'{lffiOVAI of 99 per cent of the c\llorcolnw, lqial from 100 Ib of
vent Rerovery," Booklet (i947). sugar !yrup per hour by a.jI;it lltion wi t.h finely dividc-d eoll)r-
9. CoNIIDEN, GORDON, and MARTIN, BWcIIem. J ., sa. 224 f~ activat.od vt'ltlltable char. Too colored ~yruJ! eontai1"1ll
(1944). 0.001 Il"I:IS fraction of ooIor. The Spell l. cha r is to cuntain
10. DElft, V. R .. BiblioqrapllJl oj"&lid A~, National 0 .(I(l104 II"IIIIl8 f11let;on 01 (lOinr. After &Kiln l iu!] I .... >tIu rry ill
Bureau of Standard" Wuhingtot., 0 C. (1944). "llo...ed to BetUe And the ayrup 0.1"11 "'11 off befure t he char is
ll . HII16CHU1;ft, A. E . and 8 . A.o.iON, " Ad.torption," Ind. En,g . contact! w.th II second batch of IlIUn! hil/:hty oolored syrup.
Chem., 19, 1585-96 (1947). BetwllI:!n atepillYfUp adheres to tllI;I ch:1.r t.o the e~t"nt of 0.21b
I". HOUOEN, O. A., &lid K. M. W",'t'sON, Cllemit:al PrtJCU8 of ayrop per pound of char. The char, d ter 9('ttliull from the
Principia, John Wiley a.nd 80M (HI13). i.ut agitation (contacted with the raw ~yrup), i.! filtered lind
18. KERDE, H., R. O. FAIIIIIELD, J. C. FRANK, IlId L. W. wr.lJhed to recover the adherinl/: 8}'rup.
ZAKNIITJ:CIIKK, ''Ethylene Recovery CommercW Hyper-
IIOlPtion Oper.oon," CAI:m. Eng. PrOtptM, ' " 57S--582 EQUILIBRIUM DATA a.tASS FRACTIONS)
( 1948).
14. KLOT'Z. I . M., CA.rm. ~., 19, 24L (1946).
Solid PhMe Liquid Pba.;oe
1.5. KUNIN, R, "100 Excha.nJ(!," 1M. Eng. CI\(M., 40, 4,1-5
(11)48).
--_.
16. LEDOux, E., VapoT A~, Chemical Publishing Co., Colo, Syrup Q:J lor Syrup
!'toole:lyn (l945). 0,0001 0.0005 0 .00XI2 ;1.9'JW8
17. MAIR, B. J., A. L. C,l..BO IUAU!.T, And F . D. R()!.8uu, 0 . 0002 0._ 0.00008 0.9!l'JI)2
"AMembly And Tceung of 52-Foot Laboratory AdilOl'p- 0 .0003 0."'" 0 .00020 0 .90080
!.ion Column," lrut. Ellf. CIwn., 39, 1072-81 09-17). 0 .0001 O.OOCH 0 . 000.'''0 O.9'JlJ50
18. MAN'I'I!u., C . L., A~, McGra ...HiII Boole: Co. O.OIIOS 0 .0003 0 .00100 0 .90000
(.90&5).
PART IV
.THE time rate with which energy or mass is kanaferred (rom one,stream
to another determines the size of the equipment requirod to accom-
pliSh a specified r. "Jit in a specified time. The -rate of transfer is
therefore 8. nlost important consideration in ~eering operations.
In gtneral. the rate of transfer is resardbd 88 equal to a driving force or
difference in potential divided by ~ resistance, or, as usually expressed, the
rate of transfer equals the produ~ of a "transfer coefficient," the area., of
contact, and the d!OP in porential.
The major problem in calculating the rate of tl'lWRfer is usually the eval-
uation of the transfer coefficient. This is usually b8~ on an empirical cor-
relation of tl'8.nsfer coefficients calculated from an extensiVfI series of teste in
whictl the rate of transfer hlOS been tIleeSW'ed.
CHAPTER
28
Heat Transfer 1
HE transfer of energy as heat occurs in prac- Radiation is the transfer of heat by the absorption
(3.18)
1 1 1
-K +-+ -K3-.04
I _2 K -32
i ~: ------
through several resistances in series is obtained by
,
dividing the voltage by the IlUm of the resistances. \
e T, -------~- --
E
1 - -
R
(357)
~r,,~-::-:-:-:-:-::-J~:-:;-~-~-;;-~-~::::::-----
1 '
where I - rate of electrical flow.
E _ driving force, voltage.
n_ resistance.
- OistallU, "
FlO. 398b. Diagram representing heat tl'8.nsfer between fiuu',
wh.ieh An! tepamted by & lIOIid.
HEAT EXCHANGE EQUlPMENT
metal surIa at 2 involve8 convection heat trl~nsfer. The second problem in a heat exchanger is to confine
The trlUlsfer of heat through the solid is hy conduc- one or both of the two fluids involved in t.he transter
tion, and the trlUllifer from 3 to 4 i~ similar to t.hat process. Tn some cMt'lJ -the equipment is constructed
for flu id A . Coefficien ts for heat tran.sfer from a fl uid to control t he nature of the flow aod Ihe fluid veloeity
to a solid su rface are sometimes caJled IiIm coeffi- adjacent I.fl the 8urface of the solKi.
cients because the major resistance to heat t ra.nsfcr
is in the fluids adjacent to the metaJ, frc{IUentiy One Fluid COllfirwd
called a "fluid film." In series hea.t transfcr, Fig. A simplc type of hent exchanger in which only orie
398{a and ~), the total driving foree, temperature fluid is confined is the hOUIIChold hot--water ":adj-
drop, is divided by the sum of the resistances to a tor." In [hi~ (:(Iuipment the water u8ually circu-
obtain the rst.e.
For fl()\{ in parallcl the total rate of flow equals
t he sum of the individuul flltcS. Walls 2 Ilnd 3 in
Fig. 39&, at different temperatures and fa!,":ing each
CUM 01
Thiekl'le!ll
Sq~ro Square Weight . Weight .,.,
Metal
-.
Weight
Internal
F~. F~, pcr Foot per Foot per Foo t
00 Bir_ T~~
F.,JI;temal In te rnal
ID Co~
00 rr_
Tubin" ming-
". Area, Surface """,~ '"
....... ~
d
Length, "
Length,
Tubin& . tant.
m. e, --
i} '
~~
in. hRm
WiM.!
a...
IIq in.
per Foot
Length
per Foot
Length "-. -
Ib
Copper,
Ib
Steel,
Ib
Metal
Area),
.I!KJ. in.
"'"
1.>30 0.003
1.230 0.0<0
"U.
20 0.035 . 0.0731 0.149 0.156 0 . 139 0."'"
21 0.03'2 0 . 1952 0 . 1473 0 . 1304 0 . 196 0.200 0 . 183 0.498.5 015 1 . 128 0.053
0.107 j .f!.1100
.
0.109 0.16SG 0.649 0.683 0.407 202 1.63
" 12
0.065
0.130
0.1D24 0 . 1636 O. lm 0.<20 0." 1l.39 0.495 300 1.26
0.117
0.ll4
""Yo
16
20 0.035 0 .24 19 0 . 1636 0 . 146 0.238 0." '.22 ",. m 1.13 0.0649
'.223
..,.,.
12 0.109 0.1963 0.14 0.'" 0 .845 0.75 0.532 348 1.41 0.219
Yo
Yo
J;
16
20
IO
0 .065
0.035
0 . 134
0.300
0.3632
0.""
0.1003
0 . 1963
0.22\17
0.163
0.179
0.158
0.514
.289
1.134
0."
1.24
0."
0.267
1.06
..""
0.620
0.007
471
116'
451
1.21
1.10
1.44
."""
0.140
0.312
J; 14 0.083 0. 394 0.22\17 0.186 0. 769 0.708 0.702 0.709 "5 1.23 0.207
J; 18 0 .M9 0 . 414 0.22\17 0.2034 0. 467 0 . 49 0.432 o.m 1.12 0 . 127
.. ,..
'40
I
I
I.
"
O. IM
. 083 ......
0 .421 0 . 2618
O.2fl18
0 . 192
0 . 2183
0.236
1.34
0.88
0.54
1.41
0.023
0.568
1.2<
0 .813
0.50
. 732
0.834
0.002
65'
852
1.37
1.20 0..239
I 18 0.041:1 0 . 639 0 . 2618
'" 1.11 0.146
II(
II(
II'
IO
,."
0.134
0.083
0.035
0 .757
. 023
1.092
' .3m
. 0 . 3272
0.3m
0.258
0.284
0.'"
1.73
1.12
0. 498
1.83
1.173
0.521
1.507
1.04
'.454
0.982
1.08<
l.UIO
".
""
1704
1.27
1.15
1.06
0.470
0.'"
0.135
Hi I. 0 . 134 1.192 0.3m o.m 2.12 2 ." 1.98 1.232 1010 1.22 0.575
Hi
Hi
12
IS
0 . 100
. 065
1.291
1.474
' .3927
0.3927
0.335
0.3.59
1.76
1.08
1.86
1.13 . ...
1.64 1.282
1.37
2020
2300
1.17
1.10
0.416
'.293
2 II 0 . 12 2. <13 ' .5230 0.' " 2.62 2 . 76 2 .45 1.76 370l 1.14 '.709
2 13 0.005 2.673 0.5236 0 . 474 2." 2.20 1.933 1.81 40'5 1.10 0.669
2 9 0.148 3."
I 0 .... 0 .575 4." <.3' 3.62 2.20 5930 1.14 1.109
cast header in the inlet at the bottom and passes {or condensing Freon 12 on copper finned tubes 21
through the tubes as indicated. The two chambers in a condenger similar to that of Fig. 40.5.
shown in section above the inlet convey the water To control the How of fluids on ~tbe shell side.
to the next row of tubes. The water finally leaves baffles are often uaed. They control the path of the
the outlet at the top, making a rota) of six passes. fluid and in many cases create greater turbulence,
Figure 400 shows the effect of velocity on the overall increasing both the heat transfer and the pressure
ooefficients of beat t.ran.sfer based on the outside area. drop. Figures 407, 408, and 409 indicate three
HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT
F lO. 403, CutnwlI.Y vie",' of a ~ing1 l1-f>lU<!l $hell and t ub(, ()xchnr)g~r, (fU>II' Hra ler and Mfg. CQ.)
'oj
,6j
Flo. 4().f (a) Tube rolled into inner t ube ilheel by IU' ad justable FIG. 401'1. C uta,,II.), viev.' or II. mul t ipMII.bell and tube con-
tube ellpllnder; (b) 1i&lD6 toollWed for A Iing1" thick tube sheet . denser. (Wo/perine T~ CQ.)
(Gu.t1aA: Wi~ Co.)
HEAT TRANSFER 1
,,......
..
..
"'
.. -
Flo. 4,10. Cro.-.eetional dram, of. typical four-pall tube aide, lIin&ie-pue abel! eide. ftaating head heat exchanger. (Tubular
E~tIJ' MonvfactlOm"I A~. )
HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT
Deflection baffle
';ns
Flo. <Ill. Cl"OIQHIectional drawing 0(. A food water heater for high-pttllOtlurt'l llervioe. (American Locomllli..e C().)
of a typic&.i 4-pa..~s lube, I-pM.'! shell, floating head from t.hat of t.he shell without causing undue stresl'!.
heat exchanger. Figure 41 t j~ U IOCction of a feed If the ehflll~ in temperal,ure of the fluid i8 Vfo!ry
water heater const.ructed to operate nt high proMurcs large the floating head may be split inlo two or more
(2300 psi) and t.crnlX!ru.tures e.JOO F). The floating sections. Figure 412 shows the Cl)ffilXmcnt parL'! of
head is enclosed within the shell and permits the a feed water hClltcr wit.h a single flouting heM, u.s in
tubt.'s to expand or contract to a different degree Fig. 411. This uni t has eight passes Oil the water
FiG. 412. Component puts ()f R f l'lld water heater. (American UxQr",J.il.'l! Cu.) 1, Kho11; 2, 1li,scmhl",\ lulX' tJun(jl~j :1, CI'unp
rina; fur f:luat;nt; helll'l; 4, channel with integrtll tube ShL'<:t ; n, d"mp rill!! fm thRnn,l co ver; 6, sholl oov~r; 7, n"..ting h<,..d (u~
sbeM; S, Boatin!! head cover; 9, channel r.Qv~r.
42' HEAT TRANSFER 1
side !I!:l indil."!I.kU by the four return compartmenu tower or in 11. vessel such as shown in Fig. 413.
in lhc floatinp; head co\'er. Bven numbers of tube Heat c!'[ciluogers mU8t be coru!t.ructed of materia ls
pa.'SSC!:I are "'lDCrtl.lJy used with flouting hcadM. re;!';lsi,ltnt to corresion when processing acids, alkalies
Figllrr. 413 shows II kettle or rcboilcr vcssei similar and other corrosive mat.criILis, or wherteyer contami
v.""
.".."
,,,turning
Tr"nsveIW batHes
tube support plates
H~a"nt
llYill o:yt
He~tif18
lillie;! jr,
Of eontrCllier
s..ldle
FlG.41 3. Sceti'lIl:o.I dill;mm of lI. kettle rehni lf.r. (Tllbular E.rrllmvyr M01Uifac/"ftrl .4 uIleUsto<m .)
to Ii floating head ~xr,h.anger with an enlarged sh~U nation of the product !luch as food must be hp,ld to
t.o tLCt'(lmmooatc liquid and vapor. Steam COIl- the low~~ possible level. 'There nre few heat
densing inside the tubes., or occasionally hot oil, transfer media which have high thclillal conductivity
~tlpplies the heat. other than metals and alloys. Bimetallic tubes are
Hairpin heaters are essentially 2-pass tube heaters available and exchangt:r shells may be clad or lined
with corroaion-resisting materials. A graphitic base
material, Karbai.e, hus been clC\'eloped 118 a material
of construction for exchangers. It is resistant to
most acids, alkalies, and solvents and has a thermal
conducti vity as high as 75 Btu/(hr)CF/ft)(sq ft).
A cascade cooler of Karbate is shown in Fig. 4.14.
Approximate Coefficients
Approximate overall coefficients of heat transfer
for estimating the periornlance or required size of
equipment are given in Table 48. SpeciaJ cond itions
may give higher or lower valuCtl. The coefficients
given in Table 48 are for operating equipment except
w~en marked " clean" and may not represent neW,
ckian conditions.
4-<
3
WIIX distillate
Gall oil
Butane
'toom
2.0
6.'
2.'
Comle ll~i n{:
,.
&I
80-(10
-100-801;
Shell lin d tuho WIlt.er 3-$ Ammonia C,)nilensing 150- 31):)
Shell a nd tubo 'Water 4 Fr .....n 12 C()ml cn~i!lg IS0- 1'lii
Double pipe WRk'l' ,-< Brifl(' 3-' 150 -:100
Coil in v~!!IIe1 WBter 1-3 Water N atural cO lwoction 20
Coil in box G&80line Condensing Water N .. tur,,1 <~unvcdiv n 15-25
Coil in box Kel'<.Xlenfl Condensing 'Vater NlLtur ..1 <:ull"c<:tio" lG- 2G
CQH in box GM oil Condensing WaW!' NAtural con w etion 8 -20
H ozi:r.ontlll tul", roboiler,
Corr:mercial S_ Condensi"" Butane Boiling 100-150
Le.boratory, ekao
Radia tor
Tube bank
,-
S... m
S... m
{'--ondenRing
Condemillll:
Condellllin
Butano
Ai r
A;,
nvilin!!!
Nat llrnl con vection
10
1000-1500
H
0
Tube ban k 8_ Superheat. Flue gall 2-6
Bwlkcl evaporator Brine Boiling S..om Condcn,;ing 1 ~5
-
duction through t.he bottom of the kettle, and by temperature the rate of heat transfer change:; with
convection from the kettle through the boiling water. time, and the total quantity of heat transferred over
The tempera.ture of tho boiling water is constant, any time interval mny be computed only by inte-
and the temperature of t he elect, :o heater is con- grating equations 356 and 358 over the appropriate
stlmt. Under such steady-stA.te conditions the rate time intervaL The quenching of hot stef'l is aD
of heat trl1n ~fer remains constant with time, and a important problem in unstewY-f!ts.te heat transfer.
measurement of tho total heat transferred over Such problems are satisfactorily handled by graphical
a measured t ime interval gives the rate of heat integration in simple cases and by empirical rela--
transfer for the conditions existing during the meas- tionships for the more complex probll'mlI of I\n~
urements. steadY-f!tate conduction." The simpler melhoeis
M8.I)Y industrial heat transfer operations arc in of steady-state couditions may be used to approxi-
continuous pr~ and represc!1t steady-state COll- mate some unilleadY-f!tate cunditions by calculating
ditions. a series of instantaneous vahtel:! for trunllfcr rutes
The "Tlskady 8laJCI i:; ffiUt'e uifticult to treat mathe- and properly tweniging the 1't.'lm lt ~. In many cw;e:;
matically ihun t he slelu:iy stD.te. When a kettle of tlW! is the only practical method of lmndling un-
cold water I:; plat.-ed over the hot burner,- there ill a famillar problems in unsteady~ti\te hwt tnulsfer.
change in th~ temperature or the water and kettle The bulk of the heat transfer d ill S has been
with lime (an uOlltea.dy state). Due to the changing obtained for sf.to'ldy-fltste conditions, IWd the corre--
HEAT TRANSFER I
latioIlB of data are primarily for these conditiOll.8. the effect of density of cork board on iIB conduc-
Therefore the general relat.ionships are presented tivity."
for steady-state eOlllinuous operation. Figure 398a represen ts an element of a solid of
uniform crcl!8 scction from s urface 1 to surface 2
Conduction under tbe uniform te mperature gradient dT/ dz and
& bas been indicated, the transfer of heat through length :1:: - z.. The instantaneous rate of heat
a solid is usually one step in a more complicated path transfer dQl dt depends upon the temperature gra-
of beat transfer. The basic concept of equation 356 dient dTIdx and the nature of the solid.
when applied to cond uction giyes tbe foUowing
equation known as Fourier's III.\\'. Steady-Stote Conduction
dQ dT Under st.eady-stale conditions the rate of heat
- - -M - (360) transfer is constant, ,and the right-hand side of
dt dx equation 360 remaiIUl constant with time. If the
where k ... thermal conductivity of the solid in symbol q is used to rep~n t the constant value for
Btu/ (hr)(sq ftWF 1ft) and mnst not dQl dt, equation 360 may be written in the more
be confused with conductance, K = convenient form:
kA I.:U, which may be expressed III
Btu/(h,)(,F). qf~ ~ - fkdT (361)
A _ area at right angles to the direction of
hcat flow (ns in I!q ft). For significant variations of arca A with distance
z = distnnce (u.s in ft). x and of thermal cooductivity k with temperature T,
it is necessary to integrate equation 361. For those
Thermal condurJivity k in t he equation for heat con- cases in which the area is constant, .!Uch as Fig.
duction varies widely for different, materials, as indi- 398, and the thermal conductivity is constant inde-
cated in the Appendix. For parou!). material!)., su('h pendent of teml>erature, equation 361 becomes
88 are used for insulation, the mll.teriu.1 is in reality
a discontinuous phase of fluid maint.ained st.agnant
by the supporting porous solids, and k represents a.
combined effect of fluid and !IOlid heat transmission. 0'
Gaaeous Huids such as air are low in thermal can-
T. - T,
(3620)
duetivity, although t.hey may transfer- heat readily Azl kA
by OOIlveetion; but the minute fihn of air in too Often there is a variation of area with distance in
interstices of a porous insulating material exhibilB a IIlMY solids conducting heat. Rather than integrat-
minimum of convection eurrenlB. Therefore, the ing for eaeh type of solid, it is more convenient to
heat transfer through such insulat ing material takes usc !Ill. average area. (A .. ) for the area A in too fonn
on the ehara.ct.eristiC8 of beat conduction through the
shown in equation 3G2a.
Huid pha!:le: If the conductivity k vades with the temperature
Since the dflnaity of the insulating material win
T, the temperature gradient would not be constant
refloot the proportion of the solid to fluid, the con- and the integral of equation 361 may be evaluated
ductivity of porous material varies directly with the graphically or algebraically. If the conductivity is a
density and approaches the low value for the con- linear function of tempera.ture T, as when rep;:e-
ductivity of the fluid as the solid path for heat flow
sented by an equation of the form k - a +
I5ecomes smaller, 80 long 88 the gM spaces are small if k varies slightly with temperature over the tem-
bT, or
------------~~~
is ma.thematically improper. The mathematically
correct statement will be used in this textbook, and
ll.T will represent T2 - T l . Also the symbol k is .11: .. or r..
frequently used to indicate the average oonduotivity
k"., and the symbol L is frequently used' for the FIG. 416. Diagram indica.ting dimensioWl of aianilica.nOfl in
heat tr&D8fer tbroegh & thick-w&lled cylinder by n.dial oon-
distance :1:2 - XI' ductioo.
The resistance to beat trnnaCer by conduction
under these dt.eady-state coaditions is represented For &te&dy-state beat tnwsfer by radial conduc.-
by tu/ k..A .. or L/ kA..... tion tbrough 110 cylinder, 2m corresponds to A of
equation 360, and
w
l1I ... tn.th'f) Esample. A furnace wall to btl composed
of thre6l&ycn: r.: in. of firebrick (with OOhduetivity.l: - 0.95), dQ
illllUlatinJ brick (.I: .. 0.14), IIlld oommoo briok (.I: - 0.8). It q- - - (363)
is eetimat.ed th&.t the !urface of the firebrick, oorresponding to <It
Tl in Fig. 3980, ie HK10 F. The IllILXimum wmperature of where b _ length of the cylinder.
the insuJating brick, ootTe!:Iponding to T" is 1720 F and the
temper&tUl'tl oorreaponding to T. under theee conditiOll3 is r - radial distance.
2!KI.r. .wum.e negligible l"IlIIistauoe to the ftow of heat
Rearranging,
AttOM tbe int.erfB.Cel! between the briw.
1. Computa t he thiekrwm of the 1a)'QZ". ollllJlUl&~D.I brick.
dr -k
---2"l1"bdT (363)
2. If ,he oommoo. brick are 9 in. thick, compu\e their , q
outside temperature. .
Solution. For ~b layer of brick (equMioD. 362M Integrating wiLh k constant at the value k..,
(,,)
In -
'.
- "-
-
q
~rl>(TI - Ta) (364)
Equating the beat trall6fer per Il1lit a.n:a for firebrick and
iJUlulating brick, (3640)
In h/rd
0.96 X 12(1800 ~ 172) 0.14 X 12(1720 - 280)
6 ~ (insulating brick) Equation 364a may be written
. 0.14 X 12(1700 - 28) X 6 . 2"l1"hk.(T I - T,)h - TI )
t.z (iILllUl&UIJ.! brick) - 0.95 X 12(UKIO _ 1120) - 16 Ul. q- (364b)
(r, Tt) In (r,/ rl )
The wne proc:edure could be uaed ror compuLipa the out.llide Substituting 2"l1"T.b for A. in equation 36th givUJ
temperature of the commoo brick, 01" one tal). IIOlve for ql A
from the dat.a on the fireclay brick and UIle Lb.
value \A) oom-
.(36")
pute T. for the 1)0=011 brick. For tlle firebrick,
! _ 0.95 X 12(1000 - 1'r.J . _ 152 Btu/(hr)(eq ft) Equating these expressions (364b and 362c) for q
A 6 , gives 1M: log. mean TadiU8
For the common briek.,
T2 - 't
q
T. =
O.8X12
- - 152 - --(28) - T.)
In (r2/TI)
A 9
This equation may be written
Tt - 138- F, out.llide temperature of common brick
(2 ..b)T. = (2 ..b)T2 - (2..6)1)
A common' shape of solid encountered in beat In (2...br2 /2TbrI )
transfer is & cylinder such 88 a thick pipe insulation, Since A = 2"/.,, for any cylinder
repreaent.ed in Fig. 415. If the heat is flowing
radia.lly in such a solid, the area A varies with the
dietanoe x.
A .- A,l - At
In (A,l/AI)
llEAT TRANSFER 1
This A ... is called tbe tog. mean area for thkkwaJled The log. mean radi us must not be eonf~ ,"lith
cylindem. It may be used in equation 3G2b for any that radius ai which the temperature is the arith
case in which the area of the path through which metic mean between the inoer and outer wall of
beat is being transferred is proportional to the linear the c:'linder. This la.tter radius may be determined
distance .l1ong the path. as follows:
Equation 362b may be written
2l1'br.. Re(erring \0 Fie- 4.15, the beat tranet'er rrom inner 1IUlf_
- - - Ik;.(T, - T,lI (365) (I) \0ttt. cylinder at radiu., eqIW8 the t..t tzanal'er from r
""
'I'hi8 ; ,'O(,-edure for findiug the proper average value
to sufaoe 2, or 91 _r - q, -t-
,. f.", "
d.J: .. 1/.(t'! - zu ir , .. lIZ
.
+ iii therefore 1/. .. I + VI
2
_ Arithmetic: mean
z.dz Zs ZJ-ZI Z, - ZI ..
3.
f. .,:1:
- .. In -
:1:1
.. - - ;
%,..
u....rerore %,.. . . - - -
In (:1:'/%1)
.. Loprithmie me&n
31 dz
f.~I'- .. -~- if
Zs-:t:,
+ b; t herefore ~ .. - ~ -
- r]
. II .. az
. - _
In (Wllu
Loprithmie mean
Wl d:l: Zs - Z, Zf - :I'I .- .
6.
f. 'I
':i .. - - - - - , - ; therefore~. . . V lI:" ZI .. Geometne mean
,.- :1:"" Z.
When one inside dimenaion is less than 0.2(&1:), When using the bverall eoefficient U, it is necessary
the corresponding four lengths are omitted in calcu- to base the caleulatioos OIl a single area. A.
lating };E in tile fOUo ....ing equation. Whet! all areas are equal, no difficulty arises, but
when the areas are different, as in radial Row through
A .. - Al + O.465(&1:)l:E + 0.35(&1:)2 (369) pipes or insulation, it is customary, though not. neces-
When two inside dimensions are lees thaA O.2(tu:), sary, to expre88 the overall coefficient on the basis
omy the longest inside edge E is used in the equation. of that area applicable to the major resieiance.
Exerelae. Sbow that, fOJ'Mries flow, the temper.-t.ure drop
6.4 B("") ( -AT) ACr'08IlUly portion of the flow eystem ill proportion&!
A. - ;:c,-;-C;' (370)
In (A~/A I ) to the reeittanoe t.heroof.
When each interior edge is less than a.2(&X). Unsteady-$t..te Conduction. In heating and
cooImg solids when 8 stesdy-state process is put on
A .. - O.i9V AlA, (371) or off stream. and in all prooesses in which the steady-
state period i.!I relatively short, the temperature at a
Conduction. throu.h a Serles oj SOlid. given point VlU'}es with time, and the prooeM is
For steady heat flow through a sories of solids as said to be under unsteady-state operation. The
illustrated in Fig. 39&, the quantity of heat flowing introduction of time as an additional vnr::tblc makes
from 1 to 2 is the same as that flowing from 2 to 3 the calCUlatiollfl for the unsteady stat(j 8(lJ'Qewhat
and from 3 to 4, provided no heat is t.ransferred to more CompliCAted than for the_steady state.
the surroundings except through the suri8.(lCS AI In rlany cases it is practical kl subdivide the
and A4 unsteady~tate period int.o a finlte number of rela.-
Writing equation 362 for each solid tively short periods in each ~f which the methOOs
of st.eadY..fllJt.te heat transfer calculations are em-
k l_2Al_2(T l - T 2) k.,~A'-3(TJ - T a) ployed, using the average va1ues of the propertiell
q-
over each period. In this manner the heat transfer
-
for the unsteady-st.ate period is approximated by
simple summation.
(3b2)
In the more rigorous method, the general differen-
tial equation for unst.eady-8tate h'eat transfer by
-Solving for the- temperature- drop -6T across conduction h! derived from the basic Fourier equa-
each solid, and 5lIhatituting for temperature drop in t.ion,360.
Considering a cubical element of volume of sides
Tl - T4 .., (T. - T I ) + (T2 - Ts) + (Ta - T 4) dx, d1/, and dz, the rate at which heat eoters along
(372) the %, 1/, and : axes is given by the expl'C88ion
(373)
430 HEAT TRANSFER I
whereas the rate at which heat leave!! along the x, y, and z axes is given by the expression
-dQoo.
dt
- _ _ [ aaxT axa( aj
k~-+ -
ilx
1
k~- [
dx d ydz- k .---+
aT -
tty ay
a( aj
~-
ay
dy1 dzdx - [k. -:aTax + -ata( ")
k~ -
ax
1dxdy
dz
(376)
Therefore the net fate a.t which heat is accum ulated in the element oC volume is
-dQ_
- _ dQ,"
dt
__ _ dQoo.
__ _ [ -
dt dt
a(aj +-a( aj +-8( 8j]
ax
kz -
ax iJy
k .. -
iJy ax
k. -
ax
dxdydz (377)
0.5
! \\\~
1=
)-=
k
pc,.,
Flo.416. The rt;llltionsbipe beloleeo the dilYK!n>!iookBs groupe indical.ed ....wti", from the integration or equation 380 ,,hen
applied to tbe bt>at.ioc a nd c:ooIi"\t or a lI(llid cylinder havinr; an infinite ratio al leoglh to diamel.er."
CONVECTION 431
The rate of heat a.ccumulation equtt1s the rate of k - thermal conductivity of the body.
increase in entha.lpy and is related to the rate of p - density of the body.
rise of temperature of the element dz d" dz 118 follows. C;p - specific heat of the body.
h - coefficient of heat traruri"er between the
- - -dl/ -
dQ
dt dt
(-'8
pCp -
at dxdydz (378) surroundings and the Sl.!rf800 of the
body.
% - distance in the direction of heat conduc-
It therefore follows that the general differential
tion (roni the midpoint of the body
equation for UD8t.eady-etate transfer by conduction is
to the point under consideration.
-pcp iJ%
'j
1 [-' (~-
a~
+-'(1,-
iJlI
'j
c}y
+ -clz'(k .'j]
- -'T
iJz
-
at
r - radiu8 of the cylinder.
t =- time.
(379) Such charta are available for the heating and cool-
ing of a solid sphere, of a solid cylinder having infinite
If the material is homogeneous and "isotropic and ratio of length to diameter, of a solid slab having II.
if the variation of k with temperature witbin the large face area relative to that of the edges, and of
element of volume is neglected, the above equation a solid of infinite thickness neglecting edge effects.
reduces to
p~ [(::~ + (3&)
quench a billet of aluminum, 8 in. in dia.motc:r, from &Il
initial uniform temper.tUJ"e of lOOOQF to fiIllll mid-axis
temperature of 300 F, if durin, quenching the temperature
In the CBBC of an infinite slab, in which the ratio of the quenching 'medium rema.ina eeeentiaUy eoostant at
of surface to thicknese is large, the flow of heat is 250" F while th6 I!U!"faoe coefficient of heat trII.llI!fer hili! a
value of 840 Bt.u/(hrj(OF)(aq tt).
unidirectional through the thi~kneM x and the equa.-
SpeI":i6e ~vity .. 2.70i apeci6c heat capacity .. 0.186
tion reduces to Btu/ (Ib)("F)i thermal ooodll(:tivi~,. - 140 Bw! (hrX"F/ft)
k ("1'\
'T
~ a~)-ai"
(381)
("1 ft)i end elfeeta may be nePeeted.
Solution.
') 140
The above equatioos a.re all of second order, and (;) - 0 ( ;;; - (840)( 1) - O.ro
their integrated Corms depend upon the boundary
cooditiOD which introduce CODsKlerations of heat
(T. -T) _(T-T.)
T.-To To-T.
"'-2.50
_1000 - 250
-0 ..'
.
transfer by convection across the boundaries.
Fortunately for the practicing engineer, Uie above From Fig. -418
equations have been integrated by various writers ~ (l~)I
for Vari0U8 boundary conditioos, and the re8UI~ of "c~ - 1.20 .. (2.70)(82.-4)(0.186)(",)
their labors are avail.a.ble in graphical fonn in mOHt
of the standard referonccs.l1, a The following di- 'I.'berefore I - 0.0298 hr - 107.2 lie(! .. I mill, 47 1IeC.
mensionless groupe are UfIed as variables for Fig. 416
which is applicable to ulUIteaciy-6tate heat transfer Other .methods 1I,\l,IJ,a.n,M,rI f or the solution of
in cylindeqt.l. the complex problems in uMteady-ata.te bea.t transfer
Mve been developed. The most sa.tisfa.ctory
T. - T ) methods for reliable results for all different shapes
(
T. - To a.re probably the algebraic and graphical methods
of Dusinberre II IlJld Hawkins and Agnew.17
(:,) Convection
where T. _ temperature of the surroundings. Although the mechanism of heat transfer through a
To - the initial uniform temperature of the fluid, or from a solid to s. fluid. by convection is quite
body. different from heat transfer by conduction, the
T _ the temperature at II. given point in tlle same form of equa..ion h98 been found most con-
body at time t. venient. The rate of beat trahsfer by convection
HEAT TRANSFER 1
for steady.sto.te t.ransfer bet ween a solid surfaoo physically separable film exists. The Bir immediately
and a flu id is usually expressed !loS adjacent to the metal is in laminar flow, and thcre is
no sharp tra.n.sition between this laminar fl owing air
q - h.4 ( T, - T,) (382)
and the air which may be in turbulent motion away
where h - the OOflveetion beat transfer coefficient from the surface. Increased agitation or turbu.lence
between the solid and the fluid lUI in Btu/ {hr)(F) in the condensate film on the !Iteam side or in the
(sq ft). air OIl the air side inereases the heat transrer coeffi~
This II is equivalent to k f d.t: in equation 362a. eient or decreases the resistance to h eat tramuer.
For heat t.ransfer through a series of resistances The values for the convection coeffi cient, and also
which may include one or more convectiolL coeffi~ for the thermal conductivity , f various materials,
cicnts and conduetion I.hrough solids, it ~s conven- are determined from experimental measurements.
)ent to use the OVf1raU coefficient U which has the Convection coefficients are most sati8fact.orily corre-
same dimensions as II. F or Imch conditions the lated in terms of the physical properties and operat~
following equation (383) may be written as equiva~ iog conditions which are recognized as influencing
lent to equation 374. the transfer. By means of dimeftllional analysis,
- 1 __
I + 2:3-
_ _X2 + _1 (383) these facturs are cullected into dimensionless groups.
UA ,\,A. k",A", h:zA2 The influence of each group is evaluated empirically
from correlations of experimental measurements in II.
An important case of this kind is indicated di~ manner similar to that employed in evaluat.ing fric-
agrarrunatically in Fig. 417, representing a condition tion factors in fluid flow. If proper account is taken
of all factors, the evaluation will be applicable to
any condition but will require empirical evaluation
of constants ; application t.o conditions which intro-
'" zogOF duce factors not included in the original dimensional
I-roF ana.Jysis vitiates the results.
Calculation of Beat Trans fe r Coefficient.
The simplest method of t reating calculations is by
(384)
.FIG. <118.Diagram indicating th~ rehtivtl tempeJ'a tures lind
temperllturo dilJerenlle8 in a oountereurrent heAt clrcb".o.ger.
It will be noticed that there are tbree &reB8, A 2 , A,.. If the overall coefficient has been determined, tbe
(the mean area. through which the heat i!J transferred dlamet.ers are known, and the eonduc:.ivity of the
by conduction), and As. The ov.eralJ coefficient metal tube!:l i:; uvuiluble, there are IIt iJI the twu uu-
must be expressed in terms of one area only. If it knowns, h1 2 a.nd ha-., in the Binglc equation 386.
ill desired to obtain the overall coefficient based on If the temperature of the center of the metal tube
the inside area of the metal tube A~, each side of is measured by suitable means, !bia \"6Iue may be
equation 384 may be divided by A2 and by the taken as the average temperature of the meta.l wall,
overall remperature drop 1\ - T {, giving the overall and T2 and Ta mr.y be detennincd from the rem-
coefficient based on area A2, as written in 'the equa.- perature drop tbrough the tube computed by means
tio.D, of equation 365. Therl equation 382 may be applied
to compute the two convection coefficients.
The measurement of the ttibe temperature is lL
reasonably difficu1t detenninatioo in itself. The
average tube temperature may be computed by
measuring the electrical resistance of the tube,
provided the resistance has been determined as a
Since the surface areas of cylinders such as pipe vary function of temperature. Attempt.'3 to measure the
directly as the diameter, the ratio of diameter.> may tube temperature by imbedding thermocouples in
REAT TRANSFER 1
the tube 90 as to present 8. minimum oC disturbance Rearranging and integrating equation 387 between
at the point of mCMurement have met with limited the inlet and outlet t.emperatUrei!I,
,u"",,",
In pructioe, equation 385 or 386 may be used to
calculate overall coefficients from predicted convec J,"
T ..
.W",,,(C:::p,,)~<d::,T
-:
U(T. - T.)
:..:-,
-
i'
0
dA-A ... -
J,l'U W.(Cp).dT.
r.. U(T. - T.)
lion coefficients. It must be kept in mind that the (388)
area for a condensing film or for a convection coeffi-
cient from fluids to a solid is always the area of the When lV.(Cp). and W.(Cp). are each constant, T"
surface of the solid adjacent to the fluid. In the case is a linear function of T ~
of the overall coefficient it may be expresee<i in
dT. __ W.(Cp)~ dT~ (389)
tenns of eiUler surface. An equation for U3, the
W.(Cp) ~
overall coefficient based on surface 3, can be obtained
0'
by dividing equation 384 by A 3 (T1 - T.) to obtain
an equation for Ua corresponding to equation 385
T. - aT~ +b (390)
U- aT+~ (395)
(398)
Equation 396 may be written of the conditions wit.hin the exchanger' has provided
an empirical procedure using the logarithmic mean
W (C) Tc,.- T~, Ii (396a) temperature difference ~tl a multiplying factor )'
c P < [U(T" _ Te)lno.. n - as indicated in equation 402.
Solving for (U( 1'" - 1'e)....." by equations 398 and q ... qAY(TB - 7'04.).. (402)
39&
Va1u~ for tbe factor Y for t.wo typical beat
exchangers are given in Fig. 419.
1.0
r-~ t-- TA,-TA
~ o. TII'~. r8'/
., j" M9 1\ '\
i 07
2 1 \ 0.' \ 0.2
Since t.he SM1e relationships result where T" ill taken
as the independent .adable, the following equation
which does not distinguish between the hot or cold
30
Auid is the usual form .
o. 5
0 02
TII,-Te,
OA ,. M 1.0
U 1 aT2 _ . U2 boTI ::lAI
g- A
U, boT:
In-- -
U2 aT t
(<<>1) TA,-TII ,
II I
I ~
. 41B I
BI
~.
{AI
i:n
It is import&.nt to keep in mind that each product
the above equation cootail18 the overall transfer
,.
coefficieut at one end and the temperature difference ~ o.9 :\" ~ "- ....... TA , TAl )
Tal- Tllj
at the other end of the exchanger. If UI - U2 ,
equation 401 reduces to equation 394. ~
Ji
o.8 1\
The correct solution is always given by rigorous
h 7
3 2 1 O.
integration of equation 388. Use of tite logarithmic ~
mean temperature difference is simply one canven
ient means of obtaining a practical solution to
~ O.
O. 5
equat.ion 388. In certain CaBell, such as when the o 02 0.' 0.' 0.8 1.0
ratio between the ~Perature differences is less Ts,-Ts ,
than 2, the arithmetic mean temperature difference TA , te,
also gives a satisfa.etory solution. Use of the arith B.
metic mean temperature difference is strongly recom-
=
q =_UAY {T. -T,..J Ia ....
mended whenever the ratio of the temperature differ
ences approacbes 1. B,
In commerCial heat exchangers, the flow is usually A.
neither eo- nor oounter-eurrent throughout, and no F lO. ,1:9. v ..... ues rOt y,~ ill equation.w2, 01" rOt deter-
simple mean temperature difference represents .the minill( tho ..ffect.i no Il\e$J"I. ternpera\UrI'I tliffe!'el:lO!! inIlheU IUId
conditions within the exchanger. Careful analysis tube I!Ir.h~1"II using 1<.>. . meaD temperature differen ce.'
HEAT TRANSFER I
FOULING FACtoRS
Heat transfer rates througb dirty equipment are
less than through clean equipment. A scale deposit
on any heat transfer surfo.ee adds another resistance 1 1.00
-U_ -- - 0.00385 + 0.002 + 0.001 X -
0.87
to the trunsfer of heat. Jf the thickness and thermal
conductivity of t.he scale are known, the resistance _ 0.007 {br)('F)(aq It)o o
of the scale can be computed in a manner similar to Bw
thai used for a pipe wal l. In service, heat exchangers U _ 143 Btu
become dirty or "fouled" and must be cleaned by ""l1lI (hrW F)(sq it outmde surface)
partially dismantling and mochanically removing
the deposits or by circulating solvents through the
unit. Generally, the fouling of a heat transfer PROBLEMS
surface is described by a fouling factor for a given 1. A fUJ"lWlll 1Fal1 is conetIucted of firubriek, 6 ;n. tbick.
eervice, which factor is added as an addltional The wmpen.tUl1l 01 the iDBide of the wall ill 1300 F, &rid the
resistance to heat transfcr that should be included Wnpel"&ture of tbe outside of the wall il! 173 0 10'. If t he me;m
in heat transfer calculations 80 that the exchanger t.be.rmal conductivity ol the brick UDder theRe condi t ions is
0.17 Btu/(hrX"Fj ft)(eq ft), wbat ill the rate of heat 10lW
is designed to operate under fouled "oonditions and through 10 eq ft of wallllUlfaoe?
\'.;11 not require cleaning at too frequent intervals.
The standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manu- Itl. If the _fficieot of the ~t transior between tbe
.outside of the ..aU and tbe .a.ir ill 2.2 Btu/( hr)("F)(eq ft}, tbe
facturers' Association" include fouling factors for a
iMide temperatW"ll i-. 1300 F, and the air temperature ..
list of services. For water, the fa.ctor "depencis upon 'lOa F, what. is tbe rate of beat _ throu&h 10 IJq It 01 wall
souree 01 the water, veioeity, temperature of the ~&Cllr What is the outside wall temperature UDder theBe
heating medium, and maximum water temperature. eonditionef
29
Heat Transfer 2
T
HE most common type of heat transfer en- factors influence the turbulence of the stream. Heat
countered by the engineer involving convec- t ransfer also depends upon the thermal conductivity
tion coefficients is the tro.nsfer of heat be- and specific heat of the fluid. Therefore, for con-
tween a fluid and the metal wallIS of the tube. con- vection heat transfer,
taining the fluid . T he mechanism of heat transfer
.from the fluids to the metal surface depends largely q
- - "'" h - <P(D , v, p, /1- , L , i, Cp) (403)
upoo whether t he fluids are in turbulent flow or in A 4T
"streamline" or viscolls flow. For this reason cer-
If h is expressed as a function of sevetJ physiCAl
tain factoN! have a more marked effect upon the
variables, as in equation 403, the fundamental di-
rate oi heat transfer in one type of flow than in the
mensions selected must all be independent, for thcre
other. ' The more common type of flow is turbulent
are no dimensional constants included. On the othe;r
motiou, and this is di~culled first .
hAnd, if' the systems I and II , Table 26, are to be
used for the analysis, then
FLUIDS L\JSIDE 'fUBFS
h - 4>1 (D, v, p , /J., L, k, Cp, Q~) (404)
Tbis section is concerned with heat trallEfer by
the combined mechanism of cooduct.ion and convec- I t makes no difference wbether equation 403 or 404
t ion between clean, smooth metal tubes and fluids is selected, except that the fi nal result I" '\y bave t he
flowing in turbulent flow inside the tubes. dimensional constant if a mixed system is chosen.
Most of the experimental data reported in ~,he The dimensional constant may drop out if each of
literature arc presented as individual coefficients h the dimensions which it relates a.ppears more than
and correlll-teU into relatiuns expre!!l:ling the coeffi once; in such cases no error is introduced by omitt.ing
dent aa a functi un of the flow chtttllClA::ri~ti cs and the it from t he analysia, but this omission is di~ou raged .
.,hysical pruperties of the stream. Equation 4().1 will be used for this analYBis, with
Since fluid frict ion and convection heat transfer density in pounds mass per unit volume and other
both involve the exchange of energy between a flow- units in accordance with system II, Table 25. For 8.
ing stream ami a surfa.cc--in one case, kinetic energy, given point condition, the unknown fun ction yielding
and in the other, heat energy- both are related to h may be written in exponcntia.l form.
the flow properties of the stream. It will be recalled
from the study of fluid friction (Chapter 12) that the (404a)
flow propertiet! are the diallN!tcr and the velocity of The dimensionless coefficient z and all the exponents
the atream, the density and vU!c08ity of the fluid are of given values only at the point condition ; if
flowing , and the length of the conduit. All these
... anyone condition, such as velocity, is,changed, then
FLUIDS -INSIDE TUBES
% and all the expooenta may change. This expo- abies are colJected into groups having like expoo9llt.&.
nential equation simply states tJ>at there is a rela- These groups are as follows.
tion between h and the variables and dimensional
eoD.stant listed on the right. hD
Variablee having numerical exponents : _
Equation 4046 sheds no light on the fonn of the k
function. E:noe it must be dimen,s ionally homage-
J)"
neoue, if all pertinent variables have been included, Variabloe having b in exponents:
it will be useful in establishing the relative size of
the varioue exponents necessary to pTellerve that di-
L
meruoional bo;.nogeneity. The sum of the exponents Variables having e in exponents:
on terms involving anyone dimension must be the D
same on both sides of the equation. One may sub-
stitute the fundamentAl dimenaioo8 into equation Variables havinij in exponents:
4046, obtaining
Each of these groups is dimensionleli8; hence the
F
@eneral relationship (equation 4(}.1) can now be
LIT written
- .(L) (L)'
-
t
(m)'(Ft)'
-
8
-
2
(L) .(F)'(
- -L')'(mL)'
tt7:
IT
-
t2F
hD _ &_ [DIIP !::.. /JCp]
Ie ....11 }qJe'D' Ie
(407)
(405)
Equation 407 gives all the information that can
Since the net dimetlBiOllB on each side must be the be obtained from dimensional analysis of this prob-
same, the sum of the exponents involved on anyone lem. The nature oi the function ~ is in no way in-
dimension must be the same on both sides of the dicated. Although equation 407 ma.y not appear at
equation, or, first to be particularly useful, it is a @uide to the pro-
cedure to hi! followed in determining the func tion
, F: 1 - d
Considering +i - ft
from experimental data in the absence of a solution
Considering L:
from theoretical considerations, ILnd the number of
-l - a+b-3c-2d+e+2i+;n variables involved has been reduced from a total of
+
Considering I: -1 - - b d - i - 2j - 2n eight to four.
Considering T: -1 - -i - j
In the cue of heat transfer by convection, l,,'Qua-
Considering m: 0 - c +
n
tion 407 shows, for example, tha.t, if a series of ex~ri
Here are five equatiolUi, involving eight unknowns. menta is run varying only in the velocity and
If the five equations are all independent, as they are the measured values of h, the relation of the dimen-
in this case, it wi1l be po&'>ible to solve for 1& maximum sionless groups W i le and l>v;'/ Jlge i;o>det.ermined for
of five unknowns in tenns of the remaining three. the plLrticular values of the other dimensioiLess
If the exponents b, e, and j are chosen as the inde- groups. By making another SCM of runs at varying
pendent ones, all other exponents may be determined velocitles with a different set of values of the other
BB functions of these, giving dimensionless groups, the relation is detem ined for
the new conditions. If the fonn of the relation
a-b-e-l of Wlk to each of the dimellilionless groupe in tu m
is independent of the values of the remaining groups,
equation 407 may be Simplified considerably to
d-j-b
i-I -j
n - -b
h: -~3 (::)~4e~p)~$G) (4<m)
h~ _'ey ('~P)'~)' .
f()Ot-scoond (or hour), hence avoiding the necessity
for w~inp; g~. ThiS' convention, is fullowed here, a.nd
the Reynolds number is written as Dup/ ",. Goo-
. (409)
~ , .a
versely, if an energy unit E. n.s in system nT, Table The soundnoss of this ass,umption can be de mon~
25, is uSl'd for one or two of 'the variables, h, k, and stratOO only by its flbility In correlate experimental
Cp, while fooH)(lUnds (force) are used for the uthers, data. The minimum' of ex~rimental data is re-
Ihe conversion factor J will appear ill that group quired if throo se ri~ of experiments are made : one
eontaining both units. '" Chemical engineering lit- determining th6 relat.ion of the Nus.sel t number (or
erature uses a.im08t exclusively an energy ullit for all Stanton number) ~vith the Reynolds number, while
three of these quantit ~ . the other groups are mailltainoo (',OfHlt< j anot.her
. It i~ frequently convenient; and is-"permi8l'lible, to det~rmining t he relation of the Nusselt number with
use different units for a variable in different groups. the P randtl number, with the other groups constant;
i\lany engineers \vork'ill termH 'of velocities in feet and a Lhird determining the relat ion to LID.
per &CCOOO; if this is use<l in the group /)vP / Il, then the- The form presented in equation 409 is most useful
time unit in viSClll!Jty must be in ~. This de- in studring the influence of changes in velocity on too
cision does not preclude use bf thermal conductivity heat transfer cbeffi cient in a given system, since each
on 1m hourly basis, but then tlle time unit in the vis- of t hese variables appeaI"6 only onoo. In determining
OOI:Iity term of.the glpup ~Cf>lk must be in ~ltr8. In the cOuHtants z, a, 0, and c from experimental data,
fact,. metric units may be u~ within ,one di.mension- tile normal procedure involves equating the beat
less group, a nd English in the rerr.aind~r wi thout. tnl,ll5fern:d to the gain in ent balpy of the fluid.
error. The impOrtant oonsiderat io~ is that each "lith the proper mean temperature difference
group must in itself be dimensionless. ( -6T.. ) subst.ituted Cor T. - 7': in equation 382,
If any other set of in~ependent exponents tha.n h,
c, and j is chOSen, a different set of dimensionless q = hA(-AT... ) .., GA p Cp(7"..... - TiJ (41O)
groups will result. These are convertible one to an- where G = VI', the ma-4/; velocity .
other by intennultiplitiation, and, in accorWplce A, "" cross-sectional area for the flowing rna-
with the "theory of functions, any Buch set of groups terilll
may be used, depending un the ~uiremepts. Many
of these groups' are kno.wn by th~' names 9f in~esti~
Rearranging, ,
gaLo~ in the fields of nuid friction and heat ~ra.nsfer
as follows. , ---
h
CpfJ
Ap(T""l - T;..}
A(-AT.)
(410)
G_p ~ame Symbol Thu.s the Stanton number hj C"G i8 evaluaLed di-
v.. 0< -DG rectly from experimental data !l.!! indicated in equa-
Ikyno.ld~
-
,
nllIIlber
'" tion 4l0. The Stanton Dumber, St., can be de rived
h
-- ~ -
lip(;p C,,(;
St.&nton numbor . by intermulti plication of .the groups: Nu X
Pr- I, l!-Dd equation 409 becomes
1
X ne-
hD
T- -
(St) (Re){Pr) NUlII!Clt 'number Nu - h
CpO
~ , (~'.-"
-
~
(,Cp)'H) ~)'
-
k
- (411)
.c,
, Pl'II.udtl number IT The values for the phy~ ical properties of fluids
VR.ry with temperature 88 shown in the appendix,
v.,cp
___ (Re)(Pr) and temperature is not con::;tnnt either across or
lVe,.
P~'Clclnumber
'" along the tube. The mOlit convenient temperature
for evaluating the ph~ical properties is the arith-
Graet.z number G. metic average of the inlet and outlet bulk temper-
'L atures of the fluid. The bulk temperature is the
If it is assumed that the fUD ction, equation 408, temperature that would be mdicatcd if the flowing
(:an be expressed as II. siinple exponential fUJ.lction, stream at any po'int were thoroughly mixed.
FLUIDS l NSIDE TUBES .,
1\~~1"-'; r
Therefore, these experimental d;::.ta for Ruids be-
ing hoated may be represented by the follo~~g
equation.
- h - 0.023 (~~.'
