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for downwash calculations. Both subsonic and supersonic speeds usually assumed to lie in the xy plane, either by speci-
are considered in the analysis. fying (pz by giving the shape of the wing surface or by
It is found that the degree to which the vortices are rolled up specifying <px by giving the load distribution. In addi-
depends upon the distance behind the wing and upon the lift tion, it is necessary to specify certain conditions in the
coefficient, span loading, and aspect ratio of the wing. While the
rolling up of the trailing vortices associated with high-aspect-
wake. At this point, it has become customary at both
ratio wings is of little practical importance, it is shown that, with subsonic and supersonic speeds to admit the assump-
low-aspect-ratio wings, the trailing vortex sheet may become es- tions originally introduced by Prandtl 4 ' 5 in the estab-
sentially rolled up into two trailing vortex cores within a chord lishment of lifting-line theory. They are (1) that the
length of the trailing edge. vortex wake of finite thickness may be replaced by an
The downwash fields associated with the two limiting cases of
infinitesimally thin surface of discontinuity, designated
the flat vortex sheet and the fully rolled-up vortices are investi-
gated in detail for both subsonic and supersonic speeds. The the trailing vortex sheet, and (2) that the trailing vor-
intermediate case in which the rolling-up process is only partially tex sheet remains flat and extends downstream from the
completed at the tail position is also discussed. wing in the free-stream direction. With these assump-
tions, the boundary condition in the wake may be ex-
INTRODUCTION pressed as a discontinuity in the potential A<ps having
a spanwise distribution identical with that at the trail-
T HEORETICAL STUDIES OF WINGS of finite
both subsonic and supersonic speeds are generally
based on the assumption that the perturbation veloci-
Span at
ing edge of the wing.
Although it has been firmly established that these
ties are much smaller than the free-stream velocity. assumptions are sufficiently valid for the prediction of
The differential equation for the perturbation velocity the forces and moments on finite-span wings, the ex-
potential <p is then tent of their validity for the calculation of the downwash
(1 - M2) <pxx + <pyy + <p2Z = 0 behind wings has never been clearly defined. Prandtl
(1)
pointed out that the vortex sheet begins as a flat sheet
where M represents the free-stream Mach Number and at the trailing edge and rolls up into two vortex cores at
the coordinate system is as shown in Fig. 1. In cer- great distances behind the wing. Thus he, and later
tain important cases, however, (1 M2)<pxx is much Glauert, 6 advocated the use of a flat vortex sheet for
smaller than <pyy and (pzz and Eq. (1) may be reduced to calculating the downwash for points near the wing and a
the form single horseshoe vortex for points far behind the wing.
Helmbold7, 8 recognized the influence of the lift co-
<Pw + <PZZ = 0 (2)
efficient and recommended the use of the flat vortex
With low-aspect-ratio wings, conditions permitting the sheet for small lift coefficients and the horseshoe
use of Eq. (2) are found in the vicinity of both the wing vortex for large lift coefficients. Since later experi-
and the wake at all Mach Numbers. 1 With high- mental studies,9' 10 together with Kaden's theoretical
aspect-ratio wings, Eq. (2) is valid at large distances analysis,11 showed that the vortex sheet was nearly flat
behind the wing but may not be used generally in the at the tail position throughout almost all of the useful
vicinity of the wing. Another important case for lift-coefficient range of the unswept high-aspect-ratio
which Eq. (2) may be used is that for the flight of swept wings in use at the time, most subsequent theories
lifting surfaces at sonic velocity, since, then, the first adopted the assumption that the vortices were arranged
in a flat sheet. Since the early works were almost in-
Condensed version of a paper presented at the Aerodynamics variably confined to unswept wings of high aspect
Session, Eighteenth Annual Meeting, I.A.S., New York, January
23-26, 1950. Received July 28, 1950.
ratio, an important gap in our knowledge exists for the
* Aeronautical Research Scientist. low-aspect-ratio wings and swept wings being intro-
21
22 J O U R N A L OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 195 1
FIG. 1. View of wing and coordinate axes. the magnitudes of e/c for a rectangular wing of aspect
ratio 6 and a triangular,wing of aspect ratio 2, assum-
ing b o t h wings are twisted to produce elliptical load-
duced for high-speed flight. This study will a t t e m p t ing.
to supply an understanding of some of these problems.
