Introduction

Behaviour modification is a treatment approach, based on the

principles of operant conditioning, that replaces undesirable
behaviors with more desirable ones through positive or
negative reinforcement . Behavior modification is a treatment
approach which is focused on changing behavior. This method is
based on the work of B.F. Skinner, a well known psychologist who
developed the operant conditioning theory -- which suggests that
behavior can be modified by consequences and through
reinforcement. The major goal of behavior modification is to replace
undesirable behaviors with acceptable ones. An underlying theme is
the belief that how people react to an object or event can be
modified by learning. This technique can be used in all age groups,
and can be applied to a wide range of settings.

A commonly used element of behaviour modification is positive

reinforcement, or a reward system. An example of positive
reinforcement is giving a child a hug when she does a good job, or
to provide money for good grades. Negative reinforcement, which
takes something away to reinforce good behavior, is also an effective
tool to modify habits or other behavior. An example of negative
reinforcement is when a child decides to get ready for school on
time, and his parents subsequently stop nagging him about this
issue. The takeaway of nagging reinforces his improved morning
routine.

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Behaviour modification can also discourage unwanted behaviour
through punishment, which can also be positive or negative. In this
theory, the term positive refers to something added -- such as a
consequence. An example is making athletes run extra laps if they
are late to practice. Negative punishment is when something is
taken away, such as the removal of video games if chores have not
been completed. In this example, the negative punishment should
encourage this child to do his chores in the future, in order to avoid
punishment.

What is Behaviour Modification?

Behaviour modification is a systematic and scientific way of

changing an undesirable behaviour to a desirable one. The
behaviour that need modification obviously, are maladjusted ones.
And by undergoing modification, such behaviours are made to fall
in line and work in application of certain psychological principles or
techniques. Different psychologists have different definitions of
behaviour modification. Essuman Nwaogu Nwachukwu (2009)
define it as a practical application of the principles of psychology,
especially of learning. Behaviour modification does not merely
involve changing undesirable behaviour; in addition it goes with the
application of certain principles that are psychological. One factor,
which helps in modifying behaviour, is learning. Through learning,
one undergoes an experience; trial and error encountered in
learning gives rise to change in behaviour. Behaviour modification
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is necessary for orderliness in the society, harmony and concord in
the society.

The period between 1960s and 1970s has been regarded as the year
of behaviour modification; this does not however mean that
behaviour modification has not been in practice. The history of
behaviour modification has been associated with the works of some
psychologists namely: Waston, J.B. Skinner B.F, Hull, C. Dollard
and Miller, Eysnch, H.D. Pavilor, I.P and Wolpe, J. others are
bandura, A. and Walters and Thorndike etc.

Watson, J.B. Popularized the theory of conditioning in America. He

was acclaimed the founder of behaviour modification. He laid the
foundation for the use of scientific enquiry in studying human
behaviour. His work reduced human organisms to a bundle of
responses. However his work did not gain much popularity outside
the labouratory because behaviour modification was widely adopted
for clinical application. Skinner developed a more sophisticated
version of behaviourism called instrumental conditioning in 1967,
whereby voluntary behaviour was strengthened by reinforcement.
Skinner used the term to show that an organism manipulates the
environment in the process of learning, referred to as instrumental
conditioning because what the organism does was instrumental to
achieving reinforcement. The word behaviour in general term refers
to a psychoneural reaction or response of an organism to a given
stimulus. (Okoye 2011).

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The term also denotes the specific physical responses of and
organism to particular stimuli or classes of stimuli. The word
behaviour means different things to different psychologists
Krumbolt and Thoresen (2006), believe that behaviour is an
interaction between heredity and invirnment. In other words,
behaviour is a product of interaction between nature and factors
that are existent in the environment.

Akinade and Adedipe (2009) defines behaviour as a function of

integrative progress of the growth of each child. They believe that
behaviour is dependent on maturational level and experience of
individuals. This level of experience and maturation they mentioned
are free from the effect of sleep, drugs, sickness or fatique.
Behaviours according to them can be of two categories- adient and
abient behaviour. Adient behaviour refers to a behavioural act
exhibited by an individual and is projected towards a stimulus.
Abient behaviour on the other hand refers to an escape behaviour
generated by an annoying stimulus.

For instance, children exhibit abient brhaviour to anybody in white

gown because they have had painful experience about a nurse in
white uniform injecting them. (Okoye 2011). According to Bandura,
(1977), behaviour acquired by observing others is enacted if it is
punished to perform the behviour, it will not actually be forth
coming. Bandura defined social learning as a process of learning to
conform to group standards, morals, and traditional and becoming
inbude with a sence of oneness. Every learner is dependent upon

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other people for his existence. At school, the learners teachers and
his peers begin to exert an influence over his personality and the
process of socialization. Important ways in which peer influence is
greater than teachers influence. One of the most important ways in
which the childs peer group influences the learner is by helping to
achieve his goals. Through the learners association with his peer
group, he learns to think independently to make his own decisions,
to accept others point of view and values approved by the group
where he belongs.