- ("Cp)
- ~ .' (412)
, CpG , I' k
or marc c.onveniently
~
~ -h- - 0.023 ( - ")'.' - Gk )' . (<120)
Cplj 00 C[,
Re _~
}oIO. ~20. Plot of e:cperin\cntat dilta on fluids bcina: h(!:~t,"l or
cno1eJ in tubes in "'hich the Stil.ntoll number (.\/p..cp) i;,
,""..,
""
oW""
HN~>'III
...
-.
~G.. oiI
"
'M
poIotted all .. funetion of the Ueynol!$ number (~pll') foc ' '''
!!elected. OOOB,tant vatU6!l 01 t be Pn.ndt.l number v.crl k)
and L I D. .. . _.III!!IIcd'd
IGnoil
.
.
..
'''''' .
'.00 0608 I , 34 6810 20 Xl 40 lOCI
PIMdI Nornbl< ~
FIG. 421 . P loL or d.~~, on Huid" being hf'llted Of' OIKlIed j'l8id.'
t.ube!. in whi r.h (St) (Re)," is plotta.l "" a functioo or 111'.'
l'ralkiLt number (PCpl k).
(411)
.
The fact that a :-;illglc line on Fig. ~21 rep resents
,
all the data. with Reynolds numlw.i: greuter than HOOO
for various values of 'l ,;D indir:at.~s that the last
group (L/D) hll.8 no significarii:e for fully developed
turbulent flow (Ite > ' UOOO).
The exponent .(b - I ) of the Prandt.' number
J.lCp/ k is theD det.erlliinoo in 8. similar manner by
plo tting (Fig. 421 ) flog (h/ CpG) + 0.2 log (oo/ J.l)J as
a function ofllog (J.lCp / ! ) for the same data used in
Fig: 420. Th~ data arc b .:'8t reprcscnterl by a line
of II :i!lope of - 0.0 and intercept of 0.023 at
or
HEAT TRANSFER 2
t6 evaluate the physical properties at a temperature a surface a t 22:;0 F, at an average bulk temperature
more representative of the Vi9cOWl layer than the
bulk temperature. Colburn' suggested that this
of 140" F, the te rm (}I.l p.) 0.1'
is 1.4 for glycerin and
1. 12 for water.
temperature be chosen as the mean of the average Equation 4 12 is widely used for fluids of low
bulk temperature and the average surface temper- viscosity in the following form JQ known 88 the
ature. The use hf physical properties, particularly Dittus-Boelter equation for fluids being heated.
t.he viscoeity, evaluated at this temperature leads to
the following correlation.
hD -
- 0.023 (D~'.'
- _ (,C,)'.' (417)
. (DG )UGC
- -_,., 0.023 -
CpO
-
k
p
)" (414)
k " k
When the fluid is being cooled, the exponent of the
whe~ jJ - villCOllity determined at the described PrandtJ number IICpl k is often taken .II 0.3.
mean temperature.
Equation 4 14 appears to apply equally wdl to Fluid3 0/ HIgh Conductil1ity Such IU Molten
fluids being heated or cooled and is generally better Me14U
than either equation 412 or 413 when the viscosity The evaluation of the cQllstant.9 and exponents for
changes rapidly with temperature. equations 412 and 417 was made with fluida of rather
It) actual practice the four temperatures required low conductivity, with a Prandtl number in the range
to evaluate t he viscosity Jl in equation 414 are seldom of about 1 to 5. When molten metals such as mer-
available, and a trial-and-error solution is required. cury or sodium, of high thermal oonductivity and low
If equation 414 is rearranged Prandtl number (Pr < 0.1), are transferring heat,
the thermal conductivity is more significant than the
o.m(:C)"- (c~)(,~')"-j (415) degree of turbulence in affecting heat transfer." The
inftuence of t he turbulence on the coefficient for low-
where j is a dimensionless group related to the Reyn- conductivity fluids (high Pr), 8B indicated by the 0.8
olds numbe r, Re, in much t.he S&rTI(I:"ay as the fric- power of t he Reynolds number, does not apply to
molten met&ls.
tion fact or. It is useful in relating heat and mass
transfer with fluid flow (see equation 5050, Chapter By making necessary assumption" and usi ng the
35). For approximate results j may be taken as velocity profile of the fluid, a reialioD.8hip had been
equal W fl8 where f is the friction factor determined derived between the dimensionless gtmps, Nu, Re,
for the flow of fluids (Fig. 125). and Pr, which includes fluids of low Pr. For sub-
A more convenient meth<X1 ft for including the ef- stances wh~ Prandtl numbers are less tha.n 0.1, the
lect of radial variations in viscosity due to temper- following equation is recommended."
ature gradients, which is reliable when Re is greater
than 8OQO where the effect of the rat-io of lehgth to
Nu _ 7 + O.025(Pe) 0.8 (4170)
diameter become! negligible, is Lamina, Flott
~
CpG
_ 0.027 (.!...)'.'
DG
(~) " (,,-)0.1 .
~Cp /0'.
(416) At low Reynolds numbers, when the flow is ~ar
or viscous, the ratio DI L becomes significant and
mll!t be included in the correlation. The following
where II- -viscosity at average bulk temperature of equations were ohta.med by the methods described
fluid. above when extended to include exper;mental datA
11-, - visoosity at _average temperature of the at low Reynolds numbers.
heating or cooling surface.
The importance of the villCOllity variation with
radiaJ temperature gradient for flu ids having a rapid
~-
CpO
1.86 ( ")" (~)" ( "-) . ...
\00 I'Cp II.
()"
L
(418)
ehange in viscosity with temperature is emphasized
by comparing the (PI p.) O. H term for water and
.,
glyce rin. When each fluid is heated by contact with hD
The bi bliu@:Miophy fur this chapter appear. on p. 472. (41Sa)
k
FLUIDS OUTSIDE TUBES
.003
-.-
D"
F16.422. Correlation of ~mentBJ reeulta on heating I.Ild cooling IliD KJe...phMe ftuida flowing inside tubca.-
When the flow is neither clearly visco~ nor WI'- FLUlDS OurslDE TUBES
bulent, particularly in short tubes where disturbances
due to ,)Ouy may be significant, it is impractical to 'The relation.ships d~veJoped for convect,ion c0-
develop formal expressions for the coefficients, and efficients for fluids flowing inside tube! have proved
graphical representations of the experimental results fairly reliable, and numerous efforts have been made
must be relied upon, as given in Fig. 422. .. to apply these relationships to the estimation of con-
vection eoefficientil for BuidB Rowing outside tubes.
S,mplijied Equation/or l.othermol Conditio~ The first question that arises in such use of these
In the case of a particular fluid, the properties, equations is the value to be used for D, Usually !in
viSCORity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity equivalent diameter D. ~ substituted for D in equa-
may be combined and expressed as a single function tioll8 409 to 417, but additional modifications of the
of temperature over tile limited range of temperature equations are required to obtain reasonably satis-
usually encountered for eooveetion transfer inside factory results when applied to fluids outside tubes.
tubes. Forud ConvtJCtiOtl
Rewriting equatiOn 417 for eomp1'l'te1y turbulent.
In predicting heat transfer to or from a fluid ftow~
flow,
II.
_0.023' (f'.')
d U
(CpO.'ko.o)
JjO.4 (417b)
ing in the annular space between concentric pipes,
the principal problem hinges around the selection of
a linear dimension to characterize the system. The
The last term may be expressed Q.lI a fUnction' of tem- original oorrelations were based on the equivalent
perature, and for any particular temperature of a diameter applicable to fluid flow, which becomes, in
particuillr fluid the last term is a constant which may terms of Fig. 418, %6 - %3. It ha.s been proposed
be combined with the factor 0.023 in the oonstant a that the equivalent diameter would be more ac-
in the equatioo curately expressed if related to the ratio between the
(f" cl'OSlH3eCtional area and the heated perimeter, as
h -a - - (419) (%&' - ~32) /%3. Neither of these "equivalent di-
D'.' ameters" appears to be generally applicable with de-
L:ercl.e. Compute the v&iue of (J in equation 419 fw pendable results. Predictions of heat transfer c0-
benseM at 100 F. efficients based on equation 412, 416, or 411, wit.'l the
uerci.e. Plot the VIIlue of <I for water u a function of equivalen dlameters indicated, will in Most instances
temperatunl for the r&nge 60 to 200 b'. be below the me8.8Ured values.
UEAT TRANSFER 2
h ot.ably the most. widely applicable correlation . For finntd tubell, no increase in coefficient occurs
nOI\" ava ilable I.!! is the fuliowillJl: modification of for added rows of tubes in a bank when the ait is
eq\laWon 416. blown into too
tube bank (Fig. 399). For heating
of air by condensing steam inside vertical tubes
.!:.... = 0.029 (~)"
CpO D.G
(_k
p.Cp
)' ('!..)' "(D.)"
Il. D;
" carrying helical fins, the overall coefficient for forced
convection of air a.t right angles to the bank of tubes
may be estimated from the following equation II
(420)
taken from Fig. 400.
where _D .. _ diameter of inner bound&rY annulus (at U _ 0.308v.r..,. 0.63 (422)
z~ , .Fig. -HB) .
Do _ diameter of outer boundary annulus (at where v..... _ linear velocity of air (rpm) calculated
X5 , Fig. 418).
for air at 70 0 1i' ,lUld 1 atm at the
Il. - viSCQ6ity of fluid at average tempera.ture
L..inimum crees aection.
of heating or cooling surface.
Natura l Convectio 1
Until A. more ~curate general correlat ion is offered, Density differences in the.fluKl being heated cn.u!le
equation 420 appears the best. available equation for fluid mot ion designated natural convection. A:n un-
predicting heat transfer coefficients to or {rom fluids insulated steam line transfers heat to the air both by
flowing in annuli. natural convection and by radiation. 'l"'he transfer
Convection cocffi~nts for heat transfer. to or from of heat to air by convection from cylinders or plates
a fluid flcwing at right angiu to banb oj pla~n tubea is given by tbe following equations. II
may be estimated by a. further modifica.tion of these
eqllations. F or fluids in forced convection perpen-
For cylinders,
dicula.r to a Bingle TOW oj tubu ~ em two diameteTA, II. _ 0.27 (Ta ~ Tairy-U (423)
the !ollowing equation IU1~ ~erived from data on air
and gases ma.y be u!lcd.
. For vertical plates over 3 ft high,
where h. - convection coefficient, pipe wall to the oil of copper pipe 161.7" F
[Btu/(hr)("F)(sq it)].
T _ averngt: oil tem~rature (OF ). Run 2
_ aV(!raplinear velocity of oil (fpe). I nlet. waLer temperat ure IM.l F
0u ~1e~ ",aler temperature lIn.2 F
Theepeci6c gravity of t.beoil is 0.1 - 0.0001T, where T - av- Average water velocity through pipe 3.21 fpi!
erase oil U:>DlpCJ'ntUl$ ("F). The ~ili" heat of the oil j;s Temperature of condensinK steam m.4" F
0.8 Btu /{lb)('F). Heat given up by steam 47,700 Bt u /hr
Mean temperature of ouu'r ~urlaoe
6. In IlIl oil-pl"l.lee8!in" plant, cottonseed oil ill heated in a
lihell-and-tube exchanger by the <lOD!kll$atioo of .. mixture of copper pipe 2 11.1 " F
of dipbenyi oxide and dipbenyl (Dowtherm). The oil ftows
irwlde the tubes, and a rtoont iNlped.ion of the shell indicatee (II) Ca lcullite the heat t.rall!fer CO'JOlffieient betll'alll ~he
wal.er &.nd the inside of the copper pilJO,: for each 1:\111.
the.t the shelHDde oporatina pre8lSUre must not exceed I atm,
ab&olute. {b} Comparo t""""
eIIperimental1y det.enrun",J ooel6eielll4
wit h values obtained from I uation 4 17.
To ",lut temperatunl will the oi l be heated under the follow-
''';'.''
In( oondit,ionll!
7. An experimental doubJG..pipc heat exchanger W&8 con-
Exchanger ~tructed by usiag an inner pipe of Karhate No. 2 (l~in . OD,
E lfectiW! length of a tube 71t9 in. l~in. ID) 60 in. long (elfecLivu heating length _ 48 In.)
Total number of tubes 36 inlide a '2-in. sch ..'<I ule--80 stee l pi lle. The data reported
Number of tube& per p&8II 6 belo.... were obtained durinll: a a.erie9 nl rulll! in ",met< .... a\er
Tube material J8-8 CT-N i a lloy ,t.etl .... &3 u>!OO on bot h sides, and the Buid Bowinl t hrolllb t.he
SUe of lubeR ~-in. DO, O.OO6-in. willi in oor lIipu "'Ole cooled.
HEAT TRANSFER 2
EXPERIMENTAl, DATA AN-E-2 ETHYLENE OLYCOL
..., "'
.....-
T.ffi''''''''.... '0 '
,- . - ,- .-
--;- - - --.
.t ...... '" \\". ,...
.....
_
T.MI'
.-
0.,..... ,-
O'"'''''
r.UI'. 'C
- ---
Flo.,&1ft,
IL/~' M...
R."
No.
m
'''''''''' ,C,
Temper-
Mure. OF , 00
,
c-"
-.
199.5 !!S . 2
"., 0.00).52
- -"-1
""-i....
1" .900
.\ ~- m 200.5 7 .... 0 .00057
- "'" --- ""
~
,.
.
I
...... .,
---
. --
- G. eel I.la
--- - -
24.100
'"
'"
".,
197.9
197 .7
198.7
2.5 .7
25.8
2.5.5
21 ,9C'1
26,900
0 .00046
0 .00045
.
1'. Il00 14 , 000 0.""""
,
... :u
_1 . 10
.. ,.,.
,.~
If. 10
0
" I .... - HoIl
-1.35
-3.90
l.ttro
1.42(1
'.010
H.iOO
l4.700
lU'OO
'. ~
I
n. '
n'
H.'
""
...""""
150. 5
150.5
150.5
151.0
41 .3
"1.3
41.3
41. 1
31 , 500
".000
21,400
14.,400
0 .00033
0.00036
0 .00034
0 .00038
'"
".
149.0
151.5
42 . 1
40.9
IJ ,000
6.200
0 .00037
0 .00041
Thermal conductivit.y of Karbat.e No.2" 50 Btu/(hr)
(-F / ft)(8<t ft). COM).IERCIAL BUTANOL
Determine the value ,,/ the indi vidual heal LnuWd melfi-
mnta for ti,e aflnulu.~ sio.le for tbe flow rate! oonsidered, lind 5" 151.0 18.0 17 , 000 O . ooo.~
oomparo tht"-.e vlIlurno with IhOlie calculatetl from the empirical '24 162 .3 17.8 2ij .m O.~
"ell:m'llla tiol1ll oqtl.ation~ 417 a.nd 420. 525 154.0 17.5 38,100 0.00049
526 153.5 17 .6 44 , 200 0.00047
8. A doubkt-pipc beat exchanger made up of l}fin. and
:l}.i-ln. lKloc't.lulo-40 llteei pipe hlL$ an elfective beatil1l surface
of 25.8 IIq ft. I>Mo<l on the outllide suriMe of"the illiide pipe.
571
628
153.0
162 .0
17.7
J7.8 ......
00 .200 0 .00046
0 .00043
This ~"changcr has !>oeD ueed foc preheating .....aUlr. and t.est3 WATER
InJieftte tlmt lhtre is a _Ie depollit on the beatio, .urface.
The beat tmnllfcr coefficient fnr thill depoeit., baeed on the 119 152 .0 ' .7 38.700 0 .00168
insiJo surface of the Hi-in. pipe. ill 506 Btu/(hrWF)(1Iq tt). 120 149.5 2 .7 57.6IXI 0.00148
I t ill now propo:.eed to U$Il this exchanger to prehea.t beIlJi('1l(l 121 150.5 2.7 78,500 0 .00133
Ir~''ll 'I initial tcmppfII.}11lC of 68}' by means of hot ......ter ' 22 151.0 2.7 98.000 0.00126
which ,,;11 enter the CJ:ehangllr at 100 F. The benzene ". 149 .8 2.7 137 , 500 0 . 00110
will fiow through t ile annular epl'l oo at a rate of 11,000 Ib/hr; 'M 149.5 2.7 22.000 0 . 00)89
tho hot water fluw rute will be 12,500 Ib/h r. 348 149 .8 2. 7 10M ,BOO 0 .00101
Dct,,,"uinc the tumpet1l.~ure of the beIlJi('1lf! leavin the ." J50.5 2. 7 299.000 0.00081
exe""n~r if countcrcurmnt flow ill to be U8ed. .97 151 .0 2. 7 232 .900 0 .""""
.98 H9.5 2.7 ~1 . 800 0.00001
9 A Ilerlea of heat tr&rl8fer IestII in whieh liquids were 501 151.0 '.7 121.300 0.00115
heate<.l by PlUlKa/Cll through an eteetricaily heated tube hAIl
been completed . The Ii<,uid! were ""ater, commerdal buta.oo~ 10. Dry air ill fed at thQ rate 01 1.50 lblbr at 70 P and 0 pal,
and Af' -":"2 et llYlcoo gly"...1 (oompositioo in weiCht per <:ent: to:Ia compre:.JOl" which deli verslhe Air at 100 psi, a Dd is paesed
,Iyeol _ 94.3, walt:. _ 3.0, tricthanola.mine phOilphate _ 2.5}: t hrough thQ tu~ of a eing1e-r- ~he ll ape! t nbe exchanger.
Too data uhtlllncd [11"1) "lvcn in the t.a.bitl below, in which Water cnters the !heU at 8,}0 F and leaves &.t 00 F. The
!.he t.cIllIICratUrtl J'CflOf'tcd for each run ill the arithmetic tubes have a l-in. OD flnd O.06.S-in. wall, spaced on equl-
mean of the inlet and out let bulk temperatutell of the liquid. la.t.enJ tri&ng1es I ~ in. from oen t(>r t.o oenter a nd 8 ft long.
The physical propcrtiel! of tho HquKb used for calculatina There .am 60 tubell in al l. The fJhcli ill equipped with ten
thij variuus dimensionless quantities ...ere taken at thill equa.lly !paced ee,mental-type baffles.
tempel-alure. What is the lcmpera.ture of the air \cavin! the cooler!
Evalua.w lhe constant and the expooent8, if the data are II. Propane at 1500 peia ill being beat.ed by paseing tbroucb
to ~ 00......,18100 by t he rulalionehip
a horizontal y'-in. OD copper tube. 12 gRj!e. The propllne
enters lit 7 fps. a nd 100' F and klaves the tuoo at 175' Jo..
Saturated aUla.m at 2.9; pl!ig is oondcDsi ng on the ouwde
of the tube (A. - 1200 Btu/(hr)("'t flW Jol).
PROPANE DATA
PROBLEMS
PRICE OF INSULATION
...
.....
Temper.. Alaumlld .1;,
(Btu)(ft)
e"
"'"
Density,
~
VlaooBity.
centi- W~
T YlN A
.... I
,.,,~.
""'- .
-"-
(lb)('F) Tbiolr I
'f (hrWF)(sq ft) 00
Compu~
,'" 2.&0 & 0 ....
...0 10 .80
1.00
'.00
1.00
,",0
3. 7&
....' .M
').64
1.00
,...
the length of the tube:
uei..rIc mean '.ro I."
(0) By
di!e~Doe.
propert~ ud .. loe metoD. umperature
'" neo J2.:ro
11. 1ll .."
'.00 '.00 1 .10 I.M
30
Heat Transfer 3
o..
9 - acceleration due to gravity
[ft/(br)(h,)).
Attrtandardconditionsg "'" 4.1 8 X lOSft/(hr)(br) .
Based on the assumption that 1/ "" is linear in 7'
and that there is a linear temperature gradient
through the condensate film, it has been stated:n
that the mean temperature to be used in evaluating
the physical properties, k" p" and """ is
Tf - IT... - i(T.. - T.)
Di~m
...
FIG. 423. rtpl"e8tl.lltin& film.,, jae ooooellllation on
horiWDW or vertico.l tubee. The bibliography for thifJ chapter "ppett.1'$ OD p. 472.
FIL:\IWlSE CONDENSATION
Tbe vaJ'Jes predicted by equat.ion 425 are lower 428 for the entire condenser by calculat.ing the aver-
...
than those obtained in pnaeticc. Consequently , the age value of N to be used as follows.
flll!owing modified forms of equation 425 are recom-
mended for pract.ical use.
h - 1.13 [
_
klp/a(AH)
_. Lp.t<r,.. - T, )
J" (426)
where N with a subscript 1, 2,3, etc., is the number
klp/UTDJ " of tubes in the row indicated by the subscript,"
h - 1.18 [ (427)
"W Eu'rci.." Compute the oondeIllling coefficient for the
where D - outside dia.meter of tube (ft). bottom tube in a row 01 3 tuberl ...hen the eondelUlation coeffi.
cient for the !.Of> tubo ill 360. &B8Uming lAm inar lIow of the
IV _ pounds of condcnsa.te per bour.
fJClDdcrlI!Iltefillll.
Properties of cond~nsate taken at tbe mean
lOu. tr.llve Example. From Lhe full<>wil'll dll'. ... tom-
condensate temperature.
pute the ovet'&l l eoefficierlt, t he eondensin, film coefficient For
Equations 426 and 427 are eqltivalcnt ; whichever he:ii:ane. Illld the beat t.nmsfer coefficient lor .... ater inside the
condenser tube.
form is 1"\ore convenient lIlliY be used. If the length
of the vertical surface L is known, equation 426 is
used; if the quantity of vapor condensed per hoUr is
known, equation 427 is used.
POIIition No. I , 3 4 , ,I 7
A_..
For Mrizcmtal tubes, the following equat.ion may
be derived under the same ll8Sumptions that were
Temp. OF. 61.20 62.48 104.5 105.6 106.4 101.4 155.0
, i
made in obtaining equation 425.
h = 0.725 [ "/pla(MI)
NDp.,(T.. T, )
J" (428)
The /lingle copper ' tube conde~r ( l.04!)...in . 10. 1.315-in.
OD) ..... u~ to oondeMe heltll.lll" at JlI.ffiOIIpheric pl'\:l8Uro.
The thermocouples in the renlel' of th" wall of th" COllller tube
(Fig. 425) Md ,he thermomelenl gave the indieaLt...J ave~ge
whcre N ... the number of tubes in the vertical row re&dinp durill& . run ""itb water flowing through lhe t ube a t
22.83lb/ min. The tube WN! turood La take waU Ullllllcnr.tun :s
oftu~ I
at eight Il~nly ep&oed. &n!I;1t)$.... indicated in Fig. 426 for
The va.riation in condensate thickness from the
No.3. Thll t.rOua:h oollected the hexane frQ[ll the tube I\t the
top to t,he botwm of the tube causes the temperature rate 01 0 .833 Ib/min. The efleetive length of the tube Is
of the tube surface to vary oon- 20~ inebee.
siderably.l An average tempera- T, (vapor space)
105
U'on .. --""-~'-~~
AOD{T . ....... T,~bo) '"''
(0.693}(49.03)
r
~ .. 248 Btu/ (hr)("Y)(eq ft)
I
U'OD .. -,--.:,..".-
_'_+!:.DoD 1 0 .066 (l .31t){2)
~
103
.\oD k D. ... .\oD + ~ 1.316 + 1.1825
102 .. 248 Btu/(hrWF)(1IQ ft)
Vllriatlon In Ien_.w" Inditaltd CoDdelllling film coefficient hoD:
101 ~ IIIerrrIoaIoII* No. 3 .......
.,..-.,tJI .... ~
I
IDD ~-JL-~L--Jc-~c-~c-~c-~=-~. hoD .. 0-00400 - O.QOOO'1.e3 .. 0.004004
045 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Top Anile of Thermocouple, dt&rtK Top
lIoD .. o.~ .. 28) Btu/ (hr){ E)(sq ft)
~a. 426. Tempe .... ture& indie.ted by thermocouple 3 at.
various anglet from the verticaL (See Fig. 426.)
The resistan ce of the n-.et...t i8 80 mnall all compared with
that of the oondellAing film that it could have been neglected.
Solut'oll. The heat traMfer roeffieient few copptr tubft to _ter,
Quaatity or heat traIu1t!l'TI!d: iDeludilll !.be reUtanOll& 01 OQII-half 01 the tube, &lid of tftDII-
ferri", heat fl'Ol1l the tube to the 1I'ater:
..
9" J, WC~dT" 60 x ~.83 x 10(6:1..s - 57.20)
" (0 .412){-l6.13j
bade tubft ..
(20.625)..-{1.049)
(12) (12) .. 0.472 'Q It
.. 332 Btu/(hr){F) (ft)1
I
U'ID " 1
kID + h)
L D!:D
Dn ,
1 0.066 (UK')"
1110 + (12){220) I.'i'i5
Ouwdo tu'bft .. (20.625)..{1.315) _ 0.S93 eq ft.
(12)(12)
.. 832 Btu/(hr)("F){eq ft)
Temperat.ure difference:
1 '.1 0.006 X 100
kID .. 332 - 12 X m X 1.116 .. 0.00301 - 0.000023
156 -
57.20 +
:I
62.48
.. 96.2
0 F
1110 .. SS4 Btu/ (hr)("F)(1q ft)
Ac:rotf ~ Jllft aDd ooe-ha1f of copPer ..n: ADOtht!r equally _tillfact.ory pnIOIIdure wouJd be to eaku
late tilt! temperatures of !.he imlide and outllidt! llUJiaoelf.l of the
(T ",_
. , , - 104.6 + 105.6 +
4 106.4 + 107.4 .. I".""" copper tube from the Imown tempel'&tuI't! at tilt! ORnt.cr of the
t.ubft, \he thennaI eonduet.ivity aDd thick-, aDd \he beat
flwo:.9.I A.
From N;nhr oj eoppw wall It> welter: An alternate method lor me8lfUring condensing
{T-.) .... - (T _ ) _ 106.97 - 59.84 .. 46.13 F 0 film coeffidente which does not involve meaaurement
of tube'wall temperature& is that. of taking a eerieR of
0venJl ooefficit!nt: measurementa at increaaing water velocity at COD-
Baaed on ilVlide area.: stant. condeneing coefficient. A plot of t.he overall
retietance agairwrt. the reeipro.,al of the water ve-
UIO .. (0 .472) (9.5.2) .. 161.0 Btu/(hr}("F)(tq (\) locity to the 0.8 power gives a straight line which
may be extrapolated to infinite water velocity to
Hued on outside &rea:
give the nisittance of the tube wall plull the c0n-
densing film rom wroch the condensing 6lm. ~
UOD .. .. 1'2&.2 Blu/ (hr)("F)(eq ft)
efficient may be computai 58 d38Cribed by Wlleon.-
DROPWISE CONDENSATION '51
Turbulent Flott' in Conden8Gte Loyer capacity by blanketing the condensing surface. 1
Air
Although the assumption tha.t the liquid conden- in steam is a common illustration of this. For con-
sate Ia.yer flow~ on the surface in laminar flow prob- denser.! oper.e.ting on II closed system such as a re-
ubly applies to the usual horizontal tube, the ac- frigeratinA: system, the noneondensable gas should
cumulation of condensat.e on a vcrticw tube may de- be completely removed at the lime the. refrigerant is
velop t1lrbulent flow." charged to tile system. Continuous removal of air is
When the d i mcnsionle~ ratio 41V I/J~D evaluated also required if there is any lee.k into the system to
at the Imvest point on the condensing surface is less prevent blanket ing of the oondensing SUrfACe by ac-
than 2100, the flow is laminar and equations 426 and cumulated air, even though the concentration of ..ir
427 may. be used. IJ the dimensionless ratio is is very low. For steam COIldensers operating at sub-
greater ~an 2100, the flow of the condell!!llt.c layer atmospheric preMure, a vacuum pump is required
for removing the noncondenso.b~ cont.inuously.
is turbuient at. lcu!I~ at the botwm of the tube, and
the following equation may be used. Condcnsation of mixed vapors which retmlt in im-
miscible liquid phases presentil similar problems. T
4IV )' .
h _ 0.0077 ( - - (kiplg)"
- -,- (430)
/J/rD !J! DROPWISE CONDENSATION
where W .. pound!:! of condensate Rowing per unit Dropwise condensation occurs when the conden-
time, sare does not wet the surface but fotmll droplets of
D _ outside diameter of completely wet liquid which roll off the surface.
tube, or Actually the liquid rorms e. definite cont.act angle
lI"D - welted perimeter. wit.h the solid surface, I!.S indicated on Figs. 427 and
428. If the contact angle (the
None of these equations, 425 to 430, considers angie measured through the
turbulenC(' or ChWlges in film thickness 88 affected by liquid) becomes much less than
velocity of ap proacbing vapors. For higb vapor ve- 50 degTees: the droplets spread
:ocities the coeffident.s may be considerably greate~ unevenly and areas will be cov-
thlW those predicted by these equations. ered with a continuous film.
Normally, o rganic sub
Superhea~ yo~s stances fonn continuous fi lms,
Condensation of superheated vapors involves the and water condenses filmwise
add itional step or reducing the temperature or the extept on surfaces covered by
vapor ~ the saturation temperature before COIlden- a ratty acid or other similar
sation takes plllCe. During the reduction in super- materia.! not wet by water. J." lo. 427. Diacmm in-
heat, down to the temperature at which the tubes Accordingly tbe knowledge of dicating contac::t a.nt;Ie
in drop",iee oondellllllo-
are wet with condensate, the vapor behaves in a dropwise condensation is tion.
manner predicted for fluids Rowing OU~.s:de or inside lirn:'t.OO. to experiments with
of tubes. In this case the convection coefficient is steam on metal surfaces containing some adsorbed
relatively low [10 to 40 Btu!(hrWF){sq ft)l. For organic substance such 88 a fatty acid to control the
the condensing portion of the heat transfer, the tem- contact angle between the liquid condensate and
perat.ure difference is the saturation temperature the solid.
minus the surface temperature. When the degree of A study of dropwise condensation of steam on
superheat is small as compared to the latent heat, the vertical and inclined surfaCeS ~Fig. 429) under d]y-
coefficient for saturated vapors may be used for namic conditions 12 indicated the following mecha-
superheated vapors, provided the temperature dif- nism. Vapor condenses on the surface in small drop,;
ference between the saturation temperature and the wruch are generally of l'niform size and shape. The
surface temperature is u!:led.2I,G small dro~ grow both by condensation on their sur-
faces and by coalescence until one or more drop!:!
Mixture. reach the maximum size possible for adhering to the
G~ which are noneondensable at the condenser !lUrfar.e. These large drops then roll and grow rapidly
tempt:...-ature can cau~ severe redUCUOli in condenser by coalescing with other drops in the path. In thW
HEAT TRA~SFt::R 3
way j,he surface is cleared of condellAAtc periodically may oceur in this area which has not been cleared by
by droplehl sWl.'Cping down thc BUI"fuc{', 1'!:q)Q;!.ing a rolling d roplets. F igure 42!la is typical of the center
bare strip of motal. The cycle i~ then repeated, porI iOll of A. surface, all of which is cleared nt frequt.'nt
starting wit h the COllilcll8atiol\ of vapor o n the Sl.lr- intervab.
fw::e in small drops. Tht': rat.cs of heat tra nsfel' are vcry high for drop-
During the growing pr(H',f%S, the surface area \\ise eondens.'I.tion, with coefficients in lite range from
covcred by droplets remain.'; s ubstRlltially constant
;ubollt 45 per ecnt for the systems studit"d).n lJigh
rates of heat. tmnsler or,!'!1Ir whE'," smull droplets run
to c1eur t he sul'fuee at. more frequent interval!;.
Figure 428 shows the dropwi;;e condcnsatioll of
stenm Oil polishl.'l1 chromium covored with stearic
FIG. 428. Phot.Qfl;ntph 8JIO"';IlJj: rlrop.... jx" lllmriell8ati')n of F IG. 429. &lc",-"",i ve frnm~ from motion pictll.rell taken of
~U!am 011 p<,ii8 he<.i ,:hromium whi"h hUH heen covemd with u,.opwise ~'Onder=tio n of skn.m on Il. vertic"l, polished $W"-
bU'UJiC .. cid . ,=u
acid. The light. spots on thf> droplt% were IIi;('(! to about 10,000 1.0 i O,OOO lilu/(br)("F)(sq ft) . Data
measure oontacL angle!!. T hl! stearic acid is w/lshed typi('u! for dropwise condensatioll~ of steam are
off t.he surface by t.he condcnMte in a few hou rs, and , plotted in Fig. 430. T hat part of the surface not.
unless it is re plcuished, fil mwisc oondensat ion OCCll!'il. covCNld by drops is free of the resi ~ tan(;e offered by
F igu re 42') p l'eI;C n lS sueCf'~i ve frames of mQv inR t.he wndeni>81e liquid. The heat. transfer through
pictures of ,.he d ropwise con(lensation proccs.~. T llc the d rop!; is a eondllt.'tior! pro<:es.s through segments
rolling of druplcts off t.he sui'fll.ec to dcar the surface of spheres of changing size. The prime variable
below enn be seen in the suecellO>ive photographs from which influences the size of the droplets through
top to bott.om. Figure 42%, taken near the top of whieh heat, must be conducted is the difference be-
the s urfat;c, indicates that irrcgular-si1.ed droplets twee n tLe advancing and thc recedi ng eonlact angle
BOILING COEFFICIENTS
since it controls the size attained by droplets before 433a, and 433b. The ease with which, t~ nuclei of
they begin to roll. vapor form regulates the degree of superheat 'in the
Reproducible results with dropwise condensation liquid required to initiate ' boiling and' rs' a: 'function
are difficult to obtain bemuse the contact. angles can of t.he interfacial forces bet\\'een the vap or and liquid
not be controlled. In practice, a copper tube with and the solid. Bumping in a. flask is a result. of s~per~
t he normal amount of oil on its surface that comes heating. This occurs' because no nucleus of vapor is
from handling in a shop will often start condensing in formed until t he temperature is considerably above
a dropwise manner. If steam is not. oil-free, Portions the equilibrium boiling point .' Fina\!y 'the super- ) J.'
heated liquid fl ashes, and bumping occurs.
12O.llOO ~ 4 ...... In gene(al, the coefficient' of heat transfer between
(>, the solid and the liquid increase!! with incre'used tem-
perature diffe,rence bet\\'een t he solid' ~d the main
100.000
'"
( 3) j
BUb~~k~j~~pOr
2
00,000
'" l: bubbles
vapor he~ted $urf~ce
, ",
lU
! , (5)
VO<ticlI t o n _ In
i' 60,000 ,U ~-.
-'< LiQu id
ill .' ill,
... 40,000 '" 61 .,
10.1
'"
'",., ,
20,000 'I,
,., ".,
.
,
.. "
'.
,~
FIG. 431. Di".,;ram-.
Heated surface
FIG. -432. Diagram
0 " DlIltic tepresenw t ion
of nucleate boiling.
matic ml'rt!>lCnlatioD. ilf
film' boiling.
~ ~ ~ ~ i
.
i
q/A, Btu/ (hr) (sq ft)
N
body of t he liquid. Figure '134 is a plot of boiling co-
efficients a.s a function of the temperature difference
T ho Ih. d il'le ... nt verti 1 _ tion. 01 ' 'ertlerJ copper pl. t.. eond.noer
..... i l~ 1 dilf. ,...",t """ffid"nb .. indi.ated. The Dum ho .. i~ .,....,Mh .... between the solid ana the liquid. As the temperature
reI.r to.the = pondin ~ _ lion 01 the ..,,,dor... r. Tbe olher numbers on difference increases the heat flux increase/! and the
lho eurvOl indieo.~ tbe . ~. ". v.l""iu... ;H r.. l per -.md at t.bo in"' ....... ion
with t.I>o.u..J>ed Ii,*. a enoy ] ' '''''''.ptan w .. UHd .. . p ro'nol<" of drop- quantity of vapor bubbles increases, causing :the
"'_ <\<l" de_non lor t ho " . peri"",n " ",port<d. All _ t;on 1"',...,,; .. bubhles to increase in size by eoalescenCil. This
ma.imum"""lI\cienl . 1 abou t 120.000 to 150.000 Blu / (hr) ("" It) he ~ u .
,\o t Ih..., h ~ .... t<. lbe dropl. .. u dlin& otf . be ourl_ berome in ./1"..." .. action in itself tends to decrease the proportion of
u.a m 01 OOllde .....t.. much l ik till ... ~ ..,nde ..... t< lOOn remov .. t.bo solid surface which is in contact with the liquid .
prom<ll.. lrom the - . urr.';", und., ..",diCi""" 01 bi,ft, eonde"""tion ...... .
t.I>o",hy lurtb,.r inc"""';,,&: tho k nde ... y fo, film co ~d_li,,'" Since the liquid absorbr heat much more readily than .
FlG.430. Hea.t transfer coefficients for drop .... ise conde'll'tion
the vapor, owing to its higher conductivity , the re-
of steam on a vertical copper plilte condenller." duction in liquid contact tends to reduce the transfer
rate and to overcome the tendency of increased
of the tube surface ma)' maintain a dropwise can- agitation by bubbles to increase the transfer rate.
dit.ion while the remainder ' of the tube is covered These two phenomena of increased agitat.ion and
with a film of condensate. vapor blanketing cause t he heat transfer coefficients
to exhibit a maximum when plotted against the tern
perature drop or heat flux (Fig. 434) .
BOILING COEFFICIENTS
The change in int erfacial properties between the
Liquid in contact with a solid at a higher temper- solid and liquid with increased temperature dif-
ature increases in temperature until the boiling point ference also contributes to vapor blanketing. The -
at the existing pressure is reached. At some tern liquid has less tendency to wet the solid so that a
perature above the boiling point, bubbles of vapor bubble of vapor covers more surface and is not
form with absorption of heat. Numerous 'bubbles pinched off by the liquid as quickly as a t low temper-
rise and agitate the liquid, creating a condition fa,.. ature differences. B ailing,in the presence of the
vorable for heat transier, .1lS indicated in F igs.. 431, vapor blanket over the solid, Figs. '432 and 43&, at
HEAT TRANSFER 3
high hea.t, flux has been termed "film hoiling" and if;
characL.erired hy d ~ren..<ring cocfficien:...'1 wi th in-
crcased tcm rxrature difference.
M any forms of equiJlment urc uspd fo r transiP t of
heat by boiling. A hundle of horiwnLai tubes s uiJ..
mctgpd in boiling liquid is used in l!. reboiler for a
frIWt.ivnatillg column or. in a hori zontal tllOO evap-
orll.tor. Liquids may he hailing inside v'"rt it:ul tubes,
10.(0)
8000
"""
(a) \Vire k1l1l Untn 300 F, nucl eate boiling.
Heat lrom~ftr II ~ 4000
per cont of tlK: maximum Q/ A .
~-
31"" ~
3000
g~ ! !
2000
- I,-
.r ~
:aE
,<
-, ,
j- ~
l!1 '000 .'
;;;' .I
'.
"
~;:! "'" ~ l:
j" :.g
l
~,
g
0"'"
!"'. "'"
"; 300
""
(b) Wire LIl!l6 than 300 F , nudeate boiling. H eat tnrufer
80 per oomt of the m!1.lcimum q/A .
"" 4 6 8 10 20 30
TSoI;;t -T,~'F
40 60 80 100
220
J80
......
. 200
..."" 1~180
!160
~,
320 . 1.0
~
300
- 120
100
eo
"
60
20
o
o 0.01 0.02 ~ 0.03 -'- D.04 0.05
RedllCtd PrtH4ll't. p.- PIP.
FlO. 436. Tbe ratio or the muimum heat ftu>: to &.be eriuml
prl'lIIIUJ\'i M a rUllction of the reduced pre9lUre, ill !.be iow-
120 ~regiori"
100
Boiling 118 a commercial operation normally is
. ,
condu<;ted with temperature diffe.rences 00. "088 the
boiling film of less t ha n 40" or roo F and hence is
nucleate boiling. Xhe relatively higb boiling co-
100
20
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Reduc.d Prftwr., P, -PIP. ~!'"
F:m.436. The ratio of the maximum heat ftux (q/.<t) to t'le ~.~ 40
critical preo.ure a8 a function of the reduced pressure.' Ji 30
20
10
Initial adsorption of gases on a surface or contam-
o
0.01 lI.04 0.06 0.1 D.2 OA 0.6 1.0
ination nf the surface by foreign materials may give Raduced Pmsure, p.. PIP,
abnonnal behavior in short 'experiments. The ad- Flo. 437. The temperature difference at ~be maximum he:lt
dition of wetting agents to lower the vapor-liquid flu>: &\I a runction of the reduced preMUre.
interfacial tension may increase the boiling coeffi-
cient. High temperature levels which reduce vi&- efficients mean a low resistance for the boiling film
cosily and surface tension give higher boiling coeffi- and the temperature difference across the boiling
cients when nucleate boiling takes place. Since higher film may be a small portico of the. overall temper-
temperatures are requirec.l to boil fluids at higher ature difference.
HEAT TRANSFER 3
<J:he maximum heat flux at which nucleate boiling (0) CompUW the oV(!mll coefficient of heattralllli'er,llOltwO:!eIl. ,
may still be obtained may be estimated from the trteAm and ho:xane.
gr"dphical' correlation' of Figs: 435 and 436 which ' (b) Compute the l.>oilillg coeftl.denl lor he_ane, neg1eeti!'1I:
the resi!rt:moo of the c<>pplr.
may be used for either pure liquids or mixtures.. The (e) Com pu te the oolidelll>ini: ooct!iclent lor SIdm, negleCting
t.emperat ure differen ce between the heating surface the ~8ta'nce 'of tne 'COfIper. _,I , "-"
and .fhe boili~g liquid which cor",;-po~d84~ the max- (d) Com pu te the true boilin,: ooeffirient ror benne. astru m...
imum heat- ftux may be estimated from Fig. 437. As ing u....t the thermocouple!! woe in the center of tl-.: coppc-r wall
indicaLed, it>_\\"as (ounQ' t hat- greater te~perature and givinl proper QODlli<lcrtuion 1.0 the O"oppcr re><isl.&Dce.
d ifferences-are obtained for mixtu~-than for pure 2. l:A- bori&01jol.al shen-t.nd-t'ubc Of)ndcr~r is to be U8ed to
comPQrients: ~ ...;. ..! -.-; - oortdinae l-..t\ll"1ltcd- ammoni.. vapor . ~ 145 ' Pkig. TIl~~
, PROBLEMS .~. - oondk-Me~ _n..i~Vi:11~1 . tubes; (2-~ . ...o~\ r.81-i-'. 10),
:.. " , ' _, .. -~ ~ 12.gfll:.~~1I.r.n!~ha.\'tI,!ouoI~ "'n'f!'J)!L!'!(.. U"nugb
1. A ~m~11 bl~!lut(Jry boiler (F~ro 438), is ~ ,to w pply tbe ,fVtlll,.!-.~~ Jn 8e~, , llle Ipoo 9h~'\l~ Ilf :l~:anged "'ilh
... oono:len90r ".'Ith y,,))Ur," ,.&~urat.ed ~te m: .....
, :ii.!I
. auP-P/:~ tlJi. 0"" ~uhe II.Lth<:'--";IlteJ:j and,_llle utlll.'!" ili~~rroundi'~i thu
center one, all :,,<!uidia!.a.nt.. ~.' _ _ _
,t va~ ---1-- ,- Determi"' -~- "~ lJaci,tyl 01 t~ CI"~lenllllr 1'"')1<Jnl ljle~ inlet
wil let tenlpedl1lre' ie 66.2 0 F jll.nd tne~", .. Wr .... te used )s
3751b/tuin. - < ' ,; ,. .~
3. A 8'JlIi:l"tub,, l,lootAtory condellJ'lljf hu be~n 'built v'
dctermfn"e .-t,toe cn.j,ll.mmng e~ffi.cionl ~ ' "f -Y,ur(<.li~ orgame
vapOfl! on tll,,- out.side~of 11.' firul~d tube. rhe ,t.ul"'! i~ coi"ipecr,
its effl.'<:tiv" k,igt.h is 1 ft, an1 tile ineideJiiArnctJ, i~ O. 5.!>-~ in .
On the outl;i.k, diere ~re.... ['!ir.. l fin'", fift<."Cn per inch, witb
14<- -- 2111;" root diamt'~n: ..:"'1 uut~idc oliAmekrs ul 0.1121 and 0.746 in.
n:><JX-'Ctivel),. TIx, ".wI c..:lcrnt<1aro ... ie 1.45 Ml ft. '
Wi tb "iat~r Rowin!!; in.'!kIe the lube alld
190 prollf ethanol
oondhlsini!; i>n1t he outside at 3 jlelg, the follo"'in{l,: data Ilft
FIG, 0138. Dia~mmalk !'ep"8entll.tMJn of kboratory boiler. obtained.
'/'
Numben indie:..te kx:at.i0n8 of thermocoup.l~ Wn' ~r Tempe .... t ure
'. .
copper tube (I .3t~ln . OD, O~ I -in. ID), and drips ...ere
Water .... te .
lb / min
~,
10 .Q
In let
a1.3 P .
Outlet
81. 7" F
.
removed fro~ the Iltncr e nd at the e:une p.-ure as t he s leam
inlet. Four thennuoou.,1e8 lI'(ore ilUerted in the renter of
lhe copper tube Willi , and ' llFOv i8Joni' ~~re made,.. U.at t he
1
t ll 0
15 . 6 ..,, .....
5 1. 6
". 1
, 8 1.3
l<1.'
....
,-J Z4.6 -. 18 .'
t ube cou.ld be rol lltcd t.o obta in avcnoCe u:mPertl.tun!..i~L;
~he tube as well at alo~g the tllt*, "
36 .6 -' ". 1 76.9
37.4 76. 4
The follo ...irig d.. ui. "'ere' taken when boiling hexane ..t
750 mm abeolute pre8'lure ~inll II&tun.t,ed &I.e&.m .. t 750 rom Aer;uming-the Diltwl-Boch.l!r equation (417) t be valid,
Db80Iu te preBBUtI!:. '-"- wht is the ooildelU!ing coefficient of etlWlol hued upon t he
The~COO:upIe 1 2 tutll.i ,&reM. of tbe-eondcW!in.g
, iurtaoe?
Temperature. OF 161. 6 172',3
4. what' ooDderiSinc ooeffi~icnt would be predictOO tor
ethanol oon.-le~iftr; uPon 'a plain. hnrbontal copper tube,
~ in, OD, under tbe,condWqns of proqlem 31
,'. ~; .
CHAPTER
31
Heat Transfer 4
Radiation
E
1!;n.l!C1i
(orrt of electromagnetic waves which travel molecules such as oxygen and nitrogen at t.empera-
in strwght. lines at the spood of light. The tures of ordina.ry industrial, inte~st. Suh~tI>noos
sun emittl radiant energy which travels through space transparent to thermal t ll(liLltiun are caned diather-
and the atmosphere, reaching the earth where it is manous. \Vater vu.~r and carbon dioxide absorb
absorbed. The' air is relat ively transparent to these energy of charw:t.eristir: f reIJue(u~)c:;, li.S indicated in
electromagnetic waves and aJ:wHobs only a small Fig. 439. Substances which Illl!lOru radilltion also
amount of the radiant energy. Othe~ gMCS such as ha.ve t he property oCerpittiug radiant energy in u.e
carbon dioxide and wa.ter vapor do abo1orb radiant- same frequency IJUOOg.
energy in significant quo.ntit;es. All substances The mdiant cnellO' impin)!;illf( upon :l. body is in
which abSOITI radiation al.l:lo are capable of emitting part absorbed ' lJy the ixxIy , is in part reflected, and
energy as electromagnetic waves. may in part p&8I> t.hrough tbe bOOy. The fraction
The geometric pat terns involved..in radiat-ion are of , the incident. energy which is absor bed cannot
tbe samc as those evident to the eye for beams of exceed unity. Those h.)(I ~ 'which IllJsorb all the
light. Thc <.)oncept of shade as related to light is 'al- incident energy are ca\l~ biflr,k l!Odu,. Although no
_110 directly appli(:ahle to the radiation of heat, as when real surface behaves fIlt a hlack body, it is a useful
one individual st,ands behind another in a cold !oom reference for comparison. The best examplp, of a
beside an open fire or hot stove. A body can receive black lxxiy.is a. small hole ill a, large empty r.onl.ainer.
heat by radiation only if it CIUl ."see" the sOurce of All the radiant energy entering tho hole is! o.OOorbcd
the thermal radiation, either directly or by reflection. by the innel' walls of the container) either on the
The distribution or wavelengths of the emission first contact or by subsequent conk1cts after con-
from a surfaco depends upon the temperature of the tinued reflection within the 'empty ,;pn.cc.
surface (Fig. 439). At about 1000 F the distribu- If one or more bodies are plncl'd within an en-
tion is such that the 'concentration of the dull red closed space in a container and t.hermal equilibrium
waves is hi~h enough to be perceived by the eye. exiSts between the body and the contA.i~er, any area
At higher temperatures such Ij-'! 2500 F, objects -of surface is receiving and emitting energy at the
become "white" hot because the distribution of the same rate. If one of tho surfaces absorbs all energy
intensity of the waves in the visible region is 8uch incident on it (a bl8(lk body) , then the rate at .vhich
as tn be seen as white light. Although visible light it emits must be the r.1aximum possible at that
is emitte<J, the greater proportion of radiant energy temperature; if thUi were not true, thermal equilib-
is in the nonvisiblc in (rar~ region. rium would be attained between two bodies at differ-
Waves of the frequency range eJl\&lified as thermal ent-temperatures. The blade body mum acc(>nlingly
radiation (1- to 2O-micron wavelength) are Dot radiate, or emit, the maximum amount of radiant
457 '
HEAT TRANSFER 4
I .!
, {\
! 11
;j
r-
U~R . '.,
r- .w ,~,
/'
f r-
!
I
~ .c;,boo. . ''''.
"
j ,
.'
/
~/ !2ZJ Carbon dil.ide absorption bind
-
~ Water vapor absorption bind
" ,boo..dO ::':.
\.
~
<VV' ',.J
W I 2 3 , 8
~ Wa....lercth, microns
FIG. 439.
- " .
Relative inw~ty of radiation from b1&ek bodiee u a' function ,of wavelength lind temperature.
energy per unit of surface for a glvcn' terI'lperatuf'e. If I represents tbe radiant energy incident on unit
It. is all!O a pm;ect absorber. If,. the body is a non- surface of any body in the enclosed space, an energy
hlack body, absorhing only a fraction of the radiant ba.lance ILl. thenna! ~uilibrium . gives
energy reacbing tbe surface, it must also emit that l a, "" El
same fraction of the' amount of energy which a
perfect oradiator (black body), of the same !Size emits For a bla.ck body a = 1 and the emissive power of
a blaCk bOOy Eo = 1. Therefore
under the same condition. The principle, that tU
thmnal equilibrium the emiuivitll oj a body igUal4 ,t/u El lal
absorptivity, is known as Kirchhoff's law.
e,= -=-
EB I
=a,
R~DIATION
The emissivity e is the ratio of energy which a body Tn. the absence of better information, a straight-line
emits relat i\'e to the energy emitted by a perfect relation may be assumed for interpolation for emis-
radiator (black body) of the same area ,and at t.he flivities at int(lfmeu iate temperatures.
same tem perature. The .rpJ:wily (I is the ratio
of the enel'KY absorbed by a body to the energy TABLE 51. ' NOItUAL TOTAL EMISSIVITIEB OF
SOLID 5URFACf'.B .... .
ab&lrbed by a black body of the same area under the
snme condition. The 6'tIiB.'Ii~'tl power E of the surface T e mperature, F.mi""ivity,
Surface OF
is the total er,ergy emitted, per unit area, unit time.
The inlen8ity i of radiation is the amount of energy l\b:rAL8
emitted per unit a rea, unit time, unit solid angle. Aluminum
The intensity of radiathn emitted frum a bllLCk High!.... polished pla~ HO-I071) U.039-0 .OS7
Oxidil.eJ.;l.I ' \10 F 390-1110 0 . 11 -0 . 19
body depends solely upon the fourth power of the B~
absolute temperature. The intensity of mdiatioo Highly polished (i3- 27) 476- 674 0 .02S-Q.031
from II. nonhlack body depends upon the em:i;!sivity Polished
JIX>- "'"
0 .096-0. 0Q6
of that body as well as upon the fourth power of its Dull pla t.. 121}- 000 0.22
absolute tempera\,ure. The energy emitted from a CoPP'"
Pnl isht:d
nnit area of a body to the whole hemisphere which
it sees is
Plate henl..'(\ at 1110 F
Jron, polished
'"
300-1110
8ro-J88(J
O.W3
0,57 -0 .57
0. 144--{) .877
q Clllrt iroll .'