( e A U t . = 0.28 ( 3 6 / Q , (e/c)trL = 0.28 ( 2 / Q (6)
A fundamental difficulty in the full analysis of down-
wash lies in t h e fact t h a t t h e p a t h s of t h e trailing vor- I t is seen t h a t t h e trailing vortex sheet rolls u p 18 times
tices cannot be prescribed a priori, as is done in classical more rapidly, in terms of chord lengths, behind t h e
wing theory, b u t m u s t coincide with t h e stream lines, low-aspect-ratio triangular wing t h a n behind t h e high-
which are in t u r n influenced b y t h e vortices. T h e aspect-ratio rectangular wing. For wings of low aspect
present t r e a t m e n t will serve as an approximation in ratio, t h e vortex sheet m a y become essentially rolled
t h a t a knowledge of t h e shape of t h e vortex sheet will u p into two trailing vortices within a chord length or
be obtained through some two-dimensional, as well as less of t h e trailing edge.
three-dimensional, considerations; the down wash will
then be determined b y means of t h e customary three- Behavior at Stations Far Behind the Wing
dimensional analysis.
T h e behavior (i.e., the strength, position, motion,
and core diameter) of the rolled-up vortices a t stations
SHAPE OF VORTEX S H E E T
far behind t h e wing is independent of M a c h N u m b e r
and can be determined b y use of Eq. (2). First, how-
Rate of Rolling Up of Vortex Sheet
ever, t h e strength and positions of t h e rolled-up vor-
Considerable insight into the rate of rolling u p of t h e tices m u s t be determined from three-dimensional con-
trailing vortex sheet m a y be gained on the basis of some siderations, since t h e y are necessary to determine t h e
similarity considerations. T h u s , consider two wings b o u n d a r y conditions. T h e strength, a t either subsonic
of similar span loading b u t differing in span b and total or supersonic speeds, of one of t h e trailing rolled-up
circulation IV T h e symbols referring to the refer- vortices is equal to t h e sum of t h e strengths of all t h e
ence wing are denoted b y asterisks; those of the second vortices shed from one-half of the wing, and, hence, it
wing are plain. T h e ratio of t h e induced velocities q is equal to the magnitude of the circulation F 0 around
a t corresponding stations behind the wings, neglecting the wing in t h e plane of s y m m e t r y ; thus,
the small influence of the difference in chordwise load-
ings, is given b y r0 = (7o/2)foc)y-o (7)
where cL represents the section lift coefficient. T h e dis-
q/q* = (r0/6)/(r,*/6*) (3)
tance between t h e two rolled-up vortices 2s' is specified
T h e ratio of the distances df in terms of wing spans b y t h e fact t h a t the lift impulse m u s t be preserved
from t h e trailing edge to stations having similar degrees throughout t h e rolling-up process; thus,
of rolling u p of the trailing vortex sheets is
2s' = L/(poV0To) = {CLS)/{clC)y^ (8)
d/b = Vo/q = VobTp* = A/CL
( ) where L and S represent, respectively, t h e lift and area
d*/b* V0*/q* F 0 *&*r 0 A*/CL*
of the wing and p0 is t h e free-stream density. T h e
where A and CL represent, respectively, aspect ratio and distance 2s' has a simple geometric interpretation: On a
lift coefficient. F r o m this condition one can conclude span-loading plot of V or QC versus y, t h e distance 2s'
t h a t the distance required for t h e trailing vortex sheet represents t h e width of a rectangle having the same
to become essentially rolled u p is of the form height and area as t h e span-loading curve.
TRAILING V O R T E X S H E E T EFFECT ON DOWNWASH 23
to t h e form
4:S Vo 9 IT
(10)
TTA' 4
poiy 2s' - a{
Di = CDi qS = 1 + 4 log : (15)
T h e rolled-up vortices far behind t h e wing are not 8TT
idealized line vortices of potential theory, of course,
b u t must h a v e cores of finite diameter. A good working T h e ratio of t h e core radius ac to the semispan of t h e
approximation a t either subsonic or supersonic speeds vortices sf is then given in terms of nondimensional
m a y be h a d b y simple energy considerations, assuming parameters as
t h a t the vortex cores are circular in shape and rotating '4xrACDt/s'\2 _ 1'
as solid bodies. T h e velocity potential of t h e flow 7 = 2 < 1 + exp (16)
J ) 4
outside of the vortex cores is
If the span loading is elliptical, CDi = CL2/wA and
(p = ( t a n * tan" (11) s'/s = 7r/4 and the core radius is given b y
2ir y s y + s'.