Principles of Behavior Modification

The field of behavior modification, or applied behavior analysis, is

distinguished from other approaches in several ways. The
fundamental characteristics and properties of the behavioral
approach were identified in an article appearing in the first issue of
the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley,
1968). One set of properties identified in this landmark article was
the methodological requirements of applied behavior analysis. The
methodology was characterized by four unique requirements. The
empirical focus was on observable behavior, or rate of response, in
contrast to inferred states of feelings. Second, the analytical
orientation involving the experimental analysis of functional
relationships between variables was the primary focus of research.

Third, the utilization of within-subject analyses, controlling

experimentally for potential confounding variables (in contrast to
statistical control), was the preferred method of studying human

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behavior. Finally, the applied component of the field dictated that
socially relevant problems be the subject of research, and that
effective technologies be developed which produce practically
significant changes in behavior (Kazdin, 2007; Wolf, 2008).
Although methodology has contributed substantially toward the
definition of applied behavior analysis, a second set of principles
involves the manipulation of environmental variables, guided by a
theory of human behavior. Behavior is viewed as the result of the
social and physical environment and heredity (Michael, 1987).

Even though behavior analysts do not discredit the function of

inherited characteristics on human behavior, they do not see it as a
catch-all explanation for describing the conditions that produce
behavior. Rather, the control and manipulation of environmental
variables have constituted the basic empirical research paradigm.
There are two relations describing behavior and the environmental
conditions surrounding it: respondent functional relations and
operant functional relations and operant functional relations
(Martin, 2007). The overwhelming majority of applied research and
clinical inquiry with people with mental retardation has studied
operant behavior. Thus, this chapter will cover principles of operant
behavior, but the author does recognize the importance of studying
respondent relations in the development of present and future
technologies.

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Techniques and Strategies of Behaviour Modification

Behavior modification is based on the principles of operant

conditioning, which were developed by American behaviorist B. F.
Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner formulated the concept of operant
conditioning, through which behavior could be shaped by
reinforcement or lack of it. Skinner considered his concept
applicable to a wide range of both human and animal behaviors and
introduced operant conditioning to the general public in his 1938
book, The Behavior of Organisms .

One behavior modification technique that is widely used is positive

reinforcement, which encourages certain behaviors through a
system of rewards. In behavior therapy, it is common for the
therapist to draw up a contract with the client establishing the
terms of the reward system.

Another behavior modification technique is negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement is a method of training that uses a
negative reinforcer. A negative reinforcer is an event or behavior
whose reinforcing properties are associated with its removal. For
example, terminating an existing electric shock after a rat presses a
bar is a negative reinforcer.

In addition to rewarding desirable behavior, behavior modification

can also discourage unwanted behavior, through punishment.
Punishment is the application of an aversive or unpleasant
stimulus in reaction to a particular behavior. For children, this
could be the removal of television privileges when they disobey their

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parents or teacher. The removal of reinforcement altogether is
called extinction. Extinction eliminates the incentive for unwanted
behavior by withholding the expected response. A widespread
parenting technique based on extinction is the time-out, in which a
child is separated from the group when he or she misbehaves. This
technique removes the expected reward of parental attention.

Below is discussed the various types of behaviour modification

techniques.

(a) Extinction:

This technique involves discontinuing the reinforcement, which

follows the behaviour. When the reinforcement is withdrawn, the
behaviour is weakened and ultimately it disappears and extinction
is said to have taken place. Extinction is very vital in the
management of the behaviour of students. In applying this
technique, the counselors first of all, find out the reinforcers
maintaining the behaviour and extinguish them. It is a term used in
both classical and operant conditioning to refer to the dying out of a
response as a result of lack of reinforcement [Brown, 2001).

( b) Punishment:

Punishment is the application of some kind of penalty or

unpleasant event in order to suppress an unwanted form of
behaviour. In punishment, a behaviour is weakened or reduced by
imposing an unpleasant consequences (Ebenebe and Unachukwu,
1995). Punishment modifies behaviour, no doubt, but it does that

8
at the expense of good interpersonal relationship between the
punisher and the punished.

Reinforcement has a more lasting effect than punishment.

( c ) Counter conditioning.

This technique involves the joint presentation of a negative

and positive stimulus such that the former becomes neutral or
slightly positive and the letter becomes neutral or slightly negative.
For instance, a childs fear of object with fur particularly rabbits
was counter conditioned by feeding him in the presence of a caged
rabbit, which initially placed at a non-fear arousing distance, while
the boy feeds on a favourite food. At subsequent daily feeding
sessions, the rabbit which is gradually brought closer the boy and
is eventually released from the cage. In the final stage of treatment,
the boy spontaneously verbalizes a fondness the previous reduction
in related fears. The positive food stimuli counter conditions the
generalized fear.

Different Reinforcement Producer.

This technique combines at least three methods to reduce

problem behaviour. The first procedure is called differential
reinforcement of incompatible alternative behavior. For instance,
achild who has formed the habit of sucking her finger during
lesions which habit the teacher has tried to reduce, but to no effect.
Using this techniques the teacher ignores the sucking of the finger,
but reinforces the childs class work by praise, attention, and pats
on the back. In addition, the child is brought to the front row; thus

9
reducing and eliminating the sucking of the finger. The second
producer is known as differential reinforcement of other behaviour
(DRL) is desirable when a reduction, rather than elimination of a
particular behaviour would be appropriate. The DRL procedures
involve delivery of reinforcement, if the particular behaviour has
decreased in a specified preceding time interval.