E "", ....,. - &IT' (<31) p"1W<d as, 0.21"
A Turned lathe
On 1630-1810 0 .60 -0. 70
Oxidi~ at 1100 F 390-11 10 0,64 -0 ,78
where e = emissh'ity (uni ty for a black body). Steel oxidized at 1100 F 390-1110 0 . 79-Q. 79
IT _ Stcfan~Boltzmann constant[ 1730 X 10-
12
Rough Ingot iron 1700--204.0 0 . 87 -0.95
in ~tu/ (sq ft.)(hr){degree Rariline)J. Steel plate, rough 100- 100 0,94 -0.97
T .., absolute temperature of the body. Molten ~ t.ed 2O W-3270 0 .2R-G. 28
Mercury 32- 212 0 .09 -0. 12
Nickel polished plate 0.046
A black \:kIdy ~m its a continuous series of wave-
lengths with the'ina!xiinum intensity at wavelengths
"
from about 1 to 5 microns, depending upon the tem~
perature as indicat.ed in Fig. 439 .. The absorptivity a AllbestOll board 0.110
of a surface depends upon the nature of the surface Brick, reJ .rough
Silita, glazed
7lJ
2012
" 0.93
0"
and upon thc distribution of the wavelengths in the
Lllmpblaek, 0.003 in. or thicker 100- 700 0 . 945
incident radiation. Although the emissivity e equals ~n~mel, whil,(l fuaed Oil iron 66 0.897
the absorptivity a of the same brxiy at the same G~ ~mooth 72 0 .931
tfmperature, the absorptivity at a body temperature M&lbIe. polished 72 0.931
'! 1 for incident radiation frpm a source at a different Paints
Black, shiny Lacquer 76 O.871i
temperature Tz indicated by the symbol (I . _!
\\'hi ~ ~uer 100- 200 0 ,80 -0.95
depends on the temperature T: as well 88 the tem- Oil ~intr;, 16 00101'11 212 0. 92 -0 .96
perature T I If the m onochromatic absorptivity or
8Urface 1 (abso..,t~ of radiation of a sine1e w!.vc-
10% AI, 22% 1&cquer bOOy
26% AI, 27% lacquer OOdy
21'
21,
0 .52
0.00
length) varics considerably with wavelength 'and raper 66 0.924
l'1ast.er, roudl lime 66 0 .....
much 'less with the temperature Of surface 1, total JL.lfractoriell
absorptiv:ty al_ 2 will vary more wi!!1 T: than with Poor .lldiawnI 1110-1830 0.605 -{I . 7a
T I . Since t his condition generlllly exist.,s, the value Guod radiaowrs 1 1 J()-1 8aO 0.80 ..(l.90
of al _ 2 may be taken IlJ! equal to the emi~ivi ty of Water 32- 212 0.95...(l .963
the body (l) at the temperature 'of the inddcnt radi-
ation T:. Emissivitics for a number of surfaces over Since bodies which are emitting radiant enl'"rgy art'
specified temperature nmges are listed in Table 51. also absorbing radiant. energy, the nf!t qUll.ntity of
ene'lQ' t ransferred by radiat ion equal;; the energy
the Stefan-Bolumallu law, . emitted minus the energy ah..orbed . . For a body at
This teI"tioJJ8hip, kr.own &II
may be derived from thennodylltlJni~ reb~pe.. (See
meren(le lOu:, p. 472.) The bibliogmphy Jor tJ,," ~h"l>t.er llppetu'll on p. 472.
HEAT TRANSFER 4,
..
'
dA.
Formal integration of sll('.h eXpl1'88ions is u!>unlly
too tediolls for engineering llpplicati.)n. Bu t, when
necess8.ry, an approximate va lqe for the interchange
, of energy may be obtained lUI follows:
1. Subdivide each surface inl.u portions.
2, Compute the net interchange of energ.v per
dA, dA. unit area of surface 1 betw~n one uf thE!!le portion!!
on surface I and each portion un surface 2.
Fla. 440. Coomr.lri"al fll(:W in rad iation ; d<.'l'ivation of C08ine 3. The summation of theac interchanges is the
10. .... by integration ~ hro,,&n .. 80Iid angle.
total int.erchange per un it area of that portion of
Solutinn. The portinn of the encl"KY emitted by dA I \.:hich surface 1.
is intercepted by dA! is proportional to the pl'(l)<~ted &reB!! 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for a number of repre-
dill' a nd d.4t' o( ~he ~"'n IJU rfll.Oe5 nllrtual to radiant beam and sentative portions of surface 1.
inVl'.l'1ely proportkm....1 til. th~ IIQllare of t he distance. between 5. Ave rage the summations and multiply this
the Burfaa", . Ir" and tit lU~ th.e reIIprlctive angle! between tho
average value by t.he totAl area uf surfncc 1.
nonnals to tho aurfaoes antl .the radiant ~am, and i indiCII.tes
the intenl!ity nf radiation. the energy intemJpted by dA, ill
idA1'dA, idlllCOillLdA!e<lI!tIt GEQI\1.l"TRIC FACTORS
(435)
For finite black bodie~, th~ net e:o;:chMge can be
evaluated by including in. the l)Mie interthlUlge eIUa.--
F'.., uation 435 ill frequently called d,e eosi ne !,row_ TIle pro-
portiunAlity constant i may he e"ahated by eipreel!inl! equa- tion 432 a geometry factor wh ich is the )"3.liu of
tion 435 in terlTlll of the solid ang'" d.. of Fig. 440 IL.& folloW\!interchange per unit area of one surfar,e to the int er~
idAI CClll6, {d~!' ) - idAt_'I &" change per unit area that would take place between
two infinite paralle l- black planes. The lIymbol
Sinee a IIOlid angle i~ definer{ ..., the area 5IIbtendcd upon tM F1,2 is used to define t he fl'acti{'n of the radiation
~lLrf",CC of a hami~phere of I'l\dius r divided by the IlI1U&1"e of
th e f","iU8.
leaving surface A I in all directions that. is intercepted
The total energy emi t!.od by ODe side of the su rface dA, will by surface A 2
hI: absorbed by a 8UlTotmding bemiaphere of JadiUI T and i8 The basis for the derivalion of the gcome.lrieal
ther"fore fact.ors is indicated in J1'ig. UO and the il!u~trative
El d_~, .. iJ.~dA'co!~ldw _ iTdA I (43.10) example and exercise above. Consider the linei 1
and "2 as representing ,areas of plal\('" normal to t I,e
The e mi!!Si"e power E is defined from ~ Iuatioo 43 1 paper. The radiation per un it time q, ... 2 frum area
E T ' d)'1 Al intercepted by the area A2 is Pt'uporlional to t he
I - .. e, I - , ,,. dAI
apparent area At' as viewed from At. Also, the
SoI"io for t,
1. - -
B, _ _"e ,_T,~ proport.ion of the beam emi t ted from AI i hat i!l
interoopted by A2 is proportional to the ap pnn.'flt
Th~ a mount of l'\I.diant energy emitted by dA, which is area A 2 ' of area A2 ta.ken n ormal til the beam.
i'ltcroepted by dil l may be evaJuat.Ad in',. mlUIIII;!" eimilar to These apparent arctl.:! are freqllrnt l.v czdled projected
equal"", 435. Subilti~ f.inll tt.e abov .. expm!Sioo for i and areas as they are the projoclillil IIf lhe urea un II.
IlEA T TRANSFEl1 "
plane normal to the beam. Furthermore, the radia- The choiee of either area and its corresponding
tion received at area A , varies inversely as the geometric factor is arbitrary.
square of the distance separating Al and A 2, as Also, when all .bodies or spaces receiving radiant
indicated in Fig. 440. Values of the geometrical energy from the body or 8urface AI are considered,
factor F have been calculated for various surface it follbws that
arrangements, BSSuming that the emissivity ~ is
constant and independent of temperature.':..:n This
FI,I + F1,2 + FI ~ + Fi.. + etc. - 1 (439)
assumption is exact for black surfa.ces and reasonably And, when Al eao see no part of itBeU, PI.1 .. O.
good for most nonmetallic or tarnished, unpolished Figure 441 gives the numerical value for the geo-
metal surfaces which are approximately gray bodies. metric factor F for radiation between adjacent reo-
II I
~
i>'
~
-- I\IO\tt\IIM til
perper.r:licul 1l' "'"""
/ V LB
-
V
~ ........... _... ,...
r _ ,.('-'cIh 01 uniqw
oidIoithilt..o;tlnclo
/
/
V ~ _.
Ir _~is
bastlf (~ of
aw,,,,,,,,, ....). :1" In
V V !:;::: l--: x ,Olio, (./Ilth 0I...,;q",
sid. of _ _ l1&li) ~
/ / V (~of 0)tIW0tt"
In~
~ ~ r:; b; ~ j--- f-
r.-- l-
I!"::':
02 L3,.
.I:
L6 0 1.0
0lmt!IsI0II RItIo, * 2J) 3Jl .., 6.0 8.0 10 ~
FlO. 1 . Geometric lhape factor for radiation between adjacent recl&Dgle. in perpendicular planftl.-
Some of these values are plotted in Figs. 441 and tangles in perpendicular planes, obtained by applica.-
442 as indicated. For problems involving different tion or equation 436.
areas of surfaces 1 and 2 , the values of F 1 ,2 will II the radiating surfaces are directly opposed
differ from P,.I. This is evident from a consideration parallel planes not connected by rerractory or other
of black bodies. radiating or reflecting surf&ee$, the value for geo-
metric fact.<lr P is given by the lower rour curves in
Fig. 442 as indicated,
If there are refractory surfaoes between. the parallel
radia~ing planes, but with no net radiant heat flux
to or from the refractory surfaces, the unknown
The product AlP!" equals the product A,F,,\, as refractory surface temperatures may be eliminated
otherwise there would be a net transfer of energy by energy baIances, giving equation 440 for the
when the two surfaces are at the spme temperature. energy transferred by rbrliation from Al to A, by
GEOMETRIC FAcroRS
the combinoo mechanism of direct radiation plus surfaces as would be transferred between unit areas
reradiation from the refractory surfaoes. in two infinite planes. 'The addition of the refract.ory
walla has more than doubled thc rate of heat
II "" ,:P;:;AI (TI4 - Til) tl"3JlSfer.
_ crP;:;A,(T I 4 - T,4) (440) If an enclosu~ such as the interior or the furn ace
may be divided into several radiating surfaces such
where P is the geometrical factor, including the as A I. A,.
etc. and the rest of the enclosure may be
effeets of refractory walls between black parallel regarded as reradiating refractory surface AR at a
plan... unifonn temperature TR , the factor 1'1.2 ma.y be
0.'
,,,
............ c.n..r",y
....... ,
~
-......2:1 _ _
~ . bo&
SicIt ~
Ratio. Diii..... : : - PiiI\H
F .G. 442. Geometric f&eton! Ii' &00 F foc radiation between po.rallel pI.nee."'
The effect of the refractory walls in increasing the expressed in terlD8 of the di rect geometric fa.ctors ~F
rate of heat trnnsfer between the parallel planes is , lUIfollows.
indicated by comparing the four. upper lines in Fig. ('41)
442 with the four lower lincs. For example, consider
two square parallel planes with the distance between If there are only two heat tru.nsfer surfaces involved,
them eqUli\ to one side of the square. The direct equation 441 m&y be reduced to a more convenient
radiation between these two planes is given by curve fonn (equation 442) by SUbstituting from equations
number 2 in. Fig: 442 as 20 per cent of the radiation A.FI,R - AM-FR ... A,1',.R ;;; AR1'R.t,and PR . +FR_t
that would be transferred between unit areas in two + PR R = 1, as obtained from equatioiUl 4-38 a.nd 43Q.
infinite panulel planes. If these two parallel planes 1
are connected by Ilon(:onducting but reradiatiog 1'1.2 - II.., + --....:.--
1 Ai 1
(442)
walls, about 53 per ceDt as mt:eh energy would be -+ - -
FJ,R A,Fs,Jt
transferred per unit area between the two parallel
REA T TRANSFER "
If neither Al nor A2 can see itself, that is, if each faces through mul tiple refieclitlf!s and summing up
surfaro is free of negative cI_lrvature, FI ,I and Y' .2 . appropriate terms of these infinite aeries to represent
are each equal to zero, and eWHltion 443 applies. the total flux in each zone. This cx ~remely tedious
procedure can be simplified in some cases, for in-
F1,R =. i - Fl,2 and F 2:R =< 1 - Fu stance, in an enclosure containing only a heat souroo
2
F _ A2 - A JF u (443) and a heat. sink, both gray, the remainder being
1,2 - Al+ A2 2A IFI.2 diffuse-reflecting refractories.
The transfer of heal. due to the combined mecha-
The lise of equation 4.\3 requires the evaluation of ril:lffiS of direct radiation, r(mu:liation from refractory
only one geomctric factor. It is based on the as- ISUrfaces, and multiple reflection within the e'ncl08ure
sumption tha t t.he refractory tempe rature is uni- may be expresacd. as foll ows.
fonn throughout I-he interior of the furnace. t
If it is del:lircd to find the ste~y-state valtie Cor"the ql.2 - crA,ffl.2 (T l - T 2' )
Icmperatu;c of a rofmctory surfe.oo for which equa- _ crA 2 ff 2 1 (7't' - . 1'24) (445)
tion H3 o.pplics, the following relationship may be
derivoo. Thf'i factor ;r includes the geometry and emissivity
factors and may be evaluated [or this case W:I follows.
7'R" = (A I - A 1 F 12 ) T I " + (A 2 - A IP1.2) T24 (444) 1
+ (A 2
(AI A 1 F 1,2) A 1 F 1 ,2)
GTay SUT/nces
If it mny be assumed that all surfaces are gray, a
simple and adequate allowanoe may be mw for
Lhe cmil:!Sivity and absorptivity of the nonrefractory
surfaces. The emissivity oi the refractory surfaces
il:l not a fIWwr, as it is imma,t.erial whether the re-
fractory S1Lrface maintains it.s thermal equilibrium
by complete absorption and black-body reradiation
or hy comp!ete reflcetioo "ith no absorption.
The rigorous calculation of a factor to express the
net tram.fcr between ach:al surfaces of know-n
geometry u.nd emi&:!ivity req1lires the traCi ng of
typical r'.l.ys tli energy from Lypical portioos of sur-
FlO. 443. Diagr1lmm&tie lIeCtion uf a typical
IUI1lll(la 101" hetitinC pctmlewo.
"""i,"'"",'
RADIA NT H EAT TRANSFER TO DA NKS or T UBES
,- ,
.
,
,
.
,
.
!l -
.
I-
k
~
.. -
,
;:::~
,
, .'" ~
,- , ':"
~ ,
,
II
~
f!i
Ifl
.'
,
,.
I'~ ~ , ,
,
, "
I.. -, l#J
~-
-,
I' ~
!Ii l::c t:--..
I; ,-
-" y/ 1''::: l'..
~ t---..
':
~
the fumaoo for a desired heat transfer rate. In this used in making the energy balance. This general
case tpe computed fl&me temperature and the inter- ' method of apprOacb has been: further develOped for
section of the curve is known. The solution is design of furIlB.Oe8.11'
obtained by extending the locus of the wmjlerature With a little study of Fig. '445, it can be seen that
of the produ(lts of co'robustion to the ordinate of t he the greater the area of the heat-absorbing phine A2
datum temperature. If it is assumed that the heat for the same fuel cOnsumption 'per hour, the more
capacity of the products 'of combuHtion is constant, mild .are the' heating conditions. When radiant
this )a readily done by drawing a straight line furnaces' were fil"$t designed, ihis relationship was
tbrough the computed flame temperature for sero not 'generally appreciated and very flmall radiant
heat ibsorption (point N) and t hrough the desired beat-absorbing surfaces wert used 'because the early
value for ' the beat absorption per square foot Of furnace builderfl were "afraid" of the high heat
suri'aee At (point 0) and reatiing the interaection transfer rates. In modem fumaces heat tnlDllfer
(point M) of the .extension of this stralght line with rates in the radiant sections of oilheatingfumaces
the ordinate corresponding to lbe datum temperature are uswilly 10,000 to 20,000 Btu/ (hr)(sq ft of ex
RADlANT HEAT TRANSFER COEFHCIENTS <6,
temal surfal'0 of the tube) and may reach 50,000 in addition 1-0 the oonv~lion to t.he air, the overall
Rtu / (hr)(sq ft). coeffi cient based on the Ollt<l}dC area A.a becomes
If Al is equal to Ai Ilnd the value for 1<'1 ! is 0.8
or greater, the value for F I . i obtained fro~ equa--
t iOl1 -1 -13 is approximalely (1.00 + 1<'1,2)/ 2. It is for
t his reason t hat the a ))I)roximale method for eSt imat-;
ing heat tl-arudcr in radiant sections of pipe siills or
fum~ has given reasonably 811.tisIactory results I"'"
!IOJI
when a shape factor of 1.00 is used. T he use of
the high geometrical factor is in accordance wit h
equation 443, although 1.00 is probably abo~t 10
..'" ,-.b.
80JJ
7OJ)
,~
~
"
,17";$
RADIANT ilEA T TRANSFER COEFFICfENTS VI
.
In many ca.'1eS the tnnsfer of heat includes con-
vection and radiation. An cxample of Ulis kind was
IL~
indinted in be case of heat tf"tllMfer from the east ,
iron furnace d oor to the surroundingsplWC. Compu- 5JI
tations are ullually best made in the manner indicated
by determi ni ng the heat transferred by radiation 'II
'.- .ill' -(,:;;l'
--
and the heat transforred by convectio n and adding 113
the two quantities to .obtain the total heat tmwJ-
tz 7f
.e; TI - Tr
~
(e rred. T- ~RI1WlI
j. .,~l.o ..
~J
In ma ny CMeS, however, it is OOIlveoient to c0m-
pute the rate.. of heat traosfer by radiation according ,
..
. ,
to the Mme equation 382 as.. is used for eonveetKlo
uanmer. - This may be done by combining equations
. .-
..
..
382 and 4;14 to solve for the radiant bea! transfer
coefficient h.,.
q.
lJ)
,. -
..
4IXl, T~~~~:F
. ~
.
,-~'
2IlOO
.
distance L is called the beam length. For shapes rich g&i!E S, as indicated in Fig. 450 .
,,''- ,
., D.4 M 1.0 0 ., D.4
~"\a
O M 1.00 ., os ,
~
"...
,
,
-0.04
-o.os
-0.Cl6 {g) 'J , ".,..
FlY. 451. Corrections to added emissiviUes of carbon dioxide and water vapor:" (a) at 260" F; (b) Ilt 1000" F; (c) I1t 1700 F
and highet.
<70 HEAT TRANSFER 4
The o.bsorptivity aa is approximatdy equal to the TAllLE 52. EQCIVAI.F.NT ~[f;AN BEAM LENGTHS
emissivity os given on these chu rlS if read at the ..'Oil GAS UilllATION
temper:tturc of the radiating solid T a , instead of the Factor by Wl:ich
temperature of the gas To, if the go.s is at a. higher D ~ ~[uitiplied to
Chaf>l d..,ri~ing Obc lti n i-:ojuiVll-
temperature than the radiating surface when absorp-
I>i"," n.'<ivn!l, lent )oll-.. n I1earn
tion hy the gas is of minor importance. In any cu.o;e 1Al,,~t1, L
D
It more accurate value of aa is obtained if the value
Sphere ])ianlt't~r 0.60
is rond from the charts of to, Figs, 447 and -148, at
78 hut ut pf..(Ts/ To) rather than at pL, and that
Cylinde r of infinite Dilt'lll'ter 0.'
hl'iglit
y3.1u( is muhil)liM by (To/ Ts)O.M for carbon dioxide Cylinder "i tl! height Dimoo ter O.TI
or by (7'GITs)o.,~ for water vapor and u~ as fl(;. equal to Ju..ructer
When carbon diuxide and water vapor are pr'Cl>ent
t~... thf'r. t-he total emissivity of the mixture is some-
....
radiat ing to e'C llt"T of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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CIi"". E~gTf. , Ja, 531 (l!lJ7). l .w. c.vm. E~. , 31, 51 7 ( 1!135).
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6r.. CoWl uas, A. P., I nd. Ena. CMm. , ii, 8 73 (lr03). E ngrl., 35, 743 ( 1939). .
7. CoLIIUII,,", A. P ., ILll.II O. A. H OUGEN, 1M.. EfI9. CIu", ., 26, 28. I, TON, R . N. , Ph D. Tht~i8, Universi ty of Mi <:higan
1178 (1 934). (1 049).
8. CJl ' DEI\ D. 8.., and A. C. Fnl.\ LBOROO, T ...." . Am. l rW. 29. f,{ .. u :x, . F. L., N Dlu (In Dui". t)f F IU"IWCU. PriV:llle
Ckt",. E~., as.
30HI (1937) . Papers.
9. D.\VIS, E. S., Trana. Am. &Ie. M k . E I\9"., 86, 755 00. M .. RTIN&L W, It C., Tl'OtI8. A m. S.-..:. M u h.. Erup . , 69 ,
(I!)43 ). 947 (19 47).
10. D'1"ruI<, F. W. , a nd I.. :0.1. K. BoEJ.TER, Unili. Calif. Pub. 31. M cADM,j9, W. H ., Htat Tra 1lllmiui'm, 2nd cd., M cC ra w-
Eng., 2, 4 .. 3 ( 1930). Hill Dook Co. { 1942J.
lOa. Doo(ll;, B. Y ., C~",jQrl Ellfir=ri"9 TlwlOll7.lyno",iec, 311J. M cADAMS, W . H ., " H eaL Tra rufeT," Cliern. Eng . T'rogrtu,
p. 358, McGraw-Hili Book Co. (1944 ). '15, 121 (March 1950).
11. D UIOINBI II.Rlrl, O. M., "Numcrie&l Solution uf Hca~ Coo- 32. Me ADA YlI, W. Il, d aI. , CMm. E"9. Provrtu, 4t, 639
. duetion P roblelTl5," " ralll. Alii. Sec. M d. Engr. , ST, ( 1948) .
703 ( 19t5). 33. Moo'!E, A., D ., Ind. E",. CM...., 28, 7().1 (1936).
12. F ..Tlc.\, N., and D. L. K ..n, CM ..... E ng. I' rogrell, 4.6, 34. :"lze&l, A" Btoll, /JtIC. e1JCl)ur. indo nall. , 1S1, 289 (1932).
661 (KoVl:lDoo.- 1949). 35. NUIliTAMA, S ., and H. J. Y OSIK.\TA, &ic. Mw::h.. Eng.
13. GURNn, H . P. , and J . L UJUIt, h wl. b;Ti.g. CMIII., Ui, 1170
(1 923). '.._
(/(Ipan.) , as,Nt). I (1930).
36. N US6LT, W. , Z. Vf.T. atm. In!!., 60, 54 1 (1916).
14. O kl.lllSON, E. D ., ~"Correla.t ion of fleat T ransfer .. nd 37. P A&CH][] 9, V., and H . D. BAItE Il, 1'ra..... Am. Soc..' MuA.
P reIIlUre D rop Data .. cross TlIbe Rarrks," '/ "OM. AIIl. EJ\9n., &t, l OS (I942).
Sec. M (lCIi. }o.'ngr . , 69, 6S3 (1937) ; eo, 381 (1038). 38. P !!: RRY, J. R., Chemica/. E nginurr' ll(lllllbooit:, 3rd ed.,
15. H .\NOON, G. H ., tl aI., Pwole'II.'" &jiMr, 26, No.9, !lJ p. 485, M ct: l1I.w-H iU I3uQk Co. (950).
(I1X6) . 39. HOW LEY , F. n. , R. C. JoRnAN'. and R. M. LANO!!:R,
1.
16. HAPPEl., J., R, S. AHlCS, and W. J . B,\.RNS, Cht m. Eng., T mn3 . .4 m, &C. Refrig. Eng.. ~, 35 (l M 7).
61, No. 10,99(1946). . 40. SH!!:A, F . L., and N . W . K !USJ:, Tmn3. A M. 11Ul.. CIu:wl.
17. H.\'Ii'][I NB, G . A ., ILll.d J. T . AG NEW, "The SolUtion of Engr. , a&. 463 (1940) .
T nmsient Heat Conduction Problems by Finite OiIJer- 41. SuO K'l", U. K, U"iv. l'U<li P ub ..3819 / M ..y
encts," PwdIU Uni. EIIQ. Bull. 98 ( 1(147 ). 42. S U:l) nI, E. N., and G. E. TAT~, '1rwi.. Kn~. Cltem!, 28, 1429
18. H OTTEl., H . C. , T ron.. Am. Snc. M k .. E""I'"8., " FueL, ( 1936). .
.. nd Steam P ower, " U ; 265 (1931). 43. SlNNO'IT, M . J ., ~d C . A. SI ~" ItT; 1M . Eng. CIK,a., "',
19. Horit:L, H . C., ana F. P . B ROI'GHTON, Irtd. E",.
CMm. , 1039 (1948). '
A rnzl. Ed., 4, 166 (1932). 44. T URUUM EXCHAN GE!, M ANv r ACT UItEIIS A56OClAl'lON,
:!G. HOTTEL, H. C., and n. B. I::O IIJIT, Trarill. ' '''''. CMm. Standai ds (1941).
EJl9r~ ., sa, MI (I 'U2). 45. WI L.WN', E ., 1'ram. Am. Soc. M tt:Ii. E ngrl., trI: 47 (1 9 15).
J'ROBLEMS
I . An uniMubted 3-in. steel IICheduie-4() pipe ee.rtying lind the in!!:lde surface of tlv! jacket a~ silvered to reduce t he
satuMU.J -"team at 00 p8ia ill ~ndcd from t he ilinll: of II hetll inpu ~ to t he l ractioptl.tinr; colum n . \\"hat ill the heat
lMge ro:>om. Thl wall!< of the room and objects in the room invut (Btu per hOUT) to th'! boiling methane in .the 8-ft length
nnl 1.1.10 F. of column with nod without the twu surfaces coated with
(a) Co mpu te th~ Mat lost I"~ r hour by radiation and eon- lilver?
vection for a 100ftiengt h of hl:l.ek pipe. StAte any lI5!Iu mpt.ions mDdc. T he boilin& coefficient for
(6) If ph~ized pipe w('rt suOstitu t.ed for the black pipe, meth.&.De may be taken t\8 1000 B t u /(htW F) (sq tt) . Air aDd
surroundings are at 70 F.
0
how much beat .... uuld be lelSt by r'...,li" tion!
t and a for bll.d, iron surface _ 0.88 nt. 60' F, 0.92 at
7. A Iurnue ;., plllced in a laboratory iD trueh a position
400" F. thlt t he III.CC of t he door is p&mllel to the _II aDd removed
e and II for ~Iv"ni zed iron _ 0.23 a t 60" F, 0.30 a.t 400" F.
from the ..... all by II dist!lnoo of "' ft. 100 door 0' the furnaoe
2. In II. sped,,\ t(!~I., [I, "erlklll lime kiln 6 ft in diamewr is 2 ft square, is maintained lit 500 F, and hilS an emissivity
hfU! a n empty !II1etion at th~ wI' from which the combustion of 0.9. The room and air are at 90" F. The wall is coYT.l""ed
gas lcaVC8 at 620" F . TOO Itft.' IUlruysis iii 30% COr. 2 % IIi> ,,it.h a ... hite lacquer.
to 6R% N!. T he b..i~k waH of t loe kiln is ILt 2oW F. Brick What temperature (average) wi!! the II.I'C8 (2 ft by 2 It) of
(!lni!:l!livity - 0.78 at 240" F. wlIll oppn~i te the furnace door a.ttain!
H ow much beat ill ooing tmn8fcrrod from the gillel by
mdillt;c.n per foot..,f kiln h".i~,t? 8. A bille t of steel lit 100" F is plaoed in II, flIDlllooo ..... ith
refractory "11111 ma.i.nt.n.ined a.t 1800" F Plot the r&dia.tion
a. A \.oruontai hot-oilline wi t h 6-in. OD and 5.5-in. ID is coefficient for tm.nafer of rnd..iant heal tlI the billel t\8 a func-
carrying oil lOt 750'" F. The pi!!,' is huOO with " lAyer of tion of the tcmpernture of ~he Surfilr.~ of the biUet.
m~ia 1 in. thiele; emillsivity ~ _ 0.00. TM surrounding
air a nti object.!! are at 00 F . lI ... w much hC:II.t ;. being bit 9. The gas from II li me kiln conll lM 30 volu lTlC per cent
per hour per ioot of pi pe'if t he heat tf"llnstcr coefficient from carbon dioxide and II negl igible amount of wRler VlI.por. This
oil t., inside pipe wall ie 120 Btuf(hr)("F)(1IQ ftl! ps Jio .."!! thmullh a horizontal 12-in. schedule-40 steel pipe,
which !lCtveII t\8 a g&Il cooler, at a rate of 0.6 Ib /(sq ft)(~).
4. It is known tMt polished or reflect ing I<unacell emit A~ a gi""n aectioo of 1h.i3 cooler, the gas temperat ure is
and a.b6orb little mdiant heat lIS comp&J"OlJ to dark 8UnaCCII. 1000- F and the prelll!llre it 14.7 paia. The temperature 01
If I-in. iron pipe (oxidin..'<I) were ennyin; It.eam at 20 ptrig the air 00 t he Ollt8ide of the pipe and surroundings is SO F.
thJ"O\lgh (on enc!UIL'i1 room lit 60" 1,' and he"'l units wcre valued Determine the temperature of the gna at a eeetk>n Qf the
at ,),(lOO2 L'{Jnt/ Btu, how much r<luld you afford to pay per cooler 100 ft downetrellm from the first se~tion.
foot of pi pe fOT a pnlio<hed nickel BUnl!.(!(l " 'hieh would last
7 yeIIf37 10. Tim return lill(! to tbe Il.mmol"lia ..... mpmillOr in a refrig-
How much !:QUId you pa.y for a specific aluminum paint eration sYl'tem i l II 4-in. schedule-8l ~teel pi"" covered with
which wnuld IMI. 4 years? 1.70 in. of molded cork inllulation. At R given point in this
5. If the con\"f!c:lion oocfIicie nt of heat transfer of a nickel
li lli!, t he ammonia vapor ill at a tempera lure of - 10 F a nd
wire,)( O.035-in. ,j~cr at 1700" }o' to lIir is 6 Btu/ (hr)(F) II pnossure of 20 psiR. The l.emperattue of tbe air and the
(sq ft), how much heM is IQ!lt by I ft of wi re insi,jc an oxidized
wrruundings il SOo F.
ClIlcuiatn the he .. t trll.n~ftrred from the HUTTOun,jings to th &
COPPOT container, the air and container being al 160" F?
a.r:lmoni a vapor pm foot length of t he linp for >I velocity of
6. A 3-It laboratory fractionat ing column of 0.17(M.n. ID ammonia vapor of 0000 fvm at lhe lit.n.tod puint in t he line.
and 0. ?"76-in. OD made of Pyrex I!:M 1.1: _ 0 .668 Ut uf {hr)
( "F)(ft)1 ill separating I, I!ffii\)l impuri t y from methane lit ll. Two puallel di.~ka, 6 and 12 in. in diame ((!r on a com -
1 atm pressure with the me thllne boLin:l; throughOut the mon lUi~ lind 8 in. apart, a re mll;ntJl.incd at tempera.tUl\l$ of
eolumn at -~ " F. Around the L"Vlumn is a 2-in. ID jacl<ct, 600 and t OOO- F , respectlvely. If eMh rii.u may be oon-
OOlllltruetcd of p_ }i in. tMek, IlDd evacuated to eliminate siciered to :,e .. Mack body. whe.t is t he net in~hange of
eonduction. In IIOme eases the oufsi<.le 8U rlaoe of the column radiant encl")l.Y between tbe '''''o?
-,.,
CHAPTER
32
Evaporation
,
HE operation of evaporation is usually defined &ling is the term nonnally ulJC!d in reference to
Thic~
11q~
ban,.
478 EVAPORA T10N
steam inlet
Flo. 46Oa. l'herm<)llt,atio trop. When steam entera the trnp, Fm. 400b. Proosurc n,tum tmp. '\linen the u".p becomce filled
the &!III in the Bylphon lKloomefl heated and cxpanOM, c101'ling with liquid, the Hoat ri8ell, do"loll; the feed to tho trap wd
the discharge. Such traps ale 11B<-...J when the aystem i!! fre- opening the stea.m pl'CSllu-e line, thereby increa.~ing the pres-
quently purged of air as in 1\ &lcIun-hea.ting system (or build- sure in the trap eufficiently to return the liquid through the
ing8. diBeharge line of the trap.
p
VALVE SEAl
VALVE
VALliE GUIDE
PROPELLER
('l
long-tube vcrticsl evapOf8tor is in general not recom- :\l ATF.RIALS OF CO:,\STR UCTION
mended for salting or ECaling Uq\lid$ nor for liquids
Ev apor&t.ors are built or mild ,,;tt:el u nl~ corrosion
with extremely high viseos.ity. It can be ada.pted
conditions dict.a.te !~ more rel:!i~ an " material. Welded
(~xcenently to I.he cOlll!eotration of foamy liquids.
construct ion is rum06t univ('l' is! l~')r severe condi-
Th.is is believed due to the breakup 'of the f09rn wh.en
tions or for products suhjeo: tc ,: ' ma.ge by slight
the liquid-vapor mixture is ejectcci from the tubes
corrmlion, Lhey may be built of (u 1l~IS\.()rill.l: lead'
at high velocity against a properly shaped deflCl:wr.
for rayon spin baths, nickel for i:trong co.ul:!tic,
The fre.clion of the liquid evaporated per pasa is
Karhate for certain !!.Cia!:!, or stainl ,~s steel for food
in general considerably higher in &Ii LTV evaporg,tor
prooucta.
than in alorcerl-circula t ion evaporator.t Operation
may be wi~h recirculation, as shown, or it may be
EVAPORATOR AUXILIARI ES
one pass; with thick liquor removed from the head.
The coefficients are usually not 80 high, but the 'nle feed pumps, condellS.'Lw withd rawal pumps,
expense of lIlstalling and operating the circulation and liquor withdrawal pumps, as necessary, for
pump is avoided. Special-purpose evaporatoJ'B or evaporat.or operations in general, and the circulating
vacuum pans may h3\'e the heating eurfuce in coils pump for forced-eirculat.ion cvaporawrs, 'arc I!tam\-
or in extremely loug units. ard e(luipmnnt of a design appropriate to the tern-
EV APOR.4:TION
pentures of operation. enoount6red, and frequently proportioned ior the most. 'eoonomW:al handling' of
to the Jl&'e88ity gf pumping {rom a space at sub- the streams. Since pressu{l:"drop on the vapor side
atmospheric pressure. Temperature, pressure, and "' is frequently :import.ant, vapor lanes through the
liquid-level controllers are standard equipment. For tube bundle 'are usual to facilitate distribution of
removal of condensate from spaOO8 above>atmos- vapor and promote unifofTJl effectiveness of all sur-
pheric prossure, conventional therm.al or buckct-t.ype faces. Venting of noncondensables may be from
traps are used (Fig. 4{j()a, c, t); for tcmoval from any well-cooled ' point in the condenser. In large
spaces below atmospheric pressure, a pump or units, or those operating with small temperature
pressure return trap is n(l(:Cs;;&ry. One common type differences between cooling-water temperature and
of pump trap, using high-PI'CSl!ure steam as the acti- saturation temperature, special-feature8 are hlclud{
vating fluid , is shown in Fig. 4600. to assure cloee approach to cooling-water inlet
Where the BOIute is valuable or where it is neces- temperature by the condensate.
sary to re-use coodensate in as high a ~tat.c of purity Removal of eOIidensate from surface oondenl!el'S
as possible, 1111. entrainment eat.e:her should be in-. and steam chests be10w atmOllphcric preHSUTe may be
stalled in the vapor space or line from an evaporator. accomplished by pumping, pr by flowing altemately
The most common type is the cyclone" or centrifugal to two evacuated tanks. which can I,)e periodically
separator, but haffies or screens are also used. The isolated from the system, released to atmospheric
vapor formed in the evaporator mugt, be condensed, pressure for draining, re-evacuated, and returned to
for which a jet or a surface condenser may be used. service.
Removal of cooling water plus condensate from a When a jet condenser is UBed, condensate and
jet conde )l!er is usually acoomplil;herl by a "baro- cooling water are mixed and removed together. The
metric leg" to avoid the expense of pumping. The jet condenser is .simply a chamber for intimate con-
condenser is mounted high enough above the dis- tacting of vapors with cooling water (Fig. 461).
charge point that the water column established in Sprays, trays, and CQUIlterflow are used in various
the discharge pipe more than compensates the dif- designs to improve the contact. Inheren tly, they
ference in pressu re between the condensing space are smaller than the surface condenser and mucb.
and thc atmosphere. About 34 ft is the usual re- cheaper. A modification of the jet condenser permits
quirement. A seal pot at the bottom should have a elimination of the vacuum pump and the barometric
capacity equal w tha.t of the tail pipe; otherwise leg in somc instances. It is possible to inject a part
evacuation s nd flow of cooling water must be skill- of the cooling water with sufficient directed velocity
fully balanced to cl:itablish the water column. into a.properly shaped discharge throat to function
The surface condenser is of conventional tube and as a jet pump for removal of the noncondensablea.
shell design, with water n.nd vapor nozzl!!s properly Pressures below 2 psia are atta.lned by such pumps.
FlO. 461. Two-el.agll barometric condenser. (ScAu& ClIId Fm. 462. Barometric jet oondelW!lr. (&:4~ ClIId KomilljJ
KoeTting Co.) 0(1.)
EVAPORATOR OPERATION
Figure 462 illustrates one design in which 8. part of
the cooling water i!l sprayed into the vapor -stream
v_
_...... ,..., --.......
Vapor III hut v"PO'to ~
481
.......''''''f'''""'" """
for maximum effei:tivcnt'SS in condensation. The 1hiRI~1
-....
~
barometric leg tor evaporator service because of
immunity from flooding. Designs are also available
in which the jet pump ac tion is sufficient also to .....'"
rl't$h feed to
~-
ejeet the cooling watf':" to a tmospheric pressure
without a barometric leg.
When solids 9Cparate out during evaporation, they
. ..
"""""'-
"""r",
Flo. 463. Flow .!illgram 01 II forward-I('(!\) tli ple-clfe<:t evapo-
must be removed if present in sufficient quantity to n~.
,J:-- i'i-
1800 1-,j(~!J.til\ed-
- ~;:'i --;
2530"'.-'"
hydroxide.
Heat Required
The heat required to va porize a. pound of water
800 '"
I
from a solution is not necessarily th(' s..'1mc tuI the
latent heat of the pure water, since the va poriza-
tion procCSB includes a concentration of the solution.
700 For substances like caustic which have appredable
heat of dilu tion, the enthalpy requirements are be~t
determined from enthalpy-concentration charts (M'C
p. 326, Chapter 23). Figure 468 is a n enthnlpy-
:f~
ooncentration chart for water-sodi1\m hyd roxide
,i."
solu l ions based on data for heats of dilution at (..'00-
I'lant temperature and speific heat at consttlnt
composition ? The d~um for wate r is t he same ns
300 .f/ the IIteam tables so diat they may be used for pure
water. The datum for NaOH on this chart is for
200
100
-- V Boiling-point
el!v.1 i ~
212- F
NaOH in an infinitely dilute solution, and pure
caustic ha.6 an enthalpy at 68 F of 455 Dtu/ lb above
this datum.
Edal11plfl. Compute the heat required to vaporize 1 lb of
water in an evaporator producing caustic .eo)utiun eont.B.ining
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 40 pel' cent NaOH by weight, at a pre9SUl'\'! of 3.716 PIIia, when
Mass fraction, NaOH footling ~ ~,r et:nt NaOH lIQlution to the evaporator at the
F lo. 466. Approxill'Lllte phase equilibrium diagram for the bo~ l,empetature in t he evaporat.or. What is the boilin.,;-
water-eodium bytlrm:ide lI}1Jlem at I a hn. point elev:alion?
Solution. From properties of ""ateT, the boiling point of
rium diagram at a constant pressUn! of 1 atm for t.50 F.
-water ...
water-sodium hydroxide &Jlution!l. Most vapors in Boiling point 40 per cent NaOH ... 19'r F from Fig. 467
equilibrium with liquids containing dissolved solids Boiling point . .levation ... 47 ' F
normally concentrated in commercial evaporators are Enthalpy of ~t"'lm at t07' F .rod 3.716 pIIia. 1148 Btu / II.>
essentially pure water. Since the temperature of the l:nth ... lIlY in Enthalpy out
vapor is above the boiling point of pure water at the q+2X142 174 + t14B
existing pressure, the vapor is superheated relative IlH ... q ... , ., . + 11"8 - 284 ... 1038 Btu to evapol'8te I
to pure water. Ib of water and eonoen traW 20 per rent NaOH to 40 per Dl:Dt
The boiling point of water containing dissolved NaOH. From 8t.eam W>Ies, the latent heat at 3.716
solids may be given by its boiling-point elevation psia ... 1008 Blu, whicb is only a fair appm:<imation of \be
heat re~meM.
above tbat of pure water. This term is convenien t
in evaporation &inee i,t gives tbe tempe rature de- If t he vapor from this evaporator were sent to the
crease which will take place between e volution of the . heating clement of another effect, without any pres-
vapor [rom a liquid and condensation to pure water sure drop, the condensing wmpcrature would be
at constant prebSure. Boiling-point elevation~arc 150 F.
EVAPORATION
1000
800
-
.:~
700
$\""
",, I;
600
1,1
.,,,.. "
,
~
lIlO
~
<'
. ~
2110 ~ 1{;.
~
'1110 i-o ~
~~ .
0
20
" 60 80 1110 120
"" 160 180
80ilinj Potnt of Water, of
2110
"" 240
'" 280 3110
........ ""'"
Water - liquld.t 32 F
NaOH - infinilwly d~ute
sokItion al
400
100
o 10 20 30 40
N.OH." by Weight
Flo. 468. EIlth.alpy,~()DOOIltn.tion di&gnm for &tluooUIIS<liutioN! " f !iod ium hydro:o;ide. !k{C""ICC aUt-toe H4uiJ \\"at<lr at 32 F
0
18 pw,
.....""
v.""
184"f
14"", .tIs
V.""
7.720 rtJ/tw
1.,.'
4" HI abs
are calculated around each effect in ser1ea, With
relative areas decided upon in advance, these energy
2 ,
balances and coocurrent heat tr&J)sfer calculations
for etWh effect in turn give sufficient information to
permit specification of areas, temperatures, and con
centrations with more than adequate accuracy.
..
The following procedure emphasizes one char--
acteristic which is of importance. By far the largest ""'"
IS.28llb/ht
19.40" NaOH "'
quantity in each energy balance is the latent heat condensinl
term, which represents the heat availabl~ to the next Product temperatu re
22r,
effect. If this wcre the only heat effect, th.e flux 6.000 tJ/trr
",,,,,.,,,
''''
..
50" NaOH
would be identical in all effects. The minor heat.
effcdS--i!ensible heat <'If liquor, heats of dilution,
crystallization, etc.-which are rendered unavailable
Drips
condensing
10," Nai>H
"'
condensint
tetnperatur. temperature
to t .e next effect may be significant. They represent DrF 1}6"F
a decrease in heat fillx through successive effeets in
'10. 400. Flow diagram for \.he triple-effect. enpol"lltor of the
almost aJl cases except the sensible heat of a hot illustBtive t nmple, 8ho~ing opera.tillfl: oonditiollll.
food, flowing forward through the evaporator. The
arej:j. and concentration calculations cat). he executed t Solution. (Baaed on 1 hr. RadiAtion ill UII~ed negligihle
on the basis of a seri~ of terms of the form (1 - rrao-- ill the first approximation.)
lion of heat rendered unavailable) for each effect. ,,"pI
This met.hoo of evaporator calculation emphasizes 36 X 2000 36 X 2000
the decrease in flux in successive effects. It is more T otal evaporation: 24 X 0.1 - 24 X 0.6 ... 24,000 Ib/hr
time cotUluming thlU.l aimult&ncous solution of heat
A8IJume eva.pomions, B :
balances when enlhalpy-concentration charta are
HI ... H, .. EI ... 8000 lb/hr.
~. F, ... feed to 2 ... 30,000 Ih/ hr.
In general, multipl~ect evaporarora are built FI .. feed to 3 ... 22,.000 ]b/ hr.
with all bodies iden~ical to save in the OO!!t of pre-
pariog plans and fabrication and for the general
advantages of uniformity of equipment. Where a
large fr8(ltion of the feed is evapora~d .o r wnere its
chararlteristics change radically, differences between
1\ - feed to I ... 14,000 ]b/hr.
P ... product ... 6000 lbjhr.
(684:i)(993)
A, .. (..00)(43.0)
tIOO DoT .. 500 loT, .. 400 DoT, SUp 6
-DoT. - DoT, - DoT, .. 106 ... F Inspection reveals that t be evaporatioa ill faz lronl equal,
becauee of the large I!f!n.sible heat reql.ilr!lment ill the fim and
w~1lCI! -4". .. 28.8" F.
-loT. _ M.5 F. IeOOnd efl"ect& A preliminary teet of IU'eIII! indicstea that the
-loT, .. 43.0" F. tint estimate of - loT in ei'l"lICt 1 Wall too low a.nd in effect 3
'11':" too hlp. A l100000 eIItbr~te may be m&de, usjllC con-
'this would iudi<;ate a templlrature distributlOD M followa. oent.ra1iona indicated by the computed evapontiooa, and AT',
, , adjueted AI ind..i~t.ed by deviation of _
..........
from all average
a nIue (thiIJ ill all apprommatiOll only, IIinoe t~ flux t.broti&h
337 .9 229. 1 186 .5 \be elICtII it not equal).
Liquor 309.1 194 .5 143.5
CoQndellleJ" 126.6 - .loT. -- 29 X -I-H .. 36.", ay 37.\1
'The values of boiliq-point elevation in thle cue are not -loTt - 34.6 X m .. 34..3, say 37.0
eensitive enough to bollins: point to j~tify adj~tment hem,
linoe subeequent adjustment. will have to be made lor a.eeu-
-loT, - 43.0 X m - 81.0, say 36
rate eonoentrati.one. Fittilll u-e -loT'. witb boillnc-point e1ev.tklo. l'al uea
lur the .-icolat.ed eonoentta ~iON yieldll temperatur..:
SUp ,
,
,., ,..
2
From Fig. 468, entblpiee of aoIutioll!l are:
, , s Food
S\.eaJ)l cbeat
Llq~
337 .9
aoo
220 l70
...
11- 1189
"".8
1196
'99
1146
".
112. H Btujlb
""
From 8~m tablet!, entbaJpiea are: '" in.' eo
'."
.....
21.001
23 .001
11.111
0-
Al'OUDd 2:
.. (6000}(302) + 1I91BI + ao8.SS + 26,000
n.;.... liquor.
NoOR
EYapcndon, Ib/lo.
pel" "D~
....
9 ,281
IUl6~
..."
19.40%
7,7!IJ
(80,000')(60)
Around 3:
+ 1191EI
- (30,000 - Bvl86 +JI40E, + 188Bl + 25,000
T_-,,1"I"Q of . tu m
.
-""
T"""p.... t" .. o11lqor.
10.63
n,
"
I .a l
".
,~
.w' .08
U&.I
I
37 18, 418 (1m).
A, - 0O3X 88
- -490. 9. R.u and CoUN.... KANj Tram . ..4._. I,... CUm. Brtg., U.
263 (1946).
z. C1\eoL 111.
"
A, .. 499 X 36 .. 48li
10. VON ,\NTaoPOrJ' aOO
161 (1P26).
80~ pA~
EVAPORATION
PROBLEMS (/I) The heating lIIlIiaoe required for eacb effect, IIIIIIllIllina
that equal areas are U8ed.
1. An &qllelMlBlOlution (at 60 F ) containing 10 weight par
0
(It) The pouod.II of water evaporated per pound of !Iteam
Qent MgSO, ill to be conocntrated to :n.S ~ight per ocnt \lied. ill the Iinst. eflect.
MgSO, in a double..elfect evaporator Ullin, b&eh'aJ'd food..
No erystallization ill to take place in the evaporator. The 4. AI a plant engineer the following data ate avUable to
thiek liquor from the firet effect is to be at 170 F . Thle yOu.
t.hick liquor from the evaporator is then cooled to BOo F in Feed 00,000 ll>/hr of 10 per cent NaOH IIOlution to the fuet
a ctyBtallioor with negligible evaporation. The Blurry from effect of a tripJ&.effec:t evaporator (forward feed). Steam at
the erystallizer is centrifuged, t he liquid removed beillf) 50 peia ia IlUpplied to the lil'llt effect. Solution leavin&; the
retlll'Ded to tbe evaporaUlr (finit effect). Twelve tolllJ per day third drecL is 50 per cent NaOR. Each effect has a heat
of >1ids from the oentrifuge &re to be produoed. The com- traMfer aurfaee of 1340 aq ft, and operatinc conditiollll are
position of the8c IIOlidll is: as follow. with .. ba.rometet 0114.47 psi&.
Forvrard feed,
F1~'
El!~'
""' ..
Eff~'
TIllnl
"'~,
3. A trip~ffee1. fomed-ci.n:ulatiotl evaporator is to be (Btu/ (hr)(OF)(fIQ ft) 1100 1000 700
designed to conceotrate 90,000 Ib/hr of 10 pcr ceot by ""eight Backward. flllld.,
NaOH, a t 120" F t.o 50 per eent by ..... ight. Back....... d feed (Btu/ (hr)("I')(eq f\) 800 1000 1000
is to be URd, and saturated eteaw at lUi psig is to be U!Ied
in thto .team ebeet of tile firlt effect. The J"Il"SUre on the ","",
lut e1Iect ill to be 3 in. of mercury, abIolute. Bream, 30 Qenta per 1000 lb.
TbC overall ooefficien~ of Mat tn.lIIIfer, oornICted for Water, 3 eenta p6r 1000 pl..
. -.....
boilin&"-poi.ot elevation., ate II8III.IIIIed to be equal at :;00 Eftporatora, t40.00 per aqua.re foot, oomp1ete wtth all
Btu/ (hr)( "F)(eq tt) for &II effects when baekward f~ ~ UIIed .
The condeDMre leaYing the.!lteam chelt of each elfed ma.y be Filled charpB, 16 PIll' (lent per year.
NIIUmed to be eatUl1lted at tbe coneepooding preIIIIl1re in
Water for condel1l!&ra: Entera at 70 F;!.eavee at 96 F.
the .team cheat. The heat _ from each effect ill estimated
P!&ot operatell350 dare per year.
to be .. per cent of the total heat input to that effect (based
on vapor to the dee\). What ill the diJIerenoe in -t. per too of actual NaOH,
Detennine: between forward and b&cbard feed'
CHAPTER
33
Crystalli!lSation
OLID cryst.alline salts are handled more con- tilln. The rate of erytltallization iw,olvf!s two dis-
stcam tables. The net increase in enthalpy 611 dur- crystal habit may also be modified 1.>:/ !lC addition
ing the operation is easily evaluated by subtracting of an extraneous substance or impurity. Crystals 88
the enthalpy of a. given amount of .feed from that of formed are Cfl8entially perfect in shape except under
the corresponding lUnount of final magma plus conditions of vigorous agitation when there may be
vapor, if any. Since til = 0, lJ.H _ q, the heat ab- mechanical breakage, and in certain types of crys-
""bed. tallizer equipmefJ,t a rounded struct.ure resu(tg rather
The relative size of the aceEi 88 the crystal groWB tban the typical sharp crystal..
is independent of the crystallographic structure. 0c-
casionally the crystal habit (the relative 'sizes of the
!aces of the crystal) must be modified to satisfy a
UNIFORMITY OR DISTRI BUTION OF S IZE OF CRYST ALS
AVER AGE S IZE OF THE CRYSTALS omctcrs by the amount of growth to obtain directly
the size distriblltion for the product. Th is procedure
The average size to wh.ich crystals nrc grown may is no t convenient, !13 the size dillt ribution of crystals
be dictatoo by the use to which they are to be put, is not readily computed on the basis of numbers of
such as thc granulation of sugar or the preparation of crYJ:ltll.ls. The usual prnctice is to expreSi> tho size
saiL for different uses, as, for example, table, ice distribution in S I:ICrccn analysis by mass fracwons.