ac = 0.197s 7 = 0.155s (17)
T h e stream-line p a t t e r n corresponding to a vortex pair
situated a t y = =t=sf consists, as shown in Fig. 2, of two The Rolling Up of the Vortex Sheet
symmetrically arranged families of circles having radii
T h e complete three-dimensional determination of
a and centers a t + a2. T h e kinetic energy of t h e shape of the trailing vortex sheet t h r o u g h o u t t h e
the fluid outside of t h e vortex cores (per unit length in rolling-up process presents a problem of extreme diffi-
the stream direction) is given b y culty. Examination of the velocity field in the wake
on the basis of Eq. (5), however, reveals t h a t in most
-?/ <p
on
d\ = practical problems it is possible to introduce the im-
p o r t a n t simplifying approximation of treating the
2 _
POTQ + Vs + a motion of t h e trailing vortices b y means of E q . (2)
log' (12)
v; + ac2 + ac r a t h e r t h a n Eq. (1). Generally speaking, E q . (2)
yields good results when applied to flow fields t h a t
where the integration is carried round the contour
change slowly in t h e stream direction and is directly
illustrated in t h e figure and ac represents the core radius.
applicable to t h e present problem a t all stations behind
T h e kinetic energy of t h e fluid inside the vortex cores is
low-aspect-ratio pointed wings. This is t h e most im-
simply
p o r t a n t case, since, as indicated b y Eq. (5), it is only
with low-aspect-ratio wings t h a t t h e trailing vortex
^Y(iY2xr*.^
Et = 2
i) 2irac/ \ac/ ST
(13) sheet is likely to be essentially rolled u p a t t h e stations
customarily occupied b y t h e tail. Although E q . (2)
By equating the t o t a l kinetic energy per unit length to obviously cannot be used to determine t h e forces on
the induced or vortex drag Dt of the wing, an expression high-aspect-ratio straight wings, it might still be ex-
m a y be found relating t h e radius of the core to t h e in- pected to yield useful results regarding t h e relative mo-
duced drag, tion of the vortices behind such wings, since E q . (5)
indicates in these cases t h a t the rolling-up process pro-
A = J5 = o + < = 8TT
^X ceeds a t a slow rate. On t h e basis of t h e foregoing
statements, t h e problem of determining t h e shape of t h e
s' + V V 2 + ac trailing vortex sheet in spatial compressible flow be-
1 + 4 log (14)
V V 2 + a2 + a< comes analogous to t h e problem of determining t h e
24 JOURNAL OF THE A E R O N A U T I C A L S C I E N C E S - J A N U A R Y , 19 5 1
FIG. 3.
the edge of the flat vortex sheet is assumed to be of t h e are considered to be essentially rolled u p is expressed b y
form T = 2cr\/97, t h e coordinates of t h e centers of t h e
vortex cores are e/c = 0.2S(A/CL)(b/c) (27)
quence of replacing the finite span with a semi-infinite Eq. (27) should be compared with E q . (5) derived b y
one. T h e trailing vortices are considered to be essen- similarity considerations. If the span loading is other
tially rolled u p a t t h e distance e behind t h e wing, where t h a n elliptical, t h e rolling up, of course, will proceed a t
rjc is equal to (s sf) as indicated in Fig. 8. a r a t e other t h a n t h a t just indicated. I n general,
the vortices will roll up faster if more of t h e load is con-
centrated near t h e wing tips (as occurs with rectangular
s P>
wings a t subsonic speeds) and conversely. T o illustrate
the importance of this effect, calculations have been
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30
20 LLIPTIC L O A D I N G / /
FIG. 8. 15 JJi
T 1 F IECTANGLE
10
Eq. (24) m a y be generalized slightly and p u t in non- 1i L L ! P S E - \
8
dimensional form b y letting fRIANGLE- ^\ _
6
a = (1/2) lim T/Vv = (Fo/4) Km (dc/Vv) 4
v -> 0 v> 0
3 e _K'L
c
T h e coordinates of t h e centers of the vortex cores are " cLr
then given b y 2
1.5
Ve= (s- s') (d/e)2/\ fc = 1.54 (s - s'){d/e)%/* (25) ^FLAT
I.O HEKJ IMPB^U&I
and t h e distance e b y .8
.6
- e = 20.2 (s - ^ ) 3 / 2 / l i m (w/y/v) (26)
7J->0
.4
For elliptic span loading, t h e foregoing equations re- .3
duce to simple expressions. T h u s , since the span load-
ing is represented b y .2
^^#fe^^l^;.