Satiation:

satiation is defined, operationally as the point at which an animal

will no longer seek food. This technique involves high frequent
repetition of immediate reinforcement for a particular behaviour.
With this technique, the undesirable behaviour is caused to decline.
Counsellors and teachers should not lose sight of such, it should
used only with mildly unpleasant target behaviours

Modelling:

It is also useful as a set standard to be emulated. Modeling refers

to providing an example which can be initiated such that the
initiator is able to learn their style of behaviour.

Systematic Desensitization.

Wolpe (1958) developed this technique which states that

substituting the activity, which is antagonistic to fear response, can
inhibit a fear response. In most cases, anxiety is treated with this
technique; relaxation and calmness are used to substitute it.
Desensitization is applied by exposing the client gradually to the

10
feared situation, while he is performing the activity that is
antagonistic. This exposure can occur in fantasy or in real life.
Reciprocal inhibition is the principle that underlines the
desensitization technique.

Stimulus Control

Any event in an individual which causes that individual to exhibit

behaviour is called a stimulus. The ability of that individual to
express their stimulus is referred to as stimulus control. In order
words, stimulus control is a process by which environmental
contingencies are altered in order to reduce the probability of a
particular behaviour occurring eg. Keeping medicine out of the
reach of children.

Proximity Control:

This technique can be used alone or in combination with another

technique to treat anxiety that maybe coursing undesirable
behaviour. The main principle in this technique is that when
muscles are tensed and then released, they can be induced into
relaxation. This technique involves physical exercise. The feet,
calves, shoulders, fore-arms, fingers, toes, chest etc. are involves.
The skills of clenching, stretching, breathing in deeply and out as
well ventilated and airy environment, bring about mental relaxation.

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Assertive Training.

This technique is used to help individuals who are not bold

enough to initiate an action, express their feeling and stand for
their right. Assertive training as a means of behaviour change, can
be learned. Techniques used for assertive training follows the
principles of reciprocal inhibition with a gradual learning of
progressively more assertive behaviours. The procedures involves in
assertive training are:

1. Establishing a problem situation

2. Establishing boldness in the client
3. Rehearsal
4. Executing the plan.

Time Out.

This technique which removes an individual from the source of

social reinforcement that maintains his behaviour. It is a kind of
punishment though mild. By time out, the erring individuals is
placed in a place which is out of public view for the whole period of
time out is being observed. This technique is used to manage
disruptive, aggressive behaviour and hyperactivity. The procedure
for applying this technique is as follows:

i. There should be an on going reinforcing situation which the

child does not want to miss.
ii. The child should know in advance what to expect as
punishment for a specific undesirable behaviour.
iii. There should be a warning.

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 iv. There should be actual execution of time out if warning is
not heeded (Essuman et al, 2009)

Ear-Shooting.

This technique increases the frequency of a positive behaviour.

When an individuals behaviour is deliberately talked about to the
hearing of that individual. I Words such as Wonderful, Excellent
etc. increase the frequency of a positive behaviour. This technique
can be employed to extinguish undesirable behaviour.

Reinforcement.

Skinner defines this technique as an event contingent upon a

response with the result that it increases the frequency of
occurrence of the response e.g the praise by a teacher to pupil who
answers a question correctly. By reinforcement being contingent on
a behaviour means that reinforcement should come after the
behaviour. Reinforcement could be positive or negative. It is positive
when a pleasant stimulus added to a response increase the chance
of the response occurring again under similar conditions. Positive
reinforcement is negative when consequences are withdrawn and
the behaviour upon which it is made contingent is strengthened.
Reinforcement can occur in scheduled continues reinforcement,
intermittent reinforcement, fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval
and variable interval. When reinforcement is continuous, the
correct response is reinforced each time the behaviour is exhibited.
When reinforcement is intermittent, the correct response is
reinforced intermittently.

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Shaping:

This technique requires training an individual to acquire a

desired behaviour by reinforcing every response of the individual
which brings the individual closer to the desired response, while
eliminating the undesired responses through non-reinforcement.

Fading:

Fading is a process of reinforcing desirable behaviour while

removing the undesirable aspects e.g a child reads a pornographic
book with interest, you gradually replace the pornographic book
while retaining the idea of reading culture. (Okoye, 2001)

Importance of behavior modification

The field of behavior modification, or applied behavior analysis, is

distinguished from other approaches in several ways. The applied
component of the field dictated that socially relevant problems be
the subject of research, and that effective technologies be developed
which produce practically significant changes in behavior. Behavior
modification is used to treat a variety of problems in both adults
and children. Behavior modification has been successfully used to
treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), attention- deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), phobias, enuresis (bed-wetting),
generalized anxiety disorder , and separation anxiety disorder ,
among others.

