DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

A RESOURCE BOOK
FOR EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN ZIMBABWE
PREPARED BY THE CIVIL PROTECTION ORGANISATION
OF ZIMBABWE

Empowered lives.
Resilient nations.
 RESOURCE BOOK FOR
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
IN ZIMBABWE

PRODUCED BY THE NATIONAL CIVIL PROTECTION

ORGANIZATION IN ZIMBABWE
 FOREWORD

International trends indicate that disasters are increasing in intensity, complexity and magnitude.
Zimbabwe has not been spared from this trend. It is against this background that the National Civil
Protection Committee launched a strategy aimed at integrating emergency preparedness and disaster
risk reduction into the education system of Zimbabwe in July 2003. The strategy seeks to mitigate
against the effects of both natural and human induced emergencies on the education system thus
contribute to improved awareness of disaster risk and readiness for emergencies in the country in
general.
A three pronged approach was adopted to ensure implementation of the strategy namely, disaster risk
reduction initiatives in education infrastructure, development of an emergency preparedness and
response manual for the education sector and inclusion of disaster risk management in education
curricula together with the production of requisite reference materials.
This book is a reference resource for use by teachers and educators. The book is a rich source of
practical information drawn from scientific literature, disaster databases and field experiences from
Zimbabwe. Teachers and educators should find this resource book useful in creating innovative
training programs. These training programs should contribute to long term enhancement of national
capacity for disaster risk management in this country.
We applaud this remarkable achievement more so as disaster risk reduction is recognised as an
intrinsic element of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005 –
2015).

Hon, I.M.C Chombo M,P, Hon, D. Coltart, M,P, Hon, I.S.G. Mudenge, M,P
Minister of Minister of Education, Minister of Higher
Local Govt, Rural & Sport, Arts and Culture &Tertiary Education
Urban Development

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful acknowledgement to all who contributed to the successful publication of this book:
~Support and political will of the Ministers of Local Government Rural and Urban Development,
Minister of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture and Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education
~ All members of the National Civil Protection Committee for nurturing the Strategy to Integrate
Disaster Risk Reduction into Education culminating in the eventual publication of this book
~ The strategy planning team comprising
‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy
Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture,
‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development
~ National Civil Protection Committee experts on hydro meteorological, environmental, technological,
geological and biological hazards for providing information on their respective areas of expertise
~The Technical Review Team comprising
‘Ministry of Health and Child Welfare,
‘World Health Organisation,
‘ Zimbabwe Electricity Distribution Company
‘ Departments of Curriculum Development, Quality Assurance, Research and Policy
Development; Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture,
‘Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
‘ Department of Civil Protection, Ministry of Local Government Rural and Urban Development
for reviewing and updating the initial and subsequent drafts of the resource book
~Mr. Desmond Manatsa of the Bindura State University for compiling and consolidating draft
submissions from various experts.
~UNDP for providing financial support for drafting, editing, typesetting and printing of this book
**********************************************

ii
Ministry of Local Government, Rural & Urban Development
Makombe Building, Harare, Zimbabwe
P O Box CY7706, Harare
Tel 263 4 791287
Fax 263 4 703715
E -mail : eprzim@eprzim.co.zw

Website : www.zimdrm.gov.zw

© Ministry of Local Government, Zimbabwe 2009

Reprinted 2013

All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of the
publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means (electronic, mechanic
al, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without
the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book.

ISBN 978-0-7974-4149-1

Edited by Megan Allardice

Text typeset in 10/12 Times by Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Illustrated by:- Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Cover photographs by:- Department of Civil Protection &

Ladies’ Fingers Private Limited

Cover design by:- Department of Civil Protection

Published by:- Civil Protection Organisation of Zimbabwe

Reprinted by:- Uniprint, A Division of Times Media (Pty) Ltd

Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms iv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Emergencies and disasters worldwide 1
Emergencies and disasters in Zimbabwe 3
Desertification and drought 8
Wetlands 8
The Freshwater agenda 8
The habitat agenda 9
Building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters 9
An African initiative 9
Disaster risk reduction efforts in Zimbabwe 11
The national civic protection plan 12

Chapter 2 Disaster Risk Management Concepts 14

Hazards and disasters 14
The disaster concept 17
Risk analysis and risk management as a process 20
The vulnerability reduction approach 24
Total disaster risk management 27
Risk management flow 30
The legal framework for disaster reduction 34
Promotion of education and public awareness 35

Chapter 3 Hydro-Meteorological Hazards 38

The drought hazard 38
Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought 39
Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe 39
Tropical cyclones 47
History of the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe 51
The impact of tropical cyclones 53
tropical cyclone mitigation 55
Flood hazards and disasters 56
Flood mitigation 58
Severe thunderstorms 60
Lightning hazard 60
Extreme wind gusts 64
Fog and mist as visibility and barrier hazards 65
Extreme temperature hazard 66
Frost hazard 68
Chapter 4 Geological Hazards 70
Earthquake hazards and disasters 71
Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake 69
A history of Zimbabwean earthquakes 69
Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones 72
Causes of injury and damage 72

iv
 Earthquake risk reduction strategies 72
Landslide hazards and disasters 74
Asteroids and comets (Extra-terrestrial) 76

Chapter 5 Biological Hazards 78

General measures for outbreaks 78
Common epidemics in Zimbabwe 78
Surveillance systems and multi-sectoral approaches 79
Dysentery 82
Chicken-pox 83
HIV and AIDS 84
The Impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe 84
Opportunistic Infections (OIs) 88
Meningitis 89
Viral Hemorrhagic Fever (VHF) 89
Tuberculosis 89
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) 90
Disease vectors 91
Malaria 90
Food poisoning 96
Zootomic diseases 98
Anthrax 98
Food and Mouth (FMD) 102
Rabies 106
New Castle Disease (NCD) 109
Major and common pests in Zimbabwe 115

Chapter 6 Technological Hazards 120

Transportation accidents 120
Road traffic accidents 120
Rail accidents 126
Water transportation accidents 127
Air transportation accidents 127
Traffic related hazards 129
Landslides and rock falls
Wind 130
School children, wildlife and domestic animals 130
Hazardous substances 131
Landmine hazards 134
Electricity hazards 138
Industrial hazards 140
Drowning hazards 147
First aid 151

Chapter 7 Environmental Degradation 153

Soil erosion and gullies 154
Gold panning as a hazard 161

v
 The socio-economic hazard of illegal gold panning 162
Deforestation 163
Veld fires and bushfires 167
An overview of pollution 170
Types of water pollution and their effects 172
Case study: Water hyacinth in Zimbabwe 175
Air pollution as a hazard 178
Litter as a hazard 181
Global warming 183
Ozone depletion 187
International cooperation 189

Chapter 8 Disaster Risk Management in the Education Sector 191

Personal tragedies 192
Disaster risk management training and education in schools 194
Personal and social skills 196
Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum 198
The roles of teachers and students 205
Education & training on disaster management for communities 206

Terminology 207

Bibliography 210

Annex I 212
Annex II 214
Annex III 215

vi
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ACDS African Centre for Disaster Studies, Potchefstroom University, South Africa
ACMAD African Centre for Meteorological Application for Development
ADRC Asian Disaster Reduction Center
AfDB African Development Bank
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AREX Agricultural Research and Extension Department
ARPDM Asian Regional Programme on Disaster Management
AU African Union
BCPR Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery of UNDP
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CCA Common Country Assessment
CCD Convention to Combat Desertification
CCHF Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
CDF Comprehensive Development Framework
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
Cl Chlorine
CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability, Project, World Climate Research Programme
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CPD Civil Protection Department
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Catholic University of Louvain
DCCP District Civil Protection Coordination Committee
DCC Disaster Coordinating Council/Committee
DDT Dichloro Diphinyl Trichloro-ethane
DEM Digital Elevation Model
DFID Department for International Development, United Kingdom
DHF Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
DiMP Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme, University of Cape Town
DMC Drought Monitoring Centre
DRM Disaster Risk Management
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
DRRP Disaster Reduction and Recovery Programme, UNDP
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ELCI Environment Liaison Centre International
EM-DAT Emergency Events Database, CRED, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
EPR Emergency Preparedness and Response
ERA Environmental Risk Assessment
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FAO/AGL Food and Agriculture Organisation/Land and Water Development Division
FDR Fire Danger Rating
FEWS Famine Early Warning System
FEWSNET Famine Early Warning System Network
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas

vii
GHS Globally Harmonised System
GIS Geographical Information System
GMB Grain Marketing Board
GNP Gross National Product
GTS Global Telecommunication System
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HMIS Health Management Information System
HSA Hazardous Substances Act
HYCOS Hydrological Cycle Observing System
IATF/DR Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction
ICOSAMP Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests
IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, 1990-99
IDU Intravenous Drug User
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMP Integrated Pest Management
INCD Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Desertification
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IRI International Research Institute for Climate Prediction, Columbia University
IRLCO-CSA International Red Locust Control Organisation of Central and Southern Africa
ISDR International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LDC Least Developed Country
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MLGNH Ministry of Local Government and National Housing
MOHCW Ministry of Health and Child Welfare
NCC National Crisis Committee
NCPCC National Civil Protection Coordination Committee
NCPP National Civil Protection Plan
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NEWU National Early Warning Unit, Africa
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NMHS National Meteorological and Hydrological Services
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (in Europe)
OFDA Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance, USA
OHS Occupational Health and Safety
OPD Out Patient Department
ORS Oral Rehydration Solution
Pb Lead
PCPCC Provincial Civil Protection Coordination Committee
POP Persistent Organic Pollutant
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
PSI Population Services International
RBM Roll Back Malaria
REWU Regional Early Warning Unit, SADC
RSMC Specialised Regional Meteorological Centre, WMO
RTA Road Traffic Accident

viii
RVF Rift Valley Fever
SADC Southern African Development Community
SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference
SAFIRE Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources
SAMC Southern African Malaria Countries
SARCOF Southern Africa Region Climate Outlook Forum
SARDC Southern African Research and Documentation Centre
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Sd1 Shigella dysenteriae type 1
SIRDC Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre
STI Sexually Transmitted Infection
SWIO South West Indian Ocean
TDRM Total Disaster Risk Management
UCS Union of Concerned Scientists
UN United Nations
UN/ISDR United Nations, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
UNCOD United Nations Conference on Desertification
UNCT United Nations Country Team
UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework
UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDRO Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme (formerly UNCHS)
UN-OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
USAID United States Agency for International Development
UV Ultraviolet
UZ University of Zimbabwe
WEO World Economic Outlook
WFP World Food Programme, United Nations
WHO World Heath Organisation, United Nations
WMO World Meteorological Organisation, United Nations
WRI World Resources Institute
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
ZIMAC Zimbabwe Mine Action Committee
ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority
ZISCO Zimbabwe Steel Company
ZOU Zimbabwe Open University

ix
CHAPTER 1
Introduction Figure 1.1 Decadal Economic
Impacts of Global Disasters
Emergencies & Disasters Worldwide 1973-2002
EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004
Disasters, be they natural or human inflicted, have occurred on every part of
the globe at one time or another. All countries of the world are becoming
increasingly vulnerable to disasters, whether large or small, industrial or agrar-
ian, technologically sophisticated or traditionally focused. The types of haz-
ards that trigger these disasters vary from the unexpected occurrence of tsu-
namis, to more predictable seasonal floods and periodic storms. Less wide-
spread hazards, such as transport accidents, urban conflagrations, civil strife
and bush fires have also taken their toll. Other, less immediate and slowly
evolving hazards, such as drought and environmental degradation, affect even
more people with potentially greater costs for their future.

Since the final years of the 1990s, several powerful natural disasters have
occurred in different parts of the world. Hurricane Mitch damaged up to 70
percent of the infrastructure in Honduras and Nicaragua in 1998, devastating
the economies of all the Central American countries, which are yet to re-
cover fully. One year later, the worst cyclone in 100 years hit the Indian state
of Orissa, affecting ten times as many people as Hurricane Mitch and de-
stroying 18 000 villages in one night. In 1999 also, Mexico experienced its Note: The data on both graphs above includes
drought, earthquake, epidemic, extreme tem-
worst floods since 1600. Almost 300 000 people were made homeless (UN/ perature, famine, flood, industrial accidents,
ISDR, 2004). Hardly a year later, in 2000, Tropical Cyclone Eline induced insect infestation, miscellaneous accident,
land/debris slides, transport accidents, vol-
floods of an unprecedented scale in Southern Africa, destroying homes and canoes, wave surge, wildfire and windstorm.
infrastructure on a previously unknown scale.

At the end of 2001, the powerful typhoon Lingling caused extensive damage
and over 500 fatalities in the Philippines and Vietnam. In 2002, unprecedented
flooding occurred in many countries, with particularly severe events causing
losses of more than US$ 15 billion in European countries in the Elbe, Danube Figure 1.2 Decadal Human Im-
and Vltava river basins. In August 2002, the World Meteorological pacts of Global Disasters 1973-
Organisation (WMO) stated that “floods in more than 80 countries have killed 2002
almost 3,000 people and caused hardship for more than 17 million world- EM DAT OFDA/CRED, 2004

wide since the beginning of the year” (UN/ISDR, 2004). Then, in 2005, the
worst known natural disaster ever occurred. The Indian Ocean Tsunami killed
several hundreds of thousands of people in thirteen countries and left mil-
lions homeless.
Figures 1.1 and 1.2, constructed using data from EM DAT OFDA/CRED In-
ternational Disaster Database, show an increase in both the number of natural
hazard events and the size of affected populations, as well as an increase in
the corresponding economic losses during the past three decades. However,
although the number of disasters has more than tripled since the 1970s, the
reported death toll due to these disasters has halved, as shown in the second
graph (Figure 1.2). The number of disasters and their corresponding eco-
nomic losses for the decade 1993 to 2002 are more than three times as high
as they were during the two decades from 1973 to 1992.

1
 The other data from the same source (not shown) also indicate that the 84 great
natural disasters recorded in the 1990s are three times as many as those that
occurred in the 1960s. The combined economic loss of US$ 591 billion in the
1990s was eight times greater than that of the 1960s. On the other hand, 10 000
people died in natural disasters in 2000, compared to more than 70 000 in the
previous year, or over 500 000 in the previous ten years.
The impact of these disasters depends on the level of development, prepared-
ness and capacity to cope with disasters of the affected countries or regions.
Ninety percent of the natural disasters and 95 percent of the total disaster
related deaths worldwide occur in developing countries. The growth in the
Figure 1.3 Disaster Increases in
the Regions of the World
World Disasters Report 2002 – IFRC

number of disasters in Africa is far greater than in other countries, while Europe
Recent events have proved that disasters do has the slowest disaster increase rate (see Figure 1.3).
not only affect the poor and characteristically
more vulnerable countries, but also those
thought to be well protected. The emerging Change and variability in the weather and climate continue to have a signifi-
role of El Niño/La Niña events as significant
global hazards is one example. The El Niño/ cant impact upon Africa. Excluding deaths caused by natural disasters, over
La Niña events of 1997 and 1998 were the 60 percent are weather or climate related (Preston-Whyte and Tyson, 2000).
most intense occurrences of cyclical climatic
variation during the 20th Century. Beyond rep- As shown in Figure 1.4, during the 1980s, weather related disasters dominated
resenting costly economic variations to nor-
mal climate expectations, these events also the recorded natural disasters. Droughts, which generally manifest themselves
created conditions around the world that led slowly, are probably the most damaging disasters. Figure 1.4 shows that they
to extensive flooding, extended drought con-
ditions and widespread wildfires. In recent leave many of their victims dead or homeless. Over the years, drought induced
years, developed countries in Europe and
America have experienced floods of such crop failures have been the single greatest reason for loss in agricultural pro-
magnitude that previously accepted proce- duction in Africa.
dures for protection and the utility of struc-
tural barriers have had to be re-evaluated.

Figure 1.4 Deaths and

Homelessness Caused by Disasters
in Africa during the 1980s
WMO, 1980

2
 Decade 1900- 1910- 1920- 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 2000- Total(%)
1909 1919 1929 1939 1949 1959 1969 1979 1989 1999 2004
Hydro-
meteorological 32 73 61 75 120 235 469 779 1 497 2 037 1 750 7 128 (77%)
Geological 34 26 27 33 51 55 82 121 227 314 186 1 029 (11%)
Biological 5 7 10 3 3 1 37 64 167 360 372 1 156 (12%)
Total 71 106 98 111 174 291 588 964 1 891 2 711 2 308 9 313 (100%)
% of
century total 1 1 1 1 2 3 6 11 20 29 25 100%
World Disasters Report 2002 - IFRC (1900-2004, by Decades)

Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported disasters in Table 1.1 Distribution of Natural
the world total has increased over the past decade. In addition to the socioeco- Disasters by Origin
nomic losses, a substantial amount of financial and other resources for devel-
opment has been diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance to disaster
affected people each year. This has contributed to Africa’s poor standing in
disaster management. By contrast, developed countries have well defined struc-
tures to manage disasters and emergencies, largely as a result of their socioeco-
nomic strength. This allows for both the necessary education and research on
risks and budget allocations towards effectively equipping disaster manage-
ment agencies so as to adequately manage emergencies.

Emergencies and Disasters in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe and its communities face a wide range of natural and human-made
hazards (see Figure 1.5). Natural hazards include all those of climatic, geo-
physical or biological origin, while human-made hazards include those aris-
ing from technology, human fault and hostile action. Some major natural haz-
ards, such as cyclones and bushfires, are seasonal and regional but other types
of hazards, particularly those made by human agency, are less predictable and
could occur at almost any time or anywhere. Zimbabwe is one of the coun-
tries in Africa most prone to natural hazards of hydro-meteorological origin.