:3: ::;;:::fc;::i;
^^g^i"
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FIG. 10. Photographs of wake at various stations behind a F I G . 11.Photographs of wake at various stations behind a tri-
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2. a = 12, CL 0.55. angular wing of aspect ratio 2. a = 20, CL 0.93.
"_ y
i n LZ^
f=-24n
28
32
tion behind t h e wing. I t is seen t h a t these consider-
ations adequately account for t h e observed behavior.
* 4.2
a 8.3 T o utilize existing concepts of supersonic, as well as
o 14.5 subsonic, flow theory, t h e induced velocity field of the
v 20.8
26.9 swept horseshoe vortex will be determined b y consider-
* 33.0
ing the flow a b o u t an equivalent doublet sheet. 15
2.0 2.0 Such a doublet sheet represents a surface of discon-
1.5 1.5 z^* tinuity in t h e xy plane across which there is a j u m p
c
C|C
L c avg
I.Q
J
-v' -o
^S^kx < R^^ ^
l.0|
.5 1^ w
A(ps in t h e value of the velocity potential equal to the
magnitude of t h e circulation V of t h e vortex. T h e
o' 0 lift of this vortex system is given a t b o t h subsonic and
4 6 4 .6
y y supersonic speeds b y t h e K u t t a - J o u k o w s k y law
FIG. 14. Wind-tunnel measurements of the span loading on a
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2.04. L = 2y0poVoA(ps = 2y0poV0T
where y0 is the semispan of t h e horseshoe vortex.
T h e general solutions of such boundary-value prob-
o WATER TANK EXPERIMENTS.
a CALCULATED FROM WIND T U N N E L SPAN LOADINGS. lems were given in references 15 and 16. For subsonic
CALCULATED FROM THEORETICAL SPAN LOADINGS flow t h e solution is
1.0
H-Q-Q ,_ TSfa^_
w(x, y, z) = -^ - f f A^5 ( - ) dxt dyi (31)
where
8 12 16 20 24 2 8 32 36
ANGLE OF A T T A C K , DEG x=my = my
FIG. 15. Asymptotic spacing of rolled-up vortices far behind
triangular wing of aspect ratio 2.
and (3 = M2. T h e integration is carried over and 3 = VM2 - 1. T h e integration for the super-
the portion r of the xy plane enclosed within the modi- sonic case is carried only over t h e portion r of the above
fied horseshoe vortex. For supersonic flow, the solu- area which lies forward of t h e trace in the xy plane of
tion is the M a c h forecone with vertex a t the point (x, y, z).
T h e sign | is to be read " t h e finite p a r t of" and has
w(x, y, z) = \ I / A<ps ( ) dxi dyi (32) the property
2irbz \JTJ \dzi r/s
where I r /(*) 7 _ Pf{x) ~m A
2
/w
LA (b - x)^ dX Ja (b - *)'/ d%
Vb^~a
P = V(X - xxy - ^[{y - yiy + {z - Zly] (33)
When the operations indicated in E q . (31) are performed, the downwash corresponding to a subsonic swept
horseshoe vortex of circulation T is given for any point (x, y, z) in space b y
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X Pmy
h+ , ~ } (34)
I V (x - (3ntyo)2 + f32[(y, + ky)2 + z2])
In applying E q . (34), it is i m p o r t a n t to remember t h a t infinite values of downwash are predicted along t h e entire
vortex line.
In a similar manner, Eq. (32) gives the downwash a t a n y point in space due to a supersonic swept horseshoe vor-
tex.
x mx
/ _ E \"^ r ~k$y 1i ~ kPy ,
W r P
~ ' ' I " 2TT 2 1 / L(X - kpmy)2 - /3V(1 - m2) J Wx2 - $2(y2 + z2)
k = - l
k = +1
2
(m - l)fty 0 - (mx kfiy) \ __ T^ V " ^ (y0 + ky) (x - 0 my0)
/ = ( o / / ^ = = _ _ \ (35)
V (x - fimy,)2 - p2[(y0 - ky)2 + z2}) 2TTk _J
= - l [(yo + kyy + s 2 ] V ( x - pmy0)
2
- p2[(y0 + ky)2 + z2] J
k = -+l i /
where r.p. signifies t h e real p a r t of the bracketed q u a n t i t y . For supersonic flow, Eq. (35) indicates infinite values
for the downwash a t all points on the M a c h cones extending downstream from the three corners of the swept
horseshoe vortex (except in the xy plane), as well as along t h e vortex line itself.