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Behavior modification can be an effective technique used in
parenting, and also to help manage behavior in children or adults
with attention deficit disorder, autism or oppositional defiant
disorder. Furthermore, this method can be used to increase desired
behaviors in any individual, regardless of functional level. For
example, behavior modification has been used successfully in
weight management and smoking cessation programs. Behavior
modification can also be used to increase productivity within
organizations and businesses.

Although behavior modification is a tool used by many therapists,

teachers and health professionals, it can be fairly easy to use in
everyday life. For example, if you want to encourage a behavior in
someone, praise and attention can be used as a positive
reinforcement. Many adults have learned the hard way that getting
to work on time and obeying traffic rules avoids some form of
punishment -- and they have changed their behavior in order to
avoid these consequences.

Because knowledge alone does not equal behavior change,

understanding how to improve behavior is essential for successful
therapy and other behavioral interventions. Behavior modification
based on the operant conditioning theory is one such intervention
that can improve success. Tools from this theory can be applied to
many areas of life, and can be used effectively by parents, teachers,
therapists, healthcare professionals and anyone who wants to
improve habits and self care behaviors.

15
Functional behavior assessment forms the core of applied behavior
analysis. Many techniques in this therapy are specific techniques
aimed at specific issues. Interventions based on behavior
analytic/modification principles have been extremely effective in
developing evidence-based treatments.

In addition to the above, a growing list of research-based

interventions from the behavioral paradigm exist. With children
with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study
showed that over a several year period, children in the behavior
modification group had half the number of felony arrests as
children in the medication group. These findings have yet to be
replicated, but are considered encouraging for the use of behavior
modification for children with ADHD. There is strong and consistent
evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD.
A recent meta-analysis found that the use of behavior modification
for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between group studies (.83),
pre-post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single
subject studies (3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly
effective.

Behavior modification programs form the core of many

residential treatment facility programs. They have shown success in
reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and
adult offenders. One particular program that is of interest
is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family Model), which is
based on a social learning model that emerged from radical
behaviorism. These particular homes use a family style approach to
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residential treatment, which has been carefully replicated over 700
times. Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more
behavior modification programs in residential re-entry programs in
the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting after release.

One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the
work of behaviorists working in the area of community
reinforcement for addictions. Another area of research that has
been strongly supported has been behavioral activation for
depression. One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior
modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement,
and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint
is generally seen as being effective in altering behavior in a desired
manner[12] and even in producing stable marriages.

Of notable interest is that the right behavioral intervention can have

profound system effects. For example, Forgatch and DeGarmo
(2007) found that with mothers who were recently divorced, a
standard round of parent management training(programs based on
social learning principles that teaches rewarding good behavior and
punishing bad behavior combined with communication skills) could
help elevate the divorced mother out of poverty.[14] In addition,
parent management training programs, sometimes referred to as
behavioral parent training programs, have shown relative cost
effectiveness for their efforts for the treatment of conduct disorder.
Thus, such intervention can have profound effects on socializing the
child in a relatively cost effective fashion and help get the parent
out of poverty. This level of effect is often looked for and valued by
17
those who practice behavioral engineering and results of this type
have caused the Association for Behavior Analysis International to
take a position that those receiving treatment have a right to
effective treatment and a right to effective education.

Application of behaviour modification techniques

Home: This is the first socialization point for individuals. Every

culture is addition to practicing peculiar child rearing process;
consider certain behaviour as impacting negatively on the child and
the society at large. Therefore, a proper orientation is given to the
child to ensure the development of positive attitude for adjustment
in the home and in the large society. To this effect, mothers
unconsciously employ some techniques in moulding the behaviour
of their children. Categorically speaking, the home serves as a
setting in which behaviour modification technique can be employed
in modifying childrens behaviour without the modifier following
certain rules as demanded either in the school setting or in the
clinical situation. In other words, the formalities guiding the usage
of some of the techniques are not logically adhered to many homes.
Their use accomplishes their desire in the individual. Premack
principle uses punishment, contingency contracting, positive
reinforcement, time-out, assertiveness, modeling, extinction,
reprimands, responses- cost, shaping, chaining, etc. However, these
techniques are used on both the normal and the handicapped
children.

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The Classroom:

The school is another socialization setting for children.

Teachers take responsibility of childrens learning as well as their
management of their behaviour problems. Thus, learners, are
trained to be sound in learning as well as behaviour. And as such,
problem behaviours as like inappropriate study habits, truancy,
shyness, disruptive classroom behaviours (bullying, hyperactivity
etc) and some over-assertive behaviour are viewed as behaviours
that need to be changed. The changes can be done by re-organizing
the individuals environment. the techniques which the school
counselor can use are shaping, chaining, prompting, fading, ear-
shooting, proximity control, private chat, verbal reinforcement,
cues, etc. For maintaining effective and efficient classrooms.
However, the problem encountered in the application of these
techniques, in the setting, is that most teachers are not trained. In
effect, some of these techniques are wrongly applied.

Clinical Setting:

A clinician is one that is under control. It is a contrived

environment specifically made for a purpose psychologists and
counselors work under the aim of changing their behaviour. In such
a setting, the counselor affords the opportunity of using the
techniques of behaviour modification, which requires the scientific
application of the principles of learning to alter a behaviour. This
involve identification of the behaviour, establishment of a baseline,
charting, goal setting treatment, evaluation and follow-up activities.