Figure 1.5 The Most Common

Hazards and Disasters in
Zimbabwe

3
Double trouble. House destroyed
during Tropical Cyclone Eline
(2000) and gullies forming across
the homestead.
(Source: CPD)
The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) is the arm of the United Nations that
acts to support and strengthen national ca-
pacities for disaster mitigation, prevention and
preparedness. UNDP plays the role of the con-
vener of the United Nations Disaster Manage-
ment Team (UNDMT), an interagency work-
ing group consisting of the Food and Agricul-
ture Organisation (FAO), the International
Labour Organisation (ILO), UNDP, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO), the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations
Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO), the United Nations Development
Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the United Na-
tions Volunteers (UNV), the World Food
Programme (WFP) and the World Health
Organisation (WHO). The UNDMT acts as a
focal point for coordination of the natural di-
saster related activities of the UN system and
works closely with the government to support
coordination of disaster management activi-
ties in the country (AU, 2005).
Its complex climatic and varied geological conditions result in virtually every
type of known natural hazard. Among them, floods, droughts, lightning, earth-
quakes and tropical cyclones cause the greatest economic losses.
Areas particularly vulnerable and prone to flood related disasters include the
areas along the major rivers – Zambezi, Limpopo and Sabi. The southern parts
of Zimbabwe, especially Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South have a
high risk of drought while the Matabeleland provinces are also the hardest hit
by floods. Earthquakes threaten the eastern border regions as well as both the
Matabeleland provinces. The provinces in the eastern sector are prone to tropi-
cal cyclone effects as they lie in the usual overland path of the cyclones from
Mozambique and the Indian Ocean. The photograph below shows a hut de-
stroyed by Tropical Cyclone Eline in March 2000. Natural disasters are
aggravated by several factors. Improper land management, lack of
environmental awareness and disaster preparedness, and ineffective applica-
tion of the rule of law are key issues for policy makers addressing disaster
reduction. The same also applies to human-made disasters, as improper plan-
ning leads to the increased magnitude of the effect of these disasters.
Zimbabwe also has a high rate of human-made disasters. The annual numbers
of people who die from these disasters dwarf by several times those who die
from natural disasters. For example, although drought is one the biggest natu-
ral disasters of the country, there is no record of even a single death due to
drought induced famine. Of all local disasters, road traffic accidents cause
the greatest number (several hundreds) reported dead or maimed annually.
Rarely does a year pass without a serious road traffic accident having to be
declared a national disaster by the President of the country.
While, by world standards, Zimbabwe cannot be regarded as highly disaster
prone in terms of deaths and injuries caused, the cost of the disasters that
have affected this country, in terms of property destruction and social and
economic loss, has been significant. This cost can be expected to increase
unless effective measures are taken to deal with such emergencies and disas-
ters. In the case of deaths from road traffic accidents in relation to the popu-
lation, Zimbabwe is, however, prominent on the regional map.
Lightning is also a major problem, causing injury and death to scores of people
4

annually. Zimbabwe is notorious, as recorded in the Guinness Book of World
Records, as the country where a single bolt of lightning claimed the largest
number of victims in the world.1 This occurred in a village near the eastern
border town of Mutare in 1975, when 21 people were killed while sheltering
in a hut.
The world is not simply watching these disasters unfold at an increased pace,
taking their huge toll on human life and property. At the international level
there has been renewed commitment to disaster risk reduction under various
processes. In recognition of the need to highlight to the world the necessity
of taking action against disasters, the UN declared the last decade (1900 to
1999) the International Decade for Disaster Reduction IDNDR. The IDNDR
The ISDR’s main objective:
Reducing human, social, economic and envi-
ronmental losses due to natural hazards and
related technological and environmental phe-
nomena
Basic aim:
Building disaster resilient communities
The Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitat-
ing role:
Bringing agencies, organisations and differ-
ent disciplines together, and providing a com-
mon platform and understanding of the scope
of disaster risk reduction

expired with tangible results in many countries. Hence, the UN General

Assembly founded the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) The Inter-Agency Task Force provides:
in 2000 to continue to promote the good work and commitment to disaster The framework for action for the implemen-
tation of the ISDR
reduction (UN/ISDR, 2002). The results emanating from ISDR are already
visible in many countries. There is now a general consensus on shifting the
primary focus from hazards and their physical consequences, to emphasising
the process of fusing the physical and socioeconomic dimensions of
vulnerability into the broader understanding, assessment and management of
disaster risk. Various multilateral conventions, such as those on climate
change and desertification, demonstrate the importance and commitment
attached by many governments to promoting disaster risk reduction.
The ISDR now provides a global framework for action, with the objective of
reducing human, social, economic and environmental losses due to natural
hazards and related technological and environmental phenomena. In achieving
its basic aim of building disaster resilient communities, it has promoted
increased awareness of the importance of disaster reduction as an integral
component of sustainable development. To further strengthen the ISDR, the
General Assembly confirmed the establishment of two mechanisms for the
implementation of ISDR in December 2001. These were the Inter-Agency
Secretariat and the Inter-Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction. The
General Assembly also called upon governments to establish national
platforms or focal points for disaster reduction, and to strengthen them where
they already exist, using a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach. The
Inter-Agency Secretariat has a facilitating role, bringing agencies,
organisations and different disciplines together, and providing a common
platform and understanding of the scope of disaster risk reduction. The Inter-
Agency Task Force provides the framework for action for the implementation
of the ISDR.
The framework for action for the implementation of the ISDR
The Task Force, supported by the ISDR Secretariat, has four main objectives:
1 To increase public awareness towards understanding risk, vulnerability
and disaster reduction;
2 To promote the commitment of public authorities to disaster reduction;
3 To stimulate multidisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including
the expansion of risk reduction networks; and
4 To improve scientific knowledge about the causes of natural disasters,
as well as the effects that natural hazards and related technological
and environmental disasters have on societies.

5
APPLICATION OF RISK REDUCTION MEASURES
· Environmental management
· Land use planning
· Protecting critical facilities
· Networking, partnership
· Financial tools
Figure 1.6 The Disaster Risk Re-
duction Framework
It also incorporates two additional activities specifically mandated to the ISDR
Secretariat by the UN General Assembly:
5 To continue international cooperation to reduce the impact of El Niño
and other aspects of climate variation; and
6 To strengthen disaster reduction capacities for the development of
early warning systems.
To achieve the objectives set by the framework for action, the following ar-
eas of common concern were prioritised:
• Recognition and incorporation of the special vulnerability of the poor
and socially marginalised groups in disaster reduction strategies;
• Environmental, social and economic vulnerability assessment with spe-
cial reference to health and food security;
• Ecosystems management, with particular attention given to the imple-
mentation of an agenda on land use management and planning, includ-
ing appropriate land use in rural, mountain and coastal areas, as well as
unplanned urban areas in mega-cities and secondary cities; and
• National, regional and international legislation with respect to disaster
reduction.
In 2003, during a global review of disaster reduction initiatives, the ISDR
Secretariat in conjunction with UNDP developed a framework for guiding
and monitoring disaster risk reduction.
The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields
of action:
• Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and
vulnerability/ capacity analysis;
• Knowledge development, including education, training, research and
information;
• Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including
organisational, policy, legislation and community action;
• Application of measures including environmental management, land
use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of
science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial
instruments; and
6
• Early warning systems including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, Existing hazards
· Geological hazards
preparedness measures and reaction capacities. · Hydro-meteorological hazards
· Biological hazards
Figure 1.6 demonstrates the general context and primary activities of disas- · Technological hazards
· Conflicts hazards
ter risk management, including the elements necessary for any comprehen-
sive disaster risk reduction strategy. Note that there is limited emphasis on
the preparedness, response and recovery functions. In Chapter 2 we have
adapted the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM), which was derived by
the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) from this ISDR/UNDP com-
prehensive disaster risk reduction strategy. This has been included in more Emerging hazards
detail to give an appreciation and understanding of the current global strate- · Climatic change hazards
· Weather related hazards
gies of shifting from disaster management to disaster risk management ema- · Transportation accidents hazards
Landslides hazards
nating from the efforts of the ISDR.

Disaster Reduction Related International Agendas and Commitments

To reiterate the commitment of the international community to arresting the
recently increasing disaster toll, several significant development declarations,
agendas and conventions have been adopted over the past three decades. These
cover almost all aspects pertaining to comfortable human life on this planet,
free from disasters. They include the environment, freshwater management,
climate change, desertification, social development, habitat and food secu-
rity, and all of them contain commitments related to disaster reduction. Some
of these are referred to frequently in the later chapters of this resource book.
A total of 189 world leaders met and adopted the UN Millennium Declaration
in New York in September 2000. The Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), taken from this Declaration, were established, as guiding principles
for the international community, national governments and the UN. Many of
these targets reflect areas that are closely linked to vulnerability to natural
hazards. These include eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, achieving
universal primary education, promoting gender equality, ensuring
environmental stability and using partnerships for development.
The aspects of the UN Millennium Declaration which are related to the ISDR
include:
• Developing early warning systems, vulnerability mapping,
technological transfer and training;
• Supporting interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, improved
scientific research on the causes of natural disasters and better
international cooperation to reduce the impact of climate variables,
such as El Niño and La Niña;
• Encouraging governments to address the problems created by mega-
cities, the location of settlements in high risk areas and other human
determinants of disasters; and
• Encouraging governments to incorporate disaster risk reduction into
national planning processes, including building codes.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) was held in Hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment
Johannesburg, South Africa in August and September 2002, ten years after then becomes an important tool for generat-
ing reliable disaster information (Figure 2.13).
the UN Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the These diagnoses serve as a basis for good
Rio Earth Summit (UN/ISDR 2003). The WSSD provided a timely reminder decision-making and efficient sharing of di-
saster risk information, resulting in the adop-
to the international community that faulty development and inappropriate tion of appropriate response interventions and
use of resources contribute to natural disasters. Natural disasters were also the best use of limited resources.

7
The Kyoto Protocol contains legally binding
commitments for developed countries party
to the Convention. With the notable excep-
tion of the United States, most developed
countries agreed to decrease their anthropo-
genic greenhouse gas emissions by at least
5 percent from 1990 levels in the first com-
mitment period from 2008 to 2012. But, some
countries with high emission rates have not
yet ratified the Kyoto Protocol. This means
that the Protocol is not yet in force, although
by the end of 2007, the Convention counted
174 countries having ratified the Kyoto Pro-
tocol, while the other nineteen, including Zim-
babwe, have not yet expressed their posi-
tion. 2
The gender agenda
The Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at
the Fourth World Conference on Women in
1995, recognises that women are particularly
affected by environmental disasters, disease
and violence. It requests governments to,
…promote knowledge of and spon-
sor research on the role of women,
particularly rural and indigenous
women, in food gathering and pro-
duction, soil conservation, irrigation,
watershed management, sanita-
tion, coastal zone and marine re-
source management, integrated
pest management, land-use plan-
ning, forest conservation and com-
munity forestry, fisheries, natural
disaster prevention, and new and re-
newable sources of energy, focus-
ing particularly on indigenous
women’s knowledge and experi-
ence.4
recognised as posing a severe threat to sustainable development and therefore
needing priority attention.
Climate change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
was presented for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992. Its ultimate goal is
the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climatic system” (UNFCCC 1992). As a global review of disaster reduction
initiatives, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and added to the Climate
Change Convention.
Desertification and drought
The international community has long recognised that desertification poses a
major economic, social, and environmental problem of concern to many coun-
tries. In 1977, the UN Conference on Desertification adopted a Plan of Ac-
tion to Combat Desertification. This Plan of Action did not yield the intended
results, as noted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
which concluded in 1991 that, despite the efforts made by the signatories, the
problem of land degradation had, in fact, intensified. Examples of success
were very limited. The problem was readdressed in October 2003.
Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Preservation was adopted in 1971 in the
Iranian city of Ramsar. It came into force in 1975 and 131 countries are party
to it. The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty dealing
with a specific ecosystem. Its mission concerns the conservation and wise
use of wetlands by national action and international cooperation as a means to
achieving sustainable development throughout the world. Some of the main
activities of the Convention are the development of national wetlands poli-
cies and maintaining inventories of wetlands. It deals with all wetlands issues
from surface water to groundwater. The main partners for the implementation
of policies are the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Wetlands International,
the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Birdlife International.
The freshwater agenda
In March 2000, the Second World Water Forum launched the World Water
Vision and a Ministerial Declaration on Water Security in the 21st Century
was announced. The declaration identifies seven challenges for the global
community, including the “management of risk – to provide security from
floods, droughts, pollution and other water-related hazards”.3 Water resource
management is a challenge of worldwide significance. As water scarcity grows,
quality declines, and environmental and social concerns mount. The threat
posed by floods and drought is exacerbated by increasing population vulner-
ability and climate change. The reduction of vulnerability to floods and
droughts will have to be included in many facets of the freshwater agenda.
These include the involvement of all stakeholders in river basin management,
an institutional framework to manage water demand more effectively and in-
ternational trade arrangements that respect national water regulations. Such
water management processes need to be accompanied by the increased del-
egation of responsibility and developed capacities to local authorities.
In 2000, a review of the implementation of the Beijing platform identified
8
natural disasters and epidemics as emerging issues that deserved greater atten- Health
tion. The social and economic impacts of natural disasters and epidemics were The WHO looks at disasters as major public
health issues and views disaster reduction
noted as remaining relatively invisible as policy issues, in particular their im- as a core function of the health sector. It is
pact on the status of women and the achievement of gender equality. The concerned with management of environmen-
tal health responsibilities before, during and
review suggested that gender perspectives be incorporated into disaster pre- after emergencies and disasters. The WHO
vention, mitigation and recovery strategies. It also recommended that the UN takes into consideration the following:
· Reducing the vulnerability of communities
system and international organisations should assist governments in develop- to hazards and increasing their ability to
withstand disruption and to recover rap-
ing gender sensitive strategies for the delivery of assistance and to respond to idly;
humanitarian crises resulting from natural disasters. · Strengthening routine services so that the
potential health effects of emergencies
and disasters are minimised;
· Responding to emergencies and disasters
The habitat agenda with appropriate environmental health ac-
tivities (water supply and sanitation, vec-
The habitat agenda was defined during the Second UN Conference on Human tor control, etc.); and
Settlements (Istanbul, 1996). It states that an increasing number of disasters · Protection of hospitals and healthcare cen-
tres, with the ultimate goal of protecting
are caused by vulnerability created by human action, such as uncontrolled or the lives of patients, staff and other oc-
inadequately planned human settlements, lack of basic infrastructure and hu- cupants and ensuring that these facilities
can continue to function during and after
man settlements in disaster prone areas. UN-HABITAT takes actions to im- a disaster incident.
prove disaster risk management by working with partners that include local
governments, insurance companies, non governmental organisations (NGOs)
and the academic, health and scientific communities. The goal is to adopt
appropriate norms for land use, building and planning standards.

Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters

The Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005-2015 has as one of its strategic
goals the “development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and
capacities to build resilience to hazards”.5 It encourages the creation of and
support for groupings such as multisectoral national platforms, which ensure
that disaster risk reduction is treated not only nationally, but as a local prior-
ity as well, involving community participation. It also calls for the inclusion
of disaster risk reduction in education curricula. These national platforms for
disaster risk reduction6 facilitate communication of information with the ISDR
secretariat. So that they can be effective and sustainable, it is necessary that
they be built through a nationally owned and led participatory process of which
a multi-stakeholder composition is mandatory.

National platforms and Zimbabwe

Disaster risk reduction is a country specific and long term process. Its suc-
cess relies heavily on sustainability, and national ownership and leadership.
Therefore, each country needs to determine for itself how best to approach
the establishment of a national platform and activity plans, depending on the
prevailing economic, social, political and ecological circumstances. In Zim-
babwe, the national platform has been developed in the context of existing
mechanisms and processes whereby the existing Civil Protection Committee
The Hyogo Framework provides a reference
that held the disaster reduction mandate simply took over the platform role. for assessing and monitoring achievements
National platforms, through their coordination, exchange, lobbying and aware- on disaster risk reduction, thus facilitating the
work of national platforms when undertaking
ness raising roles, contribute to strengthening present structures or national roles such as:
systems, institutions and processes. Under this Hyogo Framework, the Civil · Establishing existing baselines;
· Identifying existing trends;
Protection Committee as the national platform has the opportunity to increase · Benchmarking progress;
its access to and linkages with other relevant bodies nationally, regionally and · Ascertaining challenge areas and con-
cerns;
globally. · Redirecting and refining efforts;
· Exchanging lessons learned and best
practices;
An African Initiative For Disaster Risk Reduction · Setting out accepted targets;
· Establishing credibility across different
As noted, Africa is the only continent where the regional share of reported institutions and interest groups; and
· Recording and reporting.
disasters in the world total has increased over the past decade. The occur-

9

A review of the status of disaster risk reduc-
tion in Africa showed that the continent’s de-
velopment is at risk from disasters mainly
because of gaps in the following areas:
1 Institutional frameworks;
2 Risk identification;
3 Knowledge management;
4 Governance; and
5 Emergency response.
The main challenge now is to transform this
strategy and the guidelines into action by
policy makers, decision makers, disaster man-
agers and development practitioners at sub-
regional, national and community levels. To
meet this challenge, Zimbabwe, through its
implementing body the CPD, is proceeding
with the joint initiative with UN/ISDR Africa in
the development of a programme to facili-
tate the mainstreaming of disaster risk re-
duction into sustainable development plan-
ning and activities in the country. The educa-
tion sector has been targeted in order to take
advantage of the multiplier factor inherent in
this sector to fuse disaster risk reduction into
the school curriculum. This resource book for
teachers is the product of this approach.
rence of disasters triggered by natural hazards and the social and economic
losses caused as a result are rising in Africa, posing a great threat to Africa’s
ability to achieve the MDGs and sustainable development (AfDB, 2003). One
result of this is that a significant portion of development resourcing has to be
diverted to relief and rehabilitation assistance.
By hosting the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Sum-
mit on Sustainable Development Africa brought to the attention of the ISDR
the call for the mainstreaming of disaster risk management in development
closer to home. The summit also urged that action be taken at all levels to
assist Africa to deal with natural disasters and conflicts within the framework
of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), with the aim of
assisting Africa achieve the targets for sustainable poverty reduction in the
MDGs.
Although disaster risk reduction policies and institutional mechanisms do
exist (at various degrees of completion) in African countries, their effective-
ness is limited. Thus there is a need for a strategic approach to improving and
enhancing their effectiveness and efficiency by emphasising disaster risk re-
duction. To address the issue of disasters comprehensively, NEPAD, within
the framework of the African Union (AU), the African Development Bank
(AfDB) and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(UN/ISDR) Africa have been working together since the beginning of 2003
to provide strategic guidance and direction to the mainstreaming of disaster
risk reduction in sustainable development planning and processes (AfDB,
2003).
The process for formulating a continental disaster risk reduction strategy
started with a NEPAD workshop on Disaster Management in April 2003. The
workshop called for interventions to address issues of food security and di-
saster management in Africa. The outputs of the workshop centred on the
recognition of the need to develop a regional strategy and programme of ac-
tion on disaster risk reduction.
In light of the above concerns, the aim of the proposed African Regional Strat-
egy for Disaster Risk Reduction is to contribute to the attainment of sustain-
able development and poverty eradication by facilitating the integration of
disaster risk reduction into development.
The Strategy’s objectives are to:
1 Increase political commitment to disaster risk reduction;
2 Improve identification and assessment of disaster risks;
3 Enhance knowledge management for disaster risk reduction;
4 Increase public awareness of disaster risk reduction;
5 Improve governance of disaster risk reduction institutions; and
6 Integrate disaster risk reduction in emergency response management.
The Strategy to achieve these objectives was officially acknowledged at the
AU Summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia in July 2004, with an official call for a
programme of implementation through the joint efforts of the AU and NEPAD,
with continuous support from the UN/ISDR, in cooperation with the UNDP
and UNEP.
10
Subsequently the joint initiatives among the AU, NEPAD, AfDB and UN/ISDR
Africa have resulted in a set of strategic documents, drafted with support from
experts, government officials, UNDP-
Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) and UNEP (AU, 2005).
The documents are:
1 The Regional Review of Disaster Reduction;
2 The Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Management; and
3 Guidelines for Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into
Sustainable Development.