FIG. 17. Downwash far behind wing with elliptic loading for
For elliptic loading, the solution of Eq. (36) is given in
flat vortex sheet. many places.6,21
2CL sinh JJL cosh ix
where d e and where d e will be considered w = ( 1 (37)
first; finally, the intermediate case will be discussed. irA cosh 2 n sin 2 X,
where y = b cosh /JL COS X and z = b sinh \x sin X. A
DOWNWASH AT d << e plot of these results is shown in Fig. 17.
If d is much less than e, the downwash behind a wing The accuracy of the theoretical downwash results
traveling at either subsonic or supersonic speeds may may be improved by considering the trailing vortices
be approximated by assuming that the trailing vortices as being displaced from the xy plane. To a first ap-
lie in a flat sheet extending downstream from the trail- proximation, the differential equation of the path of a
ing edge. This assumption is usually satisfactory for vortex filament trailing behind a wing is dx = (Vo/wz = 0)
the calculation of the downwash at the tail of conven- dz, which, when integrated, gives the vertical displace-
tional subsonic airplanes and forms the basis of most ment of each vortex filament
downwash studies. In general, the downwash velocity
at any point may be determined by superposing a dis- Az (w2 = 0/Vo)dx (38)
/ *T.E.
tribution of swept horseshoe vortices in accordance with
the given span loading. In this manner, an expression If it is desired to calculate the downwash only in the
for the downwash velocity in subsonic or supersonic plane of symmetry, the effects of the lateral distortion
flow may be determined from Eqs. (34) or (35), respec- of the vortex sheet are small, and the entire vortex
tively, by considering y0 as a variable yh replacing the sheet may be considered to be displaced by the amount
circulation T with (dT/dyi)dyh and integrating the calculated at the centerline.
resulting expression from yi = s to y = + s . This For regions outside of the plane of symmetry, it is
integration, however, is extremely complex, in general, apparent that this last assumption cannot be particu-
although many important special cases for both sub- larly accurate and that recourse must be had to more
sonic and supersonic speeds have been presented in the accurate methods. One method of doing this would
literature. be to determine the shape of the vortex sheet by means
It is often more practical to calculate the downwash of Eq. (38) and to calculate the downwash anew with
velocity by superposing a finite number of horseshoe the vortices displaced into their new positions. This
vortices sswpt in accord with the geometry of the wing method is not entirely satisfactory, however, when
and distributed so that the span loading is approxi- working with a continuous distribution of vortices,
mated in a stepwise manner. Such a treatment, which since the displacement of the vortex sheet from the xy
was presented in great detail for unswept wings in in- plane greatly complicates an already difficult integra-
compressible flow in references 10 and 20, proceeds in tion. An alternative procedure based on distributing
the following manner. The span load distribution is double vortex sheets in the xy plane to simulate the
approximated by an equivalent stepwise distribution, sinking of the original vortex sheet has been proposed by
keeping the area under the two curves equal. A vortex von Karman and Burgers, 21 but the mathematical
TRAILING VORTEX SHEET EFFECT ON DOWNWASH 31
DOWNWASH AT d e
duced flow field of a wing may be satisfactorily ap- F I G . 18. Equivalent vortex system for downwash calculation a t
proximated by replacing the wing with a single swept stations where d > > e.
horseshoe vortex placed as shown in Fig. 18. Accord-
ingly, the downwash may be computed by using Eqs.
W / IT A \l & \
(34) or (35) for the downwash field of a swept horseshoe
v0\cj\*)
vortex lying in the xy plane and applying corrections
for the vertical displacement of the vortex sheet and for
the finite size of the vortex cores. The strength and
span of the horseshoe vortex are given by Eqs. (7) and
(8), respectively, while the location and sweep of the
bound vortex are determined as described previously at
the beginning of the discussion of the downwash around
wings.