CTtUm, butter, or pretzels. In genentl, fine crystals Since an iu crea~ by a constant amount in B. chosen
have less opportunit.y for agglomeration and ac- linear dimension results in a greater fra.ctional in-
cordingly occlude ICBS mother liquor; but fine crys- crease in ma.'lS for 1\ small crystal t.han for n large one,
tals have greater surface and offer greater difficulty it is necessary t.o integrate the change in mass over
of complete remoyal of mother liquor entrained on the applicable size d istribu tion.
the crystals. For prodncilltt; crystalline material of a given size
range there is II definite upper and lowcr limit to the
UNIFOUi\U T Y OR DISTRIBUTION OF SIZE number of such crystals which may be grown by the
OF CRYSTA l S deposition of a given amount of solid. If the quan-
tity of seeds added to a specific quantity of ~lution
The caking tendency of crystalline mntcrial8 in exceeds the upper limit, all crystals ill t.he produJt
storage is predominantly a result of the formation may be smaller than desired. If the quantity of
and evaporation of a solution with recrystallization seeds added is less than the lower limit, all cry,~ tals
on the surf!we of the crystals, result.ing in bonding to- in the product may be larger than desired. Some
gether of cryst.als at points of contact. The number
of point.s of contact is significantly less for uniform
cryswls. Accordingly, hygro&:opic sult-s, or sa1ts
carrying hygroscopic impuritieH, will have cons.id-
_0.
quantity of seed" hetwt!en these Iimit.'! will yield the
maximum quantity of r u c t of the desired size
01 2
(458)
b 0.10
There is always the possibility of dusty material
adhering to the seed crystals. of breakage of crystals,
"
; 0.08
1006
of dust,.like crystala floating in the air. and of sub-
microscopic crystala growing to recognizable size to
the extent that fine material is almost always in-
cluded in the product. The virtual impossibility of
~
<
...
0.02
attaining the same number of product crystals as 0 -\:--,to
seeds vitiates the accuracy of this prcdietion, but o 0.1 0.2 0.3 OA O.S 0,6 0.7 0.8 o.g
MHS 01 Seed Cty$llIIs ~;tjned on Screen
the approximate prediction "is highly useful.
T he graphical integration of equation 458 can be FIG. 471a. Cumulative "iw ana lysill of ooo.:d Cl'yllt.a.is for 1be
i11u~t.rative example.
II.CCOmplished directly for a known value' of W . v
For a known ratio of crop, or y ield, to seeds, it is may then be computed as a runction of "" from Fig. '471a
neeess&ry to fit by trial and error an appropriate and plotted, [1 +
(O.OO9/D.)]z as the ordinaw venus 10" in
valuc of t:.D u to dctermine the growth. A plot is ~'ig. 471b. The i n~ is ev.lual.ed by determinil\& the area
made of w, versus w. from which the mass product or tmder the curve oot" 'oon the limite of "'. _ 0 .nd w. _ 1.
This is bcIIt do ne hy diriJing the uea in w ~tanll.k>:e (Fie
corresponding to any given masS of seeds may be
47lb) such thD.t the arcILS or the n,ct.a.ngies equal the liTeM
read. In orner to determine the screen analysis of undo:!' the curve ... described on p. SO, and .lNmmih the &fe&iI
the product, it is most cOilvenient to "evaluate w. &8 f,ivea in Table :hi.
EQUIPUF.NT
..
RE(.'TANGI,ES IN FlO. 47111
,
(0. 1 -tl.Q) X
( J +Jj;
'D)'
1.36
Are.
.. 0.136
magma to secure more unifor m' crJ'stJ.llir.ation con-
ditions. The crystallizer is ' nurmally huilt in 100ft
1 . 002
Therefore
(1 + ~:ydw... 1.\102
'l'he simplest type or C(luipmcmt for er)'!ltallizat ion hmgth:s, oS which up tu fuur ,;e(,I.iuns may he oJ)('raloo
il a tank in which naturul cool ing h:l allowed to lower ill tufH.lt'm frum a single drive. If more th!\n {um
the leml*rll.!.llre of the ,solu tion, with whutever units illY! I~'illlirf'll, it is CllSt.omnlY ttl provide dri~'cs
500 CRYSTALLIZATIQl"i
for grot:ps TIol to exceed four units, wit h flow of t.he or the (',ontrollcd evaporation in a batch vacuum.
magma from onc section usually clll!Cuding down crystallizer as the pre8Sure is lowered reslllt& ill
into the head of the next section. 'I1lc shook of cooling as well as concentration of the solution.
cascading usually increasec nucleation :lnd !;IIQuld be The provision of adequate. evacuator C8tmcity for
avoided if possible. Scad crystal ~ arc ~9metime5 the low pre&!ures required is a major c:onsidcration
added, or l!ponlimeous nucleation or the inevitable unless cooling wilter is available at. a tempo:!rature
seeding by microscopic crystnls of the salt floating sufficiently below the saturation tt"lrnperal-ure of the
. ,
Steam
W~ler
Water_ "'m
Steam ::~~w.'"
_ Stelm
fwuSl
-
tHot water
VlICYum f!a$ll-
.
...................
,...
Circulating
--
"mp
Baffle 10 red'iCII
5hort - c ifeuiti~a:
FIG. 473. Vi\cuun) t!1)'5l ullizer ,,-illl recirculation . FH.I. 474 . \-" cuum cry~tnllizer ... ith a jti- FlO. ~75. Oslo vacuum cry>t-
(S~_" e...
porolDr Co.) ltt to!"8. (S\l.~'''''m Empcralur C.,.) talli.er. (Stt..mQnE1I(IporallYr
CQ.)
in the 9.1.l1loophere o(.l\ ,pllillt is depended UIJO/l t l) vapor so tha t. d irect condensation of the sulvent
start crygtal grow th. - Crystals Ilre removed at the vapor iii iX-'dSiblc. Under l:lUch conditions a vacuum
end of ~he cryst.aHizer by an iilclined spiral flight pump o r a ont.... or t WQ--6tage !:Iteam ejcek f is a Je-
conveyor which lifts them onto a drain Ixoard or a fl uate to mainta in the reduceU pressure by s i'1lply
com'eyuf which ra rries t.he {'rYisl !lIs t.o cclltr ifu~;; Of removing the noncondensable ga.':ICS . Usually t he
any o ther d rying operations that may be required. operating pre!l8ure required to aHain t he desired
The vacuum crystallizrr is a device- for cooling t he crystallization is so low that thc evolved V:J.por
solutiOtI by evaporatioll uf a portiun of the 8Olvent. cannot be condensed dim !tJy hy the cooling wllter
It may be hatch o r cun tinuous in operat.ion. In available. In this case a steam jet l>on<;tcr, as shown
principle, tile vacuum crystallizer is little more in Fig. 473, is used to compress t-he Yap"!" and non-
than a vessel which may be, evacuated t,o extremely cunden,sables before condensation. The removal of
low pressure, ordinarily by s team jet ejectors. into DoJIlcondensables saturated at the temperl\t~re of
which t.he feed may be introduced. The spontaneous condensation is IlCcompli:;hed by steam jets as de-
flashing of feed in a continuous vacuum c rystallizer ~ rilJed .
PRO!)LEMS 50I
Tht' design of the crystallizer itself niust be such be removed as prc.JUCL Tfu:l classifying action
that stratification of the fcro cannot occur. At the retains the small CI'.,:;lals if. the circulating liquor
low temperatures involved, the hydrostatic head ol a stream in the cl1'fltaIIA'I1 un(ii ~ heir size has reached
few inches of the solution results in raising the boiling the desired ranW".
point to such an extent that liquor well above the Th( clasrifvill(j rryslalh-er is subject to operation
satnration temperature at the pressure of the vapor under vacuum for low temoerature if desired or Itt
space may pass through the crystallizer. Agitation moderate v~uum fOI' inter.r;-'tint{) temperature if
neoe':oSaJ'y to avoid this is usually accomplilohed by that is n8reSBlLry f01 phl\.Se stability or for rate of
the joint ,..ffect of propellers and of spontaneous deposition. Thus,' if it. is desired ' to produce
vaporization of feed (Fig. 474). MgS04 6H,O, which i:. ~ I:lble in contact. \\;th satu-
If the crystallizer is operated batchwise, it is rated solution only IJet\\'f'tln about 120 and 155 F,
eustomary to drop the finished magma at the end of it is possible to Ol ~ rate Ihe Oslo-type crystallizer
the cycle into I!. magma tank, from which it may be within this parl.icllla... mnge to prod\lC8 the desired
pumped to any dewatering device applicable to the phue.
particular installati'lll, that is. centrifuge, biter, or Multiple-efft'Ct (,vapurators arc also operated for
thickener. If the crystallizer is operated contino the production of a ('.rysla11ine product. The opera
uously, it is usual practice to pump continuously tion of the eVllporalur S('ldom allow!fffiuch flexibility
some 01 the magma from the body of the crytltallizer as to the siz3 and shu.I)C of crysto.ls produced. Some
to the dewatering filter or centrifuge. The type of classifying action does. occur in tbat line crYl'itals are
pump is usually any standard centrifugal pump with usually carried in thf' circulating mot.her liquor until
adequate clearance for the crystals being handled. they attain such size as will result ill their dropping
The limitatior:.!> Oil slurry density are usually im- out of the circulating st.ream into the salt-removal
posed by the viscosity of the magma which will equipment. Where careful control of the crystal
permit adequate circulation in the crystallizer body, size is necessary, or where Ihe de.sired j'ange of crystal
ratJ:J.er than the charact.eristiCil ol the removal pump. size is different from that which will result from
Depending primarily upon the relative denaity of the crystallization in the evaporator, it is common prac-
crystals and solution, the critical sluny density for tice to transfer the hot concentrated mother liquor
satisfactory operation of the crystallizer may be from the evaporator directly to a crystallizer in
from 30 per cent solids by weight for heavy crystals whioh the desired crystal 8ize. can 'be attained.
to as high 8$ 55 per cent for crystals approaching the
solution in density. The moLber liquor separsted BIBUOGRAPHY
in the.filter or centrifugal can be returned to process
or discarded as desired. 1. McC.A.B~ W. L .. "Cry.W Gro ..tb in Aqllf:OUll Solution. ,"
Ind. EI1I1 . CMm., 111, 80, 112 (19'l'J ). <
The types of equipment illustrated in Figs. 472, 2. MuRS, SIR H. A.. ''The Gro~th I)f Cry~tals in Super
473, and 474 have no provision for the removal of ea.turated Solutions," J. lrul. Meta~, 87, 1, 331 (1927).
large crystals of the desired size with retention in 3. PCIlRY, J. H. , Che>!liroi ElIgjrlNf'3' Ho.ndhook, 3ni N.,
the equipment. of small crystals for further growth. p.19G, McGra ...HiD Buuk ('..... (19S0).
The combina.tion of classifying action with crystaJ:.
Iization operations is incorporated in several crys- PROBLEMS
tallizers such as that shown in Fig. 475. Classifying
1. The IIOlubility of lIOdium $u\f..t~ ia 40 pa.rllJ Nat5(li per
crystallizers are available in which the crystal forma- 100 partB of water a t 30 C, and 1.3..5 pullJ at Hi' C. The
tion results from eitber cooling of the solution or la.tent beat of ctYl>t.alliution (liberated when crystals rorm)
evaporation ol80lvent therefrom. In either case the is 18,000 gram-c:alorie. per gram mole NatSO.. GI:w~I'3
liquid being circulated within the cryst.aIlizer is aalt (N;:,s<kl0H,Q) is tn be mad.! in a SwefUlOnW..lker
carried into the region of supersaturation in the crystalliser by cooling 90 S<llutioD, satur!l.ted at 30 C, t.u
10" C. Cooling water cnt.:'I'S .'lot 10 C and leaves nl 20' G.
~.bsence of crystals. The circulation then returns Tbe overall beo.t trarWer coofficicnt in tile crylltallizer ill
this slightly supersaturated solution to a bed of 26 Btu / (hr)(OF)(sq ft) an d each foot of cryltallizer has 3 eq h
crystals on which salt is dCpoiIited. This bed is or cooling surface. How nuwy lO-ft unit. of ctylltAlliur ..i ll
supported in &Jeh fashion that. crystals are re' ained be required w produot I t.on/ br of Glauber', .It?
in the crystallizer until the size is such that they will 2. One ton olllOdium thiOlJUlfate (NII.~I~oHzO) ill to be
lrop out of the circulating liquid stream an~ then eryItalliscd per bour bY oooling a ~Qlution oont&inlna: 50.5
502 CRYSTALLlZATJON
per cent N~ to 3O~C in II. Swelll!On-Wa lker Cf'YlIlalli~r. Specif.V the ...e iKht of iICI.'<ls per 1000 IL of hut fil t.el'L-d solu_
EVAporation is nugJlgible . . The product b to he!li~ cimsely to tion for the maxilU um yield of the 20-28 mee h "'reen ai~e.
IPproxinu.t.ely 14 mesh. St.'Ild crystals dO/lO'Jy eiled tu 2() mesh
7. Pot ll&'!ium ehl" ri,1e may be pmduect.l from aylvi ui t.e {a
are int roduced wi Lh t be !IOIl,Iliun lUI it enters th., cl)'stallizer.
na t ural mi~lure uf 42.7 per tell! Ky lvit., .. KCI, and 56.6 per
H oor. many tollS of sood crYBIIlI~ li nd. huw many tun~ of
ce ot hlllite. N aClJ by the (olkw.itJ.lol pruam. The ore is
OI(,) lutioli flte required per hour? .
crushed ami M noell,~ 1 lu - .\ IUI.OIh I. ml "'Jnt to illCNu rilig
3. A oonlinooWl ttdiaba!ic V1lCuum cl'Y.!'tal!i r.er ill 1.0 be billl!. The <T\lsood ore f .... 11 I he- ",....... uring hilUi. t.ogether ...ith
used for tbe produ ction of .\tIlSO.. 7H,o ~rye:tll.ls from 20,000 re<'yd" lTlother liquor. i~ -enl to t.he d i.q;olv", wh,,", the KCI
lb/hr of IOl ution containinll: 0.300 w~iKht fredian !\IgSO~. is di-;.'IOlved ..t 110 C and the remainder of the 0"," ill ee ,.t. to
Th is eoJut;on enten the eryllia lliacr at 160 f.' , wllIIte. T Ill" liqU<'lr al. ! IO C II1Kl l!Olturated with boJlh NaCi
The' cryalalber ia to be operuWd l'O thai the mixture Olf and KCl i~ ....l"kld io Vlu:uum coolers and crys!>.lI i~e", to
mother li quor &nu cry!Stal6 Ie ,villI!: t~ eryatallizer oonta.ina 27 0 C. Wllter i~ added to the crysla lliu.-I'!I (in lUI>Ount just
6000 Ib/ hr of :ltg.'K), ,7H rC) Cryst316. 'fIll, estimated boiling- equw 10 t he Wil Ier eVII[IOrated) to preveol NsC I from cryst.a.I_
point eleV1l1lon of the lIOIulion in the cryostallizl:r is 11)* F. lizinl/:. The "\I.'!pel\llion of KC! in a I\Bl urut.,.f 1I01u1ion formed
Solubili ty d ata IU'e found in rdcrenoe 3. in Ihe crY'lt &lIizcno i6 n!l"werl to M:tt1e, decan t inp; the mothe,'
How IIUl lly pound!! of "'atcr are vaporitcd pe r holll"? liquor .... hieh ill hea led lind "'!f':ycle..! to l he d~ver. The
thickened cIl'!!! ..1 ' 1lII.llS is filtered, wllIIhed, dried, Cl'"U8heo. l,
4. Compote the screen analy8il! expeet.ed or the product
IIC reened. aoo conveyed to tho. wa""hOW!<!. The filtrate and
obtained from the CFytlt u.lliacr as o"P"rat.W. in the illWltraUvtJ
wMh ....lIter are lidded t n .he d,!"Cant.ed IJIOther liquor and
eu.mple, p. 498. -
reeyclecl.
6. A IIOlution 01 polll.ll!lium chloride oontai llll 30 per oent (a) Sketch /I fIow~h~t of t he 1l1J<:mt ion.
potaseiwu chlori de (KCI ) by ..."\lieht Md iusul'licienl impuri- (b) I'lot an lIecu rat~ ptwoe diagnun (temperature ftl'SUlll
lie- to al ter ita eolubili lJ llignifleantly from that in pure IIlMI<rat io of KCl to KCI + HtO) fur t ltc ayst.em KC I- NaCi
.....~r. I t is tooled from iUi original t.empel1Lture (oYer 2()() " F ) - H sO fur a oonstant NaCI to H tO !'Illl" of 0.274
in a tank 11.00 fed to .. Swenson-W..lker Ql"Y8tllllizer ju.,t k) Calculate, per ton of dried KC), the quantitieB and
above the te mpcrr.lure at " 'hieb it is sa lurat.ed. It ill ~ oompositkuv! (mUl! (melion ) of all in11l<Jr!anl Ktret1.PlS, aDd
,,'ith J.i Ib of KCI crysta ll! per 100 Ib 01 ""Iulion. indiCllw these on t he' H"",~hecl.
The seedrl h.ave the followillJl: ! crwn a oalysia: (d) Irulicate and j\l.'!iify 1111 neces..kry !l!8UmptloM:
(d IndiCAIC lin thl> phue diagram the ~b of Lbc eJ'}'!!I.1-
M~ M AU Plill CI.KT liu.lioo P"'1OOf<S, poinl ~ rcpl'CgeDt inlt 5l~m oompoeitiolUl,
On.48 o and line 1,II>gths rcpre&lntinl/: quantitics .
&-OS S U) Di ~uS!! t he fortnation or Ill ek of fortnlltion of Nae l
o:ryst.als durinlt t hi, I~.
'-'-100
100-100
Poe
"
23
12 SOLnHLI'fY OF Nnel A.Nn Kel IN H,Q
100 Temper- -'Ill&< % :\1l\.S!1 % :-S01,,1
.. ture . ' C ~"CJ K CI Pha".,1j
Prediet the screen ll).aIYllU! of the crop if the . Inllgrn.& ill
IlOOIed to 70" F.
0 1!) . 1j S. 76 KCI
Through 100
CHAPTE~
34
Agitation
A
ITATION as ueed in the process industriru! is tank if mll,.'1s transier is to be promoted at all points
the production of irregular disturbances or of interCacial contact. Small impellers operating at
turbulent motion within a ftuid by means high speeds produce high stream velocities but con-
of mechanical devices acting on that 8uid. Agita.- centrate the turbulent zone nea: the impeller; on the
tion finds wKiespread application in industry 88 a other band, large impellers operating at low speeds
means of promoting certain operations such as ex- produce uniform turbulence throughout the tank but
traction, mixing, absorption, heat transfer, and may develop velocities too low for good suspension
chemica.l reaction. Although agitation might be or dispersion of phases. Consequently med.ium-eizc
discU88ed in connection with each of these operations impellers ' operating at medium epee<iB are recom-
in which it is employed, it is so common to all of mended for this type of operation.
them that it may be regarded as a unit operation
itself. Minn& or Blendin& oJ TWo uquuu
In continuous flow two I"liquids may be mixed
simply by paHage through a centrifugal pump where
OBJECTIVES AND REQUIREMENTS
intimate contact results. In batch mixing or blend-
Many different requirements are made of agitation ing in a large tank, the agitawr must pump large
systems, depending upon tbe desired result. There streams of the liquids tQ all points in the sy&tem.
are four general types of operations which may be After the maeses of liquids have ~n pumped
distinguished by their objectives, and each type rtllI,y around and mixed (In a bulk scale, th.e final localized
requif<.! different agitation equipment. mixing depends upon the intensity of turbulence at
all poinls or upon molcc1tlar diffusion. The m06t
~IGN TrantJjfJr ill HfJtfJrfJ&eneow SytJtem. important part in this opemtion is the larg&-fICale
This category include!! chemical rflactionf;, solution flow W all points in the system, for without this any
of -solids, extmcliun, absorption, and acisorR- high intensi ty turbulence at any point will acedrn-
lion. TI"IC re.luiremen~ of the agitawr are twofold: plish nothing. Therefore, for mixing or blenllillg
It rI.ust dillpenre or suspend t.he di:iContinuolls phase two or more fl1lids laJ'Wl impdlel'ij operating al. low
throughout the continuollS phftli(li and it must pro- speeds are generally superior to small impellen;
duce turbulence of high inl.ensity around the sus- opera.~ing at high speeds.
pended dropletll, bubbles, or part.icles to promote
mass transfer between the phases. This demands ILll Phy,ical Chonge eN EmattJijicatWn
agitator prooucing velocities of flow sufficiently high Some ope!ll.tion.~, such as the emulsification of two
to prevent the settling out of partieWs or the strati- immiscible liquids, re-<)uire an extremely hiJ;;b rate of
{yingof phases. There must be 110 dead spaces in the shear or intensity of turbulence at some point in the
agitation system which would allow one of the system. Usually the liquids will be fairly well mixed
ph88e6 to concentrate there. The intensity of tur- before arriving at t.his point of high shear. If the
bulence should be uniform throughmtt the whole
,., operation is conducted in a batch in a large tank, a
504 AG ITATION
gradual hll'lIiWer of all the tank contents is f(.oquircd mounted on a rpvoking shaft, and morc than onc
It. h"inl/: all portions into tilt) highly turbulent zone. shaft may he !lst-d in a p;h'en tank . Sometimf'Stwo
Small impdl('l'S npcrnl ing at high bl)C(!(\S wi th small adjacent imlX'IIt'Is I"Olate in llp~ile wreetions,
dear-.lnC(>o:l .Je tWl..-e1l t:IC iml)(,U('r and fixed surroulld- forming a Il('ater, and somc li m~ the impellers
illg:; art' t"illt'cially lIuil (.,<1 to pnxiuce the high ac tually IOllch t he Willis of the tank , giving a posit ive
shearing SlI"s."(.'s required for this operati(m. scmping action \\"pidl is d ..sirable when thick layers
of muterinl tmd 10 st i("k tu the w(\.ll . The tanks lire
Hea t 'l'rfl rlil/er a nd Un iformity oj Temperature oft en eon:.trUl'leu wit h halfle:!, drrdt t ulJe;, deflector
1-ll'a t Imllsfef is oft en Ii necessary &CCeSS(Jry to ri ngs. or (:n'n ht'ating and cooling (:oils, all of whieh
certain 1Ila.&J transfer opera tions, especially li u l>'C !>,ve to dcAect 0 1" Rt.:dc the Allid ,trier it leavee the
involvinK chemical [('actions. COmiC{jUcntJy, reac- impd lcl". III small c10scJ gla."j,.~ im;tallatiollS the im-
tion tanks are equipped with heating (or cooling) peller may ht~ maue of iron and drin'll hy a rotntin~
coils or jacketed walls, and adp.(luatc veloci ties past magnetic licit! wit h no shaft to (:ollnl)t't the impeller
t~ heat. exchange surfru:cs arc ncressary to pro- with t he outside. This dimilltl\rll any p3ekin:t
mote hent mlnsfer. In ~l l('h eases, the agitator pl'Oolcms in systems which must be airt ight.
impeller shlJuld Uc located twar the coils or jacketed
walls. i\loT'CQ"cr, the imJl(lIcr must produce large- Ci rculat.ion Pfl mp Sys t.e n.s
vdlumc ~trelLms of flow ~u that all the contents of T anks ma~' be COTlrrech..'"<l to pump!! which remove
the tank will he brought in the neighhorhood of the the fluid a t one point. and return it to the tank nt
beat tmnsfer surfaces if unifnrm temperatures arc some ot her point, thus sell ing up circulation in the
to prevail throughout the >lrstcm. Larg(> impellers tank. Cent rifu gal pumps by t hernst'lves are good
operating nt low speeds will usually be ~uitable for agitators in continuolls-flow systems. If two l iquid~
thi!> operati(ln. In a few instances it may be ncccs- nre led to the suction side of the pump, they will
sary to prevent localized overheating of 1:1. certain come from the discharge side in a well-mixed condi-
area of heat transfer surface by Illlowing the impeller tion, for the high-spt.-ed centrifuga.l impellert'. crea.l.e
to scrape 3tIch a surface or by employing a small high- con::.idcrable {.urbulf'nr:e in the small casings.
speed im~lIer to develop high turbulence in the
immroiate vicinity of the surface. Reciproctltin ,
. s Puddles ,
In eonside1"ing any of the above requirements, one Paddles or blades fiHY be moved buck and forth
mu!St I)('ar in mind that the :tone Of high turbulence through rectangular tanks.
surrounding thf' impeller is contained in a smaller
\'"Ihme at higher \i~itielS. Therefore, large im- RelJOiving Tunk s or PUlIS
pt>licn; arc I"'C(lllired in viscolIlS fluids if now to all A whole pnn of material m:.y be N'volved while
points ill the syste m i:. desired. the hlades or baffles remain !ltn tiunary. Usage is
generally confined t.o mixing of n~ry pasty materio.ls.
Tl'Pt:S OF AG ITATION EQUlP!\IENT Air LijtlJ (Iud Air Aj;ita tors
The mechanical devices whieh have been em- Air ill passed up wards through a large-diameter
ployed ror tlw production of agitation arc e~tremely tube, open at both ends and sllbm~rged in the liquid,
vuri(l(l, rnnsinJ; all the way from the familiar egg soU ing up a eirculat i UIl W! a result of the decroased
beRt~r to the high-speed colloid mill. The folluwing density of the air-liquid mixture in thl.) tu he, Air
arc the more impor tan t types of agitators found In or other gas may be admitted at the bottom of a
use looay. tank through small holes or from the end of pipe,
causing irregular disturbances 11.8 the gas bubbles rise
R otlltin g I mpellers to the surface of the liquid.
Impellers of many different shapes and sires ,.
(Fig. 476) revolve on shafts inserted in tanks which Collo id Mill , Hom ogen izer. a nd ftfixin8 J et
may be cylindrical, conical, hemispherical , or rec- In the colloid. mill fluid is fed to a minute clearance
tangular. Marine propellers, paddles, and eurved- space between .. high-speed rotor and its casin",.
blade hl~ in p,s are p;ood examples of this type of Extremely high 8hearing forcce are set up, and very
equipment. Marc than one im peller may be intimate mixing results. The clea.ral.ces arc of the
TYPI<:S OF AGITATIO~ EQUP.UENT 54)5
Six-hlad,,;! . a~i;ll-ll!)w tur- O/J-eelill'I' mOlini.cd double Double-motion llflr>l('shoe allti CUI'Vl.. l-hhldl' I1HiiaI-Hnw tur-
l>i.ue in I~lffl"d t.t~llk paddkJ Juixcr ~ , hi""
.'
. ~'
'. ~.
" l!
J i<
,
$[CTJOoII A'A ... ~, '
t;hroud~d ttirbi"" Shrouded 'turhine with 81,,- Rudial turbi"" with 1("" ;,.Ic'"
tiunJry deflector ring ;7 pil'K'
,. "
.,
,
, -:l
,~
,} " ..
,
AGITATION
older of 0.001 in. The Iwmogeniur compresses a a rms to given sections inOO the drag coefficient J/,
fluid to a. high pressure and aJlow8 it to escape the torque T on an impeller is
rndiaUy past a fiat disk hekJ agaios!. the end of a
('59)
discharge pipe by a strong spring. This produces
shearing stresses which emulsify the fluids. MUing where the radius r to the tip is the chosen dletance.
jets are useful for continuous mixing of two streams For a given shape of impeller the area A CM be
and operate by allowing the discharge from two given by the product of a constant and the square uf
nozzles at an acute angle to meet in the center of a any characteristic linear dimension of the impeller
pipe which carries away the mixed product. High !luch 11.8 the radius r. Since power is given by the
turb\llence is developed where the two nozzle streams product of torque and angular velocity,
meet, and intimate mixing may be accomplished at
(460)
that point.
where J/' depends only on Reynolds nllmber cal-
culated as ~p/p, using""," to replace 11, and r as the
POWER CONSUMPTION OF AGITATORS characteristic linear dimension.
Caloulations based on the laws of fiuid fiow can In the derivation of the po\; er equation w is in
be made for circulating pump!l, air agitation systems, radians per unit time. In practice it is customary
homogenizers, and mixing jet agitators. The general 00 give angular velocity in revolutions per unit time
resistanoe law (equation 10) for relative. motion n, while the diameter D; of the impeller is used more
between fluids and solids can be applied directly 00 often than the radius. If power is to be expreSsed
determine the power cvIlSUllled by reciprocating in foot-pound s force per second and the density p in
paddle agitaoors, and can ai.so be used 00 develop pounds mass per cubic, foot, the force--m&S8 'conver-
equatioos applicable 00 agitaoore of the rotating sion factor (J~ mlU!t be ~nc1uded. Thua,
impelk.r type. By far the majority of agitators in
(461)
use today are of the latte r type ; therefore, emphasis
will be placed on t.he development of a power equa- where ~ is the function of Reynolds number now ex-
tion for rotating agitators. pressed as "Dlp/,.. Since w./ pn1 DIA is dimension-
less, it may be called the power number Po, which is
Rotating Agilator Power Equation usuaJly a function of only Re.
Fundamentally, a rotating agitator, such as a. The.limitations placed on the equation must not
propeller, paddle, or turbine, is simply a mechanism be overlooked. Complete geometrical similarity
for moving a lIOI.id through a. fluid. Ordinarily, this including both tAnk and impeller, must be main-
impeller is completely immersed in the batch, and tained, and the only fomes of importance in the
the wave formation at the liquid surface O1&y be system are thoee of inertia. &nd viscosity of the fluid .
consKlered negligible. Therefore, the problem be- The ordinate of Fig. 477 is the", or Po of equation
cornea one of applying to a revolving body equation 461 except in a f!!w cases when it includes the Froude
10, number, Fr - g/n~D;. These are situat.ions in which
the liquid in the tank swirls to such an extent that a
(10)
deep vortex is formed, and wave or surface efiectll
become of importance. In these cases the gravita-
In the !lase of the rotating impeller different sec- tional force must be included with the inertia and
liolU' of the blade have different linear velocities, viscous forceis.
depending on the distance of a given section from In employ ing the power equation for two-phaae
the center of rotation, since v _ n.I. However, the mixtures, average or apparent densities and ge0-
same form of equation 10 may be used with any metric mean viscosities have been found suitable.
convenient relative velocity between the fluid and The geometric mean viscosity is calculated as
the solid if the app ropria~ drag (friction factor) (P IS)&.2~ ' where ~l and ~-~ are the viscositiCfJ of the
coefficient is used. The torque on the impeller is individuaJ phase liquids and % and 11 are their re&peC-
the product of an average force and moment arm tive volume fractions in the two-phase mixture.
or radius to the action line of the force . Throwing Systems Not Geometrically Similar. If the
all oorrections for variable distances or moment system in use is not geometrically s.if:1ilar to one of
POWER CONSUIUPTION OF AGITATORS 507
Type of Impeller
1*, ~ I~ 1R,,- Type 01 Impellef
1* I~ I ~
I:~:::",' ".. i.', 0.17!1 7 I''"'' ".. 1.35 I" 0." , 0.11 I' ,
Same AI No. l. , " ,., ." 7 I~ Ie , ...
with. bItdo1.. See No. 8. I" , 0
,..... , " 0." I' 7 I'"'' ... , ......., ... I" " 0.' 0." 0
~.,
U
, " i., 0." I 7 I"'" .,,"' ."',, ". O."D,. ... I" " M 0."
" , IM'''': ~,';""""" " ."" ,
'''''''" "",
--
$omiIar 10 No. II. but no! idenllcel .
", .."
,"
0.'
I"
, ,.
!Sa_a$No. 15,,, . 1.7,6.18.
I"
7 !s.ne I t NQ, 15. but prIctI " 1.330,.
."
I It- :;>'
,
,
,
,
D
0.'"
7
7 ISame.
No.I~.
"
but pilch .. 100D, .
, ;; ij' ."
0 7
."'.". 52 52 0"
,
Sarne n No. IS. but p;\l:h .. D,.
,
7
,. ,.
Same " No, 15. but pitch", Dr
L.
D, .. dillmcl.l)r of Lmp"ller, Dr .. diameter of 11\.nk,,, - revolutiorur per l!eOOllU, ID - wrdth of balBI!, Zj .. ek,'ution of impo..lIl!r
7
~
A
&
~
E
,~
0
~.
~
e
"
!i~~
e 1 2 4
~D,'"
R '---,-
Flo. 477. POW"e1' oonlSUlllption of n.rioua &gitaton e~ in Ie""" of Po 1111. function of Rey llokb nllml>f'r. Re. F or curve!'
ma.rlr:ed with .maoe efle.ets become importllnt MId the Fronde nllDlber Fr .. , l ..' D; is incJudAd l1li i"di..,.t .... for Rp > 300.
AGITATION
those given in Fig. 477, the gt'ophs may still be He .. 'ltD" ... (~)( I.25)t(~.9) 72
used to make the necessary power ealculat-ions in .. OJI0874 " ,300
tile majorit.y of inslaUations if the impeller alone , ... 32.2(1b 1lWl!I)(rt) / Cl h roroo)(IICt) 1
is similllr to an impeller for which a curve is given, This impel ler is ~imilfl.r to the one nlS"d iudi eal l'<l for curv~ No .
provided some e!'itimat,c is made of the effect of any 28 of Fig. 477. At a Reynolds numbP.r or 72,300 the value of.;
changed conditions around the impeller. The three is read as 0.22 and the power oonsum ption from the graph i~
most important changes to be considered are baffling, ,"n'D,'
, __ _ _ .. (0.22)(80.9){5)I{l .25)I..., 11 It-Ib f orce!Jllc
/
liquid depth, and tank diameter. g, 32.2
If an im~l1er is to operate in a tank with Beveral
Thill l'l~ult will probably be on t.he low side I:N!-ealllltl the tank
hafflC'll at the wall and data are given in the graph
ill llI)t bflffied IIno t he riilUJlp. lcr &nd liquid depth are IIl't;11ter
for that same impeller operating in a baffled tank, thul t hoee CQrl'e$po:;mdillg to \.1m Jl:rBph. Thell!loI'I.', t he ap-
the grallh IIiIl probably give the eorreet power proximAtion faeton arc used lIS fonow~ to obtain the predicted
consumption even if the liquid depth and tank po~'er eOflsumplion.
diamete r to be lJl!Cd are different from those given.
If t he impeller is to be used in a well-baffled tank and , -'" ~(,'~) C~)/(3 ~(")
the data of Fig. 4n are for an unbaffled tank, the .. 414 ftlb forre / '!Iee
power so predicted will be. only onehalf to one-
'fourth of the power actually required by the baffled
.. m .. 0.75 hp
agitator. The reverse is also true; the graph will The result obtAinl'<l oilY'ctly from curve W o, Fig. 477 , which
&llow8 lor wave aetion with an impellcr "IX'rating ia A tan k
prt.'tIict two to four times as much power consumption only throe times tbe diametcr of the imJ)E'Jlcr, i ~ obtl!.i ncd by
if the da ta of (.he graph are for a IxLffied agitator and \I5e of the Froudi' number Ill! ~clllI.Il the Reynolds numl.lcr, .IJl
the intended use is in an unooffled tank. Increasing follows.
the tank diameter or the liqukl depth in cases where
no baIIles are present usually increases the power
ooosumpticn. Corrections for Stich changes in design
mAy be made a.pproximately by multiplying the
From the ,ra.pb, .; ... 0 .245, and, since
.-.....
predicted power oonsumption from the graph by .; .. ( nl~;ip) (/D)-'--
from Fi,. 477, (I. ... 2.1, b - 18,
p .. -,(O~.24
~~'~)f5~I~(~1.~"~I~("~.9~1.
I, I _ kIo: 12.100 ...
236 It-I b f oree / IMlC
Here DI represents tank diameter and ZI is liquid (32.2)( 1.03) -- '-' -
df'pth. This value of 23& is to be compared wilh t he 2 11 prll vlously
Propellcrs entering the side of a tank or mounted calcula led, si nce Any approximllte oorreetions for ta nk d i-
off-centcr and not qui te vertical will draw about aDlCter or liquid deptb would be of the sam" or&- of magni-
the same power as the centrally located propellers t ude fOl" both.
in baffled tanks. . In estimating power requiremen ts, the frietion
1I1 L1~l rat h'e Enmple. &\imat.e the power required by losses in bearings, drive, and motor should be added
a thr()(!-bladcd square-pitched 15-in . diameter marine pr0- to those computed above for the impeller alone.
pelle r rQI Miug fit 300 rpm in II. 30 pe r cent (by weight) Bodium Always comput.e the power requirement for t.he most.
hydroxide "olu t.ion II.t 65 F in an unba ffied tAnk of to--ft severe conditions to be encountered ; for example,
di",m ct(-' lind 8-ft liquid depth . The ~pneilic lI:l'I!I.vity of the
8O\!ium hydroxide 8OIution At this tem J)E'ratunJ lI.!ld concentrA-
if the agitator is used for a polymeriza.tion reaction,
tion ls I. 2'J7, lIml it.s v.iseosity iI! 13 OCIllipoise.. calculate the power requi red for the final maximum
Any wno<i>!t.omt ""I of uni t.!! may be II.:Ioot.! for the CflkuJ&.. viscosity and not for the initia.l eondit)ans. 'l1lis will
I;uu . Tholon ch"""-,, am feet , POUOWl 1<11"00, pounds mll8S, and preven t overloading of the motOr.
l!I!e<md~. Th w;,
At best the power per unit volume tbeory is only C varies from about 330 for high-len>1 agita-
a good approximation. It does not take into ttioount tion to 3300 for low-lcv(']' agitation .
the actua) ~ale lLnd intensity of turbulence or the
mn)(i-mum shearing rntc de\'eloped in the liquid, BIBLIOGRAPHY
which are t he real fact.onl governing the operalion
1. Coon.II, C. M., G. A. "t:II,..t<TRO\l, IIn,1 f:. A. :>.111.,11.
in question. For example, in emulsifica tion a definite hId. EII~. Ckrm., H,;;().I (l04n.
minimnm shearing rute must be maintained w 2. H"cso;o;. A. \\'., a nd S. J. 130.1111, /"'{. E "9. Chm., N, 1\14
':'mubify t wo immiscible liquids. This shearing rate (19-42).
might be represented by the tip speed of the im- 3. ~1A c", D. E., and A. E. KR(lI.L. ('krill. if"9. rrOfJrt4~,
peller. C'A)nsider tho construction of a. piece of equip- " , 189 (19-18).
4. !:\III.u : R., S~ A. and C. A. :\1.Ho'S, T rail!. :. .... /".t ot. CM",.
ment twice t he s ize of a n c)(pcrimental unit in whil'h 1:.'11" ., 40, 7O!1 ( I!l-J..l).
successful emulsi fil:ation was :!(.'i;omplitlhe<l. At high S. MIL ... r.II. F. D., a.nd J . H. RCIjIlTO;o;. / ,.,1. ,.....1}. {.'h~"' . ,16.
HCYllolJs numbers the required power is propor- 4~ (l!)44).
tional. to 11 3 Dl, and in geometrically similur systems 6. OLNEY, R. n., lI.~d C. J. C... RI.80;o;. ('nfl>!. Ellg. Progrtu,
403, 473 (1\I!7).
the volumc of the tank is proportional to D?
7. R tJ~IITON", J. R ., E. COS'fICII, and H , J. EVERI'lT1', Pre-
Therefore, power per unit volume is proportional to sented at Annua! Mrotin,; of tho An"".ic,"n l lllllitutc of
n3DND;3 or just tl'Dl. The tip speed of the CIK.'miea.l Engiooct8\ Det.r\!it., 1947.
impeller is proportional to nD.. The same tip speed 8. STOoI'6. C. E., and C. L. Lo"LL, I"NL EIIQ. CAl"'" 16,
of t hc impellcr is pleserved jf its diameter D,. is SolS (1943)_
dOlibled in tho nell' equipment and the speed of 9. V.u.&loIT!N"l!:, K. 8., and G. ~lAcLI:..\s. in J . H. Pt:IIRl'.
CMmfcol Enginn,,' HtJlldOOot, 3nl ,-d . &et;on 17,
rutation n is halved. This condition calls for one- !ll eG ~all'_ HilI Book Co. (1\100).
half ~he power per unit volume, 0-1;)3(2)2 - }1, used 10. WHITE, A. M. , E. BRI!:SSt:R, C. A. PlI lI.Uf'>', Rnd).(. S.
in tht:experimental unit. Experiments on the blenu- MOlllllSO:', T>1lM 4171. l nft. Ch,,,,. E"U'" 3D, 670 (1934).
CH.~PTER
35
Mass Transfer 1
THE DRIVING FORCE. FUGACITY. AND CONCENTRATION Sll
the reei.8tanoo, or thc driving force mult-iplied by the of Jl1aSIJ t.nmsfer data baBed UP'I thid atilltlmplioo
conductance, or, in general, is highly presumptive evidence at its validity in
simple mass transfer uncomplicated by chemical
Rate - (Drop in potential)(Conductance) (464) reactions and selective adsorption .
. In most applications to fluid phases there is tur~
Conductanze = (Area)(Transfer coefficient)
bulent relative motion of the phases. In such ca:;es,
The following equation for thc rate of mass Irans- the fugacity of the transferring component in etl.C1!
fer ia equivalent to equation 382 for thc rate of hctlt
transfer. Gas pha5l! LiQuid ph".
N - kA(J, -f,) - kA( -of) (465) f,
where N _ mass (or moles) of component tranT
(erred per unit time.
k _ t ransfer coeffieient, maM (or moles) per
unit time, unit drop in fugacity , and
unit .cross-sectional area.
( -llf) ... decrease in fugacity of the trall/:lferring
constituent.
The ID888 transfer coefficient is written k. 01' kl Flo. 478. i.)lq:tMlnmatie repnl88ntetion of dtivinl forces in
when applying equation 465 to mass trall!!fer in a mR88 t!'lUl&fer.
g!UI or in a liquid phase, respectively. Wben equa-
tion 465 is applied to mass transfer through two or
more phases in aeries, the coefficient il:I caJled an phaee, /, or h, is determined from the mixed average
overall mass trarud"er coefficient and is written K , composition of the phase.
whieh corresponds to the overall heat transfer If the fugacity of the trarud'erring eortlpOnent at
coefficient U. the interface /; is eliminated in equation 400, the
Mass transfer tbrough two phases is illustrated in relation between the overall tralll:lfer coefficient Bnd
Fig. 478, which shows diagrammatically the potential the ph8lSe' coefficients is similar to that expressed by
of the transferring component as a function of dis~ equation 385 or 386 for heat transfer, or
tanoo.
Under steady conditioIlB, the rate of transfer is the [
same in eacb phase and may be written K - =~~~ (467)
([ I t,) +
([ I k,)
N - (K) (A )(J, -!o) - k,A (f, - fJ
- kIA (h-1t) (466) THE DRIVING FORCE, FUGACITY, AND
, CONCENTIlATlON
where k, - coefficient of mass transfer in gas pha!!e
[moles/ (hr)(sq ft)(atm)]. The fugocitll of a component in a phatle may be
kl - coetS.cient of mass transfer in liquid calculated rigorously by known thermodynamic
phase [moles/ (hr)(sq ft)(atm)J. methods. In many of the applications of mass
transfer involving contacting of vapor and liquid
In writing equation 4.66 it is assumed that equilib- phB8e6, the gases am at relatively low temperatures
rium conditions exist at the interface between the and pressUre6, and, where 1M gfU plu:uu 6thave /U Ukal
two phases 80 that the fugacity of the transferring {J48e3, tJu fWJGCity of a oomporaenl in tJu phau it eqrul
component h as the same in bot.h phases at the to m partial presnue. Since the fugacity of .a c0m-
interlace. This is equivalent in postulating that ponent in the gas phase is equal to the fugacity "
~ interface itBeH offer1! no reai8t:ance to the transfer the component in a liquid phase in equilibrium wiUa
Pl"OOO88. It is difficult and probably impol!8ible at the gaIJ phase, the fugacity of eom.ponent8 of a
present to verify this assumption by direct experi- liquid phaae may be cakulated from equilibrium
mental measurement. The 8uccCl:l8lui correlation data. Thus, when tJU! ga8 phaMJ be.havu (II an ideal
,
512 MASS TRANSFE~t. 1
gall (!lId llie li quitl pJIII8f' .rolliltu Ruoull', law, for any
comlJOllcnt
(4GB)
wherefJ = fllgnf'il y of ,(Jtnp(ln(,111 j il. a li{luid solll-
l il)l1 (.11111).
l' z 101:11 I'r " ';'il lI'e in Ihp ..q uil ihrium gas liQuid in
ph:l:' (a Im),
YJ = mol.. f,'arlion of e"m pOII('III j in Ihe gas
pha5e.
1) = \ap..,r Ill''''''UrP " f rumponer. t. j (ntm). liQuid flowing
downward in film
:r j = mole f ru,1illl! Ilf "' IlILp"nent j in t.he 1illUid QII inner surface
ph;I ~.
(471) Vlporln
t
F,o. 479. Cr'";"...." ti,,. ~. 1 ,Ii,,!!r:,," ()( a tYI.jl':'ll \\'CltN-",'all
whpl"l'. Hi " IIenry 'ti h I\' r on)!lu nt, culu'" n.
. Cj = Cllncf'n lm t i.m of (' ,Ill]xml!nt i (Ib mules
j ell ft (ifsolulivn).
When a \\"f'lted -wnll column if! insulated (l"Om its
In o(X'rnti ..nll illv"h'ing the l ransff'r II{ malf'I'i:!1 surrollnt lings So l Ih:ll it s UI)(!ra l i.,u is :w i!lhatic alJ(l
!'etll"('('n I W(I liq uid plla,':-!- ')I" 1K'11I"I!f'1I "" li.1,. and t he liqll i,l is 1"I'f'irt:ulahltl frum t he bot tom of the
fluids, (,llll ili]'ritt in n1alit1n,.h ip~ llIu:;l 1)(, known ur cul umn through thtl rc~rv~Jir 1.0 the top of t he
estimat('d. colnmn, t.htl upcmt i'Jn is dCSlril)()o.1 a..~ "adinhntie
hUmt-.iifil'!lt.ion. " Under Ihc::Kl Ilirc um~(a[l(:es. the
Wet~e(I-rr'ull Colu"," as a n rclat inn~hip hctll'ccn thp gll.!:l cumpl)i;it.ioll and the
AditllH:llic llilmidifier t eml)('ratul"es ill he gns a nd liq~ l id mny 00 calculated
Onc of tl\(' !:Iimpl~ ~t ~.r~I r. m!:l of muss tran~kr is the from t hcrmodynu.rnic pruperties and mMS and energy
v ~,porizatinn of val'ious liquids f l'lIm a thiil film of balanl:Cti.
liquid' n()lI"ill~ down t he wall (If a cylindl'jl'lll tube Cunsider the wetted-wall column as an a diabatic
couritprl'lIl"n'nt In U I:!trenm "f gll!:l /lowing Ih rough humidifier with PfO\,itli(m for temperature cuntrol of
tlu~ centr.r uf the tube, 1I~ ill' I~\Iat(.'l 1 di ugl':lmmat~ the liquid in th e rClM!rvoir and Ihe addilion uf
kaliy in Fig. 4i!). Tlw tr:ln~fcr :st'1''ioll i;,;,usIUllly "make-up" liquid toO the reservoir at. a con trulled
made ul gla!;/; about 2 in. in Jiumet e l' und 4 ft long. temperat.ure. A$$lIffiC that t he gas Ilnd liquid
Li.plill is in trOJd nct~1 al. I he tllJlllf \.lIC dl'culur ~I ion throughou t t,he system are inil ia lly a.t the same
which >;f'!"ye!:l /l.!:I fl weir Hnd (Ii~tl"jlm lc:< the liquid as tempera t ure. As m3SS i~ transfe rred from the liquici
an I'vl'n film oyer t hl' IIalls. '1'111' lifluid i;.; removed hy vaporization . a drnl\ in lemperature is required
tllrOllp;h the >;ea l a.t Ih(l !'ollum fro m 11\(' t<lip;ittly ttl SlIflpl.v Ihe lale n l heat 'I( v:lporitalion . As BOOn
fhrt'ti 1,,1\'1"1' ('nil. Calming IlC.t ionll are p ro'~ I('(r W'i IIie lirlHi.1 tcmlJCrature falls h(>]mv the guS tern-
fur t ill' WIS sl rt'am a t Nleh cnd.!l1S I:!hOWlI, to minimize ]X'r.llllre, h('111 is tr:lI lsflWI"I't1 (I"I ml IlltI gas 10 the
turl.ulcn("e. lirl Uid. In Ihi>l Im~' Ihp gal! b 1)(1111,>(1 and humidilied.
WETTED W A.LL COLUMN 513
If the liflUid supplied to the top of the column is An equation similar to equation 473 ean be
npw mnintninru at the t('ml~'r:\llIre of the e",it writte n for the gas Ilt any point of a uni t of Ilny Si1.e
li(IUid, the temperature lc:vel ui,l lw IillUid decreases, but lI"il h an entering gas of temperature (1'11 Xl)
al:d the liquid temperature gr"lIit'lll. through the producing tile ilame adiabatic saturat ion tempe rature
column decrea.ses while the t('mlX'mture and humid T" .. 80 that
ity of the entering gas is h('ld ('unstant , The tern
JX'rnture of the exit. gas will dl'cn>[lSC us the liquid
T _ (Xu - JC.r+ T". (4i4)
r '
Wben the fluid in whi(:h ma.~ transfer is occurring
dy is stagrlant , or i~ in laminar motion normal tu the
J. , (I -
~
,. ' dA (-HS)
di rec tion of ffi n&! t nmsfer, tll(' mechllni!:Ull of transfer
,1/)(1; I.) 0 V
is that of moJecular diffllaiull which haa been dE'-
Antil'ipa ling the re!luits o( t he Ivcttetl-wall exper- fined 4U a~ "thE' :1punluneo)llS intel'mingling uf
iment~ SVllllllI'hat, it has been {mmd tllat t lH' J.,'1L'I miscible fluid s placed in mntual cuntuct. at.'eum-
phase mll.il:I tnUlsfer coefficient is appn,ximatel.y plis hed wi llwut. tht' aid of mechanical ~I. irring ."
proportional 10 the total mass rate of gas fl ow .'1(' The analog .,f molecular diffusion in heat Il1lllJ:lfer is
that the qu(,lient t,f V may IJe (lun!;id(:rOO 8.'i a thermal conductiun. ::iimilarly the shear stre~
COIDJtnnt in the integration of the rig hI-hand side in fluids in laminar motiun, which can
as the transfer of momentu m in t he fluid s, exi!lt
'*
thought of
of equatiun 478. This procedure is further justitied
in most f!8.!!eS IJinee the variation in V is small through the action of viscosity.
through the transfer section. In the integration of The relat ions which describe tht' process of molec-
the left-hand ~ide of equation 478, the fugacity of ular diffusion ure del'ivcU f!'Um the kinetic theory of
the tranllferring component at the interface j; is a gMt's. According to thi!! theory,'" in an ideal gas
constant ami may be evaluated at, low pressures as the resistance to the diffusion of a gas A through a
the vlll)"r Pl'e8lllll'e of the li4ui!.1 at t he adiabatic gas B is proportional to (I) the number of molp.cules
salml!iun temperature. Thus, the integrat.ed form of gas A per IInit volume, (2) tbe number of molecules
of l!i.luat iun -li8 i:! of gas B per \mit volume, ':Z) the mean velocity of
ga.: A relat ive to gas B, and (4) the length uf the
I
- - In (I-~Y'
- -)(",
-- -',) k,PA
- __ _ ( 1i9)
diffusing path. The potent,ial grndient pruducing
diffusion is Pl'09Ortional to the resi::ltance to diffu.!Iioo,
YI - 1 I - Y2 !II - YI V
and, since in an ideal gus the fugacity is eflual t.o the
partial p rcs.~ Ul'e, thiR relationship may be stated
In many ca.ws, the g!l.~ mixture contains only a
mat.hematically as fo!lows.
small amollnt or solute, the values of y become
(~) (~)
negligible compuml tll 1.0, and equation -179 may
be simplitil:d ttl -dpA - (tMI (VA - VIl) d:x: (482)
lilA MB
!II - YI) k, PA
In ( - - - ~ -- (480) where VA - partinl pressure of the diffusi.lg gas A
Y;- Y2 V (aim).