Disaster Risk Reduction Efforts in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe’s climate, physical geography, geology and vegetation make it
prone to a range of disasters resulting from natural hazards such as severe
storms, floods, droughts, cyclones, earth tremors and veld-fires. In addition,
because Zimbabwe is a relatively industrialised and resource rich nation, it
is subject to a variety of other emergencies and disasters resulting from
human-caused and technological hazards that include transport and industrial
accidents, major urban fires, and accidents involving hazardous materials.
Every day, somewhere in Zimbabwe, emergency organisations have to respond
to events that may threaten people’s lives or property. There are occasions
however, when the scale or unusual nature of an event requires planned
coordination between responding organisations. This resource book outlines By road and by air. The CPD ar-
arrangements in Zimbabwe which provide for this planned coordination during rives in Muzarabani as part of the
major emergencies or disasters in terms of national policy and the rapid response team during the
organisational structure of the CPD. floods of 2003
(Source: CPD)
Policy and Disaster Management Organisation in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe’s emergency management and counter disaster arrangements
reflect the fact that, under the county’s Constitution, state, district and Figure 1.7 The Structure of the
provincial governing bodies each have responsibility for protection and Civil Protection Department
preservation of the lives and property of their citizens. Every citizen, in turn,
has the responsibility to assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of
disaster. As provided by the Zimbabwe Civil Protection Act of 1989, central
government initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector
ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for
implementing and maintaining its effectiveness. The structure is illustrated
in Figure 1.7, below. They exercise control over most of the functions
essential for effective disaster prevention, preparedness, response and
recovery, through:
• Legislative and regulatory arrangements within which the community
and various agencies operate;
• Provision of police, fire, ambulance and emergency services, and
medical and hospital services; and
• Government and statutory agencies which provide services to the
community.
The system uses the existing government, private, and non governmental
organisations whose regular activities contain elements of disaster risk pre-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
vention and community development. Local government plays a major role, MLGPW&NH Sister Ministry NGO
Departments Representatives
as do the many voluntary organisations, because of their intimate links with

11
The National Civil Protection Plan (NCPP)
forms the overall framework for the promo-
tion, coordination and execution of emergency
and disaster management in Zimbabwe by:
· Allocating responsibilities and duties to
appropriate authorities at different lev-
els so that organisations can prepare their
own plans and make them operational
when required; and
· Providing guidelines for the planning ex-
ecution and preservation of the civil pro-
tection system and its functions.
‘All disaster preparedness and response ac-
tivities in the country are initiated through the
National Crisis Committee and its sub-com-
mittees, with the assistance of technical ex-
perts who also constitute a sub-committee.’
The CPD coordinates quite a number of pub-
lic awareness programmes tailored to both
the wet and dry seasons. Awareness cam-
paigns on flooding, drowning and lightning
hazards are carried out towards and during
the wet season, while campaigns on fire haz-
ards are conducted in winter. The campaigns
use a multisectoral approach, with the CPD
having the role of designing and coordinat-
ing the programmes. Information is dissemi-
nated through the press, by pamphlets and
in road shows. Trade fair exhibitions on fire
hazards that threaten the environment have
also been mounted. Budgetary constraints
limit the use of the electronic media although
it has a potentially far reaching impact. The
media has also demonstrated a keen inter-
est and has proven an effective tool for infor-
mation dissemination. The results show that
there has been heightened awareness on
hazards and their impacts among the gen-
eral public. Developing this resource book is
also one of the major endeavours by the CPD
to create a Zimbabwean generation that is
disaster management literate.
the communities they serve. The role of the CPD is to provide guidance and
support to the state and downwards, in developing their capacity for dealing
with emergencies and disasters, and to provide physical assistance to requesting
provinces or districts when they cannot cope during an emergency.
Legislation
The Minister of Local Government and National Housing (MLGNH) is
charged with the coordinating role, as empowered by the Civil Protection
Act No. 5 of 1989. The Act provides for:
1 Establishment of the Civil Protection Directorate whose
responsibilities are:
a) Establishment, promotion and directing of civil protection
organisations in civil protection provinces and civil protection
areas.
b) Appointment of planning committees in civil protection provinces
and civil protection areas, which shall draft the civil protection
measures, to be submitted to the Director then the Minister for
approval.
c) Assisting institutions, departments, private and non governmental
organisations to come up with plans for emergency preparedness
and disaster prevention.
d) Consulting the Minister who in turn shall also consult the President
to declare and gazette a state of emergency.
e) Ensuring that the data gathered through different persons from
various disciplines is not contradictory.
f) Regular contact with international disaster management and
disaster relief organisations.
g) Arranging to get first hand information on major incidents.
h) Development of public awareness programmes on emergency
preparedness and response.
i) Promoting research and training into matters relating to disaster
management.
2 Special powers designed to establish, coordinate and direct the
activities of both the public and the emergency services.
3 Guidelines for action and maximum use of resources since disaster
mitigation requires a multisectoral and interdisciplinary approach.
4 The establishment of a National Civil Protection Fund that receives
money from both Government and the public. The fund is applied to
the development of Civil Protection activities throughout the country.
The National Civil Protection Plan
A National Civil Protection Coordination Committee (NCPCC) derives its
mandate from section (41) (2) of the Civil Protection Act No. 5 of 1989 and
is responsible for the execution of civil protection functions. The permanent
members of the NCPCC are senior officers selected from government
ministries and departments, parastatals and NGOs. Other members, especially
from the private sector, are co-opted as required. This multisectoral
representation is replicated at the provincial and district levels. However,
there are marked variations in the representation as some organisations
12
 Figure 1.8 Organisational Struc-
ture of the Civil Protection De-
partment

remain centralised and, even among those that are decentralised, the grades of
staff working at provincial or district level affects the manner in which they are
represented.

In addition to ministries having special responsibilities according to their

portfolios, members of the NCPCC, Provincial Civil Protection Coordination
Committee (PCPCC) and District Civil Protection Coordination Committee
(DCPCC) are grouped into functional sub-committees namely:
• Food Supplies and Food Security, chaired by the Ministry of Public
Service Labour and Social Welfare;
• Health, Nutrition and Welfare, chaired by the Ministry of Health and
Highfield theatre and dance group,
Child Welfare;
Together as One, performing in
• Search, Rescue and Security, chaired by the Zimbabwe Republic Police;
Malipati during one of the public
• International Cooperation Assistance, chaired by the Ministry of
annual pre-rainfall season public
Finance.
awareness campaign. The CPD
The Minister is helped in administering the Civil Protection Act and its policy uses dance groups to attract villag-
by a series of administrative echelons starting at the national and going down ers and schoolchildren to cam-
to the district level, as depicted in Figure 1.8. paign rallies and drama based on
related disaster themes to convey
Current work of the Civil Protection Department the necessary information to the
The CPD carries out regular vulnerability and capacity assessments, espe- audiences.
(Source: CPD)
cially during periods of disaster, to collect baseline data for intervention. The
methods used include community and household interviews, particularly in
the rural areas where the most vulnerable people are. Vulnerability assess-
ments have also been carried out in urban areas with the similar objectives of
identifying the most vulnerable groups in terms of food access and availabil-
ity, and vulnerability to the impact of HIV and AIDS and other diseases.
The CPD engages existing institutions for the
execution of scientific research work that is in
Zimbabwe has attempted to integrate lessons learnt from past major emer- line with disaster risk reduction. For example,
technical support for scientific research can
gencies and disasters such as droughts, cyclones and major public transport be obtained from the University of Zimbabwe
and from the Scientific and Industrial Research
into its ongoing strategies. Disaster review seminars held after an incident and Development Centre (SIRDC), both of
have resulted in an improved early warning system for the country’s hydro- which are parastatals. The work they are in-
volved in includes studying soil samples e.g.
meteorological disasters, such as flooding, cyclones and droughts. The Me- in communities that are vulnerable to flood-
ing emergencies and developing sustainable
teorological Services Department monitors the weather closely and is man- construction materials. They also advise policy
dated to give regular updates and warning information, including to the gen- makers whether such sites are suitable for
human settlement or not. Their expertise has
eral public when necessary, through the prescribed channels of communica- also been called for in designing rural build-
ings and low cost sewage reticulation plants.
tion.

13

A potentially damaging physical event, phe-
nomenon or human activity that may cause
the loss of life, or injury, property damage,
social and economic disruption or environmen-
tal degradation.
A condition or an impulsive event of signifi-
cant destruction, disruption or distress to the
normal functioning of a community, causing
widespread human, material, or environmen-
tal losses, which exceed the ability of the af-
fected community to cope using only its own
resources.
CHAPTER 2
Disaster Risk Management Concepts
Introduction
This chapter introduces and develops the working concept and principles for
the Disaster Risk Reduction Approach. It is designed to introduce the subject
of disaster risk management by starting with the definition of basic terms that
will be used throughout the book, and goes on to look at the various forms of
hazards and their phases. It also discusses four essential component topics:
1 The review of current approaches to disaster management;
2 The development of risk management concepts;
3 The essentials of the new risk management concept; and
4 The Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach and how to
integrate the community into this.
The chapter is primarily designed to increase the teacher’s awareness of the
current nature and management of disasters, in line with current practice in
disaster management. The aim is to make teachers and their students ‘disaster
risk reduction literate’. We hope that this will lead to better performance in
both disaster preparedness and response at community and local levels. Most
of the disaster risk management concepts, definitions of terms and terminol-
ogy are based on material from UN-OCHA/Kobe (2005) and ISDR (2004).
Hazards and Disasters
HAZARD A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity
that may cause the loss of life, or injury, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation.
NATURAL HAZARDS Hazards with meteorological, geological, biological or
extraterrestrial (space) origins.
HUMAN-MADE HAZARDS Hazards or emergency situations in which the
principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or
otherwise. Apart from ‘technological’ and ‘ecological’ hazards, this mainly
involves situations in which civilian populations may suffer casualties, or
loss of property, basic services and means of livelihood, as a result of war or
civil strife for example. Human-made hazards or emergencies can be of the
rapid or slow onset types and, in the case of internal conflict, can lead to
‘complex emergencies’ as well.
DISASTER A condition or an impulsive event of significant destruction,
disruption or distress to the normal functioning of a community, causing
widespread human, material, or environmental losses, which exceed the
ability of the affected community to cope using only its own resources. The
damage caused by disaster is immeasurable and differs with variations in the
geographical location, climate and the type of the earth surface. This
influences the mental, socioeconomic, political and cultural state of the
affected area.
14
 Box 2.1 Difference between a Hazard and a Disaster
BOX 2.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HAZARD AND A
DISASTER
“Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as a natural disaster, but there are natural
hazards, such as cyclones and earthquakes. The difference between a hazard and a
disaster is an important one. A disaster takes place when a community is affected by a
hazard (usually defined as an event that overwhelms that community’s capacity to cope).
In other words, the impact of the disaster is determined by the extent of a community’s
vulnerability to the hazard. This vulnerability is not natural. It is the human dimension of
disasters, the result of the whole range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political
and even psychological factors that shape people’s lives and create the environment that
they live in.”

Source: Twigg, J. 2001

Variables of disaster
Disasters of all kinds and magnitudes happen when hazards seriously affect Therefore, in a broad sense, a ‘disaster’ has
the following impacts in the affected area:
communities. They can occur anywhere at any time and they are generally · Complete disruption of the normal day-
to-day functions of the community;
unpredictable. However, disasters can vary in the following ways: · Increased demand for provision of fun-
damental necessities, such as food,
CAUSE They can result from a natural or human-made hazard (e.g. flood or shelter, and healthcare;
· Drastic deterioration in the normal life pro-
transport accident). cess; and
· The demand that emergency systems op-
erate at their maximum capacity.
FREQUENCY AND RISK Some occur more often and, therefore, present a greater
risk than others (e.g. in Zimbabwe, there is a much higher risk of damage
from severe thunderstorms than from landslides).
DURATION OF IMPACT Some may be of limited duration, while others may last
for long periods (e.g. lightning may only last for a second, but a drought may
go on for years).
DESTRUCTIVE POTENTIAL This can vary enormously with the type of hazard
(e.g. a bridge collapse is a localised event causing damage over a much smaller
SPEED OF ONSET Some happen suddenly, while
area than a cyclone which affects the whole country). with others there is a warning period of per-
haps hours, days or even months (e.g. there
may be only a few minutes warning of a flash
PREDICTABILITY Some hazards follow certain patterns, and others do not (e.g. flood, whereas the relatively slow onset of a
floods are usually confined to known floodplains but toxic gas emissions drought allows a much longer warning time).

have no boundaries).
CONTROL AND HUMAN VULNERABILITY In some disasters we are totally help-
less and must leave them to run their course. In others we can do something
to lessen their impact even if we cannot prevent them from occurring (e.g.
unlike lightning, wild fires can often be prepared for and controlled, however
more Zimbabweans are vulnerable to them as they happen more frequently
than lightening and affect larger areas).

Classification by Origin
SCOPE OF IMPACT Some disasters may affect a
relatively small area, and others may affect
Meteorological origin whole countries or regions (e.g. floods in
Muzarabani compared to widespread drought
Parts of Zimbabwe suffer regularly from the effects of meteorological haz- in Southern Africa). Others caused by a single
hazard and initially affecting a small area,
ards in the form of tropical cyclones, droughts, bushfires, floods, lightning could cause a chain reaction involving sev-
eral other hazards covering a much larger
and severe storms. Less common but among the most dangerous weather haz- region (e.g. an earthquake which damages
ards are tornadoes and extreme cold (explained in Chapter 3). Although in roads causing transport accidents, ruptures
petrol pipes causing fires, and fractures a dam
neighboring countries like South Africa, these two are the most deadly me- causing flash flooding).

15
Compared to some other countries, disasters
regularly caused by these hazards in Zimba-
bwe do not often take a large toll in terms of
lives, mainly because the country is not
densely populated and is relatively well pre-
pared. However, they often result in damage
that can run into hundreds of millions of US
dollars. This effect alone causes suffering to
individuals, families and communities that
can last for years.
Classifications of hazards differ slightly at
times depending on the defining organisation.
The latest classification of hazards by the In-
ternational Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR) during the global review of disaster
reduction initiatives in 2003 is presented in
Table 2.1. This is the classification that we
have adopted for use in all chapters of this
resource book.
teorological hazards, in Zimbabwe they rarely cause death except when people
are caught in very cold conditions without adequate protection, or near an
insecure structure in the case of tornadoes.
Geological origin
Volcanoes are extinct in Zimbabwe and intense earthquakes scarcely occur,
although several mild to moderate ones have caused minor building damage
in Matabeleland North and South as well as in Manicaland. The Nyamandlovu
Aquifer earthquakes from 1999 to 2004 caused some damage to weak rural
structures, including the collapse of wells and boreholes, although there was
no loss of life (see Chapter 4). In many countries, landslides are often caused
by earthquakes but, in Zimbabwe, they are usually the result of soil saturation
or human activity and, until recently, were not regarded as major hazards as
they were seen to be responsible for only occasional serious damage to roads
and houses. In 1996 and 1997, however, this view changed when landslide
disasters became common as a result of rampant gold panning activities (see
Chapter 7).
Biological origin
The biological hazards with potential for disaster in Zimbabwe include human
disease epidemics (e.g. cholera, TB, STDs, hepatitis, HIV), vermin and insect
plagues (e.g. rabbits, mice, locusts), exotic animal diseases (e.g. foot and
mouth, anthrax) and food crop diseases. These and other similar hazards could
dramatically and suddenly affect both the health and wealth of any nation
(see Chapter 5).
Extraterrestrial origin
Although presenting a very low risk, the impact on earth of being hit by a
comet or asteroid (large meteorite) could certainly cause anything from a
major regional disaster, to a worldwide catastrophe. There are many past im-
pact sites throughout the world, including in Zimbabwe (see Chapter 4).
Human-made hazards and disasters
Human error or deliberate acts sometimes take on disastrous proportions.
These may include urban fires, terrorist bombings, riots, wars, crowd crushes
at mass gatherings, shooting massacres, and even sabotage of essential
services (e.g. water or power supplies).
Technological origin
These include major transport, mining and hazardous materials accidents (e.g.
oil or chemical spills), as well as industrial explosions, fire and occasional
bridge collapses. This category also includes dam failures and nuclear power
accidents (see Chapter 6).
Classification by Time Frame
Hazards and the disasters they cause are classified as rapid onset or cataclys-
mic, and slow onset, long term or continuing.
Rapid onset/cataclysmic disaster
In a cataclysmic disaster, one large scale event causes most of the damage
and destruction. Following this event, there may be a tremendous amount of
16
suffering and chaos, but things soon begin to improve. In a long term, con-
tinuing disaster, the situation after the event remains constant or may even
deteriorate as time passes. Cataclysmic disasters include earthquakes, volca-
nic eruptions, cyclonic storms, and floods.
Slow onset/continuing
Continuing natural disasters include droughts, crop failures, and environmen-
tal degradation, such as deforestation and desertification. The damaged area
in a cataclysmic disaster is usually relatively small, while the area affected in
a continuing disaster may be extremely large.
Cataclysmic disasters destroy buildings and
entire human settlements. Loss of life is sud-
den and, therefore, dramatic. In terms of food
and food distribution, cataclysmic disasters
are normally more disruptive than destruc-
tive. For example, they may disrupt the trans-
port and marketing systems. They can dis-
rupt or damage irrigation systems and, to a
limited extent, they may destroy food sup-
plies. But the extent of destruction depends
on the season, the location of the disaster,
and the total area affected. On the other hand,
while continuing disasters disrupt transporta-
tion and distribution networks, cataclysmic
disasters can also bring them to a complete
halt and even destroy the system itself.

The Disaster Concept

Hardly a month passes without media reports of a disaster in Zimbabwe or
abroad. So what really are disasters? The definition of ‘disaster’ given earlier
on seems not to say it all and leaves some areas not attended to. For example,
an event that disrupts an entire family, such as having their home burn down
may be seen as a ‘disaster’ by that family but it lacks the community level
impact contained in the definition given. To a disaster manager it is clear that
the word ‘disaster’ is often used inappropriately or as an exaggeration. The
discussion below adds some further detail and distinguishing features to the
description given.