The correction for the sinking of the trailing vortices
may be approximated by inclining the horseshoe vortex
system away from the xy plane so that each of the trail-
ing vortices coincides as closely as possible with the
center-of-gravity line of the vortices trailing from the
corresponding half of the wing. Since it was shown that
the center-of-gravity line is inclined at nearly the same
angle at all stations behind the wing, a suitable ap-
proximation may be made in most cases by using Eq. (9)
for the downward velocity of the vortices at great dis- FIG. 19. Downwash far behind wing for completely rolled-up
tances behind the wing. Thus, the plane of the equiva- vortices.
lent vortex system is inclined at angle 8 with the xy
plane such that DOWNWASH AT d ^ e
8 = -(C^I^O/^TTCLS (39) The remaining problem of calculating the down-
To a first approximation, the downwash may be calcu- wash for regions where d is of the same order
lated by using Eqs. (34) or (35) for a swept horseshoe of magnitude as e is the most difficult problem of
vortex lying in the xy plane and by replacing z in the all. The difficulty lies not only in the determination
equation with z' = z 8 (x x T E J . The downwash of the vortex paths but also in the integration of the
within the vortex cores may be approximated by as- resulting expressions for the downwash. Fortunately,
suming that each core has a radius given by Eq. (17) a large number of practical problems fall into one or the
and rotates as a solid body. other of the two preceding cases so that oftentimes
one is not concerned with this phase of the downwash
In most actual applications where d e, Eq. (2)
problem.
represents a good approximation to Eq. (1). In these
cases the downwash field can be computed at once for If the vortex sheet rolls up slowly behind the wing
all wings. The results of these calculations are shown so that Eq. (2) may be used instead of Eq. (1), the
in Fig. 19 as a function of y/sf and the vertical elevation downwash may be calculated by determining the posi-
p l / V from the plane of the vortices. A comparison tion of a finite number of vortices in a step-by-step
of these results with those of Fig. 17 illustrates the process and then calculating the associated downwash
marked effect on the downwash produced by the rolling velocities. If the span loading is elliptical, the vortex
up of the trailing vortex sheet. positions shown in Fig. 518 may be used directly.
32 JOURNAL OF THE AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES-JANUARY, 195 1
s
2 .4 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
i i i
trailing edge of the wing, since here yc(x) = s; whereas
^ - L Q T Z a FABRICIUS a t great distances behind t h e wing P ( ) = 0, since
.2l5TANH(d/ef/3
\ s - s ' / .e KADEN yc(x) approaches ^ a s x approaches infinity.
.8
B y means of the foregoing assumptions and equa-
1.0 tions, t h e vorticity distribution is determined through-
1.2' out t h e entire vortex wake. T h e downwash m a y then
FIG. 20. Various approximations to the lateral position of the be calculated for subsonic or supersonic speeds b y using
vortex cores.
Eqs. (31) or (32) for t h e downwash due to an equivalent
doublet sheet. T h e doublet intensity is specified on
If the conditions are such t h a t Eq. (1) m u s t be used,
t h e wing as before and in t h e wake b y means of the fore-
the problem becomes extremely difficult. T h e only
going statements. For points along t h e x axis, Eqs.
a t t e m p t a t a solution for a problem of this t y p e is t h a t
(31) and (32) simplify, respectively, to the following
of Lotz and Fabricius, 2 2 in which the downwash on t h e
form:
x axis produced b y straight wings in incompressible
flow is determined. Since this method involves several A<psdxidyi
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The CalTech electric analog computer has now been employed aspect ratio, sweepback, downwash, and compressibility can be
for comprehensive nutter design analyses in the development of handled.
several new airplanes. In these studies, elastic structures with a The two greatest advantages of our type of analysis are that
large number of degrees of freedom have been represented. the coordinates used in the electrical analogy correspond to the
These include the simulation of wings, fuselages, and stabilizers actual displacements and rotations of stations in the structure
as distributed beams. Control surfaces, engine mountings, and and that local modifications of the actual structure result in
landing gears can, of course, be included. Aerodynamic forces equally local modifications of the analogy circuit, permitting,
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on February 20, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/8.1830
and torques can be applied to all surfaces, whether fixed or mov- therefore, rapid consideration of modifications as the design
able. Currently accepted expressions for the effects of finite analysis proceeds.
The Rolling Up of the Trailing Vortex Sheet and Its Effect on the
Downwash Behind Wings
(Continued from page 32)
6
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2nd Ed.; Cambridge University Press, England, 1947. T.N. No. 1515,1948.
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