(tAR - proportionality consta nt.
j;~ - -
V(y, -y,) (481) PA , PIJ - PArtial densities of gas A and B (Ib/ cu
A (-4/),. ft).
M A , AlB - molecula r weights of gas A and B.
where (- 41)1", ,. log menn valliI' of (f,' - I ,) at the VA , VB - mean velocities of gas A and B ~rt/hr).
top and hottom uf tile transfrr x - length of the diffusion path (ft) ,
section. The bibliogL'llphy for tbis "htlpt.. r a p pea~.,n p. 575.
MASS TRAXSFER BY ~IOLECULA R DIfFUSION 515
The Diffusion of COil A tllrou gh Cas B Under these circumstances equation 482 beoomcs
Wh ('~ one gas A i9 diffusing through a second stag-
nant gas B, the te rm VB in equation -182 becomes zero. NA '_ _ D(J (dP')
('00)
Substituting PII/ MB - "pBIRT and N A/ A = "AP.~ /M.4 A RT dz
(by definition) in equation 482 and rear.ranging
Substitut ing from equat ion 490 in equation 48.';
N, ( R'1\ dPA (-183)
deScribing the unsteady-slate material balance.
A - - -;;;J 1>11 fh
iJPA D a'PA
TIle diffusivity Da ol the system ol gas .4 and gas --at = "() ax' (491)
B is ,defined 8.8 Do - R2T 2/o..~tJP, so that equation
483 becomci:I Under shady conditions where NA is constant,
N . DoP dPA equation 490 may be integrated to give .
- ---- - (41H)
A RT Po d:r. NA Du
In the general case of unsteady--atatc diffusion, ill A ... RTx /{p.~h - (p.tb) (492)
an elemeut of volume A dx, the rate of allc.u mulatioll
of gas A in time dt is Di.J1luivity
!.(P,A d%) _!.(P,Adz) Values for the difftt:<h'i!y DfJ in the diffusion
equations are preferably obtained from E'xperimentlli
a/ M,t at RT valucs when available. The most &l.t illfa.ctury geo-
The rate at which gas A diffuses into the element eralized correlation 1. :It of the djlft1 l1ivili~ of gAlS
is N,t. and the rate at which glUl A diffuse,,; out of s.Ylltems appeal1l to he
the f'lement is [N A +
(aNA / aX) dzJ. A material hal-
ance around the element then becomCfl
and
aN,
ax - RT- at,-
A ('P'\ .
+A
DaP (iJpA)
RT ax PBaZ
(480)
P - pressure (atm).
VA , I' ll - molecula r vol lime! of gases-A and B.
M A iIIfJ =- molecular weight", of gases A and B.
P:! - PI .. 1 ( - ".~~~'iol. )
Tlu'!le. equations are exact. for equal molar cnunter
-
Pi-Pl
- = ,- 4 L-'
a~2
(500)
ditTll!lion.
where an - nth root of the Be~;;d fun ('t.iun J o.
For radial diffu~ ion in n cylinder where the con-
('{'utration of the transferrin g component A is sym- Equation 500 was derived by assuming a uliifunn
metrical about tbe axis vcloeity across the diameter in~tclld. of :~ parabolic
velocity di~tribution.
l5
.. .-....-
(--J87b)
'0 , ._- uTI -
I !II
-
os --
\\"hc~.l: - di>J timec alo ng the ~xi8 o f the cylinder.
:-,. _w_ - -- -
' ~F-
,.-.- I "' ~ ,:<"
.t;.r:"'''''''''10<
........
r - radial cli.!tance from the axis of the ' :'1~ 0
:ci.. 0.3
-:. :~~~- "
cylinder. ,
. . .. . .,. - HI ~' oq"'~l "-
For steady motion in which the nontransCerring
('()inp~:mcnt R m (jves only in the .I: direction with a
\('Iocity v, II. material balance around a differential
02
0,, . (~-
"'>'f oe . ....
A WP!V" ~ ~""
.
tmnsport the mll."-!j or heat t hrough the flt1id, this
~t;,nt , if PA is uniform along the cylindrie:\l fluid
action being ~ lL l~rimp()sed on the laminar mcch~
interface and if diffusion in the direction of flow is
' ni"m of d i ff\l ~iun ur conduction. As lhe t.urbulcnc<:
negligihle ( dd;A .. 0) equation -I9B may be inte- of the fluid i" increaJ'o('fl the turbulent mcchnn i~m
may become the " r('dominant factor. The turbulent
gr::ted over the length of the cond uit or wetted \"!loll m{'ehallism is called "eddy diffusion ," or, in the CMe
6eclion to gi,(l ('(Illat-ion '19. 1T of heat tnm ~fcr, "eddy conduction ," all.hough it ilS
ci{'ur U. at tlJt> tmn" fl'r illllCoomplisht>d by r.ollvect ioll
allli that. dijJ"NifJII or cmldl/ctiQII is not involv.... l .
If it \;'ere p06."'ihle to d C&'_ril:oc comple.t(' \y the
motion of turbulence in mathernati('al terms it. \\'1)111,1
Pi - PI
prubably be possible to derive rela t i()n ~ I;imilnr 10 I he
dilfusioll rP-intions, giving the rate of 1'l'\1l.S8 transfer
,
SI8 i\lASS TRANSFER I
by the turbu lent mechanism. Such!L description of Heta inillg t he c:",)On(,ll l~ II 1I11d "
turbulence is at present impossible, although cl)n-
sideroble progress along these lines is being made in
pod
t.he fi eld of fluid mech:'lllics. As 8. resul t the trt.'at-
ment of mass transfer in fI\l id~ undergoing turbulent
motion is almost entirely empirical. Although our
k' D
Do '" r;
[(00) ( , )] '- <P[(He)(Sc)]
- ; pD~ (5(2)
prctICnt knowledge of turbulent tluids is inadequate
to calculate rate~ of tran~fer, certain theoretical ideas The dimension lcSI-i ratio /.1./ pDf) i.s culled the
are very useful in relating the associated processes Schmitlt number. When expe rimen tal data hom
of heat, mass, a"bd momentum transfer in fluids,. wetted-wall colu m ll!i 2. are piuttcd AS a fun ction of
In many Cllses, if the p ressure drop generated in a the dimenmonlcss rat ilis, ind icated by the dimen-
fluid is known, it is possible to estimate the mass sionle:;s equ9:liollS, t he excellen t agreement from
or Ilt'a ! tnm lSfer rates which might be expected. widely varying type; of systems indiC8.t.cs tha t It.
Similarly. if the heat or mass tra nsfer ra tes in a given powe r series lonn of the dim6nsionless {unc tion is
apparently correc t.
~.\s' t!m are known, it may be ~ iLle to est imate the
1l1'('>!IiIlrC drop in the fluid phwoe. The aliSUmption made in the integration of tM
Under conditioml of turbulent, Row in the absence rate equation over t he transfer section of the we tted-
of t.l. justifiable theoretical meclu:l.nhml of tran::<fer, wall column to the etTeet that the qu otient of the
empirical methods are u~ in mlloe h the !!ame mallner eueffil'ient ami the molal rnll.l:!l! veluc ity was almost
:lIS for frictiOIl h/ssp.s and heat transfer.
constan t i,. ;ol:w jllstilil-d by the fact that k, ilS tI.
function of 00 ,8, all other varia ule~ being held con-
lJimen,d onal Analysis stan t, II.S ilillicated in C(lua t lOll 503.
l)jmc n.iillnn1 analysis of experimental da ta depends n il! simililrit y i.s apparen t betlvccn equation 503
"IKIII the fu.ct thnt,each anJ evt>l'y term IIf II. valiJ which CQrI"\llat t!JS mUllS transfer through the gas ph8.ile
n' lu.tion~ hip bet ween physlca l vtl.riahles must have flowing in turbulent, fluw through a \Vetted-wan
the same dimensions. It is of vtllue in arranging column and t he Ditt us-Boelter equation 417 corre-
III+! variables of a cumplicated p hyskal rt'ltltionship lating heat transfer coefficients (or fluids fl owing
so that, withuut destroying t he generality uf the through pipe in turbulent flow. In place of the
I'elationt!hip, it may be more eB.l:!ily detennined Prandtl number (/l.Cp/ k q) in the heat transfer equa-
eXJX'rimenta.lIy. The application of dimensional tion there is the Schmidt. number (p. / pD(J) in the
I1nl1tysi~ to the<tlow of fluids through pipes indicates mass transfer equa tion. Similarly instead of 'the
tilat the experimental data should be correlu.ted as a Nusselt ~urn ber in the heat transfer equation (hD/ k,)
fun ction of the Rey nolds num ber (*le equations there is the group (k' D/ DfJ ) . The Reynolds nwnber
6-"1 to 70). Dill'lemlionai &naly!:!is applied to the is common to botb correlatiorul.
cf)rreltl.lion of hf'a t. trnntifpr coeffi cients indicates the
U:-;P. of various d imensmnless groups. "D
- -. 0.023 (~"
- ' (-"-).... (0(3)
Similarly, fur the (."u rreiut ion of mt\.<;$ t ranJer Do /J pDo
NJ!!fficient in wetted-wall columns, the experimental
da ta indicate the following funct ional reiutium;hip.
hD
- ~
(DGj'.' (,C
0.023 -
,)(Ul00.4
-- (417)
kq Il kq
k' = .,(G, D, p, Do, ,) (501)
Both equations 1.. may he arranged a s shown to give
,,'bere k' = mass transfer coefficie nt in concentration the same fllntJlion 11 the Reynolds num ber equal to
units [molesj (hr)(sq ft)( molcs/ cu ft )J. the prOOU(:t of a p"ir uf dimensionless grtmps.
G - mass \'clocit y f(lb ffi a.ss)/(hr)(sq ft )J.
Exp ~ing the ' -arialJks in tcrrru; of mass, length, k' G"
; - -- )U- 0.023 (DG)~."- I
- -I (504)
and time, " DG 8 /J
U-1 _ : (mT.. -2rl ) (I~) ( rnL -It- ' Y (L',-I )'' (mL -3)" . h (,C
J - ~ -
)O.l100.7 - 0.023 (DG)-O.20
p
-
I
--I (fIJ5)
I ut expooents uf III 0 - a +c + ~ vpCp kf p. ~
1: of exponent!! of I -1 - a - c- d This function of the Reynol(i'l num ber is ca lled the
~ of exponelits of I.. 1 - - 2a + b - c + 2d - 3e j factor when applied to heat. or mass transfer. The
ANALOGY BETWEEN !\[QJ\fENTUM. HEAT, AND MASS TRANSFER 519
identity of the j factor for ffiall/j transfer and the j be directly proportiunal to Dr;. If th~ .transfel
factor for heaL transfer has been verified experi- occurred entirely by turbulent. action, k' \\;0111<1 Ilt"
'IIentally, and certain theoretical considerations to independent of Da (Da woulrl appeu.r with Ih(>
be discuSged later support this idea. The j factor is exponent of zero). T!1e exponent. of O.5G on the
fundamentally a rricti~ faetor . For Ho\\' in pipe diffusivity is an indicatldn of the dual Illi,'c han ism
it is equal to one-eighth of the friction factor f used of mass transfer. GiIIila,nd "correIUI~1 m:us.i iran=d('t
in equation 63 and plotted in Fig. 125, or one-half data by the expressiun
r
of the friction factor used in equation 62. In more _
complex geometry s\lch as ftuM:ls ftOldng through lX'ds
of packed solids, the identity of the j factor.! for hMt
and mass transfc r and friction haa not bee..'l estab- whir.h may be N'armngt'fl to ,;i\'e
liShed with certainty. This is due prohahly to the
inability to characterize properly the state of motion
of the fluid in such cases by a simple tenn. such
k, - (Ret~ [
90.1
I .
+ ~4.i / {)(i)
1 (MlI'i)
where AI.vII _ mean molecular weight of the gBS. ANALOGY BETWEEN l\IOMENTUI\1 . HEAT.
In much of th~ litcroture the log. mean partial AND MASS TRANSFER
pressure 01 the non.transferring componerrt replaces The anaJogy between momen'tum, heat, and m~
P in equation 5O.ta because mll88 tnuwer equations transfer may. be approached in a theoretical mannn
were origina.lly written 88 the analog of equation 488 by considering the mechanisms of nwroculat and
for moiecular diffusion, The mechanism of transfer turbulent transfer procCS8C8.
is rarely pure diffusion, and the available experi-
mental data arc confined to dilute gases where the Mo men t um TralU}er in Laminor Motion
value for the lo~' mean partill.l. pressure is approxi- The existence of shear stfesses within a fluid is
mately equal to t he total preIlI:lure within the limits reflection of tile fact that momentum is being trans.-
of accuracy of the data. ferred within the fluid . The pressure drop resulting
Similarly, for heat transfer, equation 505 becomes from the flow of fluid through pipes produces shear
stresses distributed throughoot the fluid. A section
i ,;. (_h
CpO
)(,Ckq
p
)" (5050) of II cireular conduit t.hrough which fluid is fluwing
is shown in Fig. 481,
These equations correlated data on absorpt.ion /"
and evaporation in wett.ed-wall ooIumllB, absorption ,, '.
" Od
,
on cylinders placed at right angles to a gas stream, . -,(.
_a nd vaporization from a plane surface. () P.~ : ~P,
,
I
TIle maM transfer coefficient K is given in equatioo. s.J fo--L--ol
1i04 as proportional to (DQ)G.6o. If the ttan.llfer Flo. 481. Diq;mm iIIu..waun abeat at..- in fluid ftowoiOl';
occurred entireJy by molecul&r diffusion . k' would iQ. cyliOOflr,1
520 MASS TRANSFER 1
Under lJteady-ftow conditiOlll, the difference be- Thus, whenever motion ceases, the viseous forces
tween the forees acting on the Hui:l (PI - P,)S disappear. H equation 51 1 is applied . J flow in
mlLSt be in equilibrium with frictional forces seting circular pipe, the Poiseuille equation (GaL) giving the
at the interface between the walt and the HuK! so pressure drop required to produt:e laminar flow is
that obtained.'
(507)
(63L) (512)
where rI- - length of the wetted perimeter (ft}.
L - length of section (ft) . - Velocity Di8tribution
TO - average friction stre!l$, force per unit area. The forms of equation 512 and similar expressions
S _ cross-sectional area.
for turbulent flow such as equation 62 indicate
Defining the hydraulic radius as SN r. th.e basic differon~ in the laws of resistance in
laminar and turbulent How. The difTerem:e i::I also
TO "" - - "
-.P (508)
apparen t. . in the velocity distribution. Laminllr
L motion lends to a parahula as illustrated in Fig. 126.
Typical relative velocity distribu tion curves fur
In circular conduits, the stress TO will be the same laminar and turbulent flow are shown in Fig. 482.
at all points of the wall so that TO '"" TO. In conduits
of other bhapes the shearing stress TO will vary from 2
point to point on the interface between the wall and Turbu~nt flow
the fluid, and TO is an average value.
It is clear that a similar relW'ning would apply
0i"" r---... -'- , ,,
to an inner cylinder of fluid with radius T, so that f"-.
the internaJ frictional strestl betwt!en the layers of
fluid at radius T would be L.mirnor flow
"- \
\
(500)
2
'\,
since for a circular conduit Tl. - r/2. Since.rlo in
equation 508 fo, a circular conduit is T1)/2, dividing
0o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
R.tio o! Point Velocity to Maximum Velocity
equation 509 by equation 508,
Flo. C. Velocity dilltribution of fluids f1o"'ing in cylindrical
T - TO':" - To(1
TO
-.!)
TO
(510)
ducta.
ANALOCY BETWEE:\1 MOMENTUM. HEAT. AND !\lASS TRANSFER 521
velocity distribution (~urve,6uch a$ that of Fig, 482 In Fig. 484, two separate bodies Q and b arc shown
by means of equation 511, 'flu: amount of shear moving on parallel tracks at the respective speeds
stress generated by turbulent a('hon is then deter v.. and VI>, or b is moving with a. velocity IIlI - II..
mined by s ubtracting the molecular shl'li.f stress from = tw relative to Q. Imagine body Q frictionlessly
the total shear stress, mounted and attached to an immobile block through
Uuder lamiosr Row condit ions, I-he molecular a dynamomc!er D. Let body b be provided with a
;!hear slress is equal to the tl)tiLI s hear stress, and the row of maclline g\llu; ~t at right anglCll to t he
combination of the laW or lint-a r stress distrilmtioo trajectory, which fire b~ I Jlets into 4 at a regula r rate
and the definition of vkscosity is whal, Icads to the of w Ib/ sec: Under these c.ircumstfollees the forea
paral:lolic velocity d istribution in lamina r JlOIY .
Under cooditions of turbulent Row, the total registered on the dynumomcter in the direction of
shear stress at the wall (velocity - zero) is due to the motion of b relative to 4 I" m be
mnlecuiar fl(;tion, Toward the center or the pipe,
the proportional part or the tolal lillear that is due w
F - - (v. -1'.) (513)
to molecula r action steadily decreases to an exceed- g,
ingly small val ue at the cenler. Furthcnnore, the
Thus a stream of iJull('1>:1 tired tLt lhe rate of 200
more turbulent the f101l', i.e., the higher the Reynolds
Ib/ min f rom a bod y p.'\,,~ing !lot a relalive speed of
number, the less the pMportion 0' molecular shear
30 mph will pmtlHl:C 3 fun 'c i'{1~lal tt,
stress to total ,,"lear s tress at any point away from.
the wall. 200
F - 60 X 32,2 X 4-1 - ~,57 lb
Mechani~m oj Turbu len t Sh ea~ S tre8ses
When water flows at 00 F through 1Z.in. com- If both bodics WCI1~ in ",,,tioll, firing from the
mercial pipe, 100 ft lonp;, at an average velocity of faster !Judy would ar.cC"ICl'lItC" tlir ,.lowcr olle wlwl't.'il>.l
IO fps, the loos in head. ii:l approximately 3,9 ft, If a stff'am of bullcts coming from the l;iuwcl' body
by some means lu rbulcnee could be supp~ and wOllld 1''lard thc f:....;t('l' OliO . ,
the wat.er WWj made to flow in laminar motion at :rhhf 1,~a~l)ning may be I\pplied to two udj:wl'nt
00 F, the 10li$ in head would be approxImately filament>! d and b in n moving fhtid. Let t.he IUl jul'l'nt
0.01l7 ft . The ratio of the re,.i,.tunce hC8fls and surfurc Ul'f"a fmder cun~i(le!'Ution be A, SUPPlllS('
therefore the ratio of the Dverage sh~uring stresses fmthel' that in addi tion to Il. rl'lut,ive dilTeTClicc of
in the two cases IS 3,1:1/ 0,011 - 33.'>. ThIlS, turbu- \ 'clncity in the a.xio.l direction tlv then' is 1\ CI'Il'SS-
lence eauSf$ tallgential st resses to be over 300 times C,lrrent motion, \\ith a vcl uci ty 1.1 , Th is (;rnss-cml~'ul
a.s large as th~1SC produced by purely villComf re~ist motion will cnuse nn ("xdmngc of partilh'S fruIU /.J
AIlt.'e. Thc!K' Inl"'"c tungent ial fur<lCs in IIlI'hulcnt. to 4, and, if this Cr'JiIS.(;UTl'ent v(,j'l('lt." \n-n' dis-
flow are proc.ludoU .,by II IJroc'C$ of m.,.'mcntum ex- trilmu'(! ull irormly O\'er the surr'l"~ ..I , (1)("11 (,lIt I)
.:haoge between ~tI laye rs of flu id. "'ould be the volume and puA Ihe m:u;,; 1.r:IIISI)< II,,('(1
MASS TRANSFER 1
from b to (I per unit of time. Thus the force ~r transfer of mumentum at any point in a fluid. there
ated by the ex.change would be pAu dll, and the will be a similal' relation for heat trarud'er under the
streM betw~ the filaments is inftuence of a temperature gradient.
T -pUdll (514) q dT
A - -(k,,+k' ) dll (518)
I'randtl Mixing Urlgth
where kll - thel"tnll.l conductivity .
If l is defined as the er08.'H:urrent distance through k. - eddy conductivity or eddy heat transfer
which a turbulent, eddy retains its identity, the rela- factor.
tive ILxial velocity difference .u of the adjacent
fi l~ment.s between wllich the turbulent eddy travels is tLnd a eimiill.r relation for DU\.!IIj transfer under the
influence of a fug~ity or concentration gradient,
(515)
N"
- - - (D. + E) -de" (519)
A dy
where l = Prandtl mixing length,
11 = local axial velocity. where Do - diffueivity (mole.tl/ (hrHsq ft)(moles/ cu
.. - radiW distance. ft/ft), or 9q fl/ hr].
E - eddy difIusivity Qt eddy m8i!B transfer.
The distance through which a turbulent eddy retains
C" - coneentratioo Ob moks/ cu (t).
its identity is known as the Prandtl mixin~ length. 41
By the law of conser.'ation of momentum the The relationships between the eddy viscosity ~, the
product (mlUi8)(velocity) is constant. SiDt.e at any eddy conductivity k., and the eddy dilfusivit.y E is
axial section in the fluid there is OOlUltant mass, any exp!'e:S!led. by the folluwing equations.
cross-current veloci ty u is numerically equa] to 6,
and both are equal to lde/ dJl by equation 515. (520) '
'Iberefore EquatiolUl 520 and 521 Illay be derived in the following
_ (p+t) -
dy '" (>17) II
"d,
_r _
Substitutint; equation c "iD b, and equa1in.!! " to 01,
'The shear forcea in II. fluid are equal to the rate do
at which momentum is trlUlllferrod in a. croas-current
direction through a fluid . It has ~ sbown that a
dual mecllanism of molecular and t.urbulent IItCtioo
operates to trant;fer the momentum. When heat or
... P,. -
d,
.
k .. (lpCp -
d,
(lilll)
to be expected that the eame dual mechanism oi The proportionality ~t f1 is iotrodvoed \0 aooount fot
molecular and turbulent action will operate ~ the \Il&dequaclee in the tbeoty. Similarly,
transfer process. B .. ~ (m,
Thus, eorrespooding to the equation for the ,
ANALOGY BETWEEN MOMENTUM, HEAT. AND MA~ T RANSFER S23
a. mined. This bo.s been done for beat transfer bet\Veen
E - - (521)
p a fluKt in a pipe and the pipe .... with good agree-
ment bet.ween mearored and calculated heat tfanIlfer
wh~re a and {J are proportionality coost.a.nta.
rates ; and for the mass transfer from a gas to the
f = eddy viscosit.y .
wetted wails of a cylindrical column (wetted-wall
Cp = heat capacity.
colunm) with similar resultB ....
p = density.
1n gener!\l (for Newtonian fluids) it has been Physical SignJficance oj llimensionleu G roups
found by experiment that the viscosit,y , thermal Sinee a numher of dimensionless groups con tin
conductivity, and diffusivity are physical properties mJly reappear in the correlation of momentum. heat,
of the particular Auid not affected by the motkln and rna&; transfer operations, it is helpful to place a
of the Auid or the geometrical structure of the equip- physical interpretation on the various common
ment containing the fluid. On the other hand, the groups.M.'!
eddy viscosity, eddy conductivity, and eddy diffusiv-
ReynokU Number (DC/,.)
jty are primarily functions of the state of motion of
the.fluid as described by the Reynolda numbe r and The sheaf BtrcSr! generated hy turhulent. motion
are not functions of the physical properties of the of a fluid msy be wriHen
system except in so far as they may affect the Reyn- d"
1"1 *' pu(.:lv) = p(.:lu)l - (516)
olas number. dy
From 110 study of transport of water vapor across whereaA the shear ~trcSll gc.}Cruted by molecular
!'I. duct through which carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and action is
air were flowing over a wide range of Reynolds
numbers. it was found a. ... that the proportionality T .. =-= ,. dy (MI )
coostant in equation 521 W88 1.6. The reiatiolLShip
Dividing equation 5 16 by 51 1,
between eddy viscosity and eddy diffusivity calcu-
lated from these measurements is shown as a func-
tion of the R.eynolcJ.s number is Fig. 485.
r,
-
1'..
- p(llv)l(d!1/ dy)
,.(dv/dy)
~
p(.1.v)1
-- (022)
5 l.
~",/
product of It croe!l-currcnt ma.<;g velocity and t,he
Prandtl mixing length (the di;;tanec through whieh
the Cr08Hnrrent m8XII velucity exist;,!) divided by
#' viscosity , and is t.herefore It Reynold.'! number. The
.
~
5 ~
.~~<I" /' Reynolds number is therefore a melUlUTe of the ral-io
of the rate. of momentum tra.nsfer by turbulent
~.. )tY action to the rate of momentum Iranl:lfer by m(,loo-
0
,~ f- ular action, det;Crihing t-he state of motion of the
,
/' fluid.
The eddy viscosity f - pi2(dv/ dll) can be deter- and the total rate of heat trnn8rcr ~
mined as a function of Reynolds number for a given q
fluid in a given system provided measurements of - - - hdT (024)
A
pre88Ure drop and velocity distribution data are
Dividing equation 524 by 523,
available (see equation 517). If the proportionality
OOb8tl..nt.8 a and {J are known, the rates of heat or
Dl8.I!8 transfer through .the fluid can also be deter-
q
-- h (~T hdy
(525)
524 M ASS TRA~SFER 1
T he right-hand ter m is a Ntisselt number hD/k., (}JCp/k.) is a measure of the ratio of the rate of
:since y is a linear d istance or a diameter. T hus the molecular transfe r of momentum and heat transfe r
Nussc.lt numbe r is a measuN of the ratio of the (or h eat transfer by conduction).
total rate of beat transfer to the rate of heat transfer Simiiar relationships for other common dimension-
by m olecular action. less groups are shown in Fig. 486.
Similarly the dimensionless group (k'D/ Dc) is a.
measure of the ratio of the total rate of mass transfer
PRQBLD I S
to the mt.e of mass transfe r by m olecula r diffusion.
I . A _ttctl-"... U column hlUl an i n"~m&l diarneU'r of 2 in
Prandd Num ber (p.Cp /k.,,) and .. tu be supplied ..ith " 'aler at the {(lp Jl.1l,J ~ir at {he
oot/om. T he Air velQcity ;$ \.(I be fil.od \1.1 8.3 filii II.I>d ..,ill
If the C<luation a ll for lIhear stress by molecular
enter at a temperature of 20 C. The ""Ill bulb temperature
action is divided by equation 523 for the rate of Q{ the Nr will be 9.7 C. TIIC entering "'Jl.ter temperature
heat transfer by molccl1lar act.ion, will be 10.2" C. .
Estimate the he~t I.nd TI"IMIi tn.nsfer oocfficicnta from the
~
q",
_,"'kq (d'ldY
dT /dy
) _.C(d'ld
P
k~
')
'dT /dy
(526) fridion factor expe<::ted, and oornpare the ~~lIlfficient~ witb
t ho8e prOOictl from correlations for heM trfLl\flfcr and oorrela-
tioIll! for mMS transfer.
Tllere i:; a constant relation between t h o gradient
dll/ rly and dT/ rly, so t hat the Prandtl number 2; 'Ethyl aootate i.s to be eVllp<lrated inw a etream of dry
air in a wetted-wall column which is 2.67 em in inside diam-
Molecular
"'"
,.
Transfer 4". +., ~D N
~ - T - ij
. ,'
Turbulent
Transfer
eter and 117 em long. Th'l "'ette,I_,,"&lJ oolumn is to Le
operated adiaba.tieo.lly "'ith N1eirculJl.tj<)n of the liquid. T he
opcmting pre$!UI"1i i.e to be 800 mm or mercury ai_luI" .
Cou ntfJrcUmlnt 6010' of p.Illlnd liquid is t.o:l be u.-ed.
" If dry air ente~ the bottom of t im (lul u'lln at 2l. 1" C and
II t&te. of 357 gram.l! / rnIn, ooternur>e t he te mperu turo..oo "om-
posi6on of!be glIS pha8c leaving the enlumn.
3. Pun;! eo.rbon d iOllide al 100 ' t' &ml I atm alJ80lu te pres-
sure ill fed to the bottom of a wetl~~ I -"'all enlumn 3 It lung
IUId 2 in. illllide diamtr.er at a r.ate IIuch that t he en tering
"-ciocit y is . 10 fps. Carbon tetrathlori\le ' 8 eh&rgl!d .... II
MoIeclila. ..!i. .. Re Turbulent Ii<Witl to the WI' of tho! oolumn "'hieh is then operated 115 lUI
_ ":..______-"'! ......-
Mo!neflfUm'L_ -"= :uliabatie hu midifier.
Transfer r Trans!er_ What is ~ho! rompoeit.ion <Jf the eJ:it p.Ilt
'. " -4. Ammonia pi! ;. diffusing at a cons!.ant r .... te through a
~,,,gllll.n tlayer (If air I rnm thick, I.hrouJth a eemipel1ueable
""""brane, and then through a st.llitnaM layer of hyclrugen
~c+_sc w. + ... pit.,
I mm thick. T h" ()flncen~m.tioll (If ammonia at the outfJr
'". puo --,,-"u
hnundary of the air layer ill 0. 75 per !)Cnt volume. The 0011-
'".+
".'"'.*
Molecui<l. Tu(oo lent
MiSS Mass of tbe mem brau" to ctiffusi(ln is o<~gli gible. Diffusivity of
Transfer Transfer ammonia in air at ~. C and I &tm i~ 0. 186 cml/"Hc.
". ", (a) Calculate t he rite of diffW'lion (If ammonia in gra m
moIL'!! per "",,",nd oontimctert.
F IG. '-lilli. Diajl;r1\.l1l illustrating the relation between dimen- (/I) Calculate the plIttial preesure of t)~ ammonia a t the
8;onl""", i'"Qups and varioua t.r~lU!fer ope~tiOnll." IOOmbrane
CHAPTER
. . ,.
-'"
36
. ",
Mass Transfer 2
I
where
f mass transfer and the intimncy of contact of respectively' (rno)Clljhr).
ph88CS between which mass trtmsfer 18 to be 11 and z - 'mole frtLetion of snlute ingas ami
effected, packed Ulwers are often used. Consider liqui~ streams, respecth'ely.
the abllOrptioo of a solute from (I gas phsse by a
nonvol,t.iie 8Oivent, as illustrated in Fig. -187. If the gas carrying -the solute is coDlfidered to l!e
insoluble in the liquid phase, and if the solvent ioS
eonsldered to be nonvolatile, the material balance
for the solute is more conveniently expre:88ed lUI
....
V' dY - L'dX , (521)
.' ,
'"
""
V+dV
L {, .j . :
" where V' and L' - rate of flow of solute free gall and
"" L+dL
"' -II liquid, respect.ively (moles/hl') .
'" Y and X - composition of gRl! and liquid
phases; -respectively (moles sol-
ute per mole of solute-free gas
,.
v
Ll1 or liquid).
The rate of absorption
, may also be eX I)~ bv '
equation 465 written for the (t8S phase, the lilluid
Rk h io1$-t
,,:I enlefiot; - '.
Rich I~~
IeIv...,
= KaS dZ (J. - /,) (528)
S26 IllASS TRANSFER 2
S - empty tower c(OS$ section (sq ft). assumed that the ~&S8 transfer eoeffidents 1, and 1;,
Z - height in tower (It). are approximately proportffinal to V and L. respec-
1,./;./, - fugacity of the solute (transferring tively, &1:1 in the case of the wetted-wall column, 110
com()Ollent) in the gas, at the inter~ that for the gas and liquid phase, respectively,
face, and in the liquid, respectively.
dy k,a8Z
Equating the nt.te of transfer based on the material
bubt.nce, equation 527, to the rate of abl'lorpt ion ginn
- f ( I - y)(f, - f,) - - y- (53 \a)
-V'dY - -L' IlX - ~raSdZ(J. - j;) In general. f lH~ iJlt.l>gration of tJ'H~ ler~hand side of
- k,aS dZ(fj - /J) f'l:lllttl iOfl'" 53 l a iUld 53tb muat be carr;oo out graph;"
!'/lily. /lnd the fu gacity of the solute at the interface
- K(Jl~ ,IZU, - II) (.'29) J; must be determinec.l as Ii function of eofJlposition.
In these relations the square feet. of interfacial area If the Il"l&!lB tranllfer coefficients for each phase are
per cubic foot of tower volume (J is difficult to deter~ !mown, this may be accilmplished by equating
mine experimentally since it is made up of the inter k,aS dZ(j, - 1;) ~ k,aS dZ(1; - f,) (628)
facial area between drops of liquid falling through
the gaa phase, between bubbles of gas ri!>ing through and, solving for /; and sllbstitllting equation 470,
liC{uid, and between the gas and the surface of the r ktcl, + k,a/, (k,a)(PKp'j) + k,aPtli
li1lUid on the packing. The surface area of the pa.ek- Ji - k,a + k,a "" kill k,a+ (532)
inX hulittle relatiun to the interillA';iaJ area between
Lhe phues. 'Iberefore (J is usually eombinal with in equations 532, 53le, and 531d, K i - (1Ii/%;) , the
and evaluated with" as a produc~ lea. equilibrium "oIatifity constant, not .to be confused
H is eoovenient to gnlUp the varial>&ca relat.J with the overall transfer ooeffictent K. Since a rna.-
primarily ki a single phase Z!C1 that tilt'. following teritt.l IJU.IU.fltJtl I!;ivetl the function % "" ~ (y), the term
eQuations result. " may be evaluated either as a function of % or y by
-f~ _ fk,aS dZ combining the material balance with equation 5.12.
It is somewhat simpler to evaluate the integral
It - J; V'
equations 63Oc. and 5.W, using the overall coeffi-
or, by equatIOn, 476 and 477, cient. The overall transfer coefficient K is 8.!ISumed
-f dy _ fk ,aS dZ to be constant over the small range of variation in
(53Oa )
( I -, y)(f, - j;) V L and V usually encountered in absorption and
strippmk operations.
-f~ _fk,aS dZ dYi KaSZ
J;-II 1/
- f(J Yj)(l. h)
- --
V
0' - f dx _ fk ,aS dZ (53()b)
(1 - 7)(f; - j,) 1, (/.I/i KaPSZ
or
-f(J t.'J)(/h Kp'j)
----
y
(531r.)
-f~ - fKaSdZ
I , - It v' dXj KaSZ
-f -f - f(J ~ ~
EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER COEJ<TICIENTS 521
overall driving potential may be shown by plotting The magnitude of kta is primarily a function of
the fugacity of the solute in the gas phase &I! a func- the properties of the phase as dcaeribed by the
tion of the fugacity of the solute in the liquid phase, Schmidt number (p./ pDo), snd the state of motion
&8 in Fig. 488. or the pbase as described by Reynolds Dumber. Liq.
The 45-degree line on the plot representa the inter- .uid Hawing over the packing complicateB the defini,
face conditions of equilibrium. The point A repre- twn of Reynolds number and undoubtedly has !lOme,
sents a point on an operating line relating the com- at preeent unknown, effect on the. magnitude_of the
position of the gas phase expressed as the solute interlacial area ptlr unit. volume d . The product k"a
fugacity to the compoeition of the liquid phase pass- is affected only slightly by liquid rate of flow and
ing the same point, abo exprelEed &8 the solute, should be primarily dependent upon t.he Reynolds
number of the gas phase with a given system. Simi-
SIope- -!!! larly the value of kta is primarily a function of the
'" Reynolds number of the liquid phase and is only
slightly affected by the gas rate of flow,provided
Equihbfium Hooding and loading conditions are avoided.
1.. - 1. Thus, if overall transfer coefficients are computed
t
~r:.
from a se~ of data in which the gas rate is varied
and the liquid rate is held constant, equation 533
indicates that the overall transfer coefficient Ka variC!!
I, as a function of the Reynolds number of the gas.
III I
t, -Ka - -kta + -k,a - -kta + Comt.ant
1,-
F1O. 488. Diagram. il!ustrllting fugacity pol.<)ntiall1 in mMS
tl"afl8(er.
"" <t>(Re),,,,, + COlliltant (533)
Although it is difficult to define the Reynolds
fugacity. This operating line may be calculated
number and its fun ction in equation 533, t hP.Oreticnl
from the material balance around one end of the
coosiderations previously discuMed in connection
column.
with equation 503 indicate that k,a - ctG," for a
Rearranging equation 528,
given' system, so that ll Ka should be a s~raight-line
-k,a _ i, -"/. function of l IG,,', provided the currect value of the
('2!\a) exponent n is found . Usu&lly a value of 0.8 for n
k~ i, -/O
will produce such a straight-line relationship. A
shows that a straight line drawn from the point It," typical plot :n._ for the absorption of 80 2 in water
with a sJope ( - k,alk~) will intersect the equilib- from air ....ith 3-in. spiral tile packing is shown in
rium line at the mterface fugacity k Fig. 489. An extrapolation of the straight line to the
intercept. (G, '" <0 and kta - <0) gives the value of
EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER l / kiO corresponding to the average gaa velocity 01
COEFFICIENTS the data. OIl which the straight line 1V8.S based .
Similarly, when II Ka is plotted lUI a funct.ion or
Since both kta and klG are requiI't!d for the integra- I/Gt' at constant gas velocity, the intercept will give
tion of the equa.tions relating to one phase only, the value of l /k,a corresponding to the averuge
equa.tions 5314 and 531b, it is not possible to calcu- liquid rate of the data.
late k~ or kra directly froro one experimental run
in sn absorption tower. The average overall mass ~'rollin8 RelJutancelJ ,
transfer coefficient K, however, may be evaluated . The equation
from one experimental run by the application either I I I
of equation 530c or 530d. The individual phase -Ka - -kta + -/;,a JHii)
coefficients 1:,0 and k,a , may be deter'mined from. a
series of properly selected data. giving values 01 l(a indicates that, where k,a is /.u.l"K1! compared 1.0 ktl1.
as described below. The biblio,rapohy for thi' ehapter a p ).Ii.';LI"li on p. 57:;.
523 MASS TRA:'II'SFER 2
the term 1/ k1 a is negligible compared 1.0 the ter'm Thus, the tranBfer cquatioml corresponding to equl\'
l / k/6> and '.berefore the overall trnnsif'r cooffi('.~nt t ion 529 were written
becomes approximately equal to the liquid phase
- V'dY';' -J.'dX - 1.:,aSdZ(1' - Pi)
ooefficient. In such cases, it is said I-hat. the liquid
phase constitutes the controlling resistanr.e of the - k,'aS dZ (Ci - C1)
operation. Similarly, when kla is large compared to
k,a, Ka is approximately equal to k,a and the gas - KcaB dZ (1' - p*)
phase is said to be the controlling resistance. - K tJJ8(lZ (CO' - C , ) (534)
When the liquid phase const.itutes the controlling
resistance, a large fugacity potential ( - tJ.f) aer088 where p, Pi - partial pteSl:!ure of the t run6ferr~
the liquid pbase is required to tranlJfcr a given mas.s component A. in the p;as stream Mid
(n the gas at the intcrfa(.'(!, respec-
12 tively (atm).
p. - partial pressure of component A in the
I.0 y
gas in equilibrium with the liquid .
r, ~'L
Ci , C, - concentration of the transferring com
D.8
'",~ ponent A in the liquid at the inte r
face and in the liquid, respcetively
..I.: o. 6~
(moles/ell ft).
C .. concentrat-ion of component A in th e
liquid in equilibrium with the gn..'S.
o.2 KG , KL - overall t ransfer coefficients expressed
in ~rms of K8S and liquid phase
0 driving potentials respectively
o 2 4 I) . 8
[moles/ {hr)(sq ft)(atm). a nd moles/
(~f')( lo t {hr)(sq rt)(moles/ cu ft)J.
FlO. ~!lfJ. Abolorption coeffieien\.l> of . u!fur dioxide from air by
water,"" "' plotted IliI! II. function of gll& TaU! for ~xtrapolntion to The overall coefficient could then be based either on
obtAin the liquid transfer eoeffi.eient kp. liquid phase units of potential, i.e., moles per cubic
foot, or upon gas phase units of potenlia! in a,.tm(lS-
compared to a. relatively' small potential ( -b.j) pheres. The resulting overall coefficients were then
acrOSl! the gas ,phase for the transfer of the same knol,.vn as overall gas phase coefficirmts or overall
mM!!, flnd the potential ( '-" oj) for the. !;quid phase liquid phase coefficientll and were described by the
is substantially equal to the tot.a1 (- llj) across both follolvmg relations.
ph8.'le!l. 1
For a gill! highly insoluble in the liquid, a given KG "'" (535)
fugacity potential tl.ctOliS the liquid phlUle is equiva- (I l k,) + (Hlkl')
lent t.o a relatively arruJl concentration gradient in 1
the lifluid phase, and the more insoluble the gas the KI.. - (l / H k,) + (lfk/) , (536)
smu.ller willile the concentration gradient equivalent
tu 11 p;iven fugaci ty gradient. Similarly, with a where H - (vlc) *, Henry's law constant.
highly soluble gas, a given fugacity gradient is Where highly insoluble gll-'leS are involved, the
equivalent to a rather large con~n tration gradient, value or H in t.hese equations is very high 80 that a
and, the more soluble the gas, the laitcer the concen- superficial examination of equtl.t ioo 536 indicates
tratiun gradient in the liquid phase. ' th$t the term (l I Hk,) will be negligihle as compared
In early work on mass transfer, f1tt wa.s assumed to the term (11k!'), and the overall liquid phMC
that tho diffusion equations applied to the transfer coefficient will be equal to the liquid phase c()('lfi
prOl.,~ in fonn , whether or Dot the transfer proc-- cient. If this were tnle, the liquid phase resistanee
c.'>!Ie!! were a.ctua.lly accomplished by the mechanism would be controlling and the gM phase resistance
of difTusion. As a result it became customary to could be neglected. ' This idea is reinforced by the
eXJ}l'cSI! the driving potential aeroea liq'~id phases in fact that a.t a given transfer rate the concentration
tt'tms of concentration units rather than fugacity. potential across the gas phase is exceedingly small
EXPERIMENTAL MASS TRANSFER COEFF1CIENTS
with insoluble gases and,small potential values indj... nent III . Tbc rung\'. of uponents 111 on HIe liliUid rate
ute low resistance, G1 which jl;iyftl rea..owllauiy s:raight lines f!'Om the
This entire argument, h(IWeVer, i" pl'e(iicnted on the datu. is from 0.5 to 0.9. The eorrClSpondillg valu!!s of
8!16umpt.ion that the high value of H maklll:! the term the intercept l/llk, a (or th!! d!ll;ht..'l\ i.ines vary from
(1I Hk, ) negligible ascompll.reci to the 1elm ( Il k,') . 0.0056 to ~ 0.00212.
But this is true only if the gas and liqu id phase The negative \'alues uf the intercept can h ave n')
coefficients are of t he samc Onlf'l' of magnit ude. ph.l'sir.aJ validi lY. If the litlllid phase Il'Hi~lance were
actually " controlling," the value of the intercept
OJ!0 ,
0.100
~I would be zero. 111is mar or may not be the co.se,
but utlfortunateiy thi" ;8 in no way proved by the
m-O.'j
I
1m ",0.7 i m - 0.6 data which would also currc1u.te on the ba8is of a
cOMider"ble gas pilaJ;e re~b,;t o.ll cc .
0.""
II Correlotion of Liquid PII"~e ~fficienlA
I Data 47 are available on the al.>&lI"ption and de-
007 0 sorption of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen
I
I /
11m -0.6
with air in water at gM maSS velocitim; of from 30 to
1300 lb/(hr)(sq ft.) and liquid velocities from 200
I A to 32,000 lb/ (hrj(sq ft ) a.t temperat.ures from 50 to
40 ~ C, using a large num ber of packings. These data
!/.' 0.5 ha\'e bIlen correla ted on the a,;sumplion that the gas
/
phase resis tance for these in>:lOluhle gases is n~glig i hle
0.030
/ V and l hat the liquid phase is completely con~rollillg,
This is tantamount to ma king an extrapolntion
0.020
,' . V similar to that of Fig. -189, as shown in Fig. -100,
drawing the straight line thruug h the origin and t1iU~
001 0
'/ if' evaluating the exponent of the liquid rate. all thi~
bMis, which ma.Il Qr ma y not be InU', a genet"":ll cMrf'l,l-
rf tion of the resuits wit h insoluble gas<'!:! hilS he('n pre-
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Q..06 sented ill Ilw form Ilf th(' r" Uu \\"ing eqlllllion.
I/O:'
FlO. 490. f'..ocfficienta for 8tripping ()xy~n fl"Om ,,at('r"
plotteU uguil\l!i t .... liquid rate for eidrnpo19ti .... n to !!Valuate
k,'. ~ (0,)'-' (-"--)'~
DL jJ. pDL
(";)
the iII.II transfer ooo:fficillnt k' p. Solid linCII t\~ Jrllwn through
\.be origin. Da.;hed linetl . n, drnwn to repreeent the data.. where k,'a "" liquid phase mass transfer coefficient
[lb mui el:l/ (llr)(clI ft.)(lb mole/ (cu
However, it is impossible to determine the values for
theindividual phase coefficients from a single e)"-peri- " II.
GI ""mass ye!oeit.y ofl itIUid, LM.,. / Sllb/ (hr)
mental run on a packed oolumn, and an extrapola- (&j t)I. . .
tion eimilu.r t!) that of Fig. -189 is far frum satisfactory
8 is usually constant at 0.5
in obtaining sllch information because it involves
selecting a . value for an exponent of liquid or gas rate Equation 537 is a. modification of the functi!lnlll
which will make n plut of l / Kr;a versus I/ O," or equation 502 indicatetl by d imensional an nl~~i8 in
I / KLa versus l/Gr a straight line. which the linear d imension D lUL'I hren nmi l t<'ti ill
Mass transfer data have an unfortunate tcndency the correlation because of the: d iffi culty in defi ning
to scatter, and the amou nt of data taken under an effective diamete r for the Row of liquid through
suitable conditions is rn.ther meager, $0 that a con- the pn.cked culumn. .
siderabi<3 runge. o~ vslues of the exponents ,of liquid The Va.it!C8 of the c~nstants, a, ~, and 8, are Ii~~ed
or g:).S rate will givf! apparen tly; _equally satisfactory in .T a ble 50 for the various packings invcstigat,cd.
stmight lines. This is indit:ated in Fig. 490 by 'the Since {he equat.ion is nut dimcn~iunless, the cun8tant
family of straight lines, each liM represe nting the ... h:&.8 dimcnsions, u.~ d t he values listed in T aolc 56
same data. plotted for different va lues of the expo- are valid only when units of pou~ds ma.ss, hOUTS,
MASS TRANSfER 2
and f(!('t are employed. The effed of temperature where G, and G1 are gM !JIIrl liquid Ill88S velocities,
olilhe liquid phase coefficients ill determined through rel!pecth'ely [lbj(hr)(sq ft)J.
ittl cJfeet. on tbe physical properties in equation 537. 8, 7f, and m are empirical constants specific to
The liquid phase diffu!livity DL for liquid systems the system of ammonia, air, and
at. tempe ratures at whieh experimental data are not water &.nd funct.ions of the pack-
available may be est.imated by use of the Stokes- ing used as given in Table 57.
Einstein relation "-M that the liquid phase diffusivity
mdirectly proportional 1.0 the absolu te temperature TABU: 67. VALUES OF CONST ANTS B. n, ANI) '" IN
EQrATION 538 FOR G.-\~ I'HAS.E COEFFICI,,:NTtl u
and inversely proportional to liquid viscOl>il:y.
Temperature 26' C
'I'AJU,g 56. VAI.I" ES OF .. AND n IN EQtTATION 537 Syalclll Ammunia-Air-\Vat-cr
mit DIFFERENT PACJ{INGSa8 (WITH . (''ONSTANT I'fI.."M!Oure lll.tm
AT 0.5)
Pack ing
1',,~ kiRK 8 m
J.i x !+in. lliw.hig rillgB 0.0005 0.00 0 . 39 11
2.11 2-in. R:il!Chig riup 0.22 I x l-in. Raow.hig riflfl;S 0 . 048 0.88
I..'> x 1:S-in. Raschig.rinp
I X I-ill. Rwo::hiK rinp
'"
00
120
0.'"
0 . 24
l 'i lr I !+in. RMchig rinp
l-in. llerl8ll.tkl1es
0.014
0.008il
0.72
0.75
0."
0.38"
0.40
0.5 x O.5-in. R.:utchlg rinp
% x }B-in. IWehiS rinp
'01
550
0.35
0.46
3-in.
g"nHl)
~ill,,1e spiral tile (stlLg-
0.01&1 0.65 0.20
1.5-in. Borl ea<idles 160 0.28 3-in. tdr)1e spiral tile (attlg-
I-in. Be.1 8&ddIC!ll
O.5-in. Berl saddle.
100
150
0.31
0.28
,,",,'
3-in. parl.ition tile (stAggered)
0.0083
000006
0.61
0.42
0.44
J.0iI
3 x 3-iD. siB&k. epil"Jll tile Wootl ,~without k-p
(. lag-emct) 211 O. IS (cl1l68ed) O.(XlI58 0.66 0 .61
3 x 3-in. triple spital tile Wood grid.-with IegB
(etaggered) 86 0.28 (cl"Olllled) O.02O'J 0.64 0 .31
3 x 3-in. partition .pi. a! tile 1"6295 drip-~int grid ~k_
(~taggered) Iti 0 . 09 ing, oontinuou& flWl 0.0084 0.83 0.27
W6295 drip-point Krid pIlck- .629.5 drip-poin~ grid pack-
ins, continuous floo . 138 0.81 ing, BMrt leg 0. 193 0.>4 0.1I
.W6897 drip-poin~ grid pack- ,.6897 drip-point grid JlIlCk-
io~ oonlinoous flue
Wti!46 driJl"1lllln~ pid 1*"1.:-
iug, oontinuous flue ..
til 0."
0.23
Equation 537 is u!!OO for the prediction of liquid
ing. oon tinuOUll flue
.U I.Jti drip-point grid jMlCk-
inc. cgntin\lOUl! Bue
0 .00-19
0 .010
0.63
0 .&1
0.39
ph~ eoefficients for '!yst.ems un which' no experi- mental data are available may be estimated from
mental uata are available. The experimental data the data on the absorption of ammonia from ai r
on which it is hased covered a tenfold range of varia- int,o water at 25 C, by means of thejfactor concept..
tionib Schmidt number and a wide range of (G,/,..), 8O According to this concept, at a given gas phase
that. the relation should be capable of extTllpclation. Reynolds number, packing, and rate of liquid Bow,
Correlation oj GUll Pha.tle Coefficien,.
k ... (k) [ (/J j pDa)NfL]" (539)
A correlation of gall phase coefficients similar tAl ,a ,a NH. (~jpDa)
equation 5.37 for liquid phase coeffic.ienUi has not
yet. been prepared. nas phase information is pre- There are a few data on the vaporization of water,
lICnted in thf' lit.f'ratllnl in a variet.y of forms. methanol, benzene, and toluene in a tower 3,6 in.
Data on the absorption of ammon!&. from a ir in ID, packed with 5 in. of ~in. rings.-! which indicate
water over a wide variety of packing h&.ve been eorre- tlaat k,a is proportional to Dou T rather than D a o.6T,
1l1tf'd 17 by estimating the liquid pha.-;e coefficients as indicated by the j [actor expressions. This
k,'a br eqllation 537 and calculating k,a from values diecrepancy casts doubt as to the general applica-
of KGa by equation 535. bility of the exponent;.) on the Schmidt number at
The values of k,a were then correlated as a func- least for packed towers. Poesibly the significance of.
tion of the gas ami liquid rates according to the the ditlusivity is' less under. the turbulent conditlonll
relation in .packed towc.rs.:thao in wettedwall columns wheft
(538) k,a bas been..-estabfished aa proportional tAl DoOM..
TilE mANSFER UNIT 531
THE TRANSFJo:R UNIT Also, lJince
An equivalent method of dealing with ~ trans- (546)
fer problems based upon the concept of a tl'ansf'er
unit hBB proved convenient. LIS
In the integr&l form of the rate equation as applied (HTU),--- (04')
to an ab80rption or stripping tov.-er,
.,p,.
where m - the average elope of the equilibrium
- f dv
(1- .)(/. -/;)
=- k,a...1i Z
V
(53la) curve II - .;(x) betwoon x, and .z or
approximately the slope at x, or x,
the left-hand side of the eqllation is a function only moo :to - x is usually small.
of composition and is a meM11te of the separation Similarly, the number of overall transfer units
effected. Assuminp; ideal gases, the number of gas based on the g.a.s phase concentration may be d<!fined
phaae traW!.fer nnits 71, is defined '" '"'' as
dy KQ4l'M
, - - f (l d"
- II)(Y - II,)
- -k,aPS
V
-z (f>IO)
na--
and
f (1 - ")(11 - II)
- G,
Z (648)
By equation 529,
nr - -
f (1 - x}(x; - x )
(0.2)
(1500)
and
Ldr /./.,\
-L'dX - - - - - kra(h - f,)S dZ (HTU), - - - (051)
(I - x ) KLa C
- k,aP(Yi - y)S dZ where x" - mole fraction of solute in liquid in equi-
- k/a(C. - CdSdZ librium with gas containing mole frac-
- k,'aC(xi - x)S dZ (543) tion II of solute.