Disasters are human-made

Essentially, all disasters are human-made, for, a catastrophic event, whether
precipitated by natural phenomena or human activities, assumes the status of
a disaster when the community or society affected fails to cope. An earth-
quake or tropical cyclone, for example, is not a disaster in and of itself. Natu-
ral hazards such as tropical cyclones, floods, earthquakes and droughts tend
to spring to mind when the word ‘disaster’ is mentioned but a disaster is cor-
rectly defined on the basis of its human consequences, not on the phenom-
enon that caused it (Hewitt, 1997). Natural hazards, however intense, inevi-
table or unpredictable, translate into disasters only to the extent that the popu-
lation was unprepared to respond and unable to cope. Therefore, the extent of
the disaster depends on both the intensity of the event and the degree of vul-
nerability of the society. Thus a natural disaster always consists of two ele-
ments, an external event (the hazard) and the impacts of this hazard on a vul-
nerable social group exposed to it. A very intense tropical cyclone occurring
in an uninhabited area (as do scores of tropical cyclones in the ocean each
month) is only of scientific interest and is not considered a disaster.

Extreme natural events only become disasters if they have an impact upon
vulnerable people, who may be exposed to natural hazards through careless-
ness or poverty, or who contribute to or aggravate the events by interfering
with nature. Consider the tropical cyclone Eline that affected Mauritius and
Southern Africa in February 2000. The cyclone had a lot of destructive strength
when it hit Mauritius, but caused minimal damage to property, with no offi-
The vulnerability of humans to the impact of
cial death reported (Mauritius Met Services, 2000). Hence it was not de- natural hazards is to a significant extent de-
termined by human action or inaction. For ex-
clared a disaster in Mauritius. However, the way in which it affected Zimba- ample, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for
bwe, with only a fraction of the original destructive force, made it one of the Climate Change (IPCC) has traced the cur-
rent climatic anomalies attributed to global
worst natural disasters of the century in terms of life and property lost. More climate change to human activities.

17
Table 2:1 ISDR Hazards
Classification HAZARD
A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity which
may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation

NATURAL HAZARDS
Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a
damaging event. Natural hazards can be classified according to their geological,
hydro-meteorological or biological origins

ORIGIN: Hydro-meteorological hazards

Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric,hydrological or oceanographic
nature

ORIGIN: Geological hazards

Natural earth processes or phenomena that include processes of tectonic or
exogenous origin, such as mass movements

Phenomena/Example of Hydro-meteorologi-
cal hazards
•Floods, debris and mudflows
•Tropical cyclones, storm surges, wind, rain
and other severe storms, blizzards, lightning
•Drought, desertification, wild fires, tempera-
ture extremes, sand or dust storms
•Permafrost, snow avalanches
Phenomena/Example of Geological hazards
•Earthquakes, tsunamis
•Volcanic activity and emissions
•Mass movements, landslides, rockslides,
•Liquefaction, sub-marine slides
•Surface collapse, geological fault activity
TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Danger associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure
failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation,
sometimes referred to as anthropogenic hazards. Examples include industrial
pollution, nuclear release and radioactivity, toxic waste, dam failure, transport,
industrial or technological accidents (explosions, fires, spills).
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Processes induced by human behaviour and activities (sometimes combined with
natural hazards) that damage the natural resource base or adversely alter natural
processes or ecosystems. Potential effects are varied and may contribute to an
increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards.
Examples include land degradation, deforestation, desertification, veld fires, loss
of biodiversity, pollution of land, water and air, climate change, sea level rise and
ozone depletion.
Adapted from ‘Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives’

than 120 people died from direct effects with several hundreds more being
indirectly affected. Development in many areas was set back by several de-
cades (see Chapter 3). Therefore, the vulnerability of humans to the impact
of natural hazards is to a significant extent determined by human action or
inaction. For example, the UN Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
(IPCC) has traced the current climatic anomalies attributed to global climate
change to human activities (IPCC, 1995).

Disaster impacts
Each type of disaster can have a number of disruptive effects. These, in turn,
cause generally predictable problems and needs of four kinds: environmen-
tal; health; social, economic, and political; and administrative and managerial.

Environmental effects
Disasters can lead to destruction and damage to homes and buildings, de-
creased quantity or quality of water supplies, destruction of crops and/or food
stocks, and the presence of unburied human bodies or animal carcasses. These
environmental effects vary considerably from disaster to disaster. For ex-
ample, earthquakes affect buildings but usually not crops, while tropical cy-

18
clones may affect both.

Effects on health
Sudden natural disasters often cause not only widespread death, but also mas-
sive social disruption and outbreaks of epidemic disease and famine. There is
a relationship between the type of disaster and its effect on health. This is
particularly true of the immediate impact in causing injuries. Bus accidents
cause many injuries requiring medical care, while floods and droughts cause
relatively few such injuries. The risks of increased disease transmission are
greatest where there is crowding and reduced standards of sanitation.

Economic, social, and political effects

Disasters disrupt rather than destroy economies. Whether or not an economy
is able to recover quickly depends on the losses sustained. Physical damage
to businesses and industry may temporarily halt some activities, but most
enterprises can operate at reduced levels, even with the loss of equipment.
When a disaster strikes, large formal organisations may be disrupted. Wide-
spread disasters can destroy or damage facilities that may be critical not only
for responding to the disaster but also for maintaining a safe environment and
public order. Among these are communications installations; electrical gen-
erating and transmission facilities; water storage, purification, and pumping
facilities; sewage treatment facilities; hospitals; police stations; and private
Disasters can be prevented or their impact
buildings. During the initial stages of most types of disaster, almost all sur- on people and communities mitigated but the
extent to which this happens depends on
face means of transportation within a community are disrupted. Bridges might human action or inaction in response to high
be washed out; landslides might block or damage roads; and rubble can block risk and vulnerability (Guzman, 2001).
Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the
streets and highways (Cova and Conger, 2000). importance of community action, such as ca-
pacity building, including planning responses
to potential disasters, and managing and
Can a Disaster Impact be Reduced or Prevented? mitigating their effects. Preventing the occur-
rence or recurrence of disaster should be pos-
Since we lay the disaster problem squarely on human influence, it must be sible.

also the actions of human beings that can reduce, if not prevent, disasters. To
return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline and Mauritius, we can see that
utilisation of advances in science and technology, including early warning and
forecasting of natural phenomena, meant that the detrimental effects on the
island’s population were curtailed and communities and their property were
adequately protected. High exposure to the frequent impact of tropical cy-
clones on the island, together with innovative approaches and strategies for
enhancing local capacities, resulted in tropical cyclone Eline being easily
predicted and its effects mitigated. Hence it crossed Mauritius being per-
ceived locally as just another storm but left an inerasable scar on the face of
continental Southern Africa.
This experience demonstrates that human societies have the capacity to
recognise the risks and factors that could lead to disasters and the appropriate
interventions to control or manage them. Disasters can be prevented or their
impact on people and communities mitigated but the extent to which this hap-
pens depends on human action or inaction in response to high risk and vulner- Disasters need to be regarded as events that
can be managed and responded to as neces-
ability (Guzman, 2001). Guzman’s view enables us to recognise the impor- sary. A forward looking response to a hazard,
tance of community action, such as capacity building, including planning before it escalates into a disaster also yields
time for purposive social action, including
responses to potential disasters, and managing and mitigating their effects. adoption of innovative development strate-
gies, to prevent or reduce the loss of life and
Preventing the occurrence or recurrence of disaster should be possible. property as well as degradation of the envi-
ronment and deterioration of the economy.

19
HAZARD is a phenomenon, event or occurrence
that has the potential to cause injury to life
Risk and Disaster Risk Concepts
or damage to property or the environment.
The magnitude of the phenomenon, the prob-
It is very important that the concepts of ‘hazard’, ‘vulnerability’, and ‘risk’ be
ability of its occurrence, and the extent and adequately understood in the context of disasters in order to be able to differ-
severity of its impact may vary. Usually the
hazard related effects can be anticipated or entiate these terms. These three words are going to be used quite frequently
estimated. Therefore, through careful study
and understanding of the nature and preva-
throughout this resource book. They are defined below using examples from
lence of hazards, a community or public au- the UNDP’s disaster management working definitions.
thority could anticipate future hazards and
their impact, and minimise the risk of a di-
saster. For example, climate change impacts
are now being studied through the UN’s IPCC
Risk Analysis and Risk Management as a Process
and some of the effects, together with ways
to mitigate them, are already known.
Risk analysis
VULNERABILITY refers to the susceptibility of a Risk analysis involves the systematic use of available information to deter-
community to a hazard and the conditions,
including physical, socioeconomic and politi- mine the likelihood of certain events occurring and the magnitude of their
cal factors, that adversely affect its ability to
respond to hazards or disaster events. The
possible consequences. Guzman (2003) outlines activities in the process as:
community and its members may or may not 1 Identifying the nature, extent, and risk of threat;
be contributing intentionally or directly to
these conditions but, altogether, they create 2 Determining the existence and degree of vulnerabilities;
factors and situations that define the vulner-
ability of the community. Vulnerabilities can
3 Identifying the capabilities and resources available;
be manifested as physical, social, or attitudi- 4 Determining acceptable levels of risk, i.e. cost-benefit considerations;
nal vulnerability. For example, a community
whose villages are situated on a flood plain 5 Setting priorities relative to time, resource allocation and effective-
is vulnerable to floods (physical vulnerabil-
ity); a poor community is subject to a wide
ness of results;
array of vulnerabilities (social vulnerability); 6 Developing methods to protect people and key resources and reduce
a person who refuses to acknowledge the
spread of AIDS through unsafe sex is vulner- over all losses; and
able to the disease (attitudinal vulnerability).
7 Designing effective and appropriate management systems to implement
and control.
R ISK is the probability that threat to life or
damage to property and the environment will
occur. However, in disaster management, ‘risk’
refers to the combined susceptibility and vul-
Risk management
nerability of the community to potential dam-
age caused by a particular hazard within a
The systematic application of management policies, procedures and practices
specified future time period. Risk is rooted in to the tasks of identifying, analysing, assessing, treating and monitoring risk
conditions of physical, social, economic and
environmental vulnerability that need to be is referred to as ‘risk management’. It includes estimating the potential ef-
assessed and managed on a continuing ba-
sis.
fects of the risk through an evaluation of all the elements that are relevant to
an understanding of existing or probable hazards and their effects on a spe-
cific community or environment, and setting out priorities. This evaluation,
which also encompasses socioeconomic and political factors, enables the
determination of appropriate vulnerability reduction, prevention and mitiga-
Figure 2:1 Interaction of tion, as well as preparedness and response strategies.
Vulnerability Factors
Understanding Disaster Risk Reduction
As mentioned in Chapter 1, the number of natural disasters has been increas-
ing, as has their impact, due to such external changes as the concentration of
populations and property in hazardous areas, and rapid urbanisation. We have
already seen that the recent increases of earthquakes, tropical cyclones and
torrential rains, are only natural phenomena we refer to as ‘hazards’ and are
not considered to be disasters in and of themselves. For instance, a tropical
cyclone in the ocean does not trigger a disaster if there is no existing popula-
tion or property affected. Indeed, the annual floods in Muzarabani in the north-
east of Zimbabwe are essential to the well being of the local inhabitants, as
they are a prerequisite for the fertility of the soils found in the area. Once the
natural phenomena have the potential to harm life and property, then they trans-
late into natural hazards and when their effects are serious they become natu-
ral disasters.

20
Thus in addition to a hazard, some vulnerability to the natural phenomenon
must be present for an event to constitute a disaster. ‘Vulnerability’ is defined
as a condition resulting from physical, social, economic, and environmental
factors or processes, which increases the susceptibility of a community to
the impact of a hazard. These four broad areas in which different aspects of
vulnerability can be grouped can interact with each other to create even more
vulnerable conditions. In Figure 2.1, the area where all the four spheres inter-
sect signifies the most vulnerable situation.
The following are ways in which each of these four broad areas bring about
vulnerability:
PHYSICAL FACTORS These refer mainly to aspects and susceptibilities of lo-
cation and the built environment. They may be described as ‘exposure’, ‘being
placed in harm’s way’ or simply ‘being in the wrong place at the wrong time’.
Aspects such as, population density levels, remoteness of a settlement, the
site, and the design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for housing
may determine physical vulnerability.
SOCIAL FACTORS These include aspects related to levels of literacy and edu-
cation, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, sys-
tems of governance, social equity, positive traditional values, customs and
ideological beliefs and overall collective organisational systems. Some groups
are more vulnerable than others. The sick and the disabled are particularly
susceptible, as their evacuation and continued care is severely hampered dur-
ing disasters. Predisposition to infection, high exposure to communicable
diseases and lack of defensive mechanisms represent individual conditions
of vulnerability. Increased vulnerability usually manifests itself in physical
features, such as insufficient basic infrastructure, especially water supply and
sanitation, as well as inadequate healthcare facilities and supplies.
ECONOMIC FACTORS Levels of vulnerability are highly dependent upon the
economic status of individuals, communities and nations. The poor, a dispro-
portionately female and elderly group in most regions, are generally far more

Figure 2.2 Examples of Exposure

to Hazards through Location

This shows that the people as well as the prop-

erty and the environment that is to be af-
fected by hazards face different types and
levels of ‘exposure’. Some examples of ex-
posure elements are shown in Figure 2.2.

21
Figure 2.3 The Mechanism Behind
the Emergence of Natural Disas-
ters
Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Cen-
ter
Figure 2.4 Mechanism for Natu-
ral Disaster Reduction
Adapted from Asian Disaster Reduction Cen-
ter
It should be noted that disasters may be seen
differently in different cultures. Whether
those affected see an event as a risk or as a
disaster, or whether they assess the risk as
high or low depends on the value system they
feel bound by. Perception of risk (or the lack
such perception) is the most important factor
in vulnerability. For example, followers of the
largest Christian church in Zimbabwe, the
‘vapostiori’ (see Chapter 3), perceive lighting
as a punishment sent by God which one can-
not do anything to avoid.
vulnerable than economically better off segments of society. An economy
lacking in diversity is generally the most vulnerable. Inadequate access to
critical and basic socioeconomic infrastructure, including communication
networks, utilities and supplies, transportation, water, sewage and healthcare
facilities, increase people’s exposure to risk.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The extent of natural resource depletion and re-
source degradation are key aspects of environmental vulnerability. For ex-
ample, a polluted environment increases people’s exposure to health risks.
As natural resources become scarcer the range of options available to com-
munities becomes more limited, reducing the availability of coping solutions
and decreasing local resilience to hazards and capacity for recovery follow-
ing a disaster. Over a period of time, environmental factors can increase vul-
nerability further by creating new and undesirable patterns of social discord,
economic destitution and eventually forced migration of entire communi-
ties.
Risk can be further understood as the probability of harmful consequences,
or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, disruption to livelihoods
and economic activity, environmental damage) resulting from interactions
between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Hence
the negative impact – the disaster – will depend on the characteristics, prob-
ability and intensity of the hazard, as well as the susceptibility of the exposed
elements based on physical, social, economic and environmental conditions.
If risk is something that has not happened yet but which is projected into the
future, there are two possibilities for action if the level of risk is perceived as
unbearable, either to eliminate the risk or to reduce it as far as possible.
In Figure 2.3, locations and populations in the right hand region face some
exposure, while those in the lowest region are subject to certain types of
vulnerability. Possible natural events occur in the left hand region. However,
the risk only arises in the central area, where hazard, vulnerability and expo-
sure coexist. This shows that hazard and vulnerability must be simultaneously
present at the same location (exposure) to give rise to risk, which then be-
comes a disaster if the event actually occurs.
If we suppose that the disaster risk on the schematic diagram (Figure 2.3) is
directly proportional to the real disaster risk, altering the size of the various
spheres alters the disaster risk area, hence the disaster risk. Leaving the ex-
posure to grow and delaying in reducing vulnerabilities will result in higher
disaster risk and hence a potentially increased number of natural disasters
and greater levels of loss.
In order to reduce disaster risk, it is essential that the level of vulnerability be
reduced and to make sure that exposure is as far away from hazards as pos-
sible by relocating populations and property. Figure 2.4 shows how disaster
risk can be reduced and indicates the area of disaster risk. It can be seen here
that the disaster risk is considerably smaller than that shown in Figure 2.3.
We have shown that the risk of disaster can be reduced either by restricting
the hazard or by reducing vulnerability, as well as by simply avoiding hazard-
ous areas. However, reducing the hazard is usually very difficult and may even
be impossible. Vulnerability, on the other hand, is easier to influence by
strengthening human response, planning and protective capabilities. Expo-
sure is also relatively simple to deal with.
22
Effective mitigation and preparedness measures can be employed to achieve
disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures are:
ACTIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities promote desired actions by
offering incentives. These are often associated with development programmes
in areas of low income.
PASSIVE MEASURES those in which the authorities prevent undesired actions
by using controls and penalties. These actions are usually more appropriate
for well established local authorities in areas with higher incomes.
ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION MEASURES ranging from large scale engi-
neering works to strengthening individual buildings and small scale commu-
nity based projects. Training of local builders in techniques to incorporate
better protection into traditional structures – buildings, roads, bridges and
embankments – is likely to be an essential component of such measures.
To return to the case of tropical cyclone Eline,
it is clear that the people of Mauritius are far
PHYSICAL PLANNING MEASURES including careful location of new facilities, less vulnerable to death and injury from tropi-
particularly community facilities such as schools, hospitals and infrastruc- cal cyclones because Mauritius has strictly
enforced building codes, zoning regulations
ture, which plays an important role in reducing settlement vulnerability. In and tropical cyclone hazard awareness/train-
ing, as well as the related up to date commu-
urban areas, deconcentration of communities, especially those at risk, is an nication systems. The tropical cyclone early
important principle. warning system is in such good shape that it
offers official cyclone warning not only to its
inhabitants, but to the whole of the South
ECONOMIC MEASURES noting that different sectors of the economy may be West Indian Ocean (SWIO) basin as well. In
more vulnerable to disruption by a disaster than others. Diversification of the relation to figure 2.4, Mauritius has managed
to considerably reduce the disaster risk
economy is an important way to reduce the risk. “A strong economy is the through reducing both their vulnerability and
best defense against disaster” (UNDP DHA, 1994). Within a strong economy, exposure, although the hazard remains.
governments can also use economic incentives to encourage individuals or
institutions to take disaster mitigation actions.
MANAGEMENT AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES which need to be supported by a
programme of education, training and institution building to provide the pro-
fessional knowledge and competence required. Building disaster protection
in this way takes time.
SOCIETAL MEASURES which should aim to develop a ‘safety culture’ in which
all members of society are aware of the hazards they face, know how to pro-
tect themselves, and will support the protection efforts of others and of the
community as a whole.