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Application of Behaviour Modification Techniques To The
Nigerian Situation:

Most operant conditioning principles involve positive reinforcement

and no punishment. This means that only positive behaviour
should be reinforced. Teachers should look out for those behaviours
in learners that are positive and reinforce them. This will encourage
learners to place emphasis on positive behaviour. Teachers should
partner with parents to find out those behaviour children exhibit
that are undesirable,, so that such behaviours would be
discouraged as part and parcel of daily occurrences in Nigeria.
Individuals shy away from using the term bribery to describe this
behaviour, it is rather termed greasing of the palm. This behaviour
is as a result of the present economic hardship in the country.
Worthy of note is the fact that this act is a misplaced use of
reinforcement. Ideally, reinforcement follows an act it does not
precede it.

Theories of Behavior Modification

Theory is when we organize and put what we know about a

phenomenon in a systematic manner. Shertzer and Stone, (1977)
stated that a theory is a way of organizing and putting in a
systematic manner what is known about a phenomenon. A theory is
a model, we use it to know what to look for, what to expect and
where to go. It helps us to explain some issues that culturally or
sociologically cannot be accepted. Therefore theories have been
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formulated by many authorities in the area to explain different
aspects of counseling and daily living in the human relation
development.

A theory is therefore perceived by the author as a set down rules,

principles, laws or models, which helps an individual in reaching a
solution to his problem. A theory acts as map- and gives direction
and guidance to that psychologists or counselors in finding out,
explaining and determining clients problems.

Banduras social theory of learning.

Bandura social theory of learning was propounded by Bandura

(1986). The theory states that, social learning occurs through four
stages these stages namely: attention phase, retention,
reproduction phase and motivational phase.

Attent phase refers to a state of mental attention or concentration.

Retention phase means the ability of the learner to retain and

conceptualize what he is observing. The reproduction phase has to
do with the actual performance of the knowledge that has been
retained or conceptualized by the learner.

This phase results in actual performance either oral, physical, or

mental which is manipulative in nature, while the ;earner overtly
behaves in this way, the learner realizes if he is doing the right
thing or not. When the learner succeed in his performance, he is
reinforced positively. So he behaves same way next time. Thus he is

21
motivated to achieve the goals. This theory emphasizes on the
importance of motivation on the learners, that without motivation,
the quality of leaning could be very poor.

Morgan and king believe that, when learners are motivated, they
tend to pay more attention and their participation in learning will
be enhanced. In their view, the following learning experiences will
be acquired by learners; they develop interest in the activities of the
school by coming to school regularly, they achieve goals that tends
to spur them to higher achievements, they are motivated improve
their learning outcomes, by so doing, they are encouraged to learn
more concepts. Their learning atmosphere becomes conducive and
their relationship with their teachers becomes enhanced.

Morgan and King (1996) further stated that other experiences

include the following; that learners become concerned and
conscientious on their job, the self-concept of the learners improves
due to better performance or grades and that the learning activities
within and outside the classroom become promoted. The tenet of
this theory according to Onwuegbu (2004) is that, a learner that
sets a goal to obtain good results (grade) in the school examination
tries to achieve the need by studying and revising his school
subjects properly. This could be achieved by appealing to the
learners self-worth, pride and sense of respect for one another
during teaching and learning process.

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Trait and Factor Theory

Trait and Factor theory has many names. People at times refer
to it as Directive approach or Counsellors Centred or matching
talent theory. This theory was propounded by Frank Parsons 1908
and it was based on the uniqueness of every individual. There may
be seven children from the same mothers womb, but seven of them
cannot behave alike. So this theory was based on the plat form that
every individual is unique, and it is this uniqueness of every
individual that the guidance counselor will focus attention upon
through identification of assist the client to reach his or her
optimum development. Another contributor to the trait and factor
approach was Edmund Williamson, who was of the view that
through correct and objective measurement of these personality
traits, and also through counseling, each individual will be assisted
to reach his or her optimum development. Although we quite agree
that Frank Parsons was the originator of the traits-and Factor
theory, but there were other contributors who assisted to refine the
theory to its present shape. These people, according to Makinde
(1996) were Edmund G. Williamson, Welter Bingham, John Darley,
and G. Patterson. So the task of trait-and-factor theory is to help
each individual to develop and succeed in self-understanding and
self-management by a way of helping the client assess his or her
areas of strengths and weaknesses.

This trait-and-factor theory is not interested in the intellectual

aspect of man, rather it focuses attention in the hidden talents of

23
the individual. Williamson is interested in personalism or the whole
individual. The aim of counseling is to assist individuals to achieve
the type of life-style that will be in line with the individuals
personality make-up. This theory believes that if man is assisted to
discover his unique talents, that the sky will be his limit, in self
development.