KL - overall liquid phase tl'allilfer coefficient
where k14 - transfer coefficient in fugacil.y units fmoles-/ (hr)(sq ft.)(moles/ (cu ft).
Imo&es/ {br)(cu ft)(atm)J.
E......-ea... Show t hal
1:1'0 - trtlllBfer coefficient in conoentration . ...V .
units fmole!l/ (hr) (cu ft) (moles/ Cll ft)!. HTUG - HTU. +L HTU! (&52)
C - average molal density (tota] moles/ell
ft solution). L
H1'UL - HTU! + -mY HTU, (6&8)
". - mole fraction ohoillte in gas in equilib-
rium with liquid containing mole mY
lraction :t of aolut.e. HTUo - L HTUL (aM)
From equation 529 In equations 5-52, 553, and 554, the valuesoC m are
ftl _ -
f
d:t
(1 - x)(x,. - x)
kl'aC
---Z
L/S
( ....
)
not quite identical. In equation 552, m is the average
slope of thtf equilibrium curve" _ .. (x) between:r~
and x. In equation 653, m i. the average slope
.. that betw~:tOt alld Z,' In equation 554: m is the averap
Z LIS slope between z* and %. Ordinarily, the variation
I (HTU), - - - - - (0.5)
"I "/aC in the s&ope 1)1 the equilibrium curve between :tOt
-',
.,2 [\(ASS
, ;rR:\.J," S~t.:R 2
a rid x is small so that, m may be conJ!.idered to be Sul~lilul;ngthe ,:alue,of :r. givcn by equation WI
constant over thf' rll.fjg~. in e(jUaliOll 555, the intt>gratinn may be performro
The height eqllh'1l.1ent. tva transfer unit is a con- 8nmYlirally to I!;ive t.he rl'latj .m
venient and simple means for expressing the per-
formance of vft,Th,lls packinjQ!. ii'J practically indf'- no - ._-,:(~= In (!II - mrl) <111 - y~
- - - - - (557)
)X'ndent. of flow ra h'>', und \'n rics only !!lighily from 1 - (m V/ L ) Y2-11I.l'2 (-6y ),..
, where
.) ' (y , - y ,") - (Y2-'-- Y2*)
, ( -'-" II I...... , 1-
11 lrl (Yt112 -- !IIY2 :).
..
0
) !\orany commercial a.bsorption problems involve
the recovery of a solute rrom
a gas- by absorption,
II
followoo by the recovery of the soiute from the
solvent by a distillat ion operation. If the recovery
of the solute from the gas ill fixed, the values fI and 1/2
are fixed. The concentration of solute in the ab-
sorbent is also known, fixing X2, which is ullunlly
j /
" 2
,
2
, j
11 "
,., J
0
, 0 2
mV/L
4 , ,.0
.
Fill. 491. Tbe h~ ight <If .. tr&lL'lfl'l" unit (HTU/) ve","UII mY / L
fur abBorptioll of aulru r dioxide in water Oil 3-in. apil1l.l rings, V
stacked slaggered....
.11
system to system. Its single linear dimension makes
it easy to'!estimatc. A series' of experimental runs ,
.. I
made~ith ~!l! give'rI"8Y8tem' in a tower may be corre- 2 "
lated by piottin!/," flTUo as a function of mVjL,
(Fig. 491). The I;lope of the' resulting line is HT L'I, .0 ,
' .II:
and its ~ntereept is HTU ,_ Similarly, HTU L might
,
rl.:
, ~
be p lotted as a (unction of Lm/ V to give a line
~ying a slope of lITUt with an intercept of IITU /.
Where the gas phase behaves as an ideal gas, and
, 3 in. 4in. WOQIj ~
oAr-
f-
GIt$ R~w.l50 Ib/(hr) (sq to 0
the equilibrium relations can be expressed as y - mx
and t.be concentration of the solute in the gas and
UquKt Rate. 250 Ib/(hr) (sq ttl Cl
liquid Rate, 400 Ib/{hr) (sq It) .. '
liquid pbases i~ !:Imnll, the number of overall gas
phase transfc r units may be expressed approxi- 0
I I
rnalely by the rel:\\ ion o U M M ~ Ih J2 JA Ih IB ~
,.V/L
. dy '- Y dy
1"i(; = - ry-:I1.~-[ . y
FlO. 492. The height of & tn.n8r~r unit (HTl/q) in feet YeI"IIU5
(555) m,' /L for absorption of ammoniA in water in 3-in. ~pil"Rl
mx
rinp, 4-in. partition rings, anu J+iri. wood gridJ. )~"
arid a material balance by
",' r negligibly small. Under such circumstances,the
V V value of the term mVj L is approximately .equal to
-' X- - Y+ 1"2 - -1I2 (556)
L L y,"/ YI or the fractional ap proach of the exit liquid I
THE TRANSFER UNIT
to equilibrium with the inlet. gas. Thus, for a. given in Figs. 491, 492, and 4~ as a function mV/ L, as
By!tem the greater the value 01-mV/ L or of V f L, the mdicated by equation 552. A summary of the
greater the eooceut ration of the solute in the exit values or H TU, and H TU" IlS determined. from the
liquid and the lower the cost of the subsequent slopes and intercepts of the line!! on these figures is
recovery operation. On the other hand the greater presented in Table 58. II The variation in the values
the concent.ration of solute in the exit liquid, the from one /,ype of packing to another and even from
one sysUlm to another is very small. It i8 thie fact
which ma.kes the HTU concept convenient in esti-
,d!!..
8upplit~1 with .....ter at 72 F. Compute:
~ 1. The minimum water flow " " Wi red.
o. 2. T he dimcnsiolUJ of t he column if I -in. ccn.mic Ruchi t;
o Liqu id rate 450 Ib/( hr) (!Iq It) rin g!! tlrtl u!\Cd and it is operated. at ~ of the flooding gas
6 Liquid rite 250 Ib/( hr) ($(I It) vdodty with ten timeR the mini mum water flow.
- 3. for oomparilll.lu, the height of a wettedwal l column (no
.. p6cking) of the seme dia meter "ith the ""me WAter ra te 11.8
in 2.
0
o 1.0 SoIullon. A8sumpUoos:
".V/L
(fl.) :So trAllllfer of " -ater betwccn pbaa'fI.
Flo. 493. The beightof a traDllfeJ' urn\ (H T Uo) in feet-nus
(b) Atmo.pherie pressure of 760 m m mercury.
'" V / L ror abIIorption of ammonia in water on IX-in. to I U -in.
(e) The molal equilibrium ratio v" j~ is IlOlistan~
broken qUliN,".
(d) Th e heat elfiict of absorption 01 arum"nia has a lIegli-
gible effect on fluid properties.
lower the value of ( -Ay),,,, fur a given system. (e) Tbe thiekllOM of the h .lliIlIJ film in the wetted-Willi
There is, therefore, an optimum value of mV j L for column may be oolUJidered negligible.
minimum total cost of recovering solute.
1. The minimum Wtlter rate is ob~ned when NH. in exit
In general, with valuable solutes, t he optimum liquid is in equilibrium with NHa in ent('ring plI. From
value of mV/ L will range from 0.5 to 0.8 in absorp-. Fig. M I (AplM!ndi~ ) the "'tio ~ . / 7 i~ 'tstimaled to be 0.&5
tion operations and from 1.5 to 2.0 fo r stripping Ill! folloW1l: At 72 F the pan. ial preMllJ"t: uf ~H. in equilibri um
0
0.55
1.27
- -
72.. Ut .. 0.1)00066) r"(l ..
d,
,.)Ut ,.0) -L"ko V
g
PdA
O. O!!I"
0 .001&42
.' .,.-...,..-..... ...,
'"
0.1)01318 0.011"
(1- .HII' - r'">
Upoo.lntearation and fUt.t.itlltion thia becomea
k,PrDZ
--V-no
0 .010000 0 .00118
0 .00...)1",11 o . urb',~
0.001018
Q. ,-"JOI~,,...... ,.-
' .m
..........,
111.7
,.......
0 .OCK571 ~ The va11te ofls may be Mt.im&ted by equation 503.
, ,,- ,.....
... . OOIlJfAI ... . IJ"--.U8
,.~ ,,-
... . O".lIIOI.
Il .IIIJ1"lIY/.I
O.OOOlliO ... JIOI I I8 ....uu..n ... III
0 . 000!165
0.00015.101
~
L(29.94~.7H)'] ~~ + ~
to the relatively large temperature changes which
- 0.GI66 frequently occur. Such variations in physical
properties may also be reflected in a relatively large
.. o.7tl8eq ft!hr (An experimental value 60 ofO.91611q ft/hr
at 2&- C and I atm ill equivalent 1.0 0.90 IIQ It/ hr at variation in the mass transfer coefficients.
72- 1" .) Under the&e circumstances, for lack of a better
procedure, it is customary to detennine average
ViIooIity,. of air - 0.0178 e.1ltipoi!lll
values of the t.ra.n.sfer coefficient by a constant,
K.~ for K.
The left.baod side of equations 559a and 5S9b may
.t.. .. 0.0r.5 Ib molee/ (hr){eq fl){a Lm) be integrated graphically by calculating t.he interlace
The belch\ of the eoiumn if no paekiftllia used: conditions 88 described previously. Again, it is
(&.85){-'i) 98J I uaually more convenient to use equations 559c and
Z - (0.056){1){2.6)(1I') .. .t 559d, the left-hand sides of which may be inlegrated
readily by re!ating u, x, jl> and h through a material
balance and the equilibrium relationships.
DISTILLATION
These difficulties in obtaining precise integration
The rate equation may be applied to a differential of the rate equations apparently have somewhat
section of a packed tower in which distillation is discouraged "*!arch directed towards the evaluation
oceurring in t.lle aame manner aa in absorption or of transIer coefficients for distiUation.
stripping. The equationa, which are anaIogoua to The HTU concept may alao be applied to distilla.
equation 529, lake the following form . tion to give the following relatiooships.
- d(y.) - -d(Lz) - k.aS dZ (J, - JJ Z f dy Z
- k",s dZ (J, - N - xaS dZ (J, - J,) (558) rt, - (HTU), - - ~ - V/ k,aPS
(66Oa)
column. 22
An investigation ~ of the distillat.ion of the
ethanol-water system over packings of ~-in ., I-in.,
and 2-in. 'Raschig rings and ;.rin. and I-in. Berl 20
0
saddles in a eoJumn section opernted as a rectifier ,
~
N{
I
. ~
0<
"(HTU)o ~ 1450. .
[;C')]'''
(5tH)
'- F
-
,
{
,~,
'1
{
{
t:~
" ,,{
"
I
, [(HTUloj (0,)'
wberem'" =
0
/1 -.(\}~j;,-
(H7'U)L , G,
. '.
-
A ,.
"
Koe ." ov~rall gas pbJl!le transfer coefficient
8 &-- \ +
OJ
lib moles/(~r)(cu ft.)(atm)].
, / ~'i:;/
,
= arithmetic mean or average liquid mass
1/
velocity [Ib/(hr)(sq ft )].
M / 'lJ1\'~ \~
II /; v-
Or =_arithmetic mean gas mass velocity
:~
~b/(h<)(", ft)] .
JI. "" liquid ':iscosity [lb/ (hr)(ft)J. , ,- ,
,
These results show little effect of the size or type "
of ;w.cking and a large effect of the rate of liquid 0 _ M ID l~ W 25 r W
flow on the transfer coefficient. This implics that a AIH!"OIie ~pII (m...J 01 Yapor-Uquid ,Er\ui).ibrium Curve
major resistance to transfcr is in the lii1uid phW>e. FIG.4()-l. The height.o! /l, t l'lll'lllf"r \luit (HTUa) N<ll'!lutll~kJ"'"
of equililJrium di... gtum (~ - l:) for varioWl reflux ratiQll (~' I L)
ConC'3ntration is also an important fact.or through
in the meUlIl.llo1_wat.el 5yl1f.cm. 1I
its effect un m, but this was nut brought out in this
work which was limited\o rect ificlltion' over a con-
centration range of ff9lll 6. 1 to 51.6 mole per cent LlQUID-LI Ql:1D EXTRACTION
in the vapor phase. ' The mw equatiollll may be written for a ditTerential
Additienal investigations 18 showed a succcs;,1ul sect ion of a packed tower or similar contacting equip-
cmpirieal correlation of the results over .!?in. ring>!
men~ in which !,!xlract.ion i8 OCCUlTing in the same
by plotting (HTU)G versus m as de~lH..'(1 byequa- ma.n~e r as for distillation or absotption. The cq\\a-
tion 566 for systems having equilibrium curves tions are iucnlir.a! to equation 558, provided fl.1e
typical of relatively Weal systems, as in Fig. 49.t. symllils l', y, 'f" etc., refer to one liquid phn.sc and
the s:rmbols t , x, !I, elC., rder to 'the other liquid
,- -. phase. .. - , I,
Whcre the t i\'o<8olvents C an>d S are OIily slightly
(506)
y~ ....: y, miscible and rfltain>their immisciliility regardlcB.!! of
I ' "" solul.e- oontcn't bver thl!. opcrating>'range, the ratio
However, this methud of correlat.ion was nut, snc- of thE!' quantity of .,solvent C in the raffill1lte phllSe
~flll wilen applied to syStems. having. irregular to the (Iuantit.y of dOlvent S in the extract phase
equililorilJBI ,'urves such as ethanol-water: _p~lng one anot.ho:r at any point in the unit will be
UQUID-l::iQUID EX1 'RACfIQN 537
substant ially con's tant, This is strictly analogoull t{) It is usUally neeessary , beeause of the
lack of
the situnt ion CQmmonly encountel'ed in' gas absorp- thelmodynamic d a ta for most liquid-liquid systems
tion or stri pping when the solvent is relat ively of interest, to a;:;Sllme thaL t he fugacities are pro-
insoluble inthc gas phase or the stripping medium portional to the molal COClcent rat ion!l and to write
is rela tively insoluble in the liquid phase. Tbus, in equat ions 567a to 567d Ill! followlI.
d(VY) J .
this C&.'le the equations describing t.he operat ion are
identical with those Tor gas absorpt ion or stripping.
Jc-
- --- -
C,
k .'aS dZ (5680)
J J
. dy J k.aS
dl (53 10.)
- J (1 _ y)l/. _ /;) - V -
d(L x)
- - - "" k/ aSdZ (568b)
C. - C
-: Jcd(_Vy)c. - JKvaSdZ
- "" - J -A-,aS dZ (531b)
J (I - x)I/, - h ) [, (56&)
- J(I
dy
a
/;) .
f -J\uS
- liZ
V
(53Ie)
u)(l , (56&1)
" KaS
J dx (531d)
(1 - x )(f, M - J - L ~ dZ where the t.ran!lf('T coefficients are all based on liquid
ph li~ concentrations and have the
In the general C{l.'!e, the li11llid-liquiri extr!Wtiun unitl:l, Ib moles/{hr)(sq ft)(moles/cu
>ystem is of the type in whidl the two' solvents are it). The bar over the concent.ration
II.ppreciably miscible lind to a varying d~ term C delliglUlUls a concentration in
throug6out the rttnge uf opel'afiull, Il.i> has been one phtI.tIC V as di;;tinct from the
del1Cribed previously_ I,n Uljg c&:;e, t1 ~ inola!
rate unoorred C, designating a ooocentra-
of flow of each phu."*!-and t he molal rule of flo,, of tioll ill the other phMe L,
a compone nt of each phtll'le " ary over a w;de range. (J. - concellll"Htion of the solute in the phase
Thus,. the previous n.et hoos of arra nging t he nile V which would be in e<luilibrium with
equations for integration ror di!stillat-ion o r uhs orp- the concentra tion C in phase L .
tion or stripping a re no loogt' r tlUtis ractory. T he C - C(Nl(:entrtl.IWn of the solute in the phase
equations analogous to t(1"a tioms 53 1 are wri tten L which woukl be in equilJbrium with
below, without ass uming V a nd L to be c()n~tllnt and too (:oncentration C in phase V.
using the sub8eript t' to rep re!lent the V phase,
H owever, the right--hand side ",r equations 568a. to
- J d( Vy) - J k ...~ dZ (567a)
5H8d is no lunger suitable lor inrogration because
(f. - /;) wide ,variation in the rn8.$l rates of How or the phases
may pro(hu:e wide variation in the transfer coeffi-
- J d(Lz) - J klaS aZ cients. This ~it.uat i on migbt be,improved by writing
(567b) equations 507 to 5!i7d as
Ii - II
-
. J d(Vy)
-- -
I. -II
J' .
KaSdZ (567c)
- J d(V/I)
V(f. h)
"" Jk,pS dZ
V
,( MIla)
o.,
,
2
1
1"-
. .
0
"""
""y NI_..,...._
~.
'" ......--
.....~~.-
M~
-
"",.. kltQnt._
R~.
"
"
"
o.,
0.. NlpMhl!ftlt ....
"
j ,, o. '" Nlpllth ....... J!,
N."",""It", u tbon diooidl
Hlpllt""It .. _ hydrol""
"
~
o.
o.2
~ ~
~. . ~ "'-
L ~"..
1
.... 0.08 -"...,
0.06 ""-J, . 8-10 ,-.~ J _ .~
,
0."
0.0
"'"
""
0.0 1
~ 0 N
" ~ ~ o 0
Reynolds Number, Re .,
FIG. 4!lS. j flleto!' for mBIIII trll.lJ!!fe.r lUI " function of n"yooldl! numher And PlLrtielc sile.... ....
columns, the dry ing or leaching of solids by circula- having the lIame surfaoo area as the avtl ~age IIUrface
ting Iluids through solidI:! beds, and the interpretation area per particle.
of kinetic data for chemiCal reactions between fluids The ,upper curve of Fig. 495 is based on data for
Il1Id solids, or f or chemical reactions 'in fluith which the drying of Celite particles ,vith air and the
are catalyzed I)y solids. leaching of eelite particles with water. All the
particlell in these experiments were greater t ha.n
Fixed Bed. 0.09 in. in diameter (0,) , !W) tha.t above this value
The experimental basis of pre!;Cnt correlations of there is no effect uf pltrticle dill1l1eter in the correla-
the rate of mQ8S' transfer in fluid phases flowing tion other than t.hat included in the Heynolds num-
through fixed beds of granular solids is data on the ber. On the uther hand, the' experiments on the
drying of Celi te cu.t.u.lyst particles by air,!1 u the Vaporization of naphthnlcne in air, carooll dioxide,
vaporization of nllphLhl.llcne particb by air, carbon and hydrogen show an effect of purticle size. The
dioxide, and hytirogcn,A.42 and the leaching of PMticies in these experiments were all sinall, as
organic solvents from Calite catalyst particl~ by indicated in Fig. 495. The inco;:sislencies between
water.- The correlat ion ill !ihown in Fig. -Ins where the data of Hurt ill and those of Resnick and White
the j (actor is plot ted Il8 a funct ion of Reynolds shown in Fig. -1M on the vaporiaation of small yar-
MASS TRANSFER IN SYSTEMS OF FLUIDS AND GRANULAR SOLIDS 539
tiel$!! of naphthalene are due, probably, too the fact. fluidized beds of granular naphthalene indicates two
that. the incompletely reported properties of one types of fluidization. These I \\10 types of aggregativc
bed oN were assumed to be the oame a:; those of the fluidization are charactflristic of the behavior of
other beds.~! clOllcly . siwd fractions of p::u-ticles. With low gas
The similarity between Fig. 495 and a plot of velocities there is no observablo motion of the bcd.
fTietion factor versus Reynolds number for flow in AH the velocity increases. lhe bed begins to expand
pipes of varying rollghn~ (F ig. 125) is interesting. and bubbles of gas pass through the bed which
....,
Figure 125 showl! Ii series IIf lines luwing tlte relative re8embles a gently boiling li(luid. ill! the velocit,y
increases further, the bubbling action becomes morc
violent until finally slugs or streams of material
are lifted from the bed. Thcse streams pass upward
for & short distance ru"od. then drop back onto the
o.
'"~ bed. UlOinp;" descriptive terminology. the two ty po:;
nl 0
_:=
"'"
".
14.20_ . . . . .
.!() . ... -~ . .
o 2*-11_ ..-.~-
. 1I-f8_"'IfIl/IIin'* -
..... ""
. ..
:; 0.04
,
ir~~
.
S:o.o3
. .
I
D
... .,o-'JJ .....
."
." . .
.
_...-.00. .......
lIi-._. . . . .
14.111_'-00
e- o
... " o.31s1~
0.0I
- 11...
H
, - , .... "'-
." - .,.... :0.
'"'" 140 .....
D ..... o.~)
FlO. 490, Correlation of <lILt.:. on [naSI! tr,msfer in etrellm ing
Buidbalion .. by plotting j/ /&) t il l'llrsul Re/~ .
function of Reynoldl!
" of fluidization persists at much higher gas velOf.ities
than when the material is closely sized. The wider
number and particle ei~e.- the size range of the fraction , the higher the velocities
to which tne ao-called bubbling region persilts.
roughness,fj Das a parameter. the lines corresponding The m&118 transfer data ~ in fluidized blxis in the
to large values of roughness being closer together-than streaming region are correlated as shown in Fig. 496
\hree corresponding to small values. Similarly Fig, which plots i/(Sc)o.f>7 as a function of Re/ 4>. Thc
495 shows a series of lines having particle size as a j f&CLor is defined by equation 5(}.tu, and again it is
parameter, the lines corresponding to large particles asaumed that all the area. of the particles is active
being closer together than those corresponding_to in the m&!l8 transfer process. The Reynolds number
&mall particles. Figure 495a. is a similar plot. of is modified 8.8 in the fixed-Qed correlation, The
heat transfer data 1110 which mow the same charac- group q, is defined
teristics. The d imen!uonless parameter for fiJ!:ed
4> "" Dp'p,g(p. - PI ) (:;70)
bedt corresponding to the relative roughness in
pipes has not yet been detennined.
"
The curve shown in Fig. 100 correlated lhe data for
Fluidised Bech closely sized fraction~ ranging from 14 to 48 Tyler
..Mass transfer in ftuidiaed beds has been investi- screen mesh.
gated by vaporizing naphthalene with' air, carbon The mass transff'r data for fluidized 1)('; I~ in the
dioxide. and hydrogen. Visual observation of bubbling region arc as yet too mcagt'r I,} 1 ~ "'! ll i t de-
MASS TRANSFER 2'
veiopment of a generalized correlation. The short rnaIII' trAn~fer relative to the lobI re~iKt"n"" to transfer at (\
liquid rate of 10,000 lb /( hr)(liq ft).
horizontal Iinc!:! in Fig. 490 prf!Sf'nt the da.ta avail-
KLo,
able at the present time. An appl'oximate OOTrt'la- 1b moica/
tion of the 'Velocity a.t which the bubbling region 0" G" T empcrn (hr)(eu ft)
tr-,msfonns to the streaming region for closely sized Run to Ib/ (hr) Ib /(hr) lure, (II, moielJ/
fractions of naphthalene is shown in Fig. '497. In N". (M! ft) (eq ft) "C eu ft )
.,
this figure , the area abm'e ELnd to the right of the
.,".
13.2 in. of dumped 0.5 in Bcrl ...addlel!
16,000 H10 " .0 1M
27 ,000 H10 25,0 ' <8
0.005
\
""-
Citrbon djg~i clt 67
58
8,000
000
2,000
100 ' .
100
100
"'
".0
25,0
25 .0
' 04
16.7
42
eubbling
~ Strelming
3. A feed mixture eonWIL8 25 1l'...IL$!I per cent ethan"l, the
ool~ce .... IeI'. It is dcalred t.o batch dis t ill 8JOO pi of this
mi:rtlUTt through a to...e r 2 ft in oiiamet"r, po.eked to a oiCI Jth
0.00 1
\\. of IS f1 ... ith dumped J-i.n. RaliChi! rinp, to reoo""T OJ.O
per a~nt of the ethanol a& II. distillate prOOl.IC~ eont...ining 90.0
mal'll rer ('en! ethunol. The operation will llIJ e<:>nduet.ed at
1 Mm pl'C8Sure under cunditiO/I.!! of OOl'l.'.lllln\ distilll!.t~ com-
pc.-irion. The liquid IIh&!le diffusivity fu, ethanol-water af.
ISO- F i$ 2.35 X 10..... 11() (t/ see.
III there BUflicicnt packing in the to ... er fot thla (...etion -
0.000 2
OJ 0.2 0.3 0.4
Par1ide o;.,mett. D~ mm
1\ ation!
, . ',.
.'
~. - .. " "
., '
,.. ..
CHAPTER
37
Psychrometry
P
SYCHROMETRY refers mai nly to the I':ys- The humidity ratio X expresses the ma88 of water
tematized knowledge of the pl'OJ.lert ic~ of air vapor carried by unit mass of dry air. The- S&IlIe
8Jld water, but its hroader me&ninp; inclutl~ the symbol, X , may be used to express the mass ratio
principles wlUch go.vp.m the propert~ and behll.\'lor for other systems by special designation 9.8 "ethanol
of mixtures of the so-called "fixed" gases with can humidity."
densable vapors. The term humidity is normally restricted to water
The system or air and water ~ impurtant-, not only vapor in air.
with ' regard to air conditioning fOf physiological The humidity of any ideal gas is related directly
comfort, but also with regard to wat.er cooling and to th;) pa~t.ial pressure of the vapor being carried, if
drying. There are frequent opportunities tu apply
psycbrometric principles to other S,)'lOlcms in connec- p "" partial pressure of the vapor.
tion with problems of solvent recovery ami the P - total pressure of the ga.&-vapor mixture.
removal of organic vapors. ExampiE'-s of this are in M . - molecular weight. of the vapor.
the dry-cleaning indnst-ry where recovery of the M. - molecular weight of the gas.
Stoddard's solvent, carllOll tetrachllJride, and other
valuable materials is C'88Cntiai fur aconomical opera-
tion. Again there are c~ wh(!I'f! it is dCl:lired to
x ~ (p : p)(~:) (571)
H UM.ID,I TY Of ART
The dry volulrW! V. is the volume in eubic feet
occupied by 1 Ib of the earrier gas. F or ideal lases, ~ TheJilO!lt convenient method of handling psych1'Q-
, metric relationships makes u~ of the so-called
V _ (359)T _ _
_ O.73T
(576) hu:nidity chart, whie:' is simply"a plot of the proper-
r PM, (492) PM, ties of the mixtures under consideration at a specified
total pressure, usually ooe atm08phere. Fi~re 498
woore T ,., temperature (OR,("F + 460). shows such a plot for the system air and ethyl
P ,. pressure (atm).
alool:I(ll, amJ Fig. 499 i! a IHlmidity chart for air and
1be humid !.'OlU1m V Je is the volume of moist gas water. As indicated, the foll owing properties are
per unit mass of dry gaIJ. It is the volume occupied usually shown.
by 1 lb of the carrier gaIJ and the vapor carried by it. 1. The humidity X as pOllOds of vapor per pound
For ideal gases, ' of dry ~ is plotted agaiflBt temperature with lines
of ,COIlBtant relative saturation. Th4. relationship
Vx- V,+JC ( -O.73~
- (577) is shown by the family of curves beginning in the
PM.
lower left-hand corrier of the plot and sloping up-
_ O.73T (_I +~) war$ to the right, ea~.h curve being labeled accord
ing to its relative saturation (equation 573).
P M, M.
2. The Ilpecific volume of dry and saturated carrier
The M!tura!t volume V. is We volume occupied by gas expressed &8 cubic feet per pound of dry carrier
1 Ib of the carrier gas and the vapor which saturates g88 is plotted as a function of temperature in degrees
it. Fahrenheit. , Only the two curves (or the dry volume
V. -- -+-:JC.0
O.73T( I
P M, M
(578)
(equation 576) and the saturated volume (equation
578) are UBuaIly IIhOWD. Specific volumes of ga&-
vapor mixtures" which are unllAturated may be
The humid ht;o.t of a gss-vapor mixture is the evaluated by a linear interpolation between these
energy required to raise the temperature nl 1 Ib -of lines. These curves are labeled dry volume (or
the camer gas and ita aecompanyinc vapor, 1F specific volUme) and saturated volume, respectively.
-
280 450
260 440 28
240 430
" .
i 200 ~
. ~180~400
410 .~
, -;- 20 "
~
b 140 ;;~.o ~ i
. .
j
-
120 '&.370$.14
>
ill 100'5360 u
~
,
"~
,E"/
'"-~ ~
80 350 '"
~
~
60 ~ 340
~
4. 330
2. 32.
31
300
. W.30.5000ro50~~ l wwrn~m_rn~mmm=_=_
Temperature. 'F
FIG. 498. Humidity chart fur the a;r-clhanol sy.tem.'
B= ~ . -
Humid Heat, Btu/lb dry aif eF)
=- = 1 1
~
21 ' 40 0.14
-- Adiapafif' _
~ . 1 rrauo!)
~
19
.
.
-
'
;
~
}!
~
~ .
;'' wt
. W~8
~~
<I)' 'IJ 0'\
~i~
'
,
ftC.
0.12
~ 18 ~'L Il'll'l. ,
0.08 ~
..;;
~
" 14
~u((\e \IS \e
~eriJ.'~
Tfl
'.
13
o
S'3\11t'3\e ..,0 ..'" tel1'~e'~
0.06 "
~
~
12 __ hritic "o\~(r . E
'""
0.04
0.02
~. ~ m 140
Temperature, or
,. 180 200 220 240 250
to determine humidity rrom wet- and dry-bulb where heat and mMS transfer occur Mross the same
kmperature measurements in the same way Ulat
the Il(iiabatie cooling lines are used. Knowing the
path,
j _ k,Mu. P(-"--)" _.~ ('Cp) U
(585)
value of T. and consequently 3C,. on the saturation G, pDq CplJ, k,
line, the wet-bulb line is fGllowed downward and
to the right to the intersection or the ordinate corre- In the equation for the j factor the average molee
sponding to T. This locates the humidity 3C. ular weight of the flowing stream M.v~ is used.. If
In the specific case of air and water at tempera- the humidity 3C is small, the average molecular
tures up to a.bout lSO Q F, the wet-bulb curves are weight of the flowing stream is approximately equal
practically coincident with the adiabatic cooling to M" and equation 58li may be simplified aa
curves becau9E! the term h,/ Ir,M ,P is practically
equal to the term , in the adiabatic cooling equation -- -C, (/A/--
"
k,Af,P
pDQ)"
Cp~/k,
(686)
474. Under these circumstances, the adiabatic
cooling curves may be used w; wet-bulb lines. Values calculated from equation 58G are &bOWD in
The wet-bulb temperature of the mil!ture repre- the last column of TabLe 59.401
sented by the point A in Fig. 500 is T. 1 88 given by
TABLE 69. SUMMARyG OF VAUW.8 OF '''It.M,1'
CALCULATED FROM WET-BULB Df..'TEm.IINATIONS
IN AIR
I .... ...,
_. ... """.
...,- <><.... '" .... ' ,-
f
% '- ",...t-
...
~
,-
....'
~
-I
Temperatun. ~f
A
--""""-
.........
....-
""""'-
' .tl
.. **
. *
,.~
.0 ....
0.11
."
..*
'. t7
' .ft
'.0
."""""_
Flo . .500. DiAgram showing oonstruetion 01 adiabatic liDeI-iio. .J.. 0. 41
, humidity chal1. I.
bhyloM ..... ido o.u
my\fM1t~ '.M 0.1 '
......
..,......
EIbI prapio:oo.Ia '.M
-
'.0
,."
-- .. ...
equation.584. If the mix t ure represented by the 0.'1
'.R '.0
,." ,,."
point A il fed to an adiabatic humidifier, its proper-
ties will follow the path ATu lIB given by equation w_ .. "
'.ft t,,. '.n
0.1'
0. 17
Finally, the rate of mass trans fcr between the air Water
stream and the interface is give:n by !em~.ture
T, t0t!5!an!
- 0 / dX - k.aM ~ dZ (J. - h) (591)
, .
. \~ .
make:-ul> I>;&tcr enters lhe tiyst.cm at the adiabatic walerl remain~ cons tant, a ll the heat req_lircd to
:<atura.l,ion -temperature, ha:s I~CD discll~ in (.'Cn- vallllrize the wuler i!i supplied from the sensible
neetion wilh the wetWU-~'all column,. lJnder these heat of the ai r,
conditiol)! , the temperature of the wawr in the Where the make-tIP. water enters an Bdia\..atic
:;y-'<tem ig constant at the adiabatic $ll.t\lratioo tem- humidiRcution sytitem at a ten,perature 7', diffcrcnt
. ,
perature, and the uir tcmpcro.turc and humidit-y frum tile adiabatic saturation temperature,' Ian eu()rgy
<
TIlE INTERACfION OF AIR AND WATER 549
balance around a ~tion of the eontaetor gives in lin increase in the water temperature from the Lop
equation 595 irustead of equation 474 for inlinite to the bottom. The general relatiqnships are iUllB-
COIltacting surface. trated dio.grammat.i('ally in Fig. 502.-
In the dcgjgn of B. dehumidifier, a1l the ge~ral
(Xu - X)I).T, + C.(T - T~)J + T equations (587 to 591a) a.teapplicable simultar-
T- , N (595)
neously, and a trial-and~rror numerical iritegration
of the equations is necessary. This calculation it
Equation 595 indicates that the temperature T ". illustrated in the problem of estilIlRting the height
is no longer 0. function only of the entering gas oi the dehumidifier recjuil-ed to chan~ the humidity
temperature and humidity but is a1so dependent of air at temperature T,l from Xl to :Jet, with 0 12
upon the temperattlre of the mak~p liquid T ,. lb/ (hr)(eq t) of \Vater at a temperature Tn. The
Thus, a family of "saturat-ion" eurves with T, as a air rate is Of' II> per hour of dry air per square foot
parameter results for a given entering air tempera- of column CI'OS$ section, and all the rate coefficients
ture .and humidity instead of the single adiabatic h.a, h,a, and k.a are known. Thecalculation may be
saturation curve. carried lIS follow,;.
Usually T, is not great.ly different from TIU, 80 that Step 1. The mass velocity of the liquid leaving
the tenn C.( TIU - T,) is negligible compared to the is calculated from a material balance.
term ).r.. This means that the family of "saturation" Step $. An energy halance is made to determine
curvet with T, as a parameter is orrlinarily very the relationship between the exit tempcmtuTe8 Til
closely spaced around the adiabatic saturation and T d .
curve. Therefore, for practical purposes, the adia- Step 8. The exit gas temperature Td jg ASl!umOO,
batic saturation curve and equations 592, 593, and and the e.... it liquid temperature Til is cakulated.
594 for the adiabatic humidi6er will give results well Sl.ep 4. By combining equations 588, 589, 592,
within the range of engineering accuracy for these and 501a,
cases. Where the temperature T, is greatly different
from T , it is neoossary to use the methodsdeecribed hjG(T ..;... T,)
iii the next section for design purpoee8,
- h,a(T, - T,) + k"aM ,A(3C - "') (506)
Dehumidification
which is used to compute the interface conditions
The decrease in both the temperature and humid- T oj, Xi at any point in the column where values of
ity of air by contacting it with cold water is illus- T" T and JC al'e kriown or assumed. These valUCf'
trated in Fig. 503. "
are initially available only at the top and bottom.
In a dehumidifier both sensible and latent heat
Starting at. the bottom the interlace cooditioos are
are transferred from the air to the water, resulting caleulated.
Step o. A second point on the curve represent.ing
humidity JC as a function of gas temperature T,
may be obtnined by assuming average values lor the
following qcrivntives over smull .incrementa.
--
dT,
dZ
-h,a(Tf
G,'s
- T.)
(589)
--
dT,
dZ
htCJ(T, - T i }
G,c,
(59<l)
80 100 00220
catiOD by (.'OlItact with cold wllter &II computed ill the ilIUII- (The VltluN' of the above derivatives as computed
tmtive example. for the bottom conditions may be used Q,ij 0. guide
550 ~IMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 1
for a first approximation ror the average values in Step 3. The lint t.rlall! b&I!ed nn an .... med temperatore
computing values for T, tl.nd TI at Zo + .1.Z.) fo. the out let p.!I 7',~ 01 III ' F. Then "u '" 103.7 ' F.
& tp 4. Por the pa rliCI'/(lr '/I" l", oj !role.- and air 0" /11, U,,'
St~ C, Values for To' and X; are then computed numerical value of t he hum"'l hea t,
at Zo + .c1Z by equa.~ion 500.
This process is repeated over lIuccessive incre- '" h,I It.." t.l/ (507)
ments unt il the ai r hum)di ~y X I equals t.hat specified.
H, at the same time. the calculated entering air
temperature T,I agrees Wilh that. specified, the 2G2O(T; - T ,) '" 200(T, - "J+ ~ (:Ie - X J (lO!M)
original assumed exit air temperature Te2 wa:s
oorrect. Otherwise. the entire process must be
re;>eated.
lIIu II.trativlI EUnlple. A mi,;tul'e of air Ilnd ,,'ater vapor
.
Usin, an avera &e val UIl "f 0 .2& r....,. " t hill eqUJltiilD rOOuCt-'S
"
T.
"F
"
T, .
"F
T,
."
'"
dT,
dZ
dT.
dZ
dT,
dZ
dT,
dZ
""
-
dZ
;IX
-dZ
0 " '. 0 0 . 1433 103.7 130.1 O.lllS -282 -34.3
- 34.0
-0.0740
-0.071)-1-
0.1 224.4 0 . 1354 100.3 126.3 0.099! -2311 -2'" -33. 7 -0.0848
-210 - 33 .3 - 0 .0882
0.2 203.1 0 . 1266 "' .0 122.3 0.0876 -100 - 32 .9 - 0 .01115
-175 - 32 .3 - 0 .&.131
0 .3 18$.9 0 . 1173 03.8 lIS.2 0.0770 -1 59 - 31 . 7 -0 .0'.1-1(;
-1 47 - 31.0 - 0 .(1!H8
.... -80.3
0 .' 171.3 0.1078 00.7 H4.0 0.0674 -135 -O.O!).'>O
-1.25 - 2\1.5 - 0.()!;38
0.' 158.8 0._ 87.7 . 109.7 O.OS90 -115 -28.6 -O .OIr2t1
0.' 148 . 1 0 ._ IOS.5 O.O,'iHi -lOll
- 107
- 26 .8
-n.7 - 0 .0f\&!
-0 .0007
- 93.5 -2Ii.Q -O .os.'J8
0.7 138.7 0 .0807 82.3 \01.5 0._ -87 .0 - 25.0 -0.082!l
0 .8
0 .'
1""
123.2
0 .0727
0 .""'"
79.9
77 . 7 .'"
03.'
0.0398
0 ."'"
-78 .0
-68.8
-82 .6
-73,4
- ~.I
-22.7
- 21.1
- 23.8
-21 . 9
- 20.0
-o. on~
-0.070.1
- 0 .0801
- 0 .073H
-0 .0671
1.0 1I6.? 0 ._ 75.7 00.2 0.0314 -62.3 - 18.8 - 0.0038
-.59 . 1 - 17.9 -0.0606
Ll 110 .8 0 .0526 73 . 87.0 0.0282 -55.9 - 17.0 -0.0573
"
humidity (3C _ 0.(660) if! reached when the outlet tempera.- two, iudicatin, th .. t.!-he results are not eensit i~ to small
ture T" i4 113.3 F', u compared to the u.umed valUll of varia.tione bct.... een the aaumed IlJId ea1eulated val ues of
III " F. the outlet v.s temperature.
TAt cakuWiom /O'f .1M ucc>nd trial, based on An aMumoo
v.lue of T", - 113" F (Til - 103.6' F), are lIUflllIIariaed in A similar graphical procedure which is more con-
Table 61. FiRWe 502 Bhoon the satunltion .-:urve (:Iei vel'flWl
TiJ and the CI.U"Ve of X ver8U.6 T~ for this trial. In thie CBI:!e, venient has been described." Unfortunately the
tbe value of T i l eorrespondlnC to the desired humidity is transfer rates required for these calculations are not
113.4" F. This m.y be ~idered ". .. ..ue.f~ cheek generally available, and most commercial units are
of the...u.~ value. The requirOO height of packed eection sized on the bf.L6 is of previous operating experience
ill between 1.0 IlJId 1.1 ft.
Comparilon. of the' eakuLe.tioIUJ summMi-ed in Tabiell 60 as indicated in the following discussion of cooling
Uld 61 IIbowa t.ha~ ortly minOl" variatiOll$ occur between the towell!.
87.7
122.1
117.9
113.8
109.6
0.0871
0.0763
0 .0070
0.0587
-191
-159
- 1,.
-115
- 17&
- 147 .
-125
-107.5
-32.7
- 81.4
-30.0
- 28.4
-32.1
- !Kl.?
- 29.2
-27.4
-0 .0\1'21
-0.0956
- 0 .0050
-0.0\1'24
-0 .0938
- 0 .09S2
-o.ooro
- 0 .0Cl04
0.6 148.0 0 .0890 85.0 105.4 0.0514 - 100 - 26.4 -0.0884
-03.5 - 25. 5 - 0 .0856
0.7 138.6 0 .0804 82A 101.-4 0 .0452 -87 .0 -201.6 - 0 . 08Z7
- 82.0 - 23. 6 -0 .0795
0 .8 130. 4 0 .0774 80. 1 .7.3 0 .03\19 -n.o - 73.0
-22.7
- 21.6
- 0.07f>3
-0 .0732
0.' \23.1 0 .0651 77.' 93.8 0.0353 -69 .0 -20.6 - 0.0700
90.2 . 0 :0314 - 65.5 -19.6 -0 .0!.w.i7
1.0 116 .6 0 ..... 75.9 - 62 .0 -18.5 -0. 0034
- 59.0 - 17. 6 -0 .0001
1.1 110.1 0.0524 ' 74 . 1 87.0 0 .0282 -56 .0 -16. 7 -0.0568
SIl\1ULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER I
COOLING TOWERS advantagc8 ment.ioned p~\'i ously, lack of data and
laborious t rial-and-el"Tor calcula tion . I t is customary
In cooling towers a stream of hot waler is cooled
in practit:c to e:stimate the size of cooling tower!:!
by cx('hanp;c of !;en!Jible and latent hen.t and water
vapor with a !It ream of relatin:ly cool, dry air. The / " ",. 'nltrl~l lOl\e
bamc relation~h i ps developed. fvr dehumidifiers abo
a pply to cooling towers llltJlOUgh the transfer is in
t.hc opposite direction, the tower being a humidifier
rllliler thM a dehumidifier of ai r.
The operation of a cooling tower is indicated
dillgrammo,lically on the humidity etlarl in Fig. 50....
The hot water at TI2 is introdUl.:-ed at the top of the
tower and 1eavos the bottom at Til. The air flow!:!
cuuntcl'C11I"!1'nt to the water, entering t.he bottom at
cvnditi()n.~ indicated by point 1 and lCtwing the tup
~-
,,#; 2 Di~t.Jnce _
q.'
FIU . .505. DiaKrum rep r<.:l'lt ing conditioM at the top of "
L-....- co()liUK tower.1
1
accurdillg t o empiril':l1 correlations of operating
To, To, expcricnct>:S..
TtmpllJtU ff, or
An approximate method of handling cooling t:.mvc r
FlO. 004. Di:lIlr:1I1\ of humidity chtt. rt ilIU!lt mling operation
calculations which has shown some promise involves
01 a. cooling to"'~"'."
foot of deck area, in a 35-ft high 12-deek tower J \-ith Figure 514 s.hows the relat ion between the water
a. 3-mph wind and an !'Iir wet-bulb temperature of 10lit due to windage (not evapuralion) as a fun ction
70 'F, and also as, a function of the approach to of wind velocity. Figure 515 shows the relative
tower sire as a. function of wind velocity, the size
at a 3-mph wind velocity being taken arbitrarily &3
one.
The size of a tower required to h a.nd le a given
heat loud varies greatly with t he performllnce re-
quired, and care should be u$e(1 in specifying the wet-
9ulb temperature, the final al>proach of the tower
o~~--~~~~~~-t~~~~~~~~~~~_
0.4 0.6 o.a 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
C6PKi1Y. pl/sq tt 01
Suis: 70'F Wet -bulb Temperillu,e, 35-ft 12 -dtc;Io; lOWer, 3 -mpll wind
fiG. MI . Cul",cityof rooling 10...:..,'$ Il.8 <'U ntrollild hy temperature drop a nd approllch to wcWMllb temperature a t ro-.F wet-
bulb t"tnIICra4lre,and.3-mph wind vel.ooity, for a 35-lt 12-<.1cck tower."
80
,
li
..
zlO
,
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 I.' 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 12 1.4
HtlJht Cotrection Factoi', eN
I.B
WIt- Bulb COrrection Faclor. C w
11'10.512. CorTeCtion factor for use with Fig. 511 for \Io~t-bu llo FII,J.513. Correetion betor for use with .-jg. 511 fo r tow
temperat.we other t.han ro o F." bei,M other than 35 I ~."
SIMULTANEOUS HEAT ' AND MASS TRANSFER 1
and approach to the wct--bulb temperature while design three important clcmentll of control of the
circulating a constant quantity of water through a air entering the structure-volume, velocity, and
giv~n temperature range. In specifying the operat- distribution. By means of fans blowing fresh air
ing conditions an approa.ch of not leM than 5 "degrees horizontally into the foreed draft tower or drawing
:wd preferably 10 degrees or more is reoommended. saturated air vertically out of the induced draft
1.0
Size
1.1 1.2 1.3 " " cooling circuit in
The basic requirement of the
0 .697
FIG. 515. Varia.iion in ~i ze of cooli ng tower wi t h wind velocity the average industrial plant is hcll.~ dissipatioll with-
rdatlve \.0 unity tot a wind velocity (If 3 mpb.1I out critical regard. for temperature. In some planta.
constant. te mperature of water is essential. Tem-
lo'eclum.i-:al DroIt perature Auetuat iOIlS will OCcur in both types or
The mechanical dra.rt. towe rs, -both rorced arid towers with flu ctuations in wet-bulb temllerature.
induced draft types, bring into t.he cooling tower I n~ mechanical draft towers the change in off-tower
SPRAY PONDS 557
water temperatures can be held to a minimum by less operating and maintenance cost than a mcchan
adjusting the piteh of t he fan blades, reducing the ical draft tower. If power costs are exceptionally
speed of the fans, or by bypH,*>ing some of the hot low and a m!tintell~n ce cre w is (lvtlilable, the me-
water direeUy into the basin by means of thermo-- chanical d rnft tower might be lIle eeonomkal selec
atatically controlled, mcehanienlly actuated values. t ion. If unuSually high (800 F o r more) wet.bulb
In atmospheric towers, wi!h the wind velocity also conditions prevail for relat ively long period.!:! of time
affe<:ting the water tf'mrlE' mturc, bypulSl:! lines to wit h no appreeiable wind, t he mechanical tower has
secondary distributing sYlItcms or din.'Ctly to the certain dist inct advantages.
Co nsidering only initial cost, if towers of like
'"
22
quality in wOl'kmanship a nd matel'inl:! are compared
for a plant whic h has avo.iluble open space, the atmo&-
,I /'"
; locatil'ns in which the operutinp; Jirnit ~ of the atmo&-
pheric unit are appronchcd-in high wet-bulb areus
where hi~h relative suturuti')I\I, pl'evuil during periods
0
V V of unusually low wind vc\o(': ily- the mechanical
02 0.3 0.4 draft towers show a distinct adnmt'age to the
Sq Ft/ Gal 01 Water per Min
(B, sed 01'1 300 Fpm Gron AM Velocity) operator.
Fla. 517. I)o;,sIKD ro!a.Uombill for a meclutlliwl tl roft tower'" COOLll':G PONDS
basin can be installed to effect. the 8.'UIle degree of Tbe cooling pond or reservoir is used for removing
temperature .contr61attainable with t he me.challical a relatively small a mount of Ilcat ~rom w~ler over a
draft towers.. small temperature range. The pond area requifcd
Al t hough wind definitely affects mecha nical tower .nsy be eslimated from a relationship giving the rate
_performance, the errect is seldom more than a 10 of evaporation of water into still air. One !.lIch
per cent decrease in capacity due solely to redueetl relalion a. is
air flow through the tower. However, another
-element of design enters I-be pict_u re when the wind
w _ ~ + 3.7 (Tl : T2)
(1'. _ p) (604)
causes th~ hot, saturated vapors discharging from wbere w .,: water eVal)()rate? [grai&/ (hr)(sq ft)].
the to}Ve r to recirculate back into the air intake of
the tower. This means the "entering air" is at a -'~- Tl T2 .
+ "" arltItmetla' average 0r entermg ' and eXit'
higber wetr-bulb temperature and higher relative 2 water tellI peruture (OF).
saturation. The water temperature ri3C5' in approxi p. '"' vupor proSSut'fl of wllter at (T 1 1'2)/';. +
mate' proportion to the inel'(!RIIe in wet-hulb tempera. .' '.
(in. of mercury)
.., .
ture. p, = part.inl
. preAAunl of wat.er vapor in air
One large user of both induced and foreed draft (in. of mercurYl'
towers "determ'ined by actual fi eld test that it was The evaporation rCfluire<! for the disSipation of a
true operating economy to build the discharge stacks given heat load is calculated from the latent heat of
of their towers up to a point 50 ft above the ground, water. Equation ()()4 is based on zero wind vc\ocily.
or 25, ft .al:M;tve the, top of a 2&-ft tower. By thus Any wind will incrense the eapacit.y of a given pono
discharging the ,hOtsaturated vapors I.he moisture so that equation G04 gives con~r"u.tive res\ll~ .
and.heat were $0 diffWJed into' lfUlTOUnding fresh air
that the effect of'recycling ,vas
negligible.
SPRAY PONDS
If open space near the plant Site is -available, for
normal thermal ranges an atmospheric tower will If a SYlltem of spray nonl1'8 i:! insltdled ahove Ihe
do the same cooling job for a lower ioit-iul eoot und surruce or a cooling pond, the cooling capacity it;
558 SI~lULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 1
(b) TIle aaturated volume vel!lUI dry-bulb temperature
curve.
(c) Humid heat 8.Il a fun ction of humidity.
(d) The adia.b&tlc cooling line f (lt an adiabatic uturatwn
temperature (If 60 F .
lro~----+-----+--- (,) The humidity as a function of the dry-bulb tempera -
ture for A wet--bulb tempere.tul"ll (If 60 F.
if) The enthalpy of the dry g8.Il as a function of the dry
bulb temPllratlln!j the entba.lpy of the uturated p& !Ill a
function of the dry-bulb temperature. The reference 6tate
will be pure methanol in the liquid a!.ate at U" F II.lld 1 atm.
....
400
60 471
473
SO 45'
..~--~-----t~--~~--~
"~ 7l) 80 90 100 Speeifio heat of J'lV'.thannl vapor - 0.89 Btu/(~F)(lb).
Temperature 01 Water Lnving Spray, or For metbanol vapor,
FlO. 518. Operating oonditlollll for a pa.rtirular spray pond
witb wind velocity or
5 mph u.~ing a I_in. orifice with a !"lOU!"
pMlS'Ure of 7 P'Sii." where ", - he&l trnn~fcr cocffi.c:ient, Btu /(hr)(F)(aq ft) .
klCM. - maIlS trsnsfer codficir.l1t, Ib/ (hr)(1q ft),
greatly increased, at. the expeIll!e or pumping costs.. (Ib mctha()ol; lb dry &.ir).
A typical cooling curve for spray ponds is shown
3. It is desired 1.<. re move . metMno] from naphtha.lel1c
in Jo'ig. SIS in which a particular type of noule at crysta.iII by paMing them, on a belt, th~ .. cb&mher in
one particular "pressure is 'raied at. a wind velocit.y which wann air ill blown countercurrent to the cr)'Itala.