Vulnerability to Disasters
Landslides or flooding disasters are closely linked to rapid and unchecked
urbanisation, which forces low income families to settle on the slopes of
steep hillsides or ravines, or along the banks of flood prone rivers. Famines
can be closely linked to shortages of purchasing power caused by rural
unemployment or a sudden influx of refugees into a country from a strife
torn neighbouring country. High numbers of deaths accompanying
earthquakes almost always result from structural collapse of poor, low cost
houses. In other disasters, such as floods, humans can increase their
vulnerability by removing parts of their natural environment that may act as
buffers to extreme natural forces. Such acts include cutting down trees,
causing soil erosion and settling close to riverbanks.
It is important to realise that natural hazards are agents or trigger mechanisms
that can come into contact with a vulnerable human condition to result in a
disaster. The disaster arises from the fact that certain communities or groups
are forced to settle in areas susceptible to the impact of, say, a raging river or
Vulnerability is seen as the progression of
three stages:
UNDERLYING CAUSES A deep rooted set of factors
within a society that together form and main-
tain vulnerability.
DYNAMIC P RESSURES A translating process that
channels the effects of a negative cause into
unsafe conditions. This may be set in motion
by a lack of basic services or service provi-
sion, or it may result from a series of macro
forces.
UNSAFE C ONDITIONS The most vulnerable con-
text, in which people and property are ex-
posed to the risk of disaster. It may include a
fragile physical environment, an unstable
economy or low income levels.

23
Figure 2.5 The Disaster Crunch
Model
Adapted from Blackie (2002)

THE PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY

a volcanic eruption. It is essential to make a distinction between hazards and

disasters, and to recognise that the effect of the former upon the latter is
essentially a measure of the society’s vulnerability. Figure 2.5, below, illus-
trates this combination of forces.

Geographies of vulnerability
No place or group of people is entirely safe, but the forms and severity of
risk vary markedly between different parts of the world, areas and groups of
people, as well as within local communities and even within the family. A
first assessment of the geography of risk from given hazards is to show who
and what is present in the area under study and who lives in proximity to
dangerous phenomena or facilities. A map of vulnerability may be described
as a visual expression of this assessment.

The Vulnerability Reduction Approach

The vulnerability reduction approach views vulnerability as an interaction be-
tween a community, its environment and the hazards present. Instead of re-
sulting in sustainable human development, this interaction can deteriorate into
a crisis that can set development back. Since the vulnerability of a community
The advantage of the vulnerability assess-
is characterised by its susceptibility or the degree to which it is exposed to
ment, which includes hazard analysis and risk
assessment, is that it enables the commu-
the risk posed by hazards, and its resilience or the capacity to cope with harm,
nity to know how vulnerable they are and how
hazards may affect them. Hazard mitigation, the vulnerability reduction approach addresses both susceptibility and resil-
which includes measures to prevent hazards
from causing emergencies or lessen their ience. This is achieved by dealing with the causes of emergencies and disas-
likely effects, protects the community from
undue risk. Preparedness for disaster re- ters and strengthening communities at risk. Therefore, it requires a number
sponse, including planning and training, also
contributes to prevention of disasters by rais- of coordinated activities, including hazard and vulnerability assessment, pre-
ing awareness of vulnerabilities and risks,
thereby protecting the community and human vention and mitigation, and preparedness for response.
development. This means that the applica-
tion of the vulnerability reduction approach
entails multisectoral involvement, coordina- The Disaster Risk Reduction Concept
tion and sharing of responsibility with the af-
fected community. Thus it seeks effectiveness A life without risk is neither possible nor conceivable but both the level of
by taking into account the practices that are
best suited to local conditions and under- acceptance and the perception of risk vary from one individual to another.
standing.

Adapted from Hewitt (1997) 24

One person will take a sharp bend at 40 km/h, another at 100 km/h, depending
on their assessment of risk. Awareness of risk in terms of the type of hazard,
the extent of vulnerability and exposure is, therefore, a necessary condition
for engagement in disaster risk reduction. A focus on risk management, rather
than on disaster events alone, reflects a proactive attitude for dealing with
potential threats to social and material assets before they are lost. Under-
standing risk relates to the ability to define what could happen in the future,
given a range of possible alternatives. Assessing risks based on vulnerability
and hazard analysis is a required step for the adoption of adequate and suc-
cessful disaster reduction policies and measures. Levels of risk awareness
depend largely on the quantity and quality of available information and on the
difference in people’s perceptions of risk. People are more vulnerable when
they are not aware of the exposure as well as the hazards that pose a threat to
their lives and property (UN/ISDR, 2002). Risk awareness varies among indi-
Figure 2.6 Disaster Risk
viduals, communities and governments, and is influenced by the knowledge
Management as Part of Disaster
of hazards and vulnerabilities, as well as by the availability of accurate and
Management
timely information about them. Adapted from GTZ (2004)

While natural hazards may be inevitable, disasters are not. By seeking to un-
derstand and to anticipate future hazards, through the study of the past and
monitoring of present situations, a community or public authority can minimise
the risk of a disaster. Hazards are dynamic and have highly varying potential
impacts. Due to changing environments, many countries and regional
organisations require a greater knowledge of hazard characteristics. A wide
range of geophysical, meteorological, hydrological, environmental, techno-
logical, biological and even sociopolitical hazards, alone or in complex in-
teraction, can threaten lives and sustainable development.

Disaster Risk Management Concepts

Before delving further into disaster risk management, let us see how two of
the key concepts, ‘disaster management’ and ‘disaster risk management’ differ,
taking note that the CPD is now moving from the former to the latter. As
shown in Figure 2.6, disaster management (DM) includes measures for before
(prevention, preparedness, risk transfer), during (humanitarian aid,
rehabilitation of the basic infrastructure, damage assessment) and after
(disaster response and reconstruction) disaster. Disaster risk management
(DRM) is part of disaster management, focusing on the before (risk analysis,
Figure 2.7 Areas of Action for
prevention, preparedness) of the extreme natural event, and relating to the
Risk Management
during and after of the disaster only through risk analysis.

DRM IS AN INSTRUMENT FOR REDUCING THE RISK OF DISASTER PRIMARILY BY

REDUCING VULNERABILITY, BASED ON SOCIAL AGREEMENTS RESULTING FROM
RISK ANALYSIS. THESE SOCIAL AGREEMENTS ARE THE RESULT OF A COMPLEX
SOCIAL PROCESS IN WHICH ALL SOCIAL STRATA AND INTEREST GROUPS PARTICI-
PATE. THEY ARE A NECESSARY BASIS FOR RESISTING THE FUTURE EFFECTS OF
EXTREME NATURAL EVENTS (PREVENTION, PREPAREDNESS). (GTZ, 2004)

Therefore, the primary area of action of DRM is reducing vulnerability and

enhancing self protection capabilities. The components at play in DRM are
risk analysis, prevention and preparedness, as illustrated in Figure 2.7.
25
Figure 2.8 The Relationship
between the Development of a
Country and Natural Disasters
Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe
Figure 2.9 Obstacles to
Sustainable Development
Political or
Social Conflict
Natural Disaster
Environmental
Disease Degradation
Although these concepts are explained in more detail later, the basic defini-
tions are given here:
RISK ANALYSIS (RA) consists of hazard analysis and vulnerability analysis,
together with analysis of protective capabilities.
DISASTER PREVENTION includes those activities that prevent or reduce the
negative effects of extreme natural events, primarily in the medium to long
term. These include political, legal, administrative, planning and infrastructural
measures.
PREPAREDNESS FOR DISASTERS is intended to avoid or reduce loss of life and
damage to property if an extreme natural event occurs.
Disaster Risk Management in the Context of Development
The relationship between disasters and development is very simple. Disasters
can destroy development inputs and years of development initiatives. Disasters
can delay future development due to loss of resources, the need to shift
resources to emergency response and the fact that they sometimes depress
the investment climate. In the same vein, development can increase
vulnerability to disasters through, for example, dense urban settlement,
development of hazardous sites, environmental degradation, technological
failures or creation of an imbalance in existing natural or social systems. On
the other hand, disaster risk management can reduce disaster risk in ways
that also contribute to sustainable development.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the relationship between the development of a country
and natural disasters. The Trend Line indicates the original national
development target. The Downtrend Line shows how development is slowed
by disasters. Disaster risk management efforts act as a safety net in which
the disaster impact is reduced instead of realising its full devastating potential.
The improvement achieved through disaster risk management is shown by
the Improved Line, indicating reductions in the levels of loss and the length
of the reconstruction period through risk control (e.g. mitigation) and risk
finance (e.g. insurance, disaster funds).
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
Under the current disaster circumstances, achieving sustainable development
is of vital importance to Zimbabwe. Figure 2.9 shows that various
impediments, such as political or social conflicts, financial crises, diseases
(e.g. HIV and AIDS), environmental degradation and natural disasters hinder
efforts to create a sustainable world. Natural disasters trigger especially
devastating consequences, and are compounded by other factors. DRM is,
therefore, essential for the realisation of sustainable development.
The sustainable development approach has facilitated better understanding of
the relationship between disaster, its various phases, environmental degrada-
tion, and sustainable development. As disasters retard or even reverse devel-
opment, sustainable development efforts are jeopardised. This is because the
26
huge amounts normally needed for disaster recovery and rehabilitation ef-
forts are diverted from other development programmes that are planned or
under way. This makes it mandatory for disaster mitigation programmes to
integrate developmental programmes. In this way, efforts to enhance the ca-
pacities of communities and the coping systems at various levels and in dif-
ferent sectors towards self reliance and self sufficiency in managing disas-
ters effectively will be sustained (UNDP, 2004).
Under the sustainable development approach, the adoption of disaster mitiga-
tion programmes at the local level is facilitated. These include structural and
non-structural measures to protect populations susceptible to natural haz-
ards, e.g. earthquake resilient school structures. Efforts to enhance early warn-
ing and forecasting systems are also encouraged. The sustainable develop-
ment approach is essentially a holistic approach which facilitates the promo-
tion of the ‘culture of prevention’ and the incorporation of disaster manage-
ment in development planning.
Risk management is paramount in this con-
cept. The focus on risk stems from the com-
pelling need to better understand the root
causes and underlying factors that lead to
disasters. The prevailing practices exert more
thrust on managing response to disasters
through preparedness than towards manag-
ing risks and the underlying conditions that
lead to disasters. Thus TDRM brings to the
fore the issues of risk assessment, vulner-
ability reduction, and capacity enhancement.
It also emphasises multilevel and
multidisciplinary cooperation and collabora-
tion to achieve effective disaster risk reduc-
tion and response. The current knowledge
and techniques on risk reduction and re-
sponse is not discarded but is integrated into
the new approach. Inherent in this concept
is effective communication of knowledge and
techniques from community to central lev-
els. This facilitates appreciation by govern-
ments of the relevance and necessity of di-
saster risk management in achieving sus-
tainable development objectives. In so do-
ing, broad based participation in policy and
programme development in disaster reduc-
tion and response becomes embedded in the
process, as they relate to other development
concerns – poverty reduction, land use plan-
ning, environmental protection and food se-
curity.

Total Disaster Risk Management

Quite recently, ‘disaster reduction initiatives’ have been accepted by the UNDP
as covering all initiatives that espouse the developmental approach with an
emphasis on disaster prevention and mitigation. In pursuance of these initia-
tives, a disaster reduction concept has emerged that presents a new perspec-
tive on disaster management and integrates development oriented strategies
and recent innovative approaches to disaster management, such as vulnerabil- For example the impact of the Cyclone Eline
disaster in 2000 inevitably went beyond the
ity and risk reduction. The new concept is known as ‘Total Disaster Risk Man- immediate devastation, as the toll in human
lives, property and resources continues to
agement’ (TDRM). It presents new opportunities to address the important exacerbate poverty and set back economic
areas of concern in disaster management on which there has been little focus development. Among the possible
programme activities under this approach
in the past. Total Disaster Risk Management encompasses policy develop- are:

ment, mostly in the context of sustainable development and long term socio- · Human resource development in disas-
economic development strategies. At the same time, it is a community ori- ter risk management processes;
· Collaboration in disaster risk assessment
ented approach. This new concept has such a universal appeal in all sectors of of specific vulnerable communities;
and
disaster management that considerable space is devoted to explaining it in the · Assessment of disaster risk reduction
sub-sections that follow. efforts (including development of mea-
surement methods).

The concept of Total Disaster Risk Management

The ever increasing magnitude of disasters at the global, regional and local
levels continues to render less effective the existing approaches, strategies
and mechanisms for disaster reduction and response. Unfortunately, the
increasing prevalence of disaster risks and the growing vulnerability of Figure 2.10 The
communities to disasters tend to reduce the effectiveness of local capacities Principle of TDRM
and coping mechanisms. This has brought to the fore the critical need for a
holistic and proactive approach to disaster reduction, focused on the
fundamentals of disaster risk and the vulnerability of communities, and with
an emphasis on multilevel, multidimensional (cross sectoral) and
multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among all stakeholders. It
is, therefore, a response to shortcomings inherent in the usual disaster
management cycle (UN/ISDR, 2005). The TDRM concept was introduced in
line with the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
incorporating the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). It

27
 Figure 2.11 Enabling
Mechanisms for the TDRM
Approach
Figure 2.12 A Policy Defining
Government Objectives and
Commitment to DRM
Figure 2.13 The Linkages of Key
Components of TDRM
Figure 2.14b The Disaster Risk
Management Cycle
was developed through the initiative of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center
and the Asian Disaster Response Unit of the United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Kobe, Japan (UN-OCHA, Kobe).
In the Zimbabwean context, the thematic breadth of necessary mitigation
and prevention measures, as well as the intimate linkage between natural
disasters and development, illustrate that TDRM needs the collaboration of
a wide cross section of actors from different sectors, such as agriculture,
natural resource management and the environment, infrastructure, education
and health. Within the responsibilities and areas of activity of these sectors
and actors, partial strategies and disaster prevention measures can be
integrated through enhanced participation of the Civil Protection Department.
The principle of TDRM
Total Disaster Risk Management, as a holistic approach, covers all relevant
stakeholders and all phases of the disaster risk management cycle, as
illustrated in Figure 2.10 and discussed below.
INVOLVEMENT OF ALL STAKEHOLDERS A holistic and comprehensive approach
to the various shortcomings in the different phases of disaster management,
in the context of the underlying causes of disasters (i.e. the conditions for
disaster risk) and related issues. This calls for the promotion of multilevel,
multidimensional and multidisciplinary coordination and collaboration among
stakeholders in disaster reduction and response as they ensure the participa-
tion of the community and the integration of stakeholders’ action. The coor-
dinated and collaborative approach is intended to lead to the best use of lim-
ited resources.
IMPLEMENTATION AT ALL PHASES OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT Effective
response to the occurrence of disasters through the enhancement of local
capacity and capability, especially in DRM through adequate prevention, miti-
gation and preparation. The preparation involves recognising, managing and
reducing disaster risks, and ensuring good decision making in disaster reduc-
tion and response, based on reliable disaster risk information.
Enabling mechanisms for the TDRM approach
In order to effectively adopt the TDRM approach, several enabling mecha-
nisms must be in place. These are more effective when a conducive environ-
ment is created and sustained by institutional enthusiasm, political will and
commitment, and responsible focal points and advocates in government. These
include policy, structures and systems, and capacity building and resources
(see Figure 2.11).
POLICY A clear and comprehensive policy that defines the objectives and
commitment of the government, organisation, or community to disaster re-
duction and response efforts is important. These disaster risk reduction poli-
cies and measures need to be developed and institutionalised at national and
local levels, through legislaton, policy guidelines, promulgated plans, or pro-
tocols. Some examples are shown in figure 2.12. Since the policy should
effectively address the identified gaps in current practice, a strategic and con-
sultative planning process might be necessary. As disaster reduction becomes
essential to sustainable development, the policies should be crafted in a way
that makes communities resilient to local hazards while ensuring that devel-
28
opment efforts do not increase vulnerability to the same hazards (e.g. dam
construction does not introduce or increase the prevalence of bilharzia and Figure 2.14a The Three Main
malaria). Blocks constituting TDRM

S TRUCTURES AND S YSTEMS Organisational structures and systems that

facilitate and ensure coordination of stakeholder’s actions and contributions
should be addressed. This may include the establishment and strengthening
of new or existing focal points, be they at national provincial or district level,
local coordination bodies for disaster reduction and response activities, and
disaster management systems.
TDRM
CAPACITY BUILDING A constant undertaking in the building and development BLOCKS
of national and local capacity is vital, especially in establishing and
implementing disaster reduction and response measures for vulnerable
sectors and communities. This may take the form of education and training
in disaster reduction and related fields.
RESOURCES Resource availability is fundamental to the TDRM Approach.
Therefore, the identification and provision of resource requirements,
including funds and trained human resources, should be given top priority.
This includes the means to access and use authorised fund appropriations for
disaster reduction and response.
EMPHASIS OF THE TDRM CONCEPT The holistic approach to disaster reduc-
tion makes it essential that sectors are aware of prevalent risks and prevailing
vulnerabilities and the methods to assess them. Thus the TDRM concept
emphasises the importance of accurate and reliable hazard, vulnerability and
disaster risk information. It then becomes important that vulnerabilities are
assessed and understood in a broad context, including the human, sociocul-
tural, economic, environmental and political dimensions.
Figure 2.15 Risk Management
To achieve this end, a strategy that covers the following activities is neces- Flow
sary: Adapted from UN-OCHA/Kobe
1 Promotion of hazard mapping, vulnerability and risk as-
sessment at the local and community levels;
2 Collaboration and cooperation in vulnerability and risk
assessment of
critical facilities, such education institutions and hos-
pitals; and
3 Collaboration and cooperation in assessment and en-
hancement of early warning systems.

The essentials of the Total Disaster Risk Management

approach
The three essential pillars for the building of TDRM are
shown in figure 2.14. How each of the pillars is essential
and related to the whole approach is discussed in the
paragraphs that follow.

A ‘social action’ to cope with disasters could refer to any

purposive undertaking in the pre and post disaster stages. This
is exemplified in the prevailing concept of disaster
management as a cycle with four distinct phases – prevention
or mitigation, preparedness, response, and rehabilitation and

29
Table 2.2 Actions in Different Phases of the DRM Cycle

Earthquake Flood Storm(tropical cyclone, thunder- Landslide

Prevention/ Seismic design
Retrofitting of vulnerable
Mitigation
buildings
Installation of seismic iso-
lation /seismic response
control systems
Construction of dykes
Building of dam
Forestation
Construction of flood control
basins/reservoirs
storm) Construction and opera-
Construction of tide wall tion of meteorological
Establishment of forests to protect observation systems
against storms

Construction and operation Construction and operation of Construction of erosion

of earthquake observation
systems
Construction of shelters
meteorological observation control dams
Construction and operation of meteo-
systems Construction of retaining
rological observation systems
walls

Prepared- Preparation of hazard maps

ness Food and materials stockpiling
Emergency drills
Construction of early warning systems
Preparation of emergency kits

Rescue efforts
Response First aid treatment
Fire fighting
Monitoring of secondary disaster
Construction of temporary housing
Establishment of tent villages

Disaster resistant reconstruction

Appropriate land use planning
Livelihoods support
Industrial rehabilitation planning

reconstruction (Figure 2.15). The significance of this concept is its ability

to promote the holistic approach to disaster management as well as to
demonstrate the relationship of disasters and development. The prevention
or mitigation phase involves efforts to prevent or mitigate damage (e.g.
construction of villages on high ground and upstream dams for flood control).
The preparedness phase ensures effective response to the impact of hazards
(e.g. emergency fire or earthquake drills and public awareness). Note that
these are not aimed at averting the occurrence of a disaster. Response includes
such activities as rescue efforts, first aid, fire fighting and evacuation. Finally,
in the rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, the focus comes back to
disaster risk reduction. Some of the measures taken in each phase are listed
in Table 2.2, below. It is should be noted that taking appropriate measures
based on the concept of disaster risk management in each phase of the disaster
risk management cycle can reduce the overall disaster risk.