Counseling is not merely lecturing the students in the lecture halls,

but rather it is a way of life that will help each individual to discover
whom he is and what is best for him or her. Counselling
according to Williamson, is broader than psychotherapy, because
at times, psychotherapy is restricted to only emotional feelings
aspect of personality development, self-conflicts and reaction to his
experiences rather than being concerned with actual behaviour in
social situation. Counseling is concerned with how the individual
relates with his environment and his or her immediate
environment, his or her emotional, level of the clients adjustment
in the society, should be considered.

Counseling embraces integration of vocational and educational

guidance, with personality dynamics and interpersonal relationship.

Rational Emotive Theory or Therapy:

The proponent of this theory is Albert Ellis (1962). This process

involves introducing logic and. reason into counselling. Ellis practiced
with sex, marriage and family problems. This theory holds that
individuals are involved in irrational, unrealistic and illogical thinking.

24
Ellis active directive teaching is similar to William's while the
Rogerians focus on feeling and understanding the client from his own
viewpoints, Ellis focuses' more on thoughts. Achebe, (1981), supports
that individuals make themselves victims of irrational thinking
patterns and can virtually destroy themselves through irrational and
muddled thinking. Ellis and Williams took a logical, intellectual
approach to the process and solution of client's problems. There is a
philosophy, behind this theory, that human being is basically rational
and irrational. Patterson, (1966), aptly described rational theories
as the approach which neglects the role of feelings and attitudes in the
development of the individual's problems. When an individual is
irrational, he is unhappy, ineffective, incompetent,, emotional
disturbances or neurotic behavior are the result of his thinking; when
he is rational, he is effective, happy and competent. Therefore for one
to think and believe that everybody in the society will love you and
approve of you is irrational. Illogical, irrational and muddled thinking,
while when you believe that happiness is caused by outside
circumstances, that it is irrational thought, causes emotional
disturbances. You are likely to be unhappy or disturbed when, you
tell yourself that something is "terrible" or horrible", "unkind"
"annoying" etc. When you analyze this, you will see that unhappiness
comes from within. Ellis even emphasized the fact that unhappiness
comes from within and cannot be controlled. Therefore, the counsellors'
Job is seriously important to help people to learn to recognize
irrational, inconsistent and unrealistic perceptions and to substitute
such reactions with rationality, reasonable philosophy or new

25
definition. It is the duty of a counsellor to use hard-headed techniques
to correct thought pattern of people and rid them of irrational ideas.

Cognitive and Social Approach

In the cognitive and social approach, behaviour is viewed as guided

by personal attitudes, beliefs on how significant others think one
should behave and values shared in the culture one belongs to. The
dominating views of how one should interpret circumstances and
behave in these circumstances in a society can become official
norms or laws which as enforced standards also directs behaviour.
The traditional usage of the concept views an attitude as some
internal affective orientation that would explain the actions of a
person. The concept of attitude, however, is rather troublesome in
that it entails several components, namely: a. cognitive (consciously
held opinion); b . affective (emotional feeling); c. evaluative (positive
or negative); d. conative (disposition for action) and e. socially
appreciative (expected approval or blame). Moreover, there is
considerable dispute in psychology as to which of these components
should be regarded as more (or less) important. The operational
problem is that personal attitudes are mainly to be inferred from
the observed behaviours which they are supposed to explain. A
working definition for the measurement of attitudes (McGurie,
1985) is that attitudes are responses that locate objects of thought
on dimensions of affective judgement. In more process orientated
terms, attitudes are described as a mediating process grouping a

26
set of objects of thought in a category that evokes a socially
significant pattern of responses.

Positive attitudes to laws is assumed to generate behaviour

according these laws, but the positiveness of such attitudes is also
derived from judgments on the appreciation of these laws. Although
attitude theorists agree that attitudes are acquired from experience
rather than determined a priori, the main cognitive position is that
behaviour is also directed by attitudes through selection of
perceptions and responses that are not in dissonance with personal
attitudes. In this "Cognitive dissonance theory", originally
formulated by Festinger (1957) , attitudes are frames formed by
perceptions and behaviours which, ones they are formed, influence
by - 10 - selective facilitation those perceptions and responses that
fit into the acquired frame of reference. The view that attitudes can
act as a mediating process to influence behaviour can be
accommodated within learning theory, but for a learning theorist
changes in attitude can only come from responses to stimuli that
are rewarded or punished.

By contrast most cognitive theorists stress changes in attitudes by

persuasive communications. Referring to intensive indoctrination,
like psychoanalytic treatments or brainwashing methods, even
reversals in attitudes are obtained by such methods of
indoctrinating information. The relation between attitudes and
actual behaviour is troublesome. The causal relation can be from
behaviour to attitude or the reverse . All together there have been

27
seldom found high positive correlations between personal attitudes
and actions of individuals. Differences between group attitudes,
however, are firmly correlated with differences in group actions.
This may indicate the influence of social groups or indicates that
such groups are formed on the basis of conformity of behaviour and
attitudes and that this induces social compliance. The values
shared by the social group to which one belongs, therefore, are an
important reference frame for the interpretation of persuasive
information and for the meaning given to alternative behaviours.