Ijf 5 mph. The air, on leavi..nc tbe dryin& ehamber, P"*lII tb~ a
condllfl'er and thenill recircula.ted back into the drier throuP
PROBLEMS a bank of !Iteam mils whieh brill& it back to ita orilinal tern
I. Determinations of humidity in rot,&ry driel'll UIJIld for perature. TIle air ill to enter tbe dryinJ; clwnber at 110' F
dryirc wlI.l.eI"-+.lluble SIlltli arc difficult to make beeaUllO'! of the and with a rnethlnol .(uration of 10 per cent. 1 ~;1 N leave
effect oJ the s..llll on t~ wet-bulb lIlI!&auremen1.3.' It ill t he drier at a tempera ture 5 F above i1.3l.diabatic tat.oration
p~ 1.0 ove~ this difficulty by mp,king the wet-bulb lOmperat-ure. The uystall .enter at 70 F: and may be as-
mea&urenlCnUl with water aatup.ted ..,jth the ~ ult to be
.sumed to remain at tbe adiabatic u tui'ii.tio" temperature
throu!;:hou~ the pl'OCllS!l and leavo methanol-free.
handled iJil !.he drier. Derive '~he oorL'SpOndioj form of the
wet-bulb equa.lKm for such .;:Me. 11lilicat.e 11.1\ wOII!: clearly (a) To what tempernture mWl~ the &ir be cooled In the
and define all symbol:! Ul!ed.
oondenller?
(b) If 1000 lb/hr of wet crystal", cOntaining 10 .. eiKh~
2. Co05truct the:! foll()wing parts of a methanol humidity per cent rnethancM on the dry baM, el~ the drier, .specify
chan for llir and methanol fot B.. barometric pretl!lOJre of the volume Q{ air (unde.r C!JDllitiollll at ,.... hich.it entera the
760 mm. drier)" recirculllt.ed per minute, the heat Mmowd per l.ou.r in
(0) The rcluive 8&tunuAoo. line. for loo and 10 per cent. tbe cendenllOf, and the heat added per hour in the lteal, will
CHAPTER
38
D
vnri ution in which the solids arc trnMported through
operations, such Ill; evaporat iull, 83 t1w ro the dry ing medium on a belt conveyor. Frequently,
moval of re l a~ivcly small amounts of water ag in I-he d rying of paper ami !t!xtiles, the !,elt itself
from relatively large amounts of solidli int.<> a gas or ')(!Comes the materia] being d ried.
air st,ream. The removal of wator from sol id~ is
similar to the cVllporation of water h, humidifiers
and cooling towers in thl\l. it involves both the
transfer of heat nnd material. Xot only is the I,tans-
fer of heat and material th rough t.he dryi ng med illm
involved but allw the transfer of water through solid
material.
""
SIi\fULTANWUS HEAT A.~D MASS TRANSFER 2
discharged from the lower end. The rotation of the The large specific surfac~ area of the 1illlB.1l particles
cylinder whi~ -may be equipped with vanes lifts the allow8 the solvent to evaporate quickly, leaving a
solid materiai and drops it through the drying dry product in the form of a powder. The essential
medium to a position each time lower or nearer the components of a spray drier are the (I) means of
,
FlG. 521. l)illya.m iUu81ra.ting II. t roy drier wilh dryin &ir
cimulalilll through the II'II.YS Illld by.p&SSing lhe hell.ter. FlO. 623. TypicaJ lIpI'6y drier lIIins direo=~ beat and prerIINnI
(National ~III Mac4i~ Co. ) apray noule. ( 8 _ B~porator Co.)
the particle by the rotation, the size and density of must be free of contamination. Air filteN! may also
the particle. and the .velocity of the drying medium. be used. DifJerent arrangements and flow are indi-
cated in Figs. 524 and 525. In !lOme cases the dried
Spray Drier3 product and exhaust air are tiot.h removed from the
&llutions and suspensions which can be pomped ' bottom of the drying chamber, and the product is
may be s prayed into a stream of the drying ffietlium. separated ill a sepamte cyclone.
EQffiPMENT 56'
The fluid may be dispersed or sprayed by pressure In the ringle-fluid nozzle, }o'igs. 526 and 527, -t.he
nozzlell or by centrifugal disk or bowl nozzles. In spray is formed by the break-up of the high-velocity
preMUre nozt/a the dispel'tlion is obtained by forcing fluid stream upon encountering the surrounding va...
por. Single-Huid nozzles will not, therefore, produce a
spray io a vacuum. Pressure may range from 50 to
10,000 psi, depending 60 the degree of II.tomiza.tion,
the capacity, and the fluid properties. Maintenance
of pressure nozzles is important since erosion will
occur with even the hardest material of COIU!truction,
and, once the orifice hfUl become scratched and non-
uniform, good atomization is no longer ~!ble. As
the orifices are small the danger of plugging by
Dried
mltari.1
..,
Ai<
It
\.. 1 \ ....-.,""
F lo. 526. SinglG.Buid p ....
sure sp .... y ltOZZIe. (ScAulk
and Komil'lfl Co.)
FIG. 527. Si",I.,.Ouid
pl'(lll8U.re "Pr.y nonle.
(.8o\ldk Cln4 Komil'lfl
Co.)
where td or tp = residence time of the feed (or drying All or part of the heat required for drying may be
gas) in the drier (sec). supplied directly to the material being dried. The
LIS ... mass ratio of water to solids in feed. drum drier, Fig. 529, is one example of such a device
which is wiJcly UBCd for drying a variety of fluids
These reLationships were indica.ted from an inspec- and suspensions. The fluid is spread in a thin film
tion of about forty tests on commercial driers from upon the outer surface of a heated, rotating drum.
10 to 18 ft in diameter and were based on the as- As the drum !"otates the fluid becomes dried by
sumption that the residence time of the particles in evaporation of the solvent and is removed from the
the drier was equal to the residence timc of the gases drum as the drum moves past a knife or scraper. As
at their average temperatures. This is equivalent to the drying is accomplished in thin films which remain
assuming that the particles are distributed radially in the heated zone for relatively short periods, this
through the gas and flow axially with the gas down type of drier is suitable for handling heat-sensitive
or up) through the drier, prooucts.
l<m. 5:;'9. A dO'Jble drum drier, atmospheric pre!l/:lure. (Buftooak Equipment, Llivisit>ll oJl1lnw Knw Co .)
EQUIPMENT 50S
~,Jttl~ ~ '
FIG. 530. T1ri.n drum dip- FIo.63I . Twin drum eenter- Flo. 632. Twin drum i!plastp Fro. 533. Twin dnmi eenter
feed drier. Tbe eoIut.ion feed drier. The lIOIution is feed drier. 8y impit\cing the feed. drier with l(lreader rolls.
fed into the ahaliow paD b&- fed directly OOt1Veell the wet material OD the bot (BIif/""llk Eqllipmtllt, Divi
low the dl"lJJlU. The liquid drumll and ia retained by end druD'Ul, the tendency of some Ilion of B/.Qw.((noz Co.)
level is adj\l.S~ and con- boarde. Center feed 18 ree- &urrye to be repelled by
trol'ed "" tbe.t dl'UIIll! pia u~ ommended when & product of bee.t.ed IlUrfaooe it overcome,
'.be~ quantity olaJURy. hiYI moiatum CODtent and and ee.pa.citie. may be in-
',De knivee Ill'Il Iow.tI to 0081'!1e pnular IItl'\lctUI't! is <:~. (BwftocW; Equip.
provide the nuu::imum dryirli de!:l.ind. (Bujf-u: Equip- mmt, Dil'in- of B/.Q1tI K~
.. tw.. (Buftow/c Equipffl$ni, nunl, DiuitiOft of BMW Kmn Co.)
Di~m of Blaw Knr:n; CQ.) Co.)
Flo. 634. Double drum driet FIO.~ . Double drum drier Flo. 636.. Sin&Ie drum drier FlO. s.n. Vaouum drum
with perforated pipe r. with pendulum feed. (B~ with 'Pray film feed, (B")1o- drier with p611 rMld, (Bu)fo-
(B...,floI:uk RquipmmU, Divi- mk Equi))ll'lt'ftl, Dinmn of IlfCLt Equipment, pirMirm of Mk EvujpIMrn. DirMi<m oj,
lien of Blaw Knvz Co.) Blaw Kno;c: C~.) B/.Qw Knoz Co.) BlaUl KOO'l! Co.)
The drumll may be operated in the open at ... tmo&- indicates the water content of, the slab (f!XP~
pberic pret:l8Ufe or may be totally l..'IIcl<JSed for -as pounds of water per pound of water-free solid) as
vacuum operationl:l or I:IOlve nt recovery (Figs. 537 a function of t he drying rate (expressed as pounds
and 538). of water per hour pr pound of water-free aolid).
This is a typical drying rate curve. Slich a CUrl't':
JlltCUum Dr-!r. may be divided into 8e\-"eral distinct periods 8S the
.AJ5 hlUl been indicated the dmm drier may be
operoted und(>f a vacuum to deerelllle the tempero.-
ture required to vap()rize til(! l!Olvent from -thl?
solution on the druml:l. (n the case of air circulating C' R~' ------------- --- --~
this lowering of the required temperature is altaioN.1 ! R LR, - - ------- ---.---,..:: ..... :
1.... ___ ...1 _
by circulating more air (or decreasing the fl'ed) 1<1
lower the partial pressure.of the solvent. In other-
t Ro, ,
I
,
,
CMea where the solvent mU$t be recon~red, or for ~~ I I
other reasons, yacuum drying may be desirable in ~ ,
I .
ahelves directly.
Frt%u drving consists in freezing the material and moisture content of the slab is reduced from the
drying it, in the frozen state, usually in a vacuum high initial value 00 its final value, as follows.
drier. '111e material may be frozen quickly outside Ptriod 10 An initial period during which the
Itw. drier or on the shelves or the drier by circulating drying rate may increase or decrease rapidly from
a cooling medium through the shelves and jacket an initw value. 111i~ period is of relativcly short
of the drying chnmber. When frozen , vacuum is duration and in some experiments ~y be un~
applied and a heat-6Upplying medium is circulated servable.
to IIl1pply the required latent heat of vaporization Period I . An early stage of drying during which
II the evaporating solvent but not sufficiently wann the drying rate remains at a constant value.
to melt the frozen product. Freeze drying hu been Period 11. A period of drying during which the
found of advantage in drying many heat-sensitive drying rate decre8..'le!!, more or less linearly with the
rr.aterials, particularly in smail quantities, and in continued decrease in the water content.
preserving the flavor in dried foods. Ptriod Ill. A.stage of drying immediately follow-
ing Period II but not always clearly distinguishable
from it, during which the drying rate decreases more
MECHANISM OF DRYING SOLIDS
or less linearly with decreasing wat.er content, but
Consider the drying of a porous, insoluble material in general at a different MY! than during Period II.
such as sand in an insulated tray. The surface of On prolonged drying under constant conditions of
thE sand is exposed to a drying medium such as hot the drying medium, t.he rate at which the slab is
dry air pa88ing over the surface. All the heat te'" dried becomes zero. The limit to which the water
quired for the Vaporization of the water and the content can be reduced by drying for an infinite
heating of the 80lid ("slab") is supplied directly by length of time is known as the equilibrium moisture
heat transfer to the slab from the hot drying medium. ",nI<nt.
If the drying medium passes over the sllih at. a suffi- The equilibrium nwUture CQlllclit. X" is the limit
cient velocity 10 that its temperature, humidity, and to which a given material can he dried by means of
velocity are virtually unaffected by the transfer of a drying medium of given temperature, hun:aidity,
water vapor frolo the slab to the drying medium, etc. It is determined by the nature of the soOd
data are obtained .. plotted lo VIC. 539 which material, the t.empn...rature of the drying medium, aDd
MECHANIS~I OF DRYING SOLIDS 56T
lhe-par'~ia1 pressure of \Vater vapor in the drying Heat is transferred to the relatively oold wet sur-
medium. face of the slab from the relatively hot dryiD&
The relationship even for IL given solid material medium. Thil! heat. raises the temperature d the
is exceedingly complex and in general must be water in Lhe ,slab to the temperature at which
determined experimentally. Typical equilibrium evaporation take8 place and su.pplies the latent heat
moisture relationships for various humidities are !Jf vaporization. This heat also serves to increase the
MOwn in F'lg, MO. The equilibrium moisture con~ o.JO
tents at any given humidity of the drying medium II
may vary widely, depending upon the type of mate- 02 S
du. A nonporous highly insoluble material may 0'
have an equilibrium moisture content of practically
IefO, whereas some organic materials such all soaP. 0,2 I
10, I
~-
leather and wood have equilibrium moisture contents 2
~t may vary over exceedingly wide ranges, 'depend--
$." i
ing upon the temperature and humidity of the drying
~ i
medium. The water that makes up the equilibrium
j::
S
II
I
i!-
/ '7
~V
moisture content 0[ a given solid may be adsorbed
on the solid, it may' be held by capillary forees in
the pores of the solid, or it may be in chemical com- J O.14
bination with the solid.
j 0.12 / j V
The free moUture content F is tbe differen~ be-
tween the total moisture content. X and the equililr V V
~
10.10
rium moisture content X*, expressed as pounds of
JO.08 /
watu per pound of dry solid.
1/
p _ X - X" (605) "" "'::: V
;~
For a given total moisture content X, the free ."
.., ,
moilJture content F will be a function of the same
variables .. the equilibrium moisture content X*. o """
un.
'Ibe value of free moisture OOIltent is mea.ningiess
the conditions of temperature and partial
pre88llre of water vapor in the drying medium are
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RNtNe Humldi\y,,,
Flit. 640. Equilibrium moisture content of VllrioulJ materiaL!.
atated and tbe value of the equilibrium moisture surface temperature and ave~ temperature of the
coatent is known. slab. During this ProCess. evaporation of the water
UBUa1ly, the value of the equilibrium moisture from the surface of the slab ~to the drying medium
content is 6tnall compared to the total moisture con- takes place under the influence of the driving poten-
tent, 80 that the variation in free moisture content tial of the difference in the vapor presaure of the
with t.be temPFrature and humidity of the drying water on the surface of the slab and. the partial pl'ftl-
medium is alsO small. ..'be drying rate data are sure of the water vapor in the drying medium.
frequently plotted on the basis of a free ltlO\sture As this process continues, the increase in the
content rather than a total moistut'C conten~because surface temperature causes a corresponding increase
the dryiug rate of a given ma\crial at a constant in the evaporation rate and a decrease in the rat.e a\
temper.ture and humidity of the drying medium which heat is transferred-to the slab. After a rela-
b8comes aero at a zero free moisture oontert. tively short time, the rate of heat tna.nsfer becomes
PeriGd 10 is e8genti~lya period of unsteady equal to' the heat required for evaporation, and the
operation during which the drying conditions within rate of evaporation reaches a eonstant value at ap-
the slab are adjusting themse1ves to the steady state proximately the wet.-bulb temperature.
fe))ft!8ented by Period J. When the slab is initially hotter than the wet-
When the , slab is initially cold, i.e., below the bulb temperature of the drying medium, the mecha-
adiabatic saturation temperature of the drying nism of adjustment is similar except that the latent
mediW!l., the mechanism may be uplained as follows. heat requirement is greater t.han that tranafflrftd
SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
to the slab and the drying rate decreases to the steady .AS the drying prooess Jl'"OOI!edI. 1\ time will be ruaobo;,d
condition. when the menisci nt the IO"lrer ends of the 11"8.wr oolUffin in
IIny lIystem (If inll!rconnecting pMS&geIl. are. in guDl!nJ., abouL
Under special conditioll8' wbere the init ial tern
the /lame IIize all the ~mal lest cross acel;on of t he surface (lpen-
perature of tbe slab is at the adiabatic saturation inp., a nd water ..ill no longer 00 dra""11 to the lIulfaoe through
temperature o f the drying medium, no initial varying these~"
rate period is observed, the drying sLart ing with a
With the above mecbaniam of transfer of water
constant drying rate.
through the solid , the critical mois ture content it;
Period I , the OOIlstant dryingrate period, begins at
a function not only of th~ material being d r ied bur
the free moisture content FI and ends at the critical
al80 its thickness and the rate at which it is dried.
m oisture content F 2 as shown in Fig. 539. It i:;
Duri1~ the c:on~t8nt rate period the wet :mrface of
characterized, by a unifonn rate of drying and a
the solid behuves 81:1 a free water s urface in that the
constant l!!Urface and interior temperature of the
water on ~he surface exerta a pressure equal to the
slab "'hen in an insulated tray. It is the steadystate
vapor preSBure of water at the surface temperll-
perioCl. reached at the 'end of Period ro. ture p.. ,
The HCriod continues as long as water is supplied
Thus, for a drying medium of a given temperature
to the sdrface of the slab all rapidly as evaporation
takC$ place. When the rate at which water is sup-- '1'" partial prel-l.'lure of wllter vapor p, and .velocity,
plied to the surface of the slab becomes les9 t~an the
the drying rate may be expressed "", . ,.
rat~ at which evaporation cu.:) occur, the rate of dX .
drying decreases fWd Period r of constant rate drying - - = k,M ,(pO - p) (600)
terminates. Thus the duration of the constant rate
A'"
Similarly, the rate of heat transfer may I.>e written
period depends directly upon the mechanism by
which wllter is transmitted within tbe 8Olid.
In the drying of porous, insoluble solids, the mech-
,
- - (h, + h.)(T, - TJ (607)
A
a.nism of liquid wlLter tl'"9.llsfer from the interior to the
surface Ilppears to be by capillary action.- It is where la. and hr "" heat transfe r coefficients by COll-
aasumed that surface menisci of l!nlall radii exert vection and rodiution, respec-
81.fficient 'capillary {oree to draw water through ti vely .
intricate in~rior pass3ges ending in gas-wat.er inter- T. "'!" temperature of solid s urface.
faces of large radii.
Since the temperat ure of the surface is conl:ltant
The .ater dre.lnl to t.he swfaoe ;. flIllftIIIIUiJy n!pkced by du ring the COll8[&IIt rate period, assuming that the
air . hic:h enterl! the IOIW throuah the larger ~ con- enthalpy increase of the water vaporized' il:I equal to
neeto:d with Ihe k\rllr open.inp a t the .,.uface. Because of
the enUlplic:aled int.eroonncel.in, rm-ga beae&th the lJUrtace,
the latent heat.,
it i.J PQ8IIible for the ncceeaary air to ent.er thrOl,lJl;h a n!l&tively k,M.(p - p) _
(h, + h.) (T, - T;) (608)
("w ,ufflce (lpeninlP' and thU8 {(lr tbe, mob!ture concentration
l"IIJar the .urface to remain rebitively hilh.. .. The water and
'r,
...ilI continue to rille to the 8Urfl(.!t! through any ey>!tem of
interoonnec:\lng JlD'I$8gil' until all of the variOUll! IllIinil!ei at p - p" -
he + hr (T, .- T,) (609)
the lo .....er cndl cf the water column have the I!8.IllIl radiUII of k,M')'r,
eurvat\ln! BII the amall In(lniaci at the eurfa(.!t! from which
It is a.pparimt tha.t equa.tion fJ09 is identical to the
evapc~tion ill )-akin&: place. When this etage i, reached, I
small amount of eVRp<lI"ati(ln from the mrfaoe menisci may wet-bulb temperature equation 582. It may be
!"eIIult in a rctreBt (I( ttiese Burface menisci into pIlSS&gll8 of concluded, therefore, that when material is drying.;
3maller C~ mion, .anl.l the increaacd capillary telllliun is during the &Instant rate period in insulated trays,
RUffioient to draw alldit:.on!ll water. to the lJUlfaee. [t is the surface temperature is the wet-bulb temperature
pDeIljble. in faet, f(lr the iocreaaell tellllion caWled by this of the drying medium. .
..ttN.t of the IUrfllce meoiBei to draw !lOme of the moni!!ci
~ . the lower eude of the wat.et column through the na.JTO'fI" Period I I , the first falling ra.te period, starts at
O<ll>iltrietiont in\.Q la.tgtr cavities and thUII reduoe the tellllion the free ml)1sture content F2 and ends ILt F3 (Fig.
nereoosary to eauee mo~ment to",ard the IUrf&oe. The me- 539). It is cbllrncteri.r.ed by a decreasing rate of
nisci in tile p&aages at \hoe surface oon then nee to tbe fot"l"lle evaporation which rosulta from tho' spot-wise reoos"
ptvoitio .... and the p , , - eu rontinU&.
sion of the evaporation surface into the first layen
T he bibli.JVaflhy f()l" tbie ehapter IIppetU1l (II) p. 575.. of the stock, lrith the consequent expo!\ure of small
CALcuLI\.TION!)
radii of curvature. The momentarily undiminished determine the time required and the tray area. At
neat supply caullCS an increase in the temperature t.he present time, except in rare cases, it is neeeasary
at the receded zone of evaporation. This tempera- to have a reasonably complete aeries of drying data
ture appJ"()Mhes a changing equilibrium value deter- relating the time required to dry the material in
mined primarily by the radii of curvature of the layers of known thicknesa u~der cerla.in drying
menisci slightly below the surface. As drying pro- conditions. The details of such calculations are
ceeds, the fractional surface area accounted lor by iUustrated by the foUowing examples..
the receded water menisci increa.ses to unity and
D1u,trat!.... Eprnpl.. (lnlul. ted Tray.). It ill ~
the frac t.ion of " wetted surfa:le" decreases to zero. to det.ennine the toWJ. time required to dry I!IaDd oonttJnint;
At trus time, all evaporation becomes subsurface M .O per cent water (dry bui. ) to .. final moisture content of
and Period II terminates. 0.377 per oont water (dry basie) by p~ng air at 60" C, with
The second critical moisture content Fa, like the a reI.tlv....tumtion of 10 per cen t over the BUnsee of the
first PI, is not only a " property" of the stock but is IIIUld, at a veloci.ty 01 10 meten/ Bee. The dry Mnd hu a
denei ty of 1.38 p;ana/~ The sand ill to be dried in layel'l
dependent also upon d rying rate and st ack t~ickness. 6 tJ1l thick in insulated tnlyt, .nd it orill be MllUmed tbat the
Pn'Wd Ill, the 8C00nd failing rate period, starts sand is init iaJ.ly .t the wet-bulb lem perature of the Air.
at F8 when capiUary flow to the surface has E :rperimentll in the- labora1otY have resulted in the dat,a
ce8.l!ed _,M and continues, un<'ier prolonged time, to 8hown in Fige. 541 and &12, and the fact that the ra t.e of
F - 0, when t.he stock is at its equilibrium moisture oA
content X." This pcrioci is characterized throughout
by subsr ~ evapo--:ation from a continuously re-
cedin{: phWe, and by t he necessity for the heat for i,
-:t~
//V
evapo:ation to penetrate increa8ing thickness of
partially dried stock. The surface of t he stock
approaches, bui; does not reach, the temperat.ure of
the drying gases T, . The temperature at the reoed-
.2 ,~
ing plane of ,evapqration app~Oaches a changing
equilibrium value determined primarily by"thendii 1 I /
o ~V
of the exposed menisci.
The oDeTOll drying procc3I may include aU periocis
or only parts of one or more, depending upon the
initial and final moisture content!!. Although the o 10 20 30
rates uf heet. tramsfer , rate!! of mass transier, and the Aver. Ptreellta&e oi Water
heat and material balances may be set up it:. mathe- FIG. 64 1. Dryifl&: rate!! of Mnd M detcnnined in layerfl of
different thicknelR!, dryiIli from the top surface only.-
matical form for all periocis, the mathematical
equat ions are of little practical utility because dryina duriq: the OOllIItant rate period ia oorrelated by equ.s-
virtually no datA on ''ly of the important proper- t.ion 6 10. T he equilibrium moisture con tent of 8&lld l . neJIj-
ties cd rate coefficients are avauable and the solu- ';bIe. Tile dry;fl&: rate ill
tion of the mathematical relationships wowe!' be too dX
complicaied IUld tedious for practical use. R - - Adi - O,~'(p - JI) (610)
~llo.4
folio",...
,_ (~) X, - XI (612)
A RI",
4 --
1 i Time required for thl' $Crond period,
.~
N
f-Ii'/ III I
I 0 .2U - 0.0475
t .. {8.28) OAO _ 0.\26 ..
(8.28)(0.214 - 0.0475)
0.238 .. 5.81 hr-
"
j J!
.#
"I~
I
I
I~
,
.OAO
2.303 I"" 0.126
I/!~ 1 1
I I 0.126 )
I I R - ( 0.0475 o.coon .. om
0
o 10 20 30 40 Thc1'l'fore, from equ&tion 612 the time reQuired for the third
Aver.ge Pel"(:.n~p of Watllr
period,
Flo. 642. Drying rnt.es for moo in laY<lf (j (In thick, drying 0.0475 - 0.00377
j - (8 .28) _ 6 .06 hr
from the bottom only.- 0.126 O.ot
throo&bout the IIIlDd &bow. For lhill re&IIOD lea l ime is 2.303 log 0.126
o.Ot
required "ben dryicg from t be bottom than ", hello drying
from the top, other eoodiliona renloltining the 1IIllIIII'l. T he to,a! ti lne required is 2.82 + 5 .80 + 6 .06 _ 14.68 hr.
C~ raU period. At 60 C, aod 10 per omt humidity,
the 'II'Ct../)ull> t.empen.ture 01 air ill 00,11 0 C, and the de .... point If tho rsa.nd " eft) dried from the bottom only, under the lame
iI: ~.6 C. Tlx.,refuI'l', durin&: the Ct.l~lllnl, rate period, conditions, the time for the constant rate Ill'I'iod would be
(8.28)(0.35 - 0.0475)
Partial pre!1SUre of water- at the !urf~oo
t .. 0.40 .. 6.28 hr
0
_ Vapor preJlllure of water at 30.6 C
The time \'equired for tho final period wou\d be the same
- 32.6 mm II,
III!that in the previous calculation, or 6 .06 hr. ThUll the total
Partial pnlIIKlln'l of water in the a ir tiroo f'I:~ lUjred ..ouId be 6.28 + 6.06 - 12.34 hr.
- Vapor p~re of water at al.6C If the aand WtlC dried from both tbtl top and the bo\lom
;.. 18.0 mm II, simultaneously,
Rate 01 drying - (O.OOf33)( loG.I)(32.6 - 18.0)
'nme for ton $(ant n.te period
8.28(0 .36 - 0 .21t)
_ 0.(0 gram/(hr)(eq em) .. 1.41 hr
0.4 +0.4
Dry aDd per unit of drying ISUrface .. (1.38)(6.0) 8.28(0.214 - 0.(476)
Time for ICcond pniod .. 2.16 hr
_ 8.28 gralt1$/ 1IQ 'em o f _ 0.4 + 0.2;$8
CALCULATIONS S7l
The heat of vaporiatton includinc _pen-I .. 1068
rime f~ t hird period - 3.93hr
Btu/ lb at 87 F. 1lle eon'eIIponWng heat tn.IIafer eoe. . . .t
fmm alr to the wett..rt I!IJrflLCe 18 therefore
Total time _ 7.50 hr
(0.84)(1068\
1I1""tr.tl.. e Ex.... ple (Unlnsula ted Tray.). Althouglt A... 14() 87 .. 16.9 Btu / {hr)("F)(Mj It)
labOl _~ory experimenta designed to eo!Iabllah dryilll rate
curvl)$ a n!! U8I.I&I1,y earned out 'I\<i t h t rays t hat are insu1a.ted \Vi th heal fIowinc inlo the bottom of the tray, the It'lftPl"''"
apin.~t heat tnl.lwer Ofl all nondrying surf__ , iD commernial
ture (If t he . 00 riSCl! above t he .... et-bu lb tetnper>olti"" of t~
pr-ac:t~ unillllllll.ted t ray. arc used . air. -rlu! totlll ",Ie of heal lran~"t to IIIl' c""V'oI'lIlin& !lUda.,..
II ie deairW to determine the time needed to dry a gJ'IInular dil'l!<'tly from t he sir and 'rom t he air th''l>UKh Ilk> 1""3' to the
maleriall in. thick from 35.0 per cent to 10.0 per ClJut moistunl 8urface is
(dry basis) in a tn.y drier. The ~ock ill to be dried by blO'l\<ing q T. - Tj
air horizont&lly over the top surface, with the Ut at average - .. 1a.(T, - TJ
..
+---
I
(614)
conditions of 140" F, 10 per cent relative 8lltur&tion, and a -+
I!~
-k,
Vf!locity of 1900 fpm. The st.oek is to bI:! pla.red in large
iJUvaniled iron tl'ays ..... it h uninsuJa.d bol t0m4e:rplltlCd 10 the wbene ~ is the heat tra MJet coefficien t by CQO Wd.ion .
aif nream IU\d -is ir,it ia'l prehe.ted to the lem per&tulIl of tht:I :I: i8 tbe lhich e. of t he dryill& malerialthroup which
NlBtalIt raUl period. the beal. flolI",
In the laborawry it haa been determined th&t the critical
m()i~ure content of thia IIUl.teriAl for top dryi", of a layer In this tolutlon it ill l.89umed that the MOle value of the heat
1 in. thick in iJll!ulated tray! is 9.2 per <'Alnt (dry buis). The tt"arUlfer coefficient may be applied to both the lOp and bottom
delll!ity of tho dry material ill 86..5 lb/ cu ft, IUld the thermal aurfaoea, and the hcat t~ftlr throuKh the sides of the tra)" ia
eonduetivity of t he _ t material il estimated to be nedoeted. Substituting the numerical va!uea in equat\ou
2.0 Btu/ (hrW F / ft)(.!,q ft). The rate of dryinc duriq the eon-
IllaDt rate period was correlated by equation 610, which for ~ _ 16.9(140 _ TJ +( I I~ - ~i ) Blu/ (hr-)(Mj ftl
~ units becomes
i6:9 + (1 2){2.0)
l) di"
R-- ( A dX -2.W1(J)._p) (613)
,.,.btore T, - temperatufI! at surface ("F').
II'bere R - mu. \lb/ tlu)(.sq ftl! The rate of drying from equatiOn 613 is
" - air velocity (f ",,).
p. _ vapor preuure IX equilibrium partial prelllUl'e of R - (2.68) (-4!I-JU (p" - 0.0237) Ib/{hrJ(Mj tt)
lI'at.et at the llUrfaoe (atm).
p - pa.rt.i.aI PftSS\lnl of wa.tu in !.be alf (atmJ. Multlplyilll this equation by the laten t heat of evapor-Woa.
1068 Btu/ lb, and equaling the product to t ho preeeciblt;
Solution. Where the tray iB uniDlllllated. bt.at fin" ;nUl equst.ion beeaW!e , / A - R>.,
tbe IIOlid from tll'O opposite tiides, 1I'hereslI evaporat ion take8
place from the 8Urfa.ce only. It is I....-ry to ealcu.Iate the 4860 - 26.8T.
(61 ~)
hut tnm.sferred t :J the eVapol'fLtLng surface. The coefficient P - 46,000
of heat transfer between the air and the dryingllUrfaoe may
be (IItimated rrom. the reeult.s of the Jabonr.Wly 1el5t.11 in tht! Equation 615 give!! the partial prel!8ure of water at the
evapontin& !ll.U'fl.Cl8 as a funot ion of temperature. The IUrface
iMOlal.ed trays.
temperature must. -alao tatisfy t he rolatioftship between thll
In the laboratory 1ei5t.a, .... hen!! t he tray ill iDllulated. the
flW"fac:e of the stoek is a t the .... etrbu lt ll-mperaHIn!! of the air. vapM ~ of water and iUl l.empen.tuJe. Tbel\lfore "'I ~
rue rean.lting tempcnr.tu.ree and pr.-ure are ~ folio".,:
in, eoquarJoo 616,simull&nt.~l\Mly "" ith vapor..-ue data for
"ator, T, "':' 92..2" F and p- - 0.0:\10 atm.
Dry-bulb 140" F The COrmlponding late ol drying durilli the ~ant rate
Wet-bulb 87" F period is
De", point 69" F
Vapor ~ p" - 0.04211 atm R _ (43.6)(0.0610 - 0 .0237) .. 1.19 Ib/{hr)(1Iq ft)
Putial pretlSUl'I) p .. 0.0237 at m and, slnoe the drying specified lies enlirely wit hin t he CONtult
( p. - p) .. 0 .0192 . tm rate dryir region, the t ime required "ftll' dryin& In &rI UlI-
ilUUlaled t ra,y is
AeCo.ding to equat ion 613 ).0)
,- - _ I.M hr
R _ (2.68)(.1.fti)'''(0.0l!l2) - 0.84 lb/(hr)(sq ft) l.19
TherelOnl the MSUI'tIoIld va lue 1\'1.8 oom ,ct. The ra~ of drying
"eo
70
0.198
0: 232
0 . 190
0 .'"
0. 181
0.212
0 . 142
0.17U
0 .200
SO 0.282 0.270 0.2-" 0 .245
as (2.46) (3.62}(0.514) .. 4,55 ~bf(sq f t )(hr). 00 0 .302 0.338 0.323 0 .""
ESTIMATING. DRYING RATES .. 5i3
,Eatimate the .ength of the prosreIIIive drier required l\i\en latter ,ill given &II a fUDet;on of the ai, Icmpcr:ltur~ flnd
.i.be mlU!ll velpeity 01 tht! air Rowin, throul!;h the-drier of the h_umidity in Table C,3. _ Theec n:iatioll'lhijJII may be I.. Ltt1lt.l~.,j
above dimeru;ione ~ .0 lb/(min}{1IIl ft). as in Table 64 and inlcgrutl-d ,rnphiC-'lly by plotting
SoIutOon. In calculatiQllJl dea.l ln, \\ith oont;nul)ll.S <.:Irien, 1/ f'(:;t: o - .lCr as II functiun <lr X and detehnini", the an.'11
it iIIllOIl.venient to eoMider a differential se<:lion of the drier tiL. under the curve bcl"~...-n ll~ l;mi l ~ 01 X .
Equating the 1'Il~ of dryin& IllS given by a moi~ baJan.re 1f no healing ooil. had llI)(in inwrpontlLod into the drier and
around the differl!nu..1 geCtion 01 the drier to the rate ,;iYeD tbe operation had hoc n adiat.ali(', all heat ~irud would
by dryinc equation 6 11Ii~'t'II have beo-.n supplied b)' Uoc air lind the. humidiV and tcnlper1r
tUIl! of the dry in!! air "" uuk! have (,,110\\"00 a n .uJiabal ic coolin,
~w dX -
"It. RALti!, .. - (~~) (~L') tiL (619)
eurvc on t he IIUI" idi~y ehan iWilcad of remainiDJ; at 14lI" }'
with incnssing humidity IllS In the eumplo prubIolm.
, . .,
..here W - I'Ilte or Sow of dry rnatMi&l (Ib/hr). F.STDIATING DRYING RATES
X - mol~tul'll content (Ib 1I(&t.erjlb dry IOJid).
L - drier len~th (ft). The engineer is sometimes required to estimate th~
R - late or dryin~ Jlf'r unit upoeed area lib ..ater/ (hr) time needed for drying where available labor&.tory
(Rq ft)l. '
AL - 8<1 ft o( d rying ~urf,~'tl per foot of drier length,
data are inadequate. He must thcll estimate thc
A - IIq ft of dryln, ~urfe.ce Jl(lt Ib uf dry fJOlid. drying rate ' curves fur conditions other thaD those
applying to the data availa.ble.
TherefQl'p., substit.uting the value or - dXltit &5 given. by As has been indicatl in the example probletrul,
e<'uation 618 In tqu"tion 619, lhe drying fate during the constant ra~~ period,
t W r XIItoal dX where the !illrfllC(! of the wet stock exhibits the 8!UJle
i dL - - (~) (E.)'.' (e=)"JX1D11I0l (Ji1 (X' JC)
equilibrium partial pressure characterifltics as a free
wafer surface in so far as the partiai pressure of
r 60 A (6al)
!\vate'r is concerned; is'proportional to the mass trans--
In order to ~rfonn t ho intesration indlcated in this eque.-
lion it is neoeeeary to oolnnine P, X ' , IUXI .'lC u a fUD<'tion fer C<lefficient and is equal to the rate of mass t ra.nsfcr
of x.~ relation bctU'(!(!n JC and X is Iivan by the nutcrial during the con.stant .rate period. The illIlS8 ~:a~s
bahuioe .roolld any IIOOtion of the drier from one end, 80 that fer ooefficient is in turn proportional to the air
OS . velocity raiSed to the power 0.8. It is po6Sible,
Xl - X -!V (X -Xv therefore, to estimate the rate Or drYing from oorre-
.. here S - cmo5II eee t.ion of lhe path of a ir Dow (IKI. ft).
latiort8 of the ral..e of mass transfer to flat surfaces
I - the condition at Olle end of t he drier, from fluids pAS.'Sing over them.
The rate of heat trruWer from a fluid to a flat
The va10e of :!C' is lCIIdily detenninOO from tbe hlUll>d ity
:Ie and lem~llI.tun. T, of tbe &it and a humidity chart. The surface can also be cmimated, and the rate of heat
free I(oiHllm contcM JI"
t!qual t.o the total mJrid . ire CQIl- tnwsfer-di"ided by the latent heat of vaporization
t.ehi X , ~ the equilibrium moislu're ' eonlent and the X,.. is equal to the rate of drying during the constant rate
.. peri.oo. One difficulty in these estim'ates lies in the
.. ...
'FABLE-64
fact that in gencral the experimental correlations of
......
"'"
Equilib-
MoioI ...
the heat or ma.ssjtrart8fer coeffiCients between fluids
-,.........
c..,.., and flat sllrfac{s are based for the most part on
Cool..,
Z.'
'"
Hulllldlt,o
Noircur.
"'"~, (,-X
relatively smoo p surfaces. In most drying opera-
X.lb
..""J1b -,.
XO,tb X. II>
..lOt/II>
- X'J.1t>
....Ior/tb tions the drying surface is far from smooth and the
- ...... ... .
~
d"oi,
O.OI6l
d:,.1r
0.02'11
........"".'". ..o.tu
aoIjd
~
,(;!C-X)
lUI
actual drying rate is generally higher than such esti-
.... ~
~
".
O. OlDO
O.Ol':!JI
...
p,(IUD
O.coeo
o.con
0.057 O. H3
0.1::17
,
"'
mates.
If a drying rate curve is available for one set of
.o.
'"'"
tlir uunditions, the rate during the constant rate
.. -
. m . m
....
0.0410
.. '" 0 .11341 1."'.:1 . on . m period at another set of air conditions may hi, esti-
.. ~
0.1D7I
1."'21 0.0'" "' ..
1.217
" mated_from the fact that the drying rata is propor-
n. ........ 1l.o ...... oq.... . . " tional .t, lPe 0.8 power of air velocity and directly
propohio~1 to the parliuJ pn!88ure driving force for
~(UUKMOl mass tran;;fer.
'r....... IotwIIo~ (14) - 1~R.
(O.IlOD)(12 X .t) (U x 1.Im (4)'"
The most impOrtant datum is a knOWledge of the
fi rst critical moisture con'~nt ending period I.
57. St:\IULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 2
Although in ~ the value of the critical moisture partial pre.ure driving force and the 0.8 power d
~Ient. is a functkm III many variables, ,,.hen ~ air velocity. regardless of whether or not the drying
dill}' in tbe absence of complete data it may btl is being condllcted in the eonsbnt or falling rate
assumed to be independent or drying rate and other periods.
\ariall&es. When only the fir.;t critil'al moi3lure con- These assumplions are undesirable and lIhould be
It'ot is: known, the drying rate curve ' during the &\"oided where poMible. The assumption that the
f:lllininate period may bt> a..qlllmed to be a straight critical mOisture content. is independent of drying
line connecting the origin and the critical point. variables and is 11 property only of the material being
terminating !.he constant !':Ole period when plotted dr'ed is most in error for insoluble poroUII materials
on a free moisture content btuiis. On the basis of such. lUI sand, and i.!i leut in error for materiab which
the;;e latter assumptions, the drying rate at any hold a large proportion of their water by chemical
given moisture content b(>oomes proportional to the mean!'l.
PROBLK\IS
1. Deo.ip I'IO-eUrrent .rlillt..tic tunnel drier to handle The entering materilll halt total moieture content of 1.M2
2000 Ib/ hr 01 II-et und from II. free moisture contcnt of 1.0 Ib of moisture per pound 01 dry IOlid and it to be dried to a
t" 0.1 Ib of Wilier Jler I".und of dry lkJlid. The equilibrium total moisture conlcnt of 0.000. The equilibriuln moilltQl"e
moisture tonlent ul the nlllieriul i. nClllillible. The air II.vl!.il- CODtent is constllnt lit 0.05 Ib of " 'Iller pcr pound of dry 101id.
able for dryin&: htl' . dry-bulb tempc1"lllunJ of 200 0 F and 4boratory dIIla fn. this malerilll were oorrelatoJd 00 OM
wl!t..bulb tcmlM'mtUr<l of 0"- .t'. .The air Icavus the drier .t basi8 of th.. lollm''''n" 1I'lualion:
tOO F. 'nil' ~I,oek eOlen . nd Ie.VOl the drier .t 94" F . A ,J /o'
l:Imrc 01.' 11.it!und when dried "ith the above hot air under ~ - t.625P~
COlltUmt dry',ng conditWIll had critical moisture content of
0.5 lb of wllter per pound of dry 101,d, and the rate above the ....here P - free moiature eunlel!.t.
critieal moisture content ....... 1.0 Ib oI .....tcr per 1IQuan! loot t - time (nUn).
per boor. Below tile eritiCllLi moisture eontent the rate ft.J.I
to IIT!I"O .t Ief'O In,le nlOMture _tent alon& a' IIt.raigb.t line. X - humidity of air ,,ht'fl in equilibrium with water
'nlecffeetive dryill&.rea in tbe continllOUll drier isO.311q ftllb 00 the IOlid lapproximately ulurated bumidity
of dry ~ki. Nes;1t ehrinbce. at the wct-bulb lemperature T.).
Compute the ~ of the drier if it boIdI 20 Ib of dry lC _ humidity of air.
material per foot allcntth.
If the drier bolJa 10 Ib of dry material per foot of ie~
2. A countercu.rrtnt oontinuou. drier is to be desiped. to bow long should the drier be!
remove ,.ater from 8.16 Ib/ nUn of dry material. Dry air en-
tere the 5l'lIIAlm .. t 428 Ib/ min . nd a IAlmpertLture of 140" F 3. Compute the dew-pom~ preaure of a mixture of ai ...
and is maintained .t that temperature by Iteam coils wiWD cazboo. tetrachloride-walAlr at 38.7 C. The catbon tetra-
the dritlr. nlt entering .ir humidity ill o.OI~. Twen ty-five chloride min", ratio X 111 2.00, and the . .1Al, humidity is
pc. ecnt nf the dry air pMIinc tbrouCb the drior ill n-c:in:ulated O.OS. The vapor preaaire. of ca rbon tetrachbride ud water
to the inlo.:L at 38.7" C are ~ and 151.6 mm of mercury, reepective.ly,
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21. C.UISON, B. W., O. THOoos, Arld O. A. HOUGEN, ;'1"4M. 48. SHI>IIWOOU, T . K., and B. B . \\" om~n , TraM. A . /II..,
Am. IMl. CAe",. e"grl., 19, I (19-13). Cum . Eng., !e, 517 (l 93'J).
22. GILLILAND, E. R., I"d. Jo;,,~, Cke",. , 16, 681 (1934). 49. TOW LE, W. L.,and T.li:. SHERWOOU , In.:l. ETlI/. CUIII., 11,
23. GILLILAND, E. R., Ind. EfIfJ. Ckem.., 30, rot! (1008). %7 (1939).
Z4. GII.J.JLANI>, E. R.,l.Dd T . K. S HEJllI' OOD, btd. E"fI. CIIe",., 50. VAJoi DRS'ST, E. R., J . Applinl M/"",icr, 1S, 34 (I..w).
se. 516 (1934). 61. VON KlRIIIAN, TaJroOOU:, 1'TaM. A.m. &!e. Jltdt.. Engn.,
2&. GJjQ8Vl:NOB, W. M., 7're", . Am. InIl. Chern.. Engr. , 1, 61, ~ (1939).
184 (1908). ~. WALUIl, W. H., W. K. LEWIS. W. H . ~lcADA),f", and
JoKN.I!T'ONIl, H. F., and A. D. &NGK, I nd. Eng. C/leon., E. R. Gn.LILA,...p, Prindpln of Chemirol BIIIIi,,ring, 3 ... 1
19,286 (1937). ed., McGraw-Hili Roo k Cn. (1!l37).
n . RMLA).!, R. T., R. L. Hl:RSHEY, and R. H. KEAN , l mi. sa. WILU:, C. R., and C. A. HOUGES, TrGni. Am. buJ. Cite....
Ef&Q. Cllrm., 16, 12"24 (1!n4). E1tf/I" , 4.1, 446 ( L94:t).
28. HASLAM, R. T., W. P. RYAN, and H . C. WEIiEIl, 7'ro" . 54. WILII:~ , C. R., "Eetimation of Uquid Diffusion Cod' ..
A m. l 'tlll. Chan.. Engr, ., 11, Pt. 1, 177 (1923). cienta," CM",. Eng. Prog"u , U, 218 (:O[a:-c:h I!l4U).
29. HIJ.PI:RT, R.., Fon dlluflJ, For. cJlUflgftft, SU, 21 (l932j. M. WII.JJ:, C. a , " Diusiot~tI Propcrt.jcaCJl i\luitioompon.:ni
80. HOBllON, M., and G. TflODOl3, Cllnn. EnQ. l'Togre.., U, GII_," Cilem . Ellfl. Prdf1ffN, " ' 96 (Feb. 1950).
517 tAupst. 1949).
Nomenclature
Elloept when' D31cd otherwise, tbe following nomend .ll l W'C if u~ t hrnu" houl the text.
., ArH; Cf09S-IleCtional arra .. r IIjlle, or t hat n.rea E ~trieal fIOt .. nti ... ,'011,.; " v"P<'.ral iom (lbl
tbrough whieh l lllO- fl'T (Ilk" place. ~r); 11<'1'1";0' ; Hl,i..,. in' PI,""..
r OJr cDO"l13'
.... -L/ KV Absorption factor. tmi U~ jM!r un it 0( . n ... in ...... "'liOll;
.4' Projected a rea . ffldJ' ,Iiffullivi ty.
.4. :'I lean at ave ra~ area. ~ BMe nf natural losarit hllll, 2.718, <limen-
.A.'. ,. Croes-eoetion.e.1 An:. of onllce
Angle of nip.
ope.nin~ .
F
'lioul~; emiS:'livity in I"I\I.li.. lion.
Fo,"", (dirnemi'lllS, ' System n , Table 2<;
Are.. per unit volume;
vol atility.
It ' ''''lIltlLnt; nlIItive 'luantity of fl'Cll ln<l.teri,li ; aha lX' (actor iu
radill.tion ;f~'1uency of f'uil!&tion; If - 1'8;
.'
B
Aet'l! lerat ion ( L/~) ; IlbiIurptivily in ra uiatiun.
Acceleration in "Koos."
Quantity Qf bottom product !l.II from frac-
t ionating column; II. eowrtant.
F
"
f~ l11oiRturp. I"Ontcnt ,in d f)~ng .
Sh.a.pe fll.ctur in rMlilition induuinli: ..tred 0(
eon~ting refl'll.ctory \\'..11$. .
Force (dhncn.'!l(ln ~, Sy~tero I , T .. ble 25).
b Width of alielementof tluid; linear tlilllf.lIl8ion /0'< CentrifugII.l fon,' .
in direeti'On of axis; II ool1!\t.nnt. PI Frietion.f"rtor ("'Cl OT fOT flow of flujd~
c A OONtact; 'OODOODttatioh; volume capacity throulijh Porou~ bed~.
in ,lipiD, bet~ IIOUtoe ol pulsation &lId F/ lo'rictioo ' .. olot (or nOPl'oetting Huld bued on
metei'. I' wetted sphericity oJ,' ( t .."O-pl~ flow).
c Con ntratioo of component in liquid in FN Nonna.! force.
equilibrium with vapor. FM bullant foree.
Ct C', C" Dimensionless coefficients for primary lIII,.>tCl"- Fr TangentiAl foroe.
illi elementa. FN Reynold. nwn bt:r flloeklr for flow 0( ftu~
c. Dimensionleee coeffi cient ol Illicharge for t hrough ))OI'OUII bed&.
orifice. FIll: Reynold. numbf.r f&\Clor for " oowetting fluid
Cr.,Cv FiI~ration constant.!! for noDoompreBHibie in t~ Ro... bated on effe<:tive
cakee and OOMUUlt ~ filtrat ion; poroeity :C.
oonoent.ra.t ioo in liquid auo.! vapor pb&ecs, P, Ft.elor fOl" hindered III!t liinl.
respeeti vely. ,. F t.eLor for radiation Incl 'llt i", $Impe and
e,," Filtrat.ion constAn ~ for comprwsiblt! cakes. em_vhy and effe-rt of nfnu:torie<.
CI'-{dlI/ dTJp R efi t Cll.-ei ~y ; a*' apeeillc he!it Cp a t eon- I Frietiorl. fad for flo .. of ftllid, i n mnduil3
etaM~. or pipe; fee;! ' lap (the , lace whir.h re-
Cv- {dU/ d1)" He&t eapM! tY j a1ao specific heat r .. at eon- Cf!iVl!ll the filed) ; fupcity of oomponoot.
D,
betw~o f'Qlb..
Dianlcter 0( roIbi in roll. crushinl
X.
I 8aW.rated hUnUd it y " adlabalie ptur&tiOll. ~
Ulm.-ature.
D,
d
Di"II"IC t.et of "pOOre of _ "me volume
DilfCffnti..1 o JM'".r&I,o r.
. X
..........
Hwnidit,. of atutated PI .~ .. liquid tern-
.7. NOMENCLATURE
JC" &Iun.t.ed bwnKlity at the wet-bulh tern P ~ (lbforoe/~ft);at..aut.e~
peralU"" T _ P Product, in screening, ,II en9O'"ation.
"FaU" of hydrauJio; ram; or "tIllhrnerxen<:e"
of air lift; coefficient of heAt u'.lUIferj
P'
P,
G~~ prI'fIIlU"e. . '
l tefcrence pressure for p;lI.IIll"M<IIlI\lJ"elllO..' flt.
enthalpy of liquid. Po Peelet number, Dl>pCp/k _ (Re) (Pr).
'0 Liquid g&<.Iient IUlI'08ll pJal.e in fmctionat-
ing column.
1'"
P,
Pow~r number, pgdpfl~D.
Pta.ndtl number, I'Cp/k.
,.
PreM~ drop through filter CAk~.
Partial~; pow~r.
Vapor preIII!We of pure OOI'Dponent at til,::
Coefticientofbeat U'IUl8ftl' by"coDvtiWl." temperature of the gas.
&no.I. by " radiation," respectively. Partial p~ oJ , eompooent 'PI it.
I
i
Current of electricity.
lDte08ity of radiati01l..
" equilibrium witb a liquid. V .)Or ~
MlI\l of, liquid.
J Conven.ion factor between dimemiorls oJ Partin.! pressure of vapor in .. ...wrated
S)'IItems II and III , Table 25; -.ddition of .... at the w~t-bulb tempe ....Wf'e.
qu&Iltities of stl'C8m4" L. + L,. Q Qua.ntity of material; quantity of heat;
; i laetor, approximately 1/8 or rJ2 or (0.023 volume of fluid pumped per unit time;
Re-o2). number of Btandan!. cubic feet of au
K Conductance; permeability; equilibri'lm
coIl8tant or ratio, .. ~/%l overall llUI8S , measured at TI s.nd Po per wtit time.
Hcat abaorbed; heat traMfeiT6d per unit
tran8l'er OOfIfficieD~.
~ conductivity. ,. time, dQ/ dl.
Heat abIoTbed in condemer.
RaUo of heat eapa.cidel C,./ Cv, dimen-
lion_ factor 01" ooo.at.a.Dt; rna&< of
aorution relained per unit _ _ 01 wet
Univeo&! gJIII ooastant 1eoerI)' /(rnAa)
(degee temperature), .., 15440 , ft-Ib)
(Ib moIe)("FJ1;reei8tauoe, in OOma, 01" due
,.....
qU&Dthy 01 liquid or lower stream. below
N.
_factot,di~/LID.
NU6!eI.t number, W /t..