Figure 2.16 The Concept of Risk

Analysis Risk Management Flow
Risk management should be done in a systematic way, otherwise the intended
objective of reducing risk may not be accomplished and, in some cases, the
reverse may result. The important steps in the implementation of risk man-
agement under TDRM are outlined in Figure 2 15. Because disaster risk man-
agement is a process for good decision making that ensures economic use of
limited resources, the standard principles, processes and techniques of risk
management are adopted. Risk Management Flow presents a framework and
systematic method for identifying, analysing, assessing and managing disas-
ter risk, in six systematic steps.

30
Government initiative
The initial step is to have strong government initiative for implementing the
DRM process from the national level to the community or local level. It is
during this fist step that the strategic, organisational and risk management
context in which the rest of the TDRM process takes place is established. Figure 2.17 Inputs and Outputs in
The ‘strategic’ context refers to the operating environment (i.e. stakeholders, Risk Analysis
Source: GTZ (2004)
legislation, standards, etc.); the ‘organisational’ context to organisational
goals, objectives and policies; and the ‘risk’ context
to specific disaster risk issues.

Objective setting
Risk management guidelines should reflect the social
need for the protection of life and property from di-
saster, and should clarify the objectives to be achieved
through the implementation of a risk management sys-
tem. These also include the commitments by central
and local governments, and other public authorities and
organisations.

Risk identification
This step identifies which, hazards, events or occurrences could translate into
disasters, why and how. The sources of risk, areas at risk, and the existing
disaster risk reduction measures are all identified. Target risks are isolated
based on past disaster experiences and the losses and severity observed in Figure 2.18 Framework for Flood
those events locally as well as in other countries. Risk Assessment and Management

Risk assessment
This step, sometimes also known as ‘risk analysis’,
determines the existing controls and analyses disaster
risk in terms of likelihood and consequences in the
context of those controls. It is performed to estimate
the quantitative damage that can be expected to result
from hazards as well as their likely impacts on society.
Risk analysis is based on the recognition that risk is
the result of the link between hazard and vulnerability
of elements affected by the hazard. The goal of risk
analysis is to use this link to estimate and evaluate the
possible consequences and impacts of extreme natural
events on a population group and their livelihoods.
Impacts of the social, economic and environmental
types are measured. Hazard and vulnerability analyses
are components of risk analysis (Figure 2.16) and are
inseparable activities. Vulnerability analysis is not
possible without hazard analysis, and vice versa.
Risk analysis is a basic instrument of DRM, which is
used to study the factors of disaster risk and provides
the basis for planning and implementing measures to
reduce risk and the impacts of disasters. Fig 2.17 shows
the inputs and outputs of risk analysis.

31
Figure 2.19 The Concept of
Disaster Risk Treatment
Figure 2.20 The Relationship
between Probability of Loss and
Actual Loss
Figure 2.21 The Concept of
Disaster Risk Treatment
The analysis results in an estimation of the level of risk, the likelihood that an
event will happen, the potential consequences and their magnitude. Techni-
cians or engineers normally carry out these risk assessments. An ex-
ample of risk assessment and management of flood hazards is shown
in figure 2.18. It can be seen how the information on both the flood
hazard potential together with the vulnerabilities are used to come up
with an effective risk assessment and management plan.
Planning
It is here that the assessment and prioritisation of the disaster risks
is done. This stage is used to develop concrete objectives and policies
that point to the identified target risks to be managed (e.g. disaster
type, area to be protected) and to create effective countermeasures.
Inevitably, the targeted risk criteria, budgets, projects and their time
frames as well as priorities are established. Hence the formulation
of a master plan for disaster risk management is accomplished. It is
suggested that ample consideration be given to such topics as the
continuity of contents in a master plan, adequate procedures, review
mechanisms, and the assignment of responsibilities.
It is also critical that any disaster risk management plan is dynamic
and remains relevant to the community, and that the roles and contributions
of the members are defined.
Evaluation and re-examination
In accordance with the dynamic nature of many risks, it is important to con-
stantly monitor and review the performance of the operationalised disaster
risk management system. The operating environment is not static and neither
are the geographic features, social structures, localities and other factors.
Evaluation or re-examination of the system, therefore, assists in identifying
the changes that might affect it, and ensuring that the disaster risk manage-
ment plan is not rendered irrelevant. Risk management performance (i.e. the
implementation status of plans and countermeasures) and efficacy (e.g. the
achievement of objectives, validity of the process and its components) need
to be evaluated in order to confirm achievements. Basically this process in-
volves a constant review of the risk identification and assessment processes,
so that appropriate countermeasures are taken against frequent changes in the
underlying hazard causes.
Countermeasures
This step, sometimes referred to as ‘risk treatment’, involves identifying a
range of options for treating the priority risks – prevention, preparedness,
response and recovery – selecting intervention options, planning, funding and
implementing intervention strategies. In this process, countermeasures are
executed in accordance with policies. Disaster risk management countermea-
sures consist of four elements – risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transfer
and risk retention – as illustrated in Figure 2.19. These countermeasures are
formulated as public policy based on the master plan formulated in step 5
(planning) above. Policies should be open to the public in order to increase
mutual understanding between governments and citizens in the context of risk
communication.
32
 Figure 2.22 Best Matching of Risk
Figure 2.19 sets out the concept of disaster risk treatment. This concept Treatment Elements
stems from the fact that risk treatment measures are the function of the actual
loss incurred and the probability of realising the loss. This relationship is Risk Finance
illustrated in Figure 2.20. It is clear from the diagram that the risk area,
representing actual risk, can be increased or reduced by altering the area of
either of the two spheres.
Thus risk is at a minimum when either or both of the two is minimised. Risk
can also be represented mathematically by the following formula:

Risk Control

Figure 2.23 The Main Compo-

nents of a Strategy for Disaster Re-
duction
(Risk) = f (Probability of Loss, Loss) = (Probability of Loss) × (Loss)
The same deduction can be made as in the case above, i.e. that a case of low
probability of loss with little loss would yield low risk, while a case of large
loss with a high probability of loss would yield a high risk. Therefore, ‘risk
avoidance’ is the rational option as a countermeasure if a significant degree
of loss with high probability is expected. For example, it is better not to take
the school bus with malfunctioning brakes and worn out tyres for a school
field trip as both the probability of being involved in an accident and the loss
of the large number children normally taken aboard a school bus is very high.
On the other hand, transferring the risk would be an appropriate measure when
a significant degree of loss with low probability is expected. In this situation,
if the school bus is well maintained, the probability of it getting involved in an
accident is significantly reduced, but the monetary loss of the bus and the
cost to the school through claims from the parents remains astronomically
high. Thus insuring (‘risk transfer’) is the best option. But in the case of a
messenger’s bicycle, which is normally used within the university complex,
the accident risk can be retained. This is because of the relative low degree of
loss and the accompanying insignificant accident probability that suggests
‘risk retention’ (living with the risk) as one of the options to be selected.
However, risk treatment is not possible solely through countermeasures in To build disaster resilient communities, gov-
ernments need to incorporate disaster reduc-
some situations, especially where these involve natural hazards. Risk reduc- tion perspectives into their development plans
by identifying, analysing, and assessing risks,
tion would be the mainstay of these countermeasures. Risk reduction mea- to develop a common understanding of the
sures against tropical cyclones, for example, are: importance of disaster reduction as a cost ef-
fective investment in national development.
• The introduction of tropical cyclone resistant dwellings; Governments must identify high priority policy
areas, develop effective policies, and incor-
• Retrofitting of buildings and residences; porate these into national development plans.

33
Figure 2.24 Programme Activi-
ties for Disaster Information Shar-
ing and Management
Figure 2.25 The Critical Link be-
tween Stakeholders and the Af-
fected Community
• Development of early warning systems; and
• Flood emergency drills conducted by relevant organisations and the
general public.
Risk reduction is illustrated as a composite vector in Figure
2.21 in order to show that it can be accomplished through a
combination of prevention or mitigation and preparedness
efforts. In some situations, the affected population can be
assisted by non affected people with risk finance through risk
transfer and risk retention. But the risk finance can neither
reduce nor eliminate physical damage, thus highlighting the
significance of bringing other risk treatments for consider-
ation.
For efficient disaster risk management, a combination of risk
treatments is necessary. Figure 2.22 shows the different risk
treatment elements and their most favourable combinations.
The type of disaster, economic strength, social conditions
historical background and other factors determine the combined ratios of the
entire risk treatment.
Strategy for Disaster Risk Management
The TDRM approach is composed of the components shown in Figure 2.23
and explained in the paragraphs that follow.
The legal framework for disaster reduction
As already noted, the establishment of coordination mechanisms and a legal
framework for disaster risk management is of paramount importance in TDRM.
Above all, the national government needs to create a conducive environment
for the disaster risk management system. This can be achieved by, for ex-
ample, developing basic legislation for all types of disasters and establishing
or enhancing the functions of a central disaster management committee (the
National Civil Protection Committee in the case of Zimbabwe).
The availability of relevant information is extremely important to effective
disaster reduction and response. Wise and timely use of the right disaster risk
information could mitigate, if not prevent, disasters. The relevant informa-
tion should be effectively linked to local early warning systems, local au-
thorities and the media to ensure effective use for public aware-
ness and education. Advance distribution of forecasts, warn-
ings, and other information before tropical cyclones, floods,
landslides, thunderstorms, epidemics and other disasters has
been known to prevent considerable human and economic
losses. In some cases, good communication and exchange of
critical disaster risk information could enhance coordination
and integration of stakeholders’ actions in disaster reduction
and response, resulting in more effective use of limited re-
sources.
There is a large gap between experts and local communities
in perception of risk. Large numbers of hazard maps related
to floods, potential landslide areas, lightning, epidemics and
34
earthquakes have been created by experts and now lie in institution
storerooms and libraries, instead of being utilised by potential beneficiaries
at the community level. But, it is essential that early warning systems and
hazard maps be used to develop a framework for distributing disaster related
information so that communities have an accurate understanding of the risks
and can take appropriate action. The availability and accessibility of accurate
and reliable disaster risk information when required at various levels can
only be achieved by ensuring an efficient system for disaster risk management
information sharing.

Figure 2.24 shows possible programme activities derived through the TDRM
approach for the enhancement of disaster reduction information sharing and
management.

Promotion of education and public awareness

Local communities are the ones that are the most threatened by hazards and
also the first to respond when a disaster occurs. Therefore, they need to be
the prime targets for accurate and relevant disaster reduction knowledge
through outreach awareness raising campaigns. Such campaigns would reduce
the local impact of disasters by improving the community’s knowledge and
the capacity of members to help themselves and one another. Awareness
raising campaigns are also a necessary part of changing attitudes. If the
The development of a TDRM approach can
negative attitudes inherent in some communities are not changed, even in be an important response to locally prioritised
needs. Dovetailed into an existing
the most enabling environment for local institutions, DRM will not create organisation or institution at national or local
the intended outcome. Therefore, it is vital that disaster reduction be level, it can yield an ‘all hazards’ approach to
DRM.
integrated into the compulsory education curriculum, starting from pre school
and continuing to tertiary level.

Development of multi-stakeholder partnerships and citizen partici-

pation
With the increasing extent, complexity and prevalence of disasters, no one
stakeholder could effectively address the problem alone and DRM is a grow-
ing concern in several sectors, including government departments, educational
institutions and non governmental organisations (NGOs). Enhanced aware-
ness on the impact of disasters on sustainable development, and on the limi-
tations of current local capabilities and capacities also creates recognition
among all stakeholders of the need for strengthened cooperation and col-
laboration at all levels. The broadened participation of relevant sectors, such
as environment, finance, industry, transport, construction, agriculture, educa-
tion, health, and media, in disaster reduction activities allows for an enriched The TDRM Approach, with special regard for
understanding of local vulnerability to risk. the involvement of the affected community
(Figure 2.26), is in line with both current UNDP
strategies and the requirements of the
Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a
Disaster risk management activities require the coordinated efforts of people Safer World: Strategy for Disaster Reduction
in various fields. Early warnings by the meteorological services contribute to for the Year 2000 and Beyond.

reducing the impacts of natural disasters only when the information is trans- The Strategy advocates:
1 Adoption of a policy of self reliance in each
ferred to local communities through the media and other channels. To create vulnerable country and community, com-
prising capacity building as well as alloca-
disaster resilient communities, it is vital to improve civil engineering facili- tion and efficient use of resources; and
ties such as local roads/bridges, dams, and erosion control facilities through 2 Involvement and active participation of the
people in disaster reduction, prevention
the cooperative efforts of people involved in various activities, including soil and preparedness, leading to improved
risk management (UN/ISDR, 2002).
and farmland management, land use planning, and building design codes.

35
 Figure 2.26 Integration of Com-
Cooperation in disaster reduction activities among government departments munity Level Stakeholders
at national and local levels, NGOs and communities is essential. In this re-
gard, effective mechanisms to initiate and sustain multilevel, multidimen-
sional and multidisciplinary collaboration and cooperation are necessary. Net-
working has great potential because it sustains linkages and pulls together
organisational strengths and capacities, including resources and expertise for
disaster reduction activities, creating complementarities that cover existing
organisational gaps.

Integration of local community action in TDRM

The effectiveness of disaster risk management interventions cannot be en-
sured without the direct involvement of the community and those people di-
rectly at risk in the DRM process through participatory approaches. In TDRM,
the determination of risks and the intervention measures are not imposed on
the community, but accomplished by the people concerned. Greater empha-
sis is placed on local knowledge and indigenous ways of knowing than on
expert knowledge and technologies. There is also an inevitable shift of focus
from hazards to more relevant socioeconomic vulnerability, including levels
of poverty, human development, etc., of the communities at risk. On-site prob-
lem definition takes place and responsive measures are designed and imple-
mented taking into consideration the existing local resources. Community
based activities tend, by nature, to be multisectoral and, therefore, already

36
cognisant of the interdependence of different actors. Community involve-
ment at all stages increases the capacity and potential of people to reduce
their own vulnerability to local disasters.

The comprehensive approach to disaster management entails developing and

implementing strategies for different yet complementary aspects of disaster
management, i.e. prevention and mitigation, preparedness, and response and
recovery, in the context of sustainable development. This approach is poten-
tially useful in establishing standard protocols for addressing similar prob-
lems in a community, arising from different hazards and emergencies. We
should bear in mind, however, that several hazards that cause disasters might
require specific response and recovery measures as well as specific preven-
tion programmes. The following chapters look into the nature of several haz-
ards of specific concern to Zimbabwe, their causes, mitigation and the pre-
vention measures peculiar to them. The TDRM approach is expected to be of
assistance in applying these measures.

37

What is Drought?
There is no universally agreed definition of
‘drought’ but it may be generally defined as
a temporary reduction in water or moisture
availability to a point significantly below the
normal or expected amount for a specified
period. However, because droughts occur in
nearly all regions of the world and have vary-
ing characteristics, working definitions must
be regionally specific and focus on the im-
pacts. The impact of drought results from the
shortage of water, or the discrepancies be-
tween supply and demand for water.
While droughts are most often associated with
low rainfall and semi-arid climates, they also
occur in areas with normally abundant rain-
fall. Furthermore, a rainfall level that meets
the needs of a pastoralist may constitute a
serious drought for a farmer growing maize.
In order to define drought in a region, it is
necessary to understand both the meteoro-
logical characteristics and the human percep-
tion of the conditions of drought.
CHAPTER 3
Hydro-Meteorological Hazards
Introduction
Zimbabwe is subject to various types of hazards and, as Chapter 1 showed,
this occurs in the context of a worldwide increase in disaster incidents in
recent years. The geographical location and physical environment of Zimba-
bwe make the country vulnerable to numerous hydro-meteorological hazards.
Every year, these hazards cause loss of life and property, seriously disrupt
our agriculture based economy and disturb the lives of millions of families.
According to the ISDR (2003) definition, hydro-meteorological hazards are
natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceano-
graphic nature. In this chapter, we select only those hazards of hydro- meteo-
rological origin that affect Zimbabwe significantly. The sections that follow
concentrate on the most common forms of these hazards, i.e. floods, tropical
cyclones, wind, severe storms, lightning, drought, desertification, bush fires,
temperature extremes and frost. These disasters cannot always be prevented
but we know that their disastrous effects can certainly be mitigated if appro-
priate measures are adopted (see Chapter 2). To achieve this we first need a
proper understanding of the hazards and the threats that they pose as a basis
from which to recommend mitigatory and preventive measures for each one.
The Drought Hazard
Of all the natural disasters occurring regularly in Zimbabwe, droughts have
the greatest potential impact and affect the greatest number of people. They
invariably have a direct and significant impact on food production and the
overall economy. Droughts, however, differ from other natural hazards in that
they arrive slowly, at times taking several months to manifest. Because of
their slow onset, their effects may accumulate over time and may linger for
many years. Their impacts are less obvious than for events such as earth-
quakes or cyclones but may be spread over a larger geographic area. Because
of the pervasive effects of droughts, assessing their impact and planning as-
sistance is more difficult than with other natural hazards.
Types of drought
Droughts may be grouped by type in the following ways (NPDM GoZ report):
METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT results from a shortfall in precipitation and is
based on the degree of dryness relative to the normal or average level and the
duration of the dry period. This comparison must be region specific and may
be measured against daily, monthly seasonal, or annual timescales of rainfall
amounts. Rainfall deficiency on its own, however, does not always create a
drought hazard.
In Zimbabwe, precipitation resulting in the rainfall level being far below the
norm, i.e. below 75 percent of the long term seasonal rainfall average of
650mm during any one season, is termed a meteorological drought.
38
HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT involves the lowering of the water table, leading to
a reduction of water resources such as streams, groundwater, lakes and reser-
voirs. One impact is competition between users for water in these storage
systems.
AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT represents the impact of meteorological and hydro-
logical droughts on crop and livestock production. It occurs when soil mois-
ture is insufficient to maintain average plant growth and yields. A plant’s de-
mand for water, however, is dependent on the type of plant, its stage of growth
and the properties of the soil. The impact of agricultural drought is difficult Figure 3.1 Progression in
to measure, due to the complexity of plant growth and the possible presence Drought Types as Drought Inten-
of other factors that may reduce yields, such as pests, weeds or low soil fer- sifies with Time
tility.
SOCIOECONOMIC DROUGHT is an extreme form of
agricultural drought, in which food shortages are
so severe that large numbers of people become un-
healthy or die. This should not be confused with
famine disasters. In famine disasters, a complex
of other causes, including war and conflict, will be
at play. In a socioeconomic drought, it is rainfall
deficit that causes the scarcity of food that leads
to famine. Under these conditions, death can also
result from other complicating influences, such as
disease or lack of access to water and other ser-
vices.
An illustration of how droughts progress into dif-
ferent forms with time as water deficit increases
in severity appears in Figure 3.1. Note that the (Adapted from National Drought Mitigation
Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln)
drought type intensifies from top to bottom as the period of water deficit
increases.