Despite the lack of evidence in the literature for a strong relation

between attitudes and behaviour, there has been for many years a
widespread belief among practitioners in traffic safety that the
'improvement' of personal attitudes could bring about significant
accident savings. The lack of success from this approach stemmed
largely from its simplistic view of attitudes as easy changeable
dispositions. A major advance in this area was provided by Fishbein
and Ajzen (Fishbein & Azjen, 1975; Azjen & Fishbein, 1980) with
their "Theory of reasoned action". This theory maintains that the
intention of performing a specific behaviour is determined by two
factors: one's personal attitude and one's beliefs on how significant
others think one should behave.

This line of theorizing has been seen as having particular relevance

for traffic safety research, as may have also its more recent
development, the "Theory of planned behaviour" (Ajzen, 1988). - 11
- The addition of measurements on beliefs about how people

28
important to one (significant others) think one should behave to the
measurement of one's personal attitude toward the behaviour in
question, has been able to demonstrate higher correlations between
behaviour and attitudes then the earlier theories . In this more
recent formulation of attitude theory, there is the added factor of
the degree of control one has over particular behaviours by the
influence on the reinforced social-belief component. This is also
recognized in the more recent application to traffic safety [see
several articles in Christensen (Eds.), 1991], where the advantage
lies in the ability to identify the most appropriate targets (reference
group, type of behaviour, kind and content of information) for
effective intervention strategies. Relevant to effects of information
on attitude change is also Anderson's "Information integration
theory" (Anderson, 1981).

This theory, based on extensive research results , describes how

new information is assimilated in a changed attitude. Attitude
changes are formed by a weighted average of the prior existing
attitude information and the attitude content in the new
information, where the weights are determined by the salience ,
relevance and reliability of, respectively, the old stored and the new
infor - mation. This weighting in the theory explains why
information from significant others and Socratic questioning of the
salience of information already possessed by a person are more
influential than just information from an outside source. The

29
frequency of exposure to new, but salient information often has
been shown to be important, which is what Anderson's theory of
information integration predicts. The joint recognition of the social-
belief component ("Reasoned action theory") and the initial-belief
component ("Information integration theory") in attitudes are
particular relevant for the effectiveness of public communications
campaigns (Rice & Paisley, 1981), probably also in the field of traffic
safety. According to these theoretical notions, one should not expect
any marked influence from information campaigns that contain
material that contradicts the information one is regularl y exposed
to, nor from campaigns without salient information, without
informat ion form significant (credible, attractive, powerful) sources
and wi thout social relevance for a particular concrete behaviour.

Utility and Choice Theory

The cost(benefit utility of behavioural alternatives as well as

acquired, less rational preferences for certain behaviours may
explain the usual risk behaviour of the road user. Utility and choice
theory, therefore, may be important for the understanding of safety
strategies and effects. Utility theory, first advanced by Bernou1li
(1738; translation by Sornmer, 1954), discussed by Ramsey (1931)
and fully formalized by Von Neumann & Morgenstern (1944) and
Savage (1954) is a mathematical theory for the maximization of
expected utility for individual decisions on choices with uncertain
outcomes. This classical prescriptive theory for rational decisions
has been modified to a more descriptive theory of choice and

30
preference in psychology by subjective probability judgement,
stochastic aspects of behaviour and subjective estimation of utility
differences between objects of choice. An overview of this descriptive
theory is given by Luce & Suppes (1965).

According to this line of theorizing the individual seeks by his

choices to maximize the sum of the product of a. the probability of
outcomes from the alternative actions available (subjectively
estimated for most decision theorists) and b. the utility value for
these outcomes (subjectively perceived differences between
outcomes for most psychologists). Rational decision theory for
governing bodies and econometric theory of individual behaviour
have embraced classical utility theory by defining utility as the
money value of alternatives, since from an economist's point of view
every obtainable good can be exchanged against money on the
market. So under equal probability of attainment of outcomes the
alter - native with the highest monetary value must be chosen on
rational grounds .

More of the same obtainable good represent more monetary value

and there - fore, if the choices concern equally probable attainment
of different amounts of the same good with positive money value the
highest amount should be chosen. Only if more of some good is less
probable to obtain a choice for less could be rational, since only
than the expected utility difference for less (the comparison of
outcome value times probability of outcome), can become positive .

31
Operant behavioral principles are based on the analysis and
manipulation of observable environmental events involved in
learning. Three temporally ordered events operationalize the
observable elements of instruction: antecedent stimulus, operant
response, and consequent stimulus. The (antecedent) stimulus is
an object, event, or activity that precedes the response. An operant
is a class of responses that are observable and measurable, and
that operate on the environment in the same fashion (Catania,
1984). These responses are emitted in the presence of
environmental antecedent stimuli.

The consequence is an environmental event that follows a response,

which alters the future probability, or level, of the operant behavior
they follow. In the section that follows, we will provide a discussion
of the basic theoretical principles as well as everyday examples
illustrating such principles. Where appropriate, examples of basic
and applied research will be offered to further illustrate such
principles. We begin with two broad areas of discussion: response-
consequence relations and stimulus-response relations.