OifJtance; IlUrir.ce per unit T?lU!M 01 ..,....
t.ideIs; humid beat. (increase in ~nthaJ.py
Ratio of IIpecitie !IUrf_ (of particle! to
spbcn.s); CXpllMllt rOf V ill oqu&Uon for T
0: .... et. gas per lb dry gaB per oF).
Tempe....ture, partM:uI.rly abIolute ; t.omo.
pi! expallllion (py~ .. Cl; number of per hour; torque.
1\.af;eII; lowest
tra.nsfer unit&.
01" 1Mt lta.p; awnberoJ T.
....
Tempe....ture of interface, or of pid -.r
NO)IENCLA.1TRE 579
T, Ref~1l<:'e tempt .... tu"' fOIl' p l ~ , 1)I,.,"I\('t., distanro from ...U; IIlfpoat"nl
in ,w...pbro..,oc Bow; mass (or mol.,)
fOl' S.
fnl<~
ment.
T. Adiabatic _turalion tmopenuure. I' .. n, I'Ilr.iruhrly in st R.-am I'.
U Intemal energy (not incJuo.li ul!I: "1"IL'I'g)' of Di~IHnc'(! , tlinwn~ioll!C$I ordlici,nt in tli-
position, motion, or dCl:tricr.I) ; ave~ nlt:n~ium" lI-l ... lr~i"; COIDllroMiuilily '-actor
.
periphflraJ W!Jocity; IIlJ\iCntial wlneily
of impelk-r. Greek Lcttel'll
' Velocity of fluid relative to impelk'r .
VIl,''''
y
v,
........
Volume; quantity "f
.'
of 801ute-free pal; oom..... tion fllCwr fOl' uf polrtidc.
multipte;- beat OJIchanlCfS (1,.'Quation Welt,,.) aphcridiy,
402). .. (onK'p) Anguiar vtllocity; eotid ,,"gie
Subscripts ..
AdiaOaUc: 8ow. " "
A ,B,C,~. ' Designalinl tbe component: stream, Of' phase C'Qdilion~ 1I:t. end of pi~ oorrespondina: to
ot material w \\'bieb tM ' symbol. is re- condillons of' ma~mum mM8; di..:-hArp or
~trieted, , "critical 30,,'."
., J" ,
f Designating Jr'reversibility due to friction; n IMOlhennal.fto ....
ftuidizati~;;; fOOd $Ug.,. ' .d For nnulil alone (L _ 0, N _ 0),
~tiug gas or Ps lIhue. o " " In reservoir ~ of pipe or DO'f1c. ,
" Desig!l&trn,; interfa<:O'!.
Designatio,; liquid pI'we, or phaee L.
r
2
I n. t,hroat of noule, or outlet to pipe.
At any point Uistant L oo"'nstream f~
Ile.'!ipating' any Jr.~; by rnoIecub.r action; thro&t- '" D"~jp illiLof. or exit of pipe.
mean or -maximum vaJuc. i .. .., 3
II). re!lervoir into ,,hich pipe di8etut.~
1:lre.i~(jng by lutbu\c.nt ou;lion.
n,;;j(I\!I ting vapor, or Ilbft,ooe V. Dar Ovt'f' a. symbol-mdiea.1.ee po:r unit rr:8S,
-. ...
' .. I
..
! 'V" , . c'.
'r
"
"
"
.,. " ,""h'
..
00
k'n
"
. '
,
Appendix
UQUJD.l.JQmn EQUILIBRIA
ACE'J1(: ACII: W"T~a l sorftOfTl. FiTHI:II Sn,Tl:1II BEII :U:.HE.-ETIUNO .... W ..TU BnrrnI
Qboo.r V!'.t Ou, .. Itl 20 C . nd I AIm Ob&ervQll 0.1 t 26 ~ C and 1 Atm
- , , ., -,' I4ht Layer Heavy Layer
WilIer l.:\yur, lIl1l8S % Ether J..ayu, rna. % M ... J'raetn ~I_ Fraction
. . . . .M Ethanol &nseoe Ethanol
Achl Eth.:r W ater Acid I Etber Wlltel' 0.9935 0._ 0 .0013 0 . 1120
"' ..
0.9630 0.0300 0.01>.13 0.8000
0.0
1-.0
2.0 1.6
...
1.0 99.0
97 . 6
96.'
0.0
0.33
0.63
98.95
US.60
0.6
O~72
) 0:77
0.9525
O.9S:lO
O ~ 9200
0.044.5
0'.04.50
' 0':'11740
o.oun
' 0.0110
0. _
0.3600
0.3640
0 .4350
S,!:' -1., 93 . 1 1.4 97.6
-
1.0 0 : 9180 0.0756 0 .0370 .0.4410
10.0 2.10 87. 80 '/ 3.0 95. 0 1.4 0 .9075 ' 0'.0846 0.0480 0.4590
20.0 2." n .20 7.0 . 00.8 2.2 0. 8440 O.I3M 0.1310 0.6220
00.' 11 .5 83.' 4.' O.SOOO 0 . 1745 O.2Ot1i 0.5216
'),0
40.0
.0
3.'
'.8
54.2
4vA
I ".,
". 1
00.4
69.1 10.8
9.7 0._
0.6005
0.2415
0. _
0._
0,3490
0._
0.4120
...,
45.0 1I .6
16 .6 I
43.4
36.'
31.9
36.20
66.3
".7
U .8
15.1
O.tWll
0 .520
O.203Q'
0 . 374
0._
0.520
0 .4400
0.374
" .8 31.3
I 23.' U.S 31.3 23:9 K . A. VutereMlian aDd M. R. Felltke. 1M. B1I4. CII.a~t"
II. 928 (1 936).
,,'
~I ssa
Me thyl-
FractMln
. M!ISI! Fnu:t.ioo
Methyl- ...
cycle>- ",d~
",He~ta.ne
"'-
0
n-Heptane
0.926
hexane
0 0'. 062
0.092 0.831 0.008 '- 0.000
0 . 186 0.734 0.027 0.053
0. 220 0.698 0.030 0.051
0.338 0.576 {l.046 0.04.5
0.400 0.504 0.960 0.040
0 0400 0.4.50 0.074. '<. 0 .036
0 .597 0. 307 0.092 0.028
0. (;72 0.228 0.113 0.021
0 . 7ltl 0.182 0.127 0.016
0 . 731; 0 ,100 0.131 0.014.
0.833 0.054 0 . 156 0.06 ,.
O.M I 0 0.1 69 0
K. A. Ya.rl eres.o;i.1 n and )1. R . Fenske, I nd. BI'I(}. C~
to,:no ( 1 ~7).
531
S82 APP [f\DIX
--
Obeerved Data at 1 Atm ' .. Referenoe ttatee for enthalpies aro pure liquids at 32 F
under their own VA por pres"UreI!
Mo.
Sa\wa.tiou Mole Fraction n.-HepUlne &tu.ra- Ethanol Conoent nu.ion
","Heptatlt! T empera- tion M~ M= Enthalpy, Btu/l b
in Liquid tW't, "C in Liquid in Vapor Tempera- Fraction Frution. of Mixture t
00."'"
o 100.80 0. 0310 Lure, OF in Uquid in Vapor Liquid Vapor
0.07117
0. 1538
lOO. M
100.35
0._
0._
."""
0.1030
212
210.1
0
0 .010
0
0 . 103
lSO.1 1150
....
173: 4
0.8430 0."'" 173 .2 0 .880 0 .900
0. _ 0 :8900 173.0 0 .900 O.1H2
0 ..... 0.9130 172 .9 0 .020 0.9\l6
0.9310 0 .9400 172.8 0 .' " 0 . 042
0 . 9540 0. 9625 172.7 0.960 0.959
O. !lI!OO 0 ." " ITl .8 0 .980 0 .978
E. C. Bl"OIUiJey oUId D. Quiggle, Ind. Erog. eMIII., 25, 173.0 I 1 89.0 457.6
1136 (1933). ComeUand Mont.onna, Ind. Eng. Chtm., 25, 1331 (1933):
Noyaaand Wtuit!l, J . A .... C/wn. &C., ::t. 463 (lool ).
t Compoei.tion for liquid and vapor is thO) same .. given ill
the eeoond col umn under ma.u fraction in liquid.
.
110.0 16 .2 60 0 .813 0.873
103 .8 0 .7M 0.827
93.1 " 30.'
56. 7 100 0 .721 0 .172
.... 72.'
85.8
79.7
74.6
70.'
"'" 8<.0
91.2
"'.7
66.1 70 96.'
62 .6 80 98 .'
".,
116. 1 '"
100
".,
HlO
o D. F. OtI.uner, I nd. E"ft{}. eM"'., 35. 617 (I~) .
APPENDIX 50S
~
,
~
,
~
.-.
,~
l"-
, ,,
~~ "
." .a
0
,!
~
~
.'
584 APPENDIX
VOLAT! LITY F.QUJLIBRIl!M DISTRIB UT ION THERr..tAL CON D UCTI YIT IES, k,
R.UIOS, K - 11/% 1-'OR IDEAl. SOLUTIONS Btu / {hr){eq ft.)( "f / ft)
... ....
.-
Tomp.... loro. or
,.,. T"'~,OP
Off.
el"t '"
..' .N"
7.Ii! !7$
38.6 .-- 611 .0
.. m
."M.' ."
e.....
AI..in"",
7 2011" - 1011"
~ ...-223
112
:m
0"
114
~
I II
1110" 2OiI"
218
1I ~
301"
!If
11'2
..
ZI2
11&
P.'
toO"
!1~
130
... :~~
"~'7, 1r.il11
C.Ho to.O 25.0 11.0 71.g
,:.c,B,. ' .G l3.7 ~. O U . 52.0
17.i ;Ii.! au 10)4.1 U.O
...c,H"
,"C,R ..
I.It
0."
'.tI'
l.tO
MI.,
5..
to.'
I :.~
U.!
~ ... 2!. O
. . St.,.....
1oI"'I....c
oIftI ON)
17. 0
7.7
:I..
3.1
:11. 2
W
26.0 11U
'.0 ~.6
If>.i
10.0
%5.1
10.1
....c.H"
...c.a"
...erR" ....
0,001
l.OZ
O.U _
t. IU
Ut
1.I1I
GoU
1. 15
" 00
I.at
14.2
12.0
,.. IS.'
I'.''
o'
1. '1l1o\~
F'" 14"""'"
Motor;'
,.MoII
....
Ir:;,~ 1.Ge:! 0.01' 0.013
II'.~." ' .001. t.W 0.010 11.l1li7
" ' - " _ ill p:,;". "..
/
12.ZI'>, .. 1t o.lm ~.eztII O.'~ Q.O%8t
H.' U.
.
Off. &4.3' 71.1 83.8 IU UIb/' lllt (I .(lIB 0.!!20 O.1m O.o:!t _
C,H .
' .... ", IU
:I.U
21.0
1.118
11.&
iU
2404
11.'
H.'
~.,
.,,",,-~boo-.U
0.'.
'.H .." " .0
11',1 ft 0.011:% '.017 '.11 0. 115 IU2
.
f-C,IIOI 4.\lIi '. 1 .It. O
...c.R" '.H -~.
.. ..
1.%4 &.1 U IVI 111.0, .,.11 '.O\D 1.011 . COO 0.021 0.031 0.041
ioCiH,. 0.1 1 US I. 70 4.05 1.16 "1.1 0.015 G.on UG5 D.(w7 0.0115
,..U
3 Ito/.. It ~.OI3
I .a~ /. 3. 4i
...coli ..
...coK"
0 . 1(14
0.01'
0.312
G.\I.I 0.61 1.113 "
.,
Colloh, fit-
O.Olt 6.11!1 0.031 ~.6U D.OI4 ,.II(,G
...coli,. 0.011 O.03(1l o.n 1.01 " o.-il v. I() Ib,.. II
N bw.I_4 I Y""'"
' .851
...
C,K,
'1oC,"" O. a!
e." .
....I.m
1.10
0,71
10.6
' . 11
~ 14.'
on
1'.0
... .."
II.'
..U
U .
......
- i\.f..r;l ....... pp
Bot~
of""'_r ....t&i.Io
,. .....--
' .0
.- .....'"
...e,K" 0.211 ' 1.11
t t0f2
...5:'
..,.;0,;';11 0-07S 0,11l-I 0.130
t.c,H"
,..elf("
..coli"
..
O.OS
~
o.tlll1
'. 17l
'.N
,.740
~L"7
U t
.. "
", !.(If.
I. T4
'.0
'.0 U
Wllb ....II1l_ ..
um '.PI 0.1138 1t.0I1
~U" o.la . m
W.tor (\iqo;.) O. :!'lI5 . ut '.40\1 0.470
J"t-.. _ 200 poio A.........;. (Iiouid) o.~ G .~or 0.2110
Catoo,.~ O.M G.ON t.074
Cff.
"".
1"'"
.e,R"
"'
'.H
. ~
.1 . 1
' .N
'.N
. w
1 1.4
5.S
~.IT
1.:15
"'
%3. t
1.'
' . 11
t.iO
%3.'
t.'
' .1
1. 00
22.'
11 .0
I.'
4'
......
~
ar .1.1'1 diotIlIoIc
ME l~ .. be .,;t (~ I ' AM)
. I0Il . 111/. '.0115
e.\I91 e." e.
O.~
1.012 .....
0.011 '.Oil '.075 G.on
0.0;4 n.Q7i a.!;IM 0.1/641 0,0114
........ ...-
......
...c.B" t oJl ~ '.N '. 0 '.0 3.15 U ll O,JIl'J Q , IO~ I.~
..
E\.hyl~(JOO%)
"CoK"
...caH"
' .00
~
0.128 , D.,u
fI.1l4 ,- 2.16
1.1Ii
3.011
~.t
0.10 O.l'i '. 08..
O.OItl O.011J 0.012
...coli"
...c,H"
0.0111
..'" O. UO .~ 1.22 1.12
O_
.,
. lII4 r 0.01l . U ' .111 I.U
M< 0.00& Q.~I8'J " ,0108 0,U1I1 O.Ol~ D.o., ! 0,0117 0.0:111
Pr ....... _ 200 po;" A"",,,,,,' O. !lI"IS8 O~Ul I ~ o.Ol&i O.Olil(i 0.12\6 O.02:i O.WI
".. .u., '.tIl rArI ... d~ t 0 .1J(I$1 Ii.~l O.IKI& 0-\11 " i.ll!! O.OllS O.O~
CH, . 11. 0 1..... 15.0 I' .t 15.5 ."..... - 11._ lI.bOtl o.ooa
M
G.!!1
1. 1&
'.fi
1.71;
." J.n
1.t(!
,,'
""","
~1.1hoDo
O.on 0.005 O. IIS a. l!.l O~H
O.ooeo O.O!:!! O.OI~ Q,ti(M o.m . ~ 0.0347 O.Q;I!l!l
0.1.1<1 o.na
o. laO,
,:.c.lI"
......"..
.... ..
0 .3 16 0 ,81 1.75 2.1M ~. OO
."'-
0_ 0.0074 0. (1) 0.0125 O .O \~ Q.O,lJI '.O lg O.II"MS 0.0221
-
'.m
...c.If"
;..coli ..
~ .c.H ..
.~
~
O. 7~
0.'7S
U8
0;113
U
!.eO
3.2
1.;j.I ........ 0.007' O.OH16 0.0'" a.o ltil ~.02 4
O.OOM '.00'l'I O.OIl:!> ' .OleG 8.&1911 '.m.
..
~ O.D . U 1.4 ' .0115 '. OlfO O.OtM 0.0 192 1.1m5
2. 11 w.... ""'"
...c,II" UlM r .ln 0." 0." 1.50 ...cll ...... ~"" ",".\<ria..
... .....
1lef'Mlory
....c,H.. a.oasls '
'I
'.OOIIT 0.057 O.~ ~.ta 1.011
.m
Q. IM 0.14 2. 15 1.00 Alumi."", ",li",10 ' - G.2t G.al Q.31
."
.. .......'"...,
...c.B" 0.17' 1j.5U I .. 2.M 15 0. 15 0 . 1'
ioC,H, . 1).11
I.SI 2.00
"_ ....
'~_...u.
"':;,H"
,""""
...0,8"
0.007,
O,OO~~
'.~I~
O.US
1.101
,
. ro
0.1l1f 1.2
0. 71
US
t.a
1.:10
O .~
G . I~
O.Gf
0. 01-5
...."
D.U
~
' . 16
1.10
'.M
0. 11
0,11
'.0
0.1'
O.I!
0.08
"
APPK"'D[X 585
)0'10. 544. saturated densi~ie8 of various liquidli aD d gas as .. fUDct ioo of tempertLlure.
APPENDIX
':
2
I
.
0.8
, ~
0.'
~~
.J'.
~
0'
~
~
0.01
0 008
0006
700
Jo'IO. lH6 . ViIsooe;it;"'S of various liquius alld ga.se;; M n fun ct ion of t.empcratuMl at I &\m.
APPEN DJX 587
,.
o
I
-
-. -
"I
.
o
-.
'
, 0'
. .
. "'i, " . ,
~
II/- ..
. /
"o
,7
~ ~ ~f/ /'
-
- ~yj /I...~ ::-~, ~~
g: .
"
,.
,W ~~
c ,~" / ' , ;p;P ~.""' ,~.. ~ ..,.- --
.
-.
..: ~ ~ , ./ ~, v
~
h# .~
iT ?A ,,
. [:/;;".0 : " . ?'
~~\;h.~~~#'
,
,5 ..
. Water v'r
i:::"" Ii- f'.9 __ I
V . ,
~:;;,~ ,
:....~
-
V
~
~~ .
-/, ~
3
,
M. "
~1
02 carbOll~ "
- . ..
,
:::....." ~ - ""', ~ .
- . .
. ..
,'.
_~ L
~~ c-"l~.~ ~ ',' .
,
,
o,I - . .
..
"
, -,
,
. -.. ,
....., I '
...
,
;.;: ," , .
0
-100 100'
FlO. Mil. Specific '-hi of vano"", !''luirls rmd g:;;...,. ",I ] 111m prftItIf'fl loll " function of lempenltuf'fl.
588
APP&,\,OIX
1;'10. ,547. Enthalpy of p&l'ft.ffin hydroea.rbonliquid5 &8 8. function of temperature ill Btu per pound mole.
APPF..."'i'DlX 589
",000
1 1 1
, ,
" Hydroe.arbon ~por 1/
~Ipy at JerQ ptl!'S5ure
lbove liquid at 3T f
..
, ,
35,000
'. - .
, , ,
,
,
,
30,000
,
.
..
,
. ..
,
.. . ,
.
(
I ,
! 25,000
~
~
, ta'
.. JM V
lj 20,000
.. , , . ~'" ,
"
. , ,""~ ~ ~ ., .." .,
,
'
~'
, . ,
f ,
, ..
,
,
i ~
;:;- ,. ~ '"
"
.~ 15.000
,~
> ,
V
.' .-~~
I-~
, ,
.
,. ,
. .
.~ , .. ..
, ,
. "
l'llla~
,
,,00 .. ,
,
.. . ,
~.'" ,
.. ,
,
,
,
..
,
.. ,
..
o
0
,
,
00 ~ ~ _ ~
tempe"tU
!'. f
FIG. MS. Enlm.,lpy of paraffin hydr-oe..-bon 1__" a8 . {unction of \.empoeratll!'e at coIllltant Iov. p~M.
APPENDIX 591
~
/ =
-
II
j / /.
i-I: I~
"I / V r=
It,'
,,:
, i-
'/I/i . i-
, -
r= :;;I~
f=
-
I~
,
I- I~
, ~
~ ~
,
I
:.m . . ~- I
~
1
~v::
.'1
"''' ,)
,
., ,
,.
-. -.
~
,,
. "". !
1100
1000
900
700
"'"
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
-'
Index
AbMrption, m, 333 Agitation, equivment, colloid mill, .504
ammonia., iIIu:tltntive examp}e, 533 ". paddle type, 504
ooefficient8, ammonia, 330 rotatint; impeller type, IiOS
sulfur dioDde, ~28 illuetn.tive elt3lIlple, 508
faetor method, 372 Agit.\tors; 280, 505
graphie&! solution, 374 power oonsuJUption, 1iOO, !'JY1
vaporl.l in liquid, 822, olIO AggreGAtJve fluidization, 210, m
Abaorptivity, 4~9 Air blndiltL centrifugal pumps. 189
Ac~leratioo, 132 Air CONlUmption, flotation eellB, 101
in oentrilupls, 258 Air-eth&ool humidity eh&f~ 544
Aoetie acio:t-.cewne (VIlpor-liquid equilibria), 582 Air lift, 100
AOf!tic Il.cid_water-i80propyl ether system, 581 io agitation, 504
A~tone-ae(!tie acid (vapor-liquid equi libria), 582 flotatJon cell, 101
Aeetonf .... ater-ffiOIIoOChlorben.oene system, 009, alii Air-1Vater humidity ehut, M.'i
Acid egg, 19-4 AkinB eI&!I8i6er, 89 .
Aeoustie velocity , 194, 199, 200 A.I&ebraie nleumtion of exlradion. 284
Addition point, 288 Arnmon~' .. ter (vapor-liquid equilibria), 692
. Adiabatic aU!IOI"ption, 408 enthaJpy-concentmtion din.gro.m, 592
AdiAbatic coolinc curvel!, 513, M6 Ammonia ahJlorption, eoofficienl.ll in pack6d coJumlU!, KI
Adiabatie flow, 200 height nf transfer units, 532
muimum, 201 illlJllLrative cnmple, 533
Adi&b&t.ie hwIDdificaOOn, 512 Analogy, momentum, he:lt, and mass tnul!fer, M9
Adiabatic humidifier, 612, 648 Analyaie, chromatographic, 400
Ad.ia.batic II&tuntion temperature, 513 Anemometer, eup type, 153
relatio ... to wet-bulb temperature, M6 hot-wire, 153
Adiabatie wall temperature, 204 Angle of aliue, 51
Adllclli)(lnts, \Wee of variou!!, 398 Anguku particles, 79
Adaorbe.., methode of e&leulatkn, 407 Aniline-heptano-methykycloheu.ne SYlltem, 581
Ad.orption, &dif,b,.t.ie, 408 Anilin&-methyieydopentane--bexanc 8)'Slem.. 304, 317
bibliogr.phy, 411 Annulus, heat transfer in, 444
break point in filled bed, 4.07 Apertur.!, of IICl'OOI"IIII, 17
e&ibon dioxide on eubon, 404 Appendix, Ml
chromatolf"llphic, 400 Aproll conveyors, .58
contact phmt, 399 eape.cit.iM of, 61
ciilferential beat of, 406 power ret"Juiroment for, 61
dillperaed contaet, 399 Area mete", 161
~ of p&eB, 400 Arithmeti c average temperature, U2
fixed bedB, 399, 407 ~sted manpo_r, 49
HypertIOrbel"ll, 400 . Atoinlc wlumes, diffusion .'ilS
U1U11trative exampll)!l, 407, 408, 409
Atomizer, centrifugal die.lt., 562
iIothermal, 408
${)BY, 561
movin beds, 401 Ave.... diameter, 20
peROIa\ion plf.nta, 399
IUrface, 20
-pol" reco~, 399
_ter on silica gel, 4()<l temperature dilferellce., 434
A&itation, 503 Azeotropell, 393
bibliography, (ffl benz~th&nol system, 393
effeetiV1lMell, 506 buta.nol-weter l!.)'Stem, 39-1
equipment, 604 bet.erogeneouA, 393
lilts, !J04 '_393
~nc .ymma. 504
,..
Azootropio diIItil!&tioD, 393, 3S6
INDEX
Backward-feed .vBporatol'll, 482 Biblivgraphy, .!Iedimentation, 120
&f&e, bubble p lBta, 358 size reducti<:>n, 45
heat u ctllmglll'll, 420, 422 lIOI id-1i'lutd extraction, 2G4
lWl miD, 38 ltansJlO<tation of fluids, energy relationll, 1.(6
capacity of, 4.1, 43 vapor-liquid opeta tiOAIl, 395
cioeed-eif(:uit.4 1 Binary syriClJl!I (vllpo,-liquid traI..ter), 328
compound, 39 equi lihrium line, 371
critieal maximum.speed of, 40 open.lilllt Ii"", 371
Cr,l.t(>, 3D Black bo-Jy, 4.57
POllieJ" ""1wrementa, 43 Bl&ke jaw cru~hcr, Z7
mte of rot ation, 40 capl!.city, 28
~nnion. 39 m"ndinl!;, 001
BBnu of WOOS, nad ialion to, 4(W DIo,,' cs.'Ie, 194
Bll.rometrie ~r, 480 Bk)\\''''''' 174.
Ba.tch centrifugala, U9 ecntrifugal, 178
Batch oontrol1 enl, automati c, US lobe, 175
8akh cxU'action, 283 power requirements, 101
Bateh fractiOllll.tion, 300 rotnry vllcuum filtet1, 263
column holdup, $1 i!lU8trlltive ample, 253
wllIltllnt reflux, 390 Boiling, ad!lOrption of gaees, 4M
r.ons\.ll.nt product, 300 e/t"ct of preSllun!, .(M
&teh I,,:.f fIltera, 233 film, 453
Hatch lie<.iinwntutinn, 110 liquids, 454
beight of inwrfu.ce. 11'1 maximum hea t flux, 4M
related to con ti nuous, 117, 11 8 nud"ate, 453
Beam lengths, radiation, 470 temperllture dillel'l!IlOee, 4M
Beer's la ...,4U9 Boilin~ point elevation, 4.85
Belt conveyor!!, 6S 80"'1 c1sssilier, 89
'pproximale ..-eights, 58 Bo...1 mill, 37
M pMitie&. &8 Bradfom 'brcft.k". , 30, 31
gravity "\.:lklH.lp," 66 Bmke b"I'!IO!,lOorer, centri(upJ pu~"" lag
maximum tump si&e, 58 Drusk. ,..illt, fixed-bed IIdllOl'ption, 407
,..,,'er requiremen t&, 67 Break time, adsorption, 4(f1
~fOl',58 effoot of particle !lise, f07
'lfeid>inc -Ie, 63 BubMc cape, cut. iron, 869
unloadin&. fi6 cif(:ul/l.l',358
Ben,ene-ethanol system, 393 tuonel, 368
Hemene-1rthanol-waw.. ~1AmI, 581 Bubble pb.te columna, 346
llernoulli', equntion, 1~ OOIltro~ 363
Bibliography, adaorpti on, 411 desi,;n and layout, 353
agitation , 509 illustrative eltllmp!e, 357
centrifugation, 268 Hooding, 349
classification, 97 ftow 01. liquid, 351
crystnl1i&ation, WI liquid eapacity chaJU, 356
drying, 574 liquid gradient, ::54
evaporation, fin liqu.id seal, 354
filtrati"n, 266 maximum liquid flow, 8.S6
lIu1.Mt.iUD, l OS phl<! byoutA, 367
110... of fluids through porous media, 218 spscing, 353, 361
flow of ''''0 phWlCfl throe; :, porous media,228 stability of, 355
f1uidw.ti<:m, 274 vapor-liquid transfer, m
heat 1nmilfer, 472 vapor capacity, 347
hib-velocity flow, 209 wa.t.er under oil phaae, 392
liquid.Jiquld "xtraction, 320 Bucket oonveyonl, capacities, 61
ma.ss tranllfer, 574 po"'er requirement&, 61
TDCliLBllremen\ of 1\0... , 163 Bucket elevators, 59
pipca aoo fittings, lao centrifuyll discMI'I<', 60
l"Ychtometry, 674 contin~ discha~, 60
pumpinc and ClOI1l~ng,IS1 .,ootive di5Ch.'1 r~ ~Y JMl, tIO
nutia lion, 472 poIOe. requireroents lor, 6 1
ac~nifl4. 2'l Bur.kingh" m, pi theorem, 137 '
INDEX
Bulk density, 78 Ct-nll;(ug!ll T"um llll, terminology, 177
Bulk n.c.o.ity, 78 virtual he:I<I, 188
"Bumping, " 302 vi8l"06itiell on rharnct~mlies, effect of, 100
But.tt.nol-wilter.,.stem (vapor-liquid e<]uilibrf:!.), 394 Ce1.trifugtlls, 251J
Butterfly valve, 125 ~- ' batch, 25!l
lI.utomet.ie.263
Ca.ieite, 21, 42 1I(,li,[ hnskel, 2flO
Rittingtlf'. number, 42 '<U$]lI'n<loo ooskl)t, 259
8perific surface of, 21 uIHI" ... h;''Cn, 200 ~
~fic wrfaee ratio, 22 eonti nuoU5, 201
Callow-McJnt.:.h flotation cell, 101 horiuontnI1)('r("rate bMket, 261
Caloric, 41~ horiwntal /lolid bo\\'I, 261
Copacit"-. ball milia, 43 ('~ntrirug:llion, 258
Blake crusbera, 28 l ~"'iOltl"llphy, 2'(18
bubble-eap plate eolumns, 347 Ccntri fugee, 2,i8, ~
eenlri fupl pumP'. 189, 100, 11)1 lli~l:-boll'l, 264, 2(15
molina towenl, SS5 optimum height of dum, 267
CI'1.UIhllll roue: 36 l ubulllr_lw,wl,2(\;l
~ Cl'U8be1'll, 28 uht'..,2(l5
extraction equipment, 301 CcntrilMltul foret", 258
filte .... 247 C h"r.l cteri$lic curve!! ,,( centrifugal pumpc, Ig9, 100, 19 1'
Starity filtent, 229 C hem ical cne'lO' .510
I)'Tatory ~ 29 .. Chilean mill , 37
liquid, bubble-eap plates, 356 C I,imney, in hubbJe.e:.p plates, 359
packed eolumllll, 361
pipee. calculation of, 205
., Choke (<'Ct.Ii ng, z:;
('hord wei .... 3.52
("'I,romalottt"lll,hy,400
....... "
pumpa and eompl'MllOrs, If>6
Cbrifien.tion capacity of thickt'llers, 1 Hi
-nmentation equipmf!n t, li5 CI~ssifie:D.tion, 73
Tagart's ronnu\a. for CTUsho),.,., 30 biblioJl:ruphy, !l7
Capillary fOlWB, 221 dilu1c pulpe, 00
Capillary number, 223 elcctl"Olltat ie, 00
Capillary tube4, 221 lumirv.r conditions, 84
"Arbon dioxide, 147, 468,585,586 , turbulent . CQndit.ion~, 84
emilsivity, 468 , CiIlllSifK:re, 280
phyaical properties at 95" F, 147 boll' l, 89, 00
c.-de plate, in bubhle plate eolumt\8, 359 ooun~reurrent, Haro inge, 89
c.t.-i.ron bu bble capos, 359 cnlfl8-o-lIo ... or Aki ns, 89
Cae,"" rractiolll\ti ~ eolu mns, 361, 391 double-cone, 87
CaritaUGn, in eentrifupl pumps, 190 free .eetWio&. 86
Centipoiee. 67 pneurmltic, Gayco, 87, 88
Cenlrlfupl blower, 177 1Xl",'cr and openIting -te, 90
CeI1trifupJ diak spray, 561 rake,88, 89
Centrifll&lll extractor, 2Q9 ! pirnl-vane, 00, !II
CeotrilU(lll fUtel'll, 266 surface velocity, 8.5
~trilupJ fOll:e, 258 Clalll!ius-Clapeyron equation, 488
in centrifuges, 267 Cleavage pllUlt'll, 25
CeotrilupJ pum pa, 177 CJ<Wld-cinluit crushing, 27
et.pAdty, 100, UH_ Cloeed-tank ex lracwl'll, 279
chu&cteriat.iea, 189, 190, 19 1 , Coal, .eettl'ng velocities, \)2
_182 , Cocks, 126
dift'_, 183 Cocffieicnl3, 157
~182 diffusion, 516
et6ciency, 189, 190, 19 1 he:lt l =>lrl'er, 41 5
impelle ..... 177, 178 tubcllJ, 438
muitiataKe, 182 finned. 4 18
power, 189, 190, 191 overall IYllic(l l, 425
_ 182 mlLlll! transfer, 5 11, 578
!lelf priminl!', 184 t'XperlmentaL 627
aide .....ction, ISO orifice, 158
Ipoed on characteristiC!!, effect of, 189, 100 C'A>lkcwrs, 105
INDEX
Columns, 298, :wi, 362 Coll!lOlidaUon tri ckling, 93
baffte plate extmd;un , 298 Co1lll1ant-boiling mixture, 393
bubble-co.p pt..te, :we Contact, Z77
oontroi, 300, 362 oontlnuous, 282
desi&:\, bibliOYllphy, 3M oountercurrent enrt.etion, 200
fractionation, 347 diJ!pened,7fT
didi!lation in pIIcked, 635 multiple, 28:J
fioodin of packed, 362 single, 28:J
Boodinc point, in extBt.tion, 301 Contact anIle, lOS, 451
p.at.ked, 361 Control of rraetionllting column-, 346, 363
characteristics, 362 Conveetion, 415
coefficient.!! in, 525, .530 heai trsnsCer, 431
.!eve-plate, 301 natural, 417
IP"'Y, 300 Converging-divetJ;ing nonie, 199
. .pa r-liquid trantfer, 340 Conversion factor, 439
" eUed wall, 5\2 Connyo.... ~58
ComprMhili\y futor of ps!S, .591 bel t, 55
Compre!l!lible Hulda, 142, 143 C&l"rler, 55
Itow,l98 DiKht, 53
illUlltmtive example, 144 rne<:hanir:al, 52
moderau, velocities, 126 IlOeumlltic, 273
Compl'!llll!ing and pumping. J66 Redler, M
Comp~ion wne, in thickene ... , 117, 118 slllt or d r~, 54
Com~1'B, hihiiotl;raphy, 197 zipper, 58
centrifup.l, In Cool ing: ponds, 557
hiah-~, 171, In Coolin~ to u'CflO, ""rator type, SM
reciprocating, 166 Cllpe d ty, ~
lIPOOial types, 191 ooCilltruet;nn, 554
Conoenttat.e, Hotation, W desill:n, 553
CotIdel\8ation, 448 Il"W:hlmlCll1 dmft, 556
difretentW, 300 natural draft., 553
drop1\'i~, oWl operatilll conditions, 552
promot.ioo., 453 perfomarll:e, 553
filmlriBe, 448 wind velocity, M6
beAt. UuMfer mefltcieDta, 4M w~ loss, 556
preeenee of noncondensable gas, 451 Coordinates, transfnrmed, 371
t.ubel, 9 Copper, extraction of, 278
turbulent lim\', 451 Cotrine law, 461
vapoJ'8, 448, 451 Cottonseed 011, properti e$, 445
...turated, 448 Counter tliffusion of g:t.'IeSj SIS
IlUperheate<.l,451 CouplinXl5, 129
vertic&I mzrf:u:eJ, 448 Crane, Gantry, 51
water from air, 547 Criticai llow prover, 202
CondCD8er, 339, 43 1. 480 Critical lIow of a-. 194, 198
barometric, 480 Cril.ieal point, of liquid-liquid Iyttem!l, 304
jet, 480 Critieal p~", rll.tio, 198
partial, in fractionation, 339 CriUCAl speed of rotation, t"rommel~, 14
Cond uctance, 416 __prOSOt-Dow c1aellifier, 89, 90
hee.~ tni.ll!lfer, 416 Cr\i$hed material, specific aurface of, "21, 22
IlU.!I8tmmtfer, 511 Cru!hcl'B, B radford breaker, 30, 31
Conduction, 415 closed. ci rouit.e., '1
eddy, 517 cone., 33
heat tl'1UlSfer. 426 " disint@&fl.tol"S, Z1
thick-walled boxes, 429 eflecti~, 43
thi elr.-""alled cylinder, 427 eDeI'lY requirem.enta, ~
Conductivity, 426 fl'M, 26
eddy, 522 gravity . temp, 37
thermal, 426, 522 iYrat.ory, 29
Cone ernslu,nl, 32 jaw, Blalta, '(t
Coo,jugate lines (I)quid-Ilqu.id equilibria), 316 ....... 77
Coaoinc, in bubbkH:ap plaia. 348 open cirellit3, 'n
INDEX 5.,
CrudJers, power rcquirementIJ, 29, 30 DifferentilLl didillation, 388
roI~ 3-1 Diffuse r, 194, 199
ana)e 01 bite, 36 );lfUllion, COIlnter, 513
an&le 01 nip, 35 akly, 517, 521
CIl.pacitiut, 30 fl uid~ in conduots, 5 17
Telsmith Gyl'tl8phcre, 34 li.,uid8,516
toothed roI~ 31 , 32 mok.'(:W!Lr, 512, 514, 516
Cry&a IliUltioo, bibliogrLlph,., 501 I':I<Iilll,517
calculatioN!, 498 !iI.1id!" 516
energy effeetIJ, 495 un~te:ldy ~tage, 51.'\
enthlLlpy-coneent.;dion diugr"IT\, 496 DiffU8iun coefficient,., KW!II8, 515
product purity, 4!)3 liquid.. 3 16
",i.e of, 493 Dilfusivity, 515
aize distril>u.tion of product, 497 computa tion of, 515
yield, 404 11"-' .515
Crystalliwra, 499 Ii.,uid!!, 516
batch,501 UioW'!llIriorud :lfl:'l/Ysi.<J, t36
cw..ifying, 501 fluid fl.",,,, ]36
_000
oonlinuoua, 499
evaporAtor, 50
hl'lIt trnnsfer, 438
mf11!8 tmn.'lfer, 518
porou. beds, m
SWetl!lOO- \V alker, 4P9 DimensionlcaG. KI'OUps, 136
vaeuum, ~ helot transfer, 440
Crystal8, &f'Owth, 493 mn811 tmMer, SI8
habit., 4IM "hy!li(':l.1 mgnifi<"."w:e, 523
nucleation, 493, 500 roL'\.\,ion Uctwoon, 524
nuclei, 494 Dimer:-~iolll5, 131
seeds, 494 bell- Bnd spigot-pi'pt:, IZ7
lIOIubility, 493, 4IM reciprocAting pumJll5, 169
aupenoNIJi lity,493 S)'IIlenu of ( l.:I hle), 132
CUl'Tent flowmeter, 153 lh.,."uIOO pip", IV
Cyclone fJepamwrs, 119 tubing, 420
Cylinder, thick-walled, 427 Diph~[\yllw.xane-d()Ct)S.... oe-furfural ~yst.cm. 803, aoo
Di""h"TJ:e of pipes. 20:'.
Dam, hei&ht, in centrifuges, 267 mltximum, 206
Dareyequation, 217, 229 D i""I\.'\.tlj:c oocfficienl!l, orifioc!!, 158
Decok>rillng of lI}'I'Ilp, L'< lllilibrium ,bta, 411 tota,met.ers, 1.58
DHIumidifiestion, ilIu;.t' l1tive eum,,"', 5;;() Di..... h:ITgft P""""I~, eenLrifupJ pump!!, 189
Dehumidifier, del!ip , ~D - l)~h:lrw: 8l:J.cks. coolin!!; lowers, 557
opemtiAc OOI>ditioN, 5,S() Di>lint.egrutnr, '1:1, 32 ...
Dehydration oJ 1MeII, 400 Disk-fl.nd-doulI:hnut b .. me, 422
Denlity, 585 lli!1'I'1'8:U\t.s, 107
_~7 lmJocned contact., m
hulk, 7, 78 Di$pJllcemcnt fl.owmetel'll, 149
ea.rbon dioDde ..t 96 F, l4.7 Distrihut ion, two ftuida in porous lIeds, m
saturated, p8IlI!I and liquids, 686 Disti!lc.tfl, 831
mcnJM IOlutiona, 147 pure, controlsyatcms for, 364
OMver Bot.&Uoo cell, 103 , DistiUMtlon, 322, 388
l>eIJliminc. 91 IIIL~'tropie, 393
Desorption, 398 Bdditi/m of third.oomponent, 394
Dew point, Wculatioo 01, 378 differential, 388
Diameter, 19 ethAnol-water in packed column, 636
a rithmetic .. ~ U'\III, 20 extrad.ive, 393
a.verll.ge, Dn ., 19, 20 t, .ll.Mh,388
me&llllUrface, 20 ideal atagee, sao
mean 'VOlume, 21 packed ooIurwls, liM
pao:ked columns, 361 B\.eam,391
p..-ticles, 210, 211, 215 trAMf",. uni ts, 536
Diaphragm flowmeter, 151 V:\'cUUIU, 391
DilI'erence point, 288 DiHtrihuleU COfll JIOI"ICDta, fractionation, :Tn
[ijg~tiNcon~tio~, 390 o.-ne-t'urfun.J.di ,*",nylbeu.ne eyMcm, <tOO. OOG
INDEX
DoeWr knife, 241 Ejector, 194
Dodge jaw 1ll\IIIbw, 27 Eleettie-etornge-battery truck!, 4\1
ca.pacity.28 Electrical p",-><:ipit.o.tors, 120
Doublo-con~ clM8lfier, 87 Eleetrom:lgnctic vibrator, 12
Douhle-pipe beat ucbangerw, -419 Elecll'Olltatie el'L8!lifi C::llion, 00
[)owWlpoutB, bubble p\&rea, 360 Elutrintion, 16, 72, 87
dist.m_tion columns, 350 Emissive power, 458
Dowtbenn, heat transfer medium, 3U Emis!ivitY,4S9
Drag \&.... 10 iuminnU8 g.'lS!.oS, 4"1
DriCl'1, M9 non\uminoWl ~, 468, 469
oontinuoua, 672 lIOlid su rfa.oes, 4"
OOllDwrourrent, 6110 Energy, intern.a.l, 133
desi&u of, 569 kinetic, 133
drum. 565, 570 lost, Ruid flow, 137
freae,566 potenlia~ 133
","",i164 proMUTe, 133
....,""
rotuy,569
_pray, 560
tray, 669, 569
Energy !:lilian..,.., 3
enthal py-di:llp1lm,
fuma~ 466
328
..
meetiveneas, 1& 8~,283
agitation, W8 heiht l!O;Juivalent, 400
""""""
lC1'eeo., 15
in adsorption, 400
iu paeked oolumllll, 361
INDEX
Equilibrium, 'yrup decolorilinl, -416 Extraction, equipment, eolid-liquld, dUipenred-eonta.et, 280
vaporilation, 388 , agitator&., 112, 280
natuml ga8Oline, 389 rotating pint(>, 281
vapor->li<l, .,..ater, 404 thickenera, 112, 280
on silicw. gel, 405 morine bed, 279
volatility eutlIItan~ KC, 512 Bollman, 279
F'.quivakml be:tm knaths in radiation, -470 m
H IlTUJa-)10hlc,
Equi valent Cfl ke tbickne., flltera, 24"- l!Oybean l'I.:U1Ietnt, Z79, 281
Equivalent diuneter, 443 open lank, 112, m
Equivaient length, fitt.inp and V1I.Iuea, loll , 142 fish li vel'll, 283, 29'l
pipe, 139, 140 liquid-liquid, 297
Equivalent porosity or beds, m bibli......,ny, 320
Eq...ivaJent '"-'huBe of filtrate, U4 calcullltiOnt, 302
Et.hanoJ.air bumidity chart, M4 graphical, 306
Etbanol-ben.ene (yapor-liquid equilibria), 393. intennediate feed, 309
furfura~ 300
Etbanol-berllene-water I)'lItem, 681
Ethanol-water l)'ltem, 327, 582 minimum reHuJ<, 318
dilltillatlon in packed column" 536 minimum I!Olvent, 308
pbysical and therma.l dau, 582 nomenclature, 30.5
EVllporation, 474 packed columns, 536
bibliography, 491 solvent requirement.&, :J07
ilIWitrative example, 485, 489 solid-liquid, 277
water into air, 541 bibliography, 294
En.pol'l!.tor, 474 illustrative e""mple, 284, 292
auxiJiariel!l, 418 algebraic, 284
barometric leg, 418, 4SO gm"hicnl, m
jet condenaer, 479 ..ybea.n$, 279
mrface eond<!ll!ll!f, 479 Extractive dilltillation, 393
trapll, 418, -47t1, 480 Eye of centrif\llal pumpa, 177
feeding multiple effect, 482
heat lranafer oaeIfieien'-, 483, 484 FIlgf'rgretl Hotation celi, 102
bydl'OBtatle head. 4S3 Falling rate periods, in d ry i ni, 600, 670
_ ...
correo:tiou, -488 F&nning equat.ion, 136
materia.lt 0' COMtruetion, 418 Feed plllte oornpo!!ition, multieomponent l"IIcHonation, 380.,
mult.iple-etfec~, 481, 488 385
tripje4ect., 481 iocation, vapoMiquid trantfer, 337
boiJina-point e1eV1l.tioll, m Feed ...ater beater, 422
comporoent parU, 423
flow diagram, 481, 489 Feeder, meo:banical, 5 1
tn-,475 ~Feeding, choke, 2ti ..
bNket type, 475, 484 Fico 111'11",516
fOl"Olld-cin:ulation, 477, 484 Film boiling, 453
horilODtakube, 47~, 4&4 Filters, 119
Ionr:-tube vertleal (LTV), 477, 484' aids, 241
natural-cireulatton, 476, "84 lLir,560
Btaodard vertical tube, -476, <1M b.:t.g, 231
Exhauating, in extraeUon, refl ux, 302 b.:t.tch I~ ... f, 233, 236
Expansion, reversible, J 98 blowe ... for rotury VI\CUUm, 253
Extrac:Yon, 717, 297 cake, 232
_.m
ootch, oounterC\lJ'1'M~ 283
Galena, 21, 42
adsorption, 400
reboil,325 , .,
Rittinger's number, 42 vapori~tion of meth..nol, M8
specific surfaoe of, 21 vaporization 'of water from eo lut,ioJls, 485, <l87
specific surf&CII 'ratio, 22 Het\t capa.eitiCOl of variou! ~& and Uquidil, 587
Gantry crane, 1\0 Heat excha.ny,er tubing, charucteti~t.ic~, 420
Gape, 28 Heat exchanger1l, 417
G ... 200 double-pipe, 419
deviation (rom Ideality, 1\91 flllld warer heater, 423
dUluaion, 515 flOI'Iting head, 422
flow It high veb:ity, 198 fouling fscton, 436
flow, Weymouth equltlOn, t43 ~419
Wothermal decreaee in enthtJpy. 590 bsirpin, 424
nonlwninous, 468 kettle reboiJc" 424:
... t.urated denaiticl, 585 ~U-and.tQbc, 419
~fic heats of Vll riOWl, 587 si ogie-pNII, 421
t.hermal coodac:tivit.iee 01, 684: multipMI. 421
INDEX
Heat e~rban&ertl, sb('1\an,I \uix>, tube ('~]lllnrl",rs, 412 Renry's h.... , 512
H{'lll. lihero l ion In futUllt\"I, 16,; .Henry 's law oolll<tant, 528
H!':I.t tmJlJ!fer, 415 H eptane, 583, 584.
an&I.Ol[Y to n>omentUlll IlUd n\:UIEI LI"~Jl.I!fer, 519 H "'pl&ne-mel hylcyclobemne SYSlllm, 582
OIlInuli,4U H ... pt.a ........ met.byJcydohexan~n i linll a)"$I.tm, SSI
banka of tubes, 444 vapor Pres>lU"" 583
t.."bliogt"Bpby,472 HeterocenoouslLSt(lU"Opc8, m
boHling, 453 Heu.ne-&ni linlH'Delohyleyelopeotllne system. 30-1, 3 17
etrecL of presllUl"e, 4~
maximum heal flu~, 4M
Horisont.al tubes, eoodellMotion of
H igh-velocity flo .., 198
va""...,
4i9
_...
Transportation, ftuidi~ llIIitl8., 273 Vap<>MiqWd eqlli l:bria dr.'.., ~e acid, .582
T:ansportation of ftuid!, bib!iopy.phy, 146 amlT\QJUa..wDter, 502
eDel'lY relatioll8, 131 benaene-et.ha:lol IYIt..~ aga
"'- .,. fto-butanoi--water,394
blast., 460 et.b&Dol--water, 327, 582
~yk:yelohexr.ne, 582
invert-ed-bueket, 479, 480 hydroeubooe, 684
preemre return, 478 .odi um hydrorlde--walA:r,f86
t-bem;KlBtatic, 478 l,jeli~322
Tray.. nua .ranaI'er opentkms,. 298, S23 Vapor-liquid equilibrium COOSWlt, K, 375, Mot
T ray drie .... 6W Vr.poro!iquid kanlfer, 322
Tray thickener, 113 hibliography, 395
Trip~treet evaporator, 481 equipment, bubQ~p plate columns, 323
boiliIli-poillt ekwation, 482 control, 362 -
calculations, 489 pr..eked to ...era, 323
flow d~, <lS I, 489 Pfoekinc fOl'" towers, 324
Trippe.... power requiremel. j rO!', 58
TrommeJ., 13, 14
compound, 14
critica11p1. of, 14
t.aDdem, 13
_530
periora\ed \.rays or ~ 323
iUust.nt.tiVl! exam ple, 331, 334, 340, 368
Vapor phue traMfer ooelIi.cient, 528
<:OITCJation, 6:J)
T rueb, 49 uxy~ Itrippiog, m
~~421 Vapor phNe Ioransfer unit, 531
TlIbe mill, 40 Vapor PreIINl"e, M3
INDEX 611
, Vapor preMI.1l'e, wa.ter 011 silica gt'1, f06
Vapor rIIOOmpreaion, 482
Water, on bubble pilllOl untkr oil, 392
removal from bubble ;Iawa, 3U3
Vapor reoovery, adeorption, BOO specific heat, II'Ilpor, 587
V&pOri.ZD.~ion, _tufal p.6oJine, 359 tbemm! oondueUvi~y, 6&l
Velocity dilltribulion, 139 vi8eo8ity. 6!1, ii&.l
eylindrical duet., ~20 Water-ai r humidity eiW't. 54&
Bowing fluid., 139 WllteMunmoni&, 502
Velocity. aeouatie or 10000. 199 Water-butanol ( v:.p"r..Jiquid ~ Iuilibria). 31)4
VeDa COPtracte. 167, 100 Wal.Cr-etJwwl...bJelle ~I.em, Ml
Var.Uui,l 99 Wal.......nonoc!,lorbenzen_tooe ty8leru, 30&, 3 15
V... turi meter, 156 Waler vapor, emifllliv;ly. ol(l8, 4G9
VenieaJ Bow of fluitb in porous bed&, 2 17 ~'Veins, in bubble pl:l.t.e5, M I
VatictJ tube .evt.po>r.\or76 equu.~l
Vibrating ~ 10, I I, 12 ehord wrirs. 352
Vibrator, 1:l,61 Franci<l,351
V"' ty,67 round weirs, 361
ab.oiute, 67 ~ight, 351
Dritiab. ~ty unit, Bvu, 6:" Weill:ht, 131
bulk, '1$ determination, 61
ea.rbon dioxide, 147 Wet-bulb temperature, Me
centipdoo, 67 adiabatic 88turation tempcn.ture relation to, 646
eddy. 622 oooling towet'll, 556
oentrlfupl pump ehan.eterllltlC8, UN) dt-terminatioJl.l, M1 '
_ 68,"l6 Wet IICJ"Ilening, 9, 18
kinem&tJ.e, 6s Wet acparatol'll, 120
liquids, 68, 5116 Wetted perimeter, 520
poiIe,67 Wetted sphericity Qf poI'OI.I.S media., 226
IlUl'Ty, 68 Wett.ed-~..u M1~ 512
IpeC:ific, 68 Wetlint: . .nt, 72
~ .alutiooe, 147 JedimentatioD, 111
Vmoou. Bow, 7. Wet.-~t ftowmeter for ~ 1&1.
Volume, .. torok, ill diltuaon, &16 Weymouth', flqUl..t.ion for P' 6ow, 1013
dry, humid, ...wn.t.ed, 54,3 Windage 1.-, ill. <'JOOlir>& towen.. 6S6
Won., "', ISS
Wall. etr&ct, 79
WMbinr; I.:ICU""adiOIl, 278
.... '34
Worll nle 01 man,
W~I61t~n, 2/1 1
WubinI table, Q5 Xur.t.hates, 106
Water, &eetie ~yl eUler.-yflem. 681
tdItorbed 01\ eiliea ael, ..u, 405 Zipper CO!1veyw, 58
aiNif~ pumpia&. HI6 Zone, COIIGNi.t eompolition, fno.. 'JonaUoo, 369, 385
deDli.ty, _turat.ed, lIM muItieom.ponent, 379
e9IIpOn.Uon.rw:l <:OIIdeu-.Uo!:l mair, 547 m
Zo!lell aedimentatloD, 111, 118
,
..
,
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