Drought hazards and disasters in Zimbabwe

Drought is the biggest single hazard affecting Zimbabwe and the country suf-
fered greatly from the prolonged drought of the 1980s and early 1990s. There
was reduction in cereal grain output of approximately 60 percent and a 50
percent loss in the livestock herd during this period. The reason is that Zim-
babwe is in the semi-arid region of the world. Except for the highveld and
Eastern Highlands, few regions of Zimbabwe have a high annual rainfall. The
annual rainfall is characterised by very high variation from region to region,
and from year to year, making droughts a ‘normal’ part of the climate system
which we need be able to endure on a regular basis. On average, drought is
Zimbabwe’s most costly natural hazard in economic terms, as well as in fre-
quency of occurrence. Moreover, it has the unfortunate distinction of being
the natural disaster that annually claims the most victims and its ability to
cause widespread misery in the country is increasing.
Drought is associated with suffering and loss of valued crops, livestock and
wildlife. People often have to trek for long distances to the few sources of
water that may still be available. Praying for rain both in traditional and Chris-
tian ceremonies is not uncommon in many parts of the country and the onset
Drought has long been recognised as one of
the most insidious causes of human misery.
While most generally associate drought with
Zimbabwean provinces of low rainfall, it can
also occur in areas that normally enjoy ad-
equate rainfall and moisture levels, like
Manicaland. Droughts lasting between one and
five years may occur either in isolated areas
or across a region. A poor year can result in
large scale crop failure, food shortages and,
in extreme cases, famine. Trees and grasses
wilt and die and animals perish from hunger
and thirst. Subsistence farming, which pro-
vides most people of the region with their
food, depends on sufficient rainfall.

39
 of the rains is often viewed as the single most important event of the year. A
historical overview of Zimbabwe’s rainfall variation since 1900 is given in
Figure 3.2, below.

Relationship of droughts to the El Niño Southern/Oscillation

The global weather phenomenon known as ENSO is a combination of the words
El Niño and Southern Oscillation. ‘El Niño’ refers to the warming of the east
equatorial waters across the Pacific and the ‘Southern Oscillation’ refers to
the atmospheric response in pressure to the warm east and cool, western part
of the equatorial Pacific. El Niño is measured by the deviation from normal
of the sea surface temperature, whereas the Southern Oscillation is measured
by difference in pressure between Tahiti in the eastern Pacific and Darwin in
the western Pacific (Australia). During El Niño, the normal westerly surface
winds are weakened or even reversed and this is not favourable for southern
African rainfall. La Niña, the opposite extreme of the ENSO cycle, occurs
when a cold phase known as La Niña or (anti El Niño) is experienced. The
Figure 3.2 Zimbabwe Rainfall De- occurrence of La Niña results in unusually heavy rain in Southern Africa. At
partures from the Mean in Specific this time, the Pacific is cooler than the Indian Ocean and wind moves from
ENSO Phases the former towards the latter.

Although most past occurrences of drought have been linked to El Niño events,
and rainfall surpluses to La Niña, the percentage of those not linked to these
events is still significant, as shown in Figure 3.2. However the coincidence of
El Niño and Zimbabwean droughts is worth noting. During the worst three
drought episodes of the century, 1991/92, 1946/47 and 1972/73 (in order of
severity), El Niño was involved.

Natural preconditions for drought

El Niño means ‘the boy child’ in Spanish, so
named because it occurs around December, Drought differs from other natural disasters in its slowness of onset and its
when Christians are celebrating the birth of
Christ. La Niña means ‘the little girl’ (Preston
usually long duration. In the past, drought was an agricultural disaster but now,
and Whyte, 2000). with cities having expanded faster than water supplies can be made available,

40
 Persistent high-pressure systems in the lev-
the spectre of drought faces both the farmer and the urban dweller. Shifts in els of the atmosphere where rain bearing
atmospheric circulation, which cause drought, may extend for time scales of clouds are normally found (e.g. the Botswana
Upper High) in the middle of the rain season.
a month, a season or several years. These cause subsidence, or sinking of air,
which acts against precipitation.

The following are the main causes of Zimbabwean droughts:

• Localised subsidence induced by mountain barriers or other
physiographic features. Most such areas lie in the lee of mountains across
the eastern highlands. The warming of the easterly airflow as it descends
on the west of the summits after having lost the moisture on the windward
side causes the dryness. This is usually the cause of dry weather in the
Sabi Limpopo valley.

• Absence of rainmaking disturbances causes dry weather even in areas of

moist air. In general, rain is caused by the travel of organised
disturbances, i.e., systems that involve actual uplift of humid air, across
a region. The aridity of the Zimbabwean summer, though in part due to
subsidence, arises mainly from the absence of active Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and cyclonic disturbances including, tropical
cyclones.

Human causes of drought An elephant that died as a result of

Land use practices that give rise to desertification, such as deforestation, drought induced starvation in
over cultivation, overgrazing, and mismanagement of irrigation, are thought Zimbabwe.
(Source: Newsweek Issue 26/11/05)
to result in greater prevalence of drought. Traditional drought coping systems
in Africa, such as pastoralists’ use of seasonal grazing lands and farmers’ use
of fallow periods, have been reduced due to population pressures and eco-
nomic policies. Droughts vary in terms of intensity, duration and coverage.
They tend to be more severe in drier areas due to low mean annual rainfall and
also the longer duration of dry periods. In dry areas, drought often builds up
slowly over a number of poor rainfall years.

Characteristics of Zimbabwean drought

The particular characteristics of the droughts that occur in Zimbabwe are
shaped by the following:
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION Droughts occur in all of Zimbabwe’s provinces
but, in recent decades, the most severe and devastating to human populations

Air in the middle levels where rain forming

clouds are normally found is subsiding and
warming, hence will not be able to sustain any
cloud formation process.

High pressure at the surface

extending up to the middle levels

Figure 3.3 Negative Impact of

High-Pressure Systems on Cloud
Formation

41
Figure 3.4 Areas in Regions IV and
V are Normally Termed Drought
Prone
have been in the provinces of Masvingo, and Matabeleland North and South,
perhaps giving the impression that droughts are principally a southern prob-
lem. These regions are situated in natural regions (NR) IV and V, and nor-
mally do not receive a lot of rainfall (Table 3.1). Therefore a small
negative deviation of the rainfall from the norm may represent too
little rainfall in a given season to sustain the normal functions of the
community. This is why these regions are sometimes referred to as
‘drought prone’. In fact, devastating droughts have occurred in virtu-
ally all provinces of Zimbabwe including those that normally receive
sufficient annual rainfall. Thus while rainfall patterns and the frequency
and intensity of drought cycles negatively affect all the regions on a
fairly regular basis, it is the drier eco-zones, especially regions IV
and V that are particularly affected.

FREQUENCY Trends in the occurrence of droughts indicate that they

Note: Boundaries inside the map de-
marcate provinces of Zimbabwe. Ver-
tical and horizontal axes are latitudes
and longitudes respectively.
Source: Adapted from Climate Handbook of
Zimbabwe
are becoming more frequent than ever before. Long term averages
indicate that, in terms of rainfall, out of every ten years, we have about
3.7 good years, 4 average years, and 2.3 bad ones. Research also reveals that,
since the 1970s, extreme drought has affected Zimbabwe in every decade.
The highest frequency of drought was the 1990s, when half of the years were
drought years. The scenario is similar to the 1910s and 1920s when 40 per-
cent of each decade was made up of drought years (Figure 3.5).

NR Area (km2) % of Rainfall Characteristics

total
I 7 000 2 More than 1 050 mm rainfall per year with some rain in all months.
II 58 600 15 700 - 1 050 mm rainfall per year, confined to summer.
III 72 900 18 500 - 700 mm rainfall per year. Infrequent heavy rainfall. Subject to
seasonal droughts.
IV 147 800 38 450 - 600 mm rainfall per year. Subject to frequent seasonal droughts.
V 104 400 27 Normally less than 500 mm rainfall per year. Very erratic and
unreliable. Northern lowveld may have more rain but topography and
soils are poorer.
TOTAL 388 700 100

Table 3.1 Rainfall Characteristics

INTENSITY AND DURATION Seasonal drought intensity is a measure of rainfall
of Natural Regions of Zimbabwe

Figure 3.5 Drought Frequency in

Zimbabwe from 1902-2000 Key: Ext = extreme drought; mod = moderate drought; sly = slight drought

42
 Table 3.2 Drought
Extreme Severe Moderate Categories 1902/03
Year mm Total Year mm Total Year mm Total – 2004/05
below mm below mm below mm
ave. ave. ave.
1911/12 229.16 443.2 1902/03 169.6 492.7 1912/13 112.6 549.7
1915/16 268.0 394.3 1913/14 189.1 473.2 1916/17 95.6 566.7
1921/22 277.3 285.0 1926/27 149.7 512.6 1927/18 108.7 553.6
1923/24 263.3 399.0 1941/42 161.5 500.8 1930/31 94.6 567.7
1946/47 297.1 365.2 1948/49 127.3 535.0 1933/34 97.0 565.3
1967/68 257.5 404.8 1950/51 145.5 516.8 1937/38 109.4 552.9
1972/73 291.2 371.1 1959/60 178.9 483.4 1949/50 143.4 518.9
1981/82 222.6 439.7 1963/64 195.2 467.1 1969/70 123.6 538.7
1982/83 259.2 403.1 1964/65 153.1 509.2 1978/79 93.0 569.3
1986/87 239.9 422.4 1983/84 198.3 464.0 1993/94 143.0 519.3
1991/92 327.1 335.2 1990/91 160.7 501.6 1997/98 26.1 536.2
1994/95 243.5 418.8 2001/02 195.6 465.8 2004/05 133.0 529.3
Note: 1900-2000 average = 662.3mm
Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

deficiency over the season. For a particular region, less than 5 percent,
between 5 and 10 percent, 10 to 20 percent, and 20 to 30 percent of the
lowest rainfall on record are rated as ‘extreme’, ‘severe’, ‘moderate’ and ‘slight’
respectively. Occasionally, droughts last for more than a season but, within
that period, the severity may fluctuate, with spells of rainfall although the
total is still well below average. Other droughts are shorter (one or two months)
but some are more intense with very little rain recorded for more than one
season (see Case Studies, below).
EXTENT AND PREDICTABILITY It is unlikely that the entire country will suffer
drought at the same time. Some droughts can occur in one area with other Very low maize yield after a
nearby areas receiving normal rainfall. Often localised droughts are not re- drought year in Zimbabwe.
lated to El Niño events, so they are even more difficult to predict. Histori- (Source: top WFP Masvingo 2004; bottom un-
dated, http://www.m21net.org/IMG/cache-
cally, droughts have tended to occur at regular intervals. Many scientists have 400x301/zimbabwe-400x301.jpg )
noted that, in areas where long term droughts have been prevalent, dry periods
appear to occur at relatively predictable intervals. With this in mind, clima-
tologists are seeking to compile historical records of drought so that drought
forecasting can be made more accurate. Whether precisely predictable or
not, the historical trends can give an indication as to when drought periods
might be expected.

The impact of droughts on the built and natural environments

The effects of droughts can be divided according to the primary or immediate
effects, and the secondary or resulting effects.
The primary effects are generally agricultural and environmental. They result
from a lack of water and their very first impact is upon agriculture. As a dry
period progresses and water supplies dwindle, existing water supplies are A drop in water levels in dams and rivers also
affects the quality of water. The cholera out-
overtaxed and finally dry up. The primary losses can also lead to environmen- break that affected almost every country in
tal damage through vegetation loss, loss of livestock and other animals, loss the region during 1992 and 1993, claiming
hundreds of lives, (see Chapter 5) may have
of water for hygienic use and drinking, and growth of toxic algal blooms on been compounded by the drought.

43
The migration patterns of wild animals, in-
cluding birds and mammals, are determined
by seasonal rainfall. In the event of a drought,
migrations are disrupted and wildlife num-
bers decrease, particularly those of herbi-
vores. Severe loss of wildlife leads to eco-
logical imbalances and economic losses. Fish
populations also tend to decline during
drought periods because rivers and lakes
shrink and food sources for fish decrease.
This has the further result of low breeding
rates and smaller catches for fishers.
The same philosophy is used for reconstruc-
tion in the aftermath of a drought. Recon-
struction should be viewed as an opportunity
to accelerate development work. It is an ideal
time to introduce improved animal husbandry
techniques, rangeland management, water
resource development schemes and erosion
control measures.
BOX 3.1 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE
STUDY 1: THE EXTREME DROUGHT OF
1991/92
depleted dams, rivers and lakes.
Secondary effects of droughts also include major ecological changes, such
as increased scrub growth, increased flash flooding, wild fires and increased
wind erosion of soils. Of these, desertification is of the greatest concern.
The effect of drought on water supplies
Drought has its greatest impact on water supplies. Lack of water affects every
aspect of environmental health and human activity, including agriculture, natural
areas and development projects. The 1991/92 drought that ravaged most of
Southern Africa, killed more than one million cattle in Zimbabwe. During a
drought, overgrazing leads to degradation of pastures and arable areas in cattle
farming regions. The deterioration of grazing capacity further reduces live-
stock numbers. In drier areas, scanty rainfall for a few years can kill vegeta-
tion permanently and poor land practices only make this worse.
The secondary effects of drought follow the primary effects and their great-
est impact is upon society as it faces severe water restrictions. Loss of water
supply leads to crops and fodder being depleted; families begin to migrate in
search of better grazing lands for their herds or move to the cities to seek
jobs and alternative sources of income. If the dwindling supplies of food are
not replaced, rising food prices follow and, in extreme cases, in some coun-
tries (although not in Zimbabwe so far), devastating famine can occur. For
example, during the 1877/78 drought, 9.5 million people starved to death in
China and 8 million in India (Neville, 2006). This situation further acceler-
ates the migration out of the stricken areas to less affected zones. The migra-
tion may, in itself, contribute to spreading the scope of the disaster, espe-
44
 Figure 3.6 Domestic Maize Intake
by the Grain Marketing Board,
1984-1993
Grain Marketing Board, Annual Reports, 1983
to 1993

BOX 3.2 ZIMBABWE DROUGHT CASE STUDY

2: DROUGHTS OF MATABELELAND SOUTH

Figure 3.7 Droughts in

Matabeleland South Province
Compared to the National Average

cially if grazing animals are moved with the people.

The impact of droughts on development

The impact on development can be immense, if drought and is allowed to
take place without some sort of response. Food shortages may become
chronic and rural-urban migration may be accelerated. To respond to this,
the government must borrow heavily and/or must divert money from other
development schemes in order to meet immediate drought relief needs. This
diversion of funds and energy undermines the potential for longer term
economic development.
If drought response is treated as only a relief operation, it may wipe out years
of development work, especially in rural areas. Agricultural projects, in par-
Drought related effects are bound to be most
severe in areas with overall yearly food defi-
cits and for largely subsistence level farming
and pastoralist systems. In these areas,
drought can more easily lead to famine and
death because food shortages have the great-
est impact where malnutrition already exists.
Situations in relief camps, such as overcrowd-
ing and poor sanitation, may also cause death
from disease.

45
Animal husbandry activities, including main-
taining smaller herds, eliminating unproduc-
ticular, are likely to be affected by droughts. For those in agricultural devel-
tive animals and upgrading the quality and opment, droughts or the threat of droughts should be considered a part of the
productivity of stock through improved breed-
ing practices, are also useful means of miti- overall development equation. A balanced agricultural programme that devel-
gating drought loss.
ops good water resources, addresses the problem of soil erosion, adopts re-
alistic limits on the expansion of animal herds, or accompanies herd expan-
Among the usual activities are:
sion with comprehensive range management will contribute to the mitigation
· Agricultural improvements, including of drought impact.
modifying cropping patterns and the in-
troduction of drought resistant crop vari-
eties; Factors contributing to vulnerability
· Rangeland management, including im-
provement of grazing lands and grazing Drought is more likely in dry areas with limited rainfall. Physical factors
patterns, introduction of feedlots, and pro-
tection of shrubs and trees; and such as the moisture retention of soil and timing of the rains influence the
· Water resource development, including
improved irrigation and water storage fa- degree of crop loss during droughts. Dependency on rain fed agriculture
cilities, protection of surface water from increases vulnerability. Farmers unable to adapt to drought conditions with
evaporation, introduction of drip irrigation
systems, and water containment meth- repeated plantings may experience crop failure. Livestock dependent
ods such as retention dams and subsur-
face dams. populations without adequate grazing territory are also at risk. Those
dependent on stored water resources or irrigation will be more vulnerable to
water shortages and may face competition for water.
Controls could include:
· Livestock numbers per unit area;
· Maximum human population density; Drought disaster mitigation strategies in rural and urban areas
· Limits on amounts of water taken from
public water supplies for agricultural To reduce the threat of droughts and to lessen their impact should they occur,
or industrial use; and a number of measures can be taken. The first step in disaster mitigation is to
· Authority to declare a state of emer-
gency, during which time animal herds
identify areas that are at risk of a drought.
must be reduced in size or transported
to non emergency areas, more stringent
water usage allowances are imposed, Small storm retention dams can be built across drainage depressions or dry
etc.
riverbeds to trap water from occasional flash floods and some of the water
can be diverted into nearby depressions to form temporary reservoirs. These
BOX 3.3 EXAMPLE OF DROUGHT EARLY provide water for drinking and irrigation, and seepage into the soil will
WARNING FROM FEWSNET replenish soil moisture and groundwater.
FEWSNET (2002)
Subsurface dams are used to trap water in the sandy bottoms of dry riverbeds.
A trench is dug across the streambed down to a layer of impervious clay and
the trench is then filled and packed with clay to form an underground dam.
When flash floods occur, a portion of the water will be trapped in the sand
behind the dam. Small wells can be dug by hand to reach the water.
Another approach to reduce the impact of droughts on human settlements is
to employ land use planning techniques. Land use planning in drought prone
areas builds upon the information collected in a risk assessment. Those lands
identified as drought prone will benefit from controlled or restricted use.
This requires the assessment of such land to describe the degree to which it is
drought prone, the present land use, the cyclical patterns of use of this land,
and land ownership. Land use controls,
Zimbabwe hit by drought. Zimbabwe's southwestern province of Matabeleland is one of similar to zoning regulations, can be
the hardest hit regions in a country suffering the worst effects of the regional drought. created and adopted by governing
Matabeleland is ranked at five on the rainfall scale in the country - one being the wettest bodies.
and five being the driest. 900,000 vulnerable people in the region are affected. The
Southern African Development Community (SADC) Drought Monitoring Unit in Harare This set of land use planning
has warned that the 2002-2003 season could see below normal rainfall for southwestern recommendations needs to be linked
Zimbabwe. This has fuelled fear of further food shortages next year. Aid agencies to a programme of public
estimate that almost seven million people in Zimbabwe require food aid until the next information to make the users of the
harvest around March 2003. land aware of the issues. Planning

46
recommendations should also be linked to incentives that will encourage the
land users to comply with the controls.
Droughts do not occur without warning (Thompson, 1993). Indicators can be Figure 3.7 Stages in the Life Cycle
monitored and interpreted, giving adequate notice to begin responding and of a Tropical Cyclone
reduce the severity of the drought impact. The importance of water allocation
and rationing becomes clear and from the very beginning of a drought, water
supplies must be used wisely. Priorities should be established and measures
to protect water supplies should be taken immediately. Water authorities plan
for water shortages in towns and cities with reserve capacity in reservoirs.
During prolonged drought, however, such stores may run low, creating a
requirement for water restrictions. For individuals, the best place to prepare
for droughts in urban centres is in the garden. Over half of city household
water is used on gardens and lawns. Wise water use planning might include
reducing areas of grass, mulching garden beds and choosing dry-climate plants.
In the home, it is also important to conserve water, especially during droughts,
by having shorter showers, turning off dripping taps, using water efficient
appliances, reusing water and collecting rain water in tanks.