Personality Theories Personality theories explain behaviour largely

in terms of stable traits or patterns of behaviour which are viewed
as resistant to change and inalterable. Rogers', (1985), classification
of individuals into the five categories of innovators, early adopters,
early majority, late majority, late adopters, and laggards is an
example of this kind of approach to understanding behaviour. A

32
major limitation of personality theories is that they do not take
account of important aspects of the physical, social and economic
environments, or the previous experiences of the individual, which
also are known to strongly influence behaviour. For this reason,
personality theories alone now are generally considered inadequate
to explain behaviour change.

Learning and Behaviour Theories Learning theorists have

demonstrated that behaviour can be changed by providing
appropriate rewards, incentives, and/or disincentives. In learning
or behaviourist approaches, these rewards and incentives are
typically incorporated into structured reinforcement schedules, and
the process of behaviour changes is often termed behaviour
modification. While effective in bringing about behaviour change,
such approaches require a high level of external control over both
the physical and social environment, and the incentives (or
disincentives) used to reinforce certain behaviours and discourage
others.

This kind of control is hard to maintain in real life settings, and

thus, strict behaviourist approaches are subject to a number of
limitations. Social Learning Theory Social learning theory is similar
to learning and behaviour theories in that it focuses on specific,
measurable aspects of behaviour. Learning theories, however, view
behaviour as being shaped primarily by events within the
environment, whereas social learning theory views the individual as
an active participant in his or her behaviour, interpreting events

33
and selecting courses of action based on past experience. Again,
one important theory deriving from social learning theory which has
had a major impact on many current models of behaviour change is
that of self-efficacy. As stated earlier, self-efficacy expectations have
to do with a person's beliefs in his or her abilities to successfully
execute the actions necessary to meet specific situational demands.
Such expectations have been found to be consistently related to
behaviour across a wide range of situations and populations sub-
groups.

Social Psychological Theories

Social psychological theories are concerned with understanding

how events and experiences external to a person (i.e. aspects of the
social situation and physical environment) influence his or her
behaviour. Emphasis is placed on aspects of the social context in
which behaviour occurs, including social norms and expectations,
cultural mores, social stereotypes, group dynamics, cohesion,
attitudes and beliefs. A number of useful concepts have emerged
from social psychological theories, including attribution, locus of
control, and cognitive dissonance, to name a few. Social Cognitive
Approaches Social cognitive approaches combine aspects of social
psychological theories with components of both social learning
theory and cognitive behavioural approaches.

Social-cognitive approaches emphasize the person's subjective

perceptions and interpretations of a given situation or set of events,
and argue that these need to be taken into account if we are to

34
understand adequately both behaviour and the processes of
behaviour change. A number of social psychological concepts have
been found to be consistently related to behaviour change across a
wide range of situations. For example, the social reality of a the
group (e.g. peer group, school group, family group etc.) will affect an
individual's behaviour. All groups are characterized by certain
group norms, beliefs and ways of behaving, and these can strongly
affect the behaviour of the group members.

Expectations of significant or respected others can also have a

strong influence on a person's behaviour. This phenomenon has
been most consistently demonstrated in the early research on self-
fulfilling prophecies, which showed that teachers' expectations of
their students were consistently related to the students' subsequent
performance, even when these expectations were based on falsified
information. Thus, support and encouragement, or conversely, low
expectations from significant or respected others, can affect and
bring about, (or not), changes in individual behaviour.

Social Practice Theory

Social practice theory (SPT) is increasingly being applied to the

analysis of human behaviour, particularly in the context of energy
use and consumption. Rather than a single theory or model, SPT is
something of an umbrella approach under which various aspects of
theory are pursued. The central insight of SPT is the recognition
that human practices (ways of doing, routinized behaviour,
habits) are themselves arrangements of various inter-connected

35
elements, such as physical and mental activities, norms,
meanings, technology use, knowledge, which form peoples actions
or behaviour as part of their everyday lives (Reckwitz 2002). The
approach particularly emphasises the material contexts (also socio-
technical infrastructures) within which practices occur, drawing
attention to their impact upon behaviour (the production and
reproduction of practices).

The notion that non-human actors have a role to play in causing

certain outcomes or behaviour draws on the actor-network theory
of Bruno Latour. Shove (2010a) notes: Put simply, roads, railways,
freezers, heating systems, etc. are not innocent features of the
background. Rather, they have an active part to play in defining,
reproducing and transforming what people take to be normal ways
of life. The key insight here is that the material world and related
systems of production and provision are important in organising,
structuring and sometimes preventing certain practices. The three
elements model has been developed from Shoves work and
incorporates: Materials: The physical objects that permit or
facilitate certain activities to be performed in specific ways
Meanings: Images, interpretations or concepts associated with
activities that determine how and when they might be performed
Procedures: Skills, know-how or competencies that permit, or lead
to activities being undertaken in certain ways

36
Banduras Social Theory of Learning

Banduras Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one
another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has
often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive
learning theory because it encompasses attention memory and
motivation.

Conclusion;

Behaviour modification is a scientific and systematic method of

changing behaviour. Its techniques have recorded high positive
effect in adjusting undesirable behaviours. Pertinent to note is the
fact that apart from the every few professional counselors who are
trained in the application of these techniques unconsciously. The
different settings of mans existence require peculiar techniques in
treating the undesirable behaviours prevalent therein.

37
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