Tropical Cyclones
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is producing increas-
ing evidence that the climate is changing towards high frequency of weather
extremes (IPCC, 2001). For the Southern Africa region, this might mean an
increase in the magnitude and frequency of droughts and floods. Zimbabwe
has already witnessed extreme weather events in the PAST decade. The worst
floods and drought of the century occurred in the 1999/2000 and 1991/92
seasons respectively. It is quite possible that tropical cyclone activity will
become both more frequent and more severe. Therefore, people need to be
proactive and to prepare adequately for this eventuality. In this section we try
to produce a tropical cyclone resistant community through tropical cyclone
risk management literacy.
Tropical cyclones are the most destructive of seasonally recurring, rapid onset
natural hazards. They are formed within the warm waters of the tropics.
Between 80 and 100 tropical cyclones occur around the world each year
(Preston and Whyte, 2000). Devastation by violent winds, torrential rainfall
and accompanying phenomena, including floods, can lead to massive
community disruption. For example, in 2000, tropical cyclone Eline caused
more than 120 deaths and destroyed infrastructure worth several billions of
US dollars in Zimbabwe and caused several times more destruction and deaths
in Mozambique. Several hundreds of thousands of people were displaced
(CDP, 2000).

What are tropical cyclones?

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) uses the generic term
‘tropical cyclone’ to cover weather systems in which winds exceed ‘gale force’
(minimum of 34 knots or 63 km/h). Tropical cyclones are rotating, intense An abbreviated life cycle of tropical cyclone
low pressure systems of tropical oceanic origin. They are called hurricanes Paul, April 2000.
1. Formative stage: 11 April.
in the Caribbean, the United States, Central America and parts of the Pacific; 2. Immature stage: 14 April.
typhoons in the Northwest Pacific and East Asia; cyclonic storms in the Bay 3. Mature stage (920 hPa): 15 April.
4. Decay stage: 20 April.
of Bengal and tropical cyclones in the South Indian, South Pacific and
Australian waters. It is important to be aware of these regional names so that, (Source Bureau of Meteorology Australia
2007; www.bom.au)
for example, what is described as a hurricane in America will be understood
47
Formation and initial development of a tropi-
cal cyclone
Four atmospheric and oceanic conditions are
necessary for the formation and initial devel-
opment of a cyclonic storm:
A WARM SEA TEMPERATURE exceding 26° C, to a
depth of 60 m, which provides abundant wa-
ter vapour in the air by evaporation.
ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY (an above average de-
crease of temperature with altitude) encour-
ages considerable vertical cumulus cloud con-
vection when condensation of rising air oc-
curs, while high relative humidity (degree to
which the air is saturated by water vapour) of
the atmosphere to a height of about 7 000 m
facilitates condensation of water vapour into
water droplets and clouds, releases heat en-
ergy and induces drop in pressure.
A LOCATION OF NO MORE THAN 5° LATITUDE FROM THE
EQUATOR allows the influence of the forces
due to the earth’s rotation (coriolis force) to
take effect in inducing cyclonic wind circula-
tions around low pressure centres.
DIVERGENCE ALOFT which facilitates the carrying
away of air dispelled from the top of the cy-
clonic air system.
Tropical cyclones have a distinct life cycle.
For cyclones that reach at least tropical cy-
clone stage (category 3 or higher having wind
gusts of at least 166 km/h) the life cycle may
be divided into four stages. Not all formed
cyclones reach tropical cyclone stage or above.
This is because their development is con-
strained by one or more of a number of fac-
tors such as being located in an unfavourable
atmospheric environment, movement over
cooler water or making landfall. Meteorolo-
gists can monitor these processes with weather
satellites, orbiting or in fixed position above
the earth, and by radar scanning up to 400
km from the radar station. A tropical cyclone
is usually first identified and then followed
from satellite and/or radar images. The fol-
lowing are the four distinct stages in the for-
mation of a tropical cyclone.
as essentially the same phenomenon as that which is called ‘tropical cyclone’
when it occurs in Zimbabwe or Mozambique.
Tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean
The tracks of cyclones in the South West Indian Ocean are naturally erratic,
but initially they move generally westward towards Africa’s east coast, then
progressively poleward into higher latitudes, where they lose their cyclonic
structure (decay). Those that continue westwards make landfall (landfall is
when a cyclone’s center crosses the coastline) and first affect Mozambique,
before tracking further westwards into Zimbabwe (Climate Handbook of
Zimbabwe, 1981). Significantly reduced evaporation over land and over colder
waters polewards, reduces the source of convective energy needed for
sustaining the deep convective clouds of the cyclone. Since tropical cyclones
draw their energy from the warm surface water, cutting or reducing their
energy source causes them to dissipate rapidly once they move over cold
water or large landmasses.
1 THE FORMATIVE STAGE At this stage the satellite images appear as a
disturbance of an area of unusually active convective (thunderstorms)
formation, but poorly organised. It is difficult to identify the circulation
centre as it will be ill-defined. However at times curved cumulus cloud
bands spiralling towards an active area of thunderstorms indicate the
location of the centre. As development occurs the convection persists
throughout the day. The strongest surface winds may be well removed
from the centre, tend to occur in disorganised squalls and are often
confined to one quadrant, for example the north westerly winds to the
north of the centre. When formative stage tropical cyclones move inland
they produce little or no damage on landfall but are often associated with
heavy rain and sometimes flooding over eastern and southern Africa,
especially Mozambique.
2 THE IMMATURE STAGE This is the stage in which the area of persisting
convection becomes more organised accompanied by the occurrence of
simultaneous intensification. The minimum surface pressure rapidly drops
below 1000 hPa and convection becomes organised into long bands
spiralling inwards. Gale-force winds (wind speed of 63 to 87 km/h or 34
to 47 knots) develop with the strengthening pressure gradient, and the
maximum winds (which now may be higher) are concentrated in a tight
band close to the centre. With the circulation at the centre well defined,
an eye may begin to form. In satellite images several well organised curved
bands of active convection may be seen spiralling in towards a central
dense mass of clouds covering the focal point of the banding, or
surrounding the centre. The eye (if it exists) may be masked by a canopy
of cirrus cloud, which itself may contain curved striations associated with
the outflow at the top of the tropical cyclone. The immature tropical
cyclone can cause devastating wind and storm surge effects upon landfall,
although damage is usually confined to a relatively small area.
3 THE MATURE STAGE During this stage the tropical cyclone acquires a quasi-
steady state with random but minimum fluctuations in central pressure
and maximum wind speed. The area affected, including the cyclonic
circulation and extent of the gales, increase markedly. The wind field may
48
 The decay stage is characterised by the weak-
also become more asymmetric. In satellite images the cloud field becomes ening of organised convection near the cen-
highly organised and more symmetrical. In more intense cyclones a round tre and the disappearance of major curved
convective bands in satellite images. The low-
central dense overcast containing a well-centred, distinct round eye may level circulation centre may still be very well
defined by narrow bands of low clouds. Those
be dominant (see Figure 3.7, image 3). The surrounding convective bands cyclones that cross the Mozambique coast and
are tightly coiled and quasi-circular. Typically a cyclone spends just a day weaken over land may continue to produce
heavy rain at a considerable distance inland.
or so at maximum intensity until it begins to weaken, unless the cyclone This was the case with Tropical Cyclone Eline,
which continued to give abundant rains in
remains in a highly favourable environment. Botswana, several hundreds of kilometres in-
land.
4 THE DECAY STAGE The previously established warm core is destroyed
during this stage, the central pressure rises, and the belt of maximum
wind expands away from the centre. Decay may occur very rapidly if the
system moves into an unfavourable atmospheric or geographic
environment, like when making landfall or moving polewards towards
Cyclone Eline at landfall in
cooler waters. But sometimes only the tropical characteristics are
Mozambique near Beira, 22
modified while the cyclonic circulation moves on to higher latitudes.
February 2000.
Structure and properties of a tropical cyclone
A tropical cyclone consists of four structures,
namely the eye, eye wall, cirrus canopy and spiral
bands (see photograph below). The following are the
definitions of these tropical cyclone components.
• EYE The centre or eye of a tropical cyclone is
located at the area of lowest pressure. This is an
area of sinking air at the centre of circulation.
Thus the area is often a cloudless sky and is
characterised by little or no wind. When
cyclones reach the tropical cyclone stage, the
eye usually shows up as a circular hole in the
central cloud mass. Although the eye may appear
small in the picture, it is on average as big as 40
km in diameter, although it can vary between less than 10 km and more (Source Met Office 2007)

than 100 km in the extreme cases.

• EYE WALL The area surrounding the eye is a wall of dense convective
cloud rising about 15 km into the atmosphere. In this area, called the
‘eye wall’, the most violent winds and heaviest rainfall occur.
• SPIRAL BANDS These are bands of heavy rain and wind squalls that spiral
cyclonically toward the eye wall. These distinctive patterns of convective
cloud bands spiralling into the eye wall are revealed using radar and
satellite images. High wind gusts and heavy downpours often occur in
individual rainbands, with relatively calm weather between bands. These
bands often extend up to 1 000 km from the cyclone centre.
• CIRRUS CANOPY Because of the extremely vigorous uplift of moist air
within the convective clouds of the eye wall and inner spiral bands, a
massive outflow of cirrus cloud is produced in the upper atmosphere.
This cirrus outflow forms a huge canopy over the cyclone. At times, this
cloud makes satellite location of the system’s centre difficult during
the early development stages, before the eye eventually shows through
the canopy.

49
Figure 3.8 Atmospheric Pressure
and Wind Speed Change across a
Tropical Cyclone’s Diameter
Figure 3.9 Tropical Cyclone Eline
(the most devastating) as it En-
tered Zimbabwe
BOX 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONES
IN THE SOUTH-WEST INDIAN OCEAN
Pressure and wind profile across a Tropical Cyclone
Figure 3.8 shows the atmospheric pressure and wind speed change across
the diameter of a tropical cyclone using a rough profile of wind speed (blue)
and surface pressure (red). Between 100 and
200 kilometres from the eye, the winds are
fast enough to qualify as ‘tropical storm
force’. The atmospheric pressure here will
still be relatively high compared to the
storm’s centre at about 990 to 1010
millibars. However, the pressure gradually
falls and the wind speed rises upon getting
closer to the eye wall. It is only over the last
50 to 100 kilometres that the large changes
in pressure and wind speed occur.
The pressure begins to fall more rapidly
while the wind speed simultaneously increases as one moves towards the centre
of the eye wall. Within the eye wall, the wind speed reaches its maximum but
within the eye, the winds become very light, sometimes even calm. The sur-
face pressure continues to drop through the eye wall and into the centre of
the eye, where the lowest pressure is found. Upon exiting the eye, the wind
speed and pressure both increase rapidly. The wind speed again reaches a
maximum in the opposite eye wall, and then quickly begins to decrease. This
means that the wind and pressure profiles inside a tropical cyclone are roughly
symmetrical, so a quick rise in winds and pressure through the eye wall fol-
lowed by a slower increase in pressure and likewise decrease in wind speed
would be expected.
Since it is within the eye wall that the heaviest falls are expected as well as
maximum wind speed, destruction should be located within the path tracked
by the eye wall. When an eye passes over a region, a period of maximum wind
speed and rainfall is followed by a period of relatively calm weather that
characterises the centre of the eye. This is then followed by a sudden outburst
of the previously experienced severe weather as the other side of the eye wall
affects the region but with the wind coming from the opposite direction. This
is the most dangerous aspect of the passage of an eye over a region as the
second part of the eye wall usually catches most of its victims off-guard as
they tend to relax and move from shelters under the false temporary comfort
of the calm eye centre.
50
Tropical cyclones are easily spotted on a satellite/radar image
because of the pronounced rotation around the centre. They were Name Suggested Name Suggested
by by
previously rated according to their wind speed on the Saffir- Abaimba Tanzania Naledi Botswana
Simpson scale. This scale ranges from categories 1 to 5, with 5 Beni Zimbabwe Olie Kenya
being the most devastating. However, the use of this scale has Cela Swaziland Patou Madagascar
been discontinued and the Dvorak scale is now being used. The Darius Mauritius Quilmane Mozambique
Elita Malawi Ralph Kenya
Dvorak Scale uses satellite imagery, wind speed and the central Gafilo Madagascar Sefate Lesotho
pressure. It rates the cyclone on Current Intensity (CI) from CI 1 Helma Mozambique Umuri Comores
to CI 8. Lenny Zimbabwe Yvonne Seychelles
Moingaza Comores Zuri Kenya
Itseng Botswana Valetta Mauritius
The Tropical Cyclone Committee for the South West Indian Ocean Jubela Swaziland Wells Malawi
Countries of the South West Indian Ocean (SWIO) that are threat- Katiba Lesotho Xavier Tanzania
ened by tropical cyclones formed an association in 1974 called
the Regional Association I, in order to jointly monitor the activi-
ties of tropical cyclones in the SWIO. Zimbabwe is a committee member of Table 3.3 Names of Tropical
this association, which is also known as the Tropical Cyclone Committee for Cyclones in the 2003/04 Season
the South West Indian Ocean. Other members are, Kenya, Botswana, Comoros, Note: The identification and naming process
France (RSMC La Reunion Tropical Cyclone Centre), Lesotho, Madagascar, took place during 2002 Zimbabwe Meteoro-
logical Office
Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa,
Swaziland and Tanzania. Name Date of Entry Point of Entry to Zimbabwe
Longitude Latitude
The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) coordinates the Astrid 29 January 1958 30.50o -13.60 o
activities of this committee. To facilitate identification and track- Colleen 21 December 1959 33.60o -11.40 o
ing, the storms are generally given alternating masculine and femi- Claude 17 January 1966 31.10 o -20.00 o
nine names, which identify the year and annual sequence. Indi- Eugene 14 January 1972 33.60 o -23.50 o
vidual member countries suggest the names for tropical cyclones Danae 30 January 1976 33.00 o -22.80 o
prior to the tropical cyclone season. Mauritius and La Reunion Emilie 7 February 1977 30.10 o -20.40 o
Domoina 2 February 1984 32.10 o -18.50 o
Meteorological Services, who have the joint responsibility of Berobia 10 January 1986 33.00 o -18.40 o
tracking the cyclones as they form in the SWIO and allocating Bonita 20 January 1996 32.00 o -14.70 o
the names, then keep the list of names. The names are allocated Lissette 3 March 1997 33.50 o -18.60 o
using the alphabetical order of the first letters of the suggested Eline 23 February 2000 30.70 o -19.20 o
names (Table 3.3). The SWIO region has its own unique way of Japhet 7 March 2003 33.60 o -14.70 o
classifying tropical cyclones occurring in the region (shown in
Box 3.4 on page 50). Mauritius Meteorological Service

Table 3.4 Tropical Cyclones that

History of tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe have Affected Zimbabwe from
Quite a number of tropical cyclones form in the South West Indian Ocean but 1958
very few cross the Mozambique Channel to affect this country. Table 3.4 shows
the tropical cyclones that have affected Zimbabwe since 1958. Most of the
tropical cyclones follow a parabolic track to the east of Madagascar and then
move towards the South Pole, where they dissipate. This means that those
that affect Zimbabwe always affect Mozambique first. Figure 3.10 illustrates
selected tracks of tropical cyclones that have reached Zimbabwe. Note that
most of these tropical cyclone tracks end in the country showing that this is
where their strength as tropical cyclones diminishes. However, the remnant
low pressure systems may still cause heavy rainfall for a day or two. Obvi-
ously, the eastern half of Zimbabwe is the most vulnerable to tropical cy-
clones and only a few –Emilie and Eline –have traversed and affected the
whole country.
In the SWIO region, the cyclone season extends from November to April Figure 3.10 Tracks of Selected
but tropical cyclones mostly affect Zimbabwe in the months December to Tropical Cyclones that have
March (Figure 3.11). Entered Zimbabwe
Machingauta (2005)

51
Figure 3.11 Monthly Frequency of
Tropical Cyclones that Entered
Zimbabwe, 1958 to 2003
The tropical cyclone disaster event
When cyclone force winds move onto land the storm becomes a potential
disaster. The lower the atmospheric pressure in the centre of the storm, the
more violent the action of wind, storm surge, and waves is likely to be. Fortu-
nately, Zimbabwe is spared most of the more serious devastating processes
of cyclones (storm surge and waves) because of the absence of the sea.

High winds are, of course, only one of the problems that are brought by the
storm. Trees have been blown down, especially in the Eastern Highlands, dur-
ing the passage of tropical cyclones in the area. The passage of tropical cy-
clone Astrid in January 1958 caused Beitbridge to achieve the dubious

Figure 3.12 Coincidence between

Extremely Wet Conditions and
Tropical Cyclones
Note: SPI = Standardised Precipitation Index
of the seasonal rainfall for Matabeleland
South
Beit Bridge Flood Project (2006 )

BOX 3.5 EXAMPLE OF A TROPICAL CYCLONE

WARNING

BOX 3.6 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY Chikwarakwara/

1: THE LIMPOPO TROPICAL CYCLONE WARN- Shashe Schools
ING SYSTEM

52
distinction of being one of the few places in Zimbabwe at which the maxi-
mum daily rainfall recorded exceeded the minimum annual total. Tropical
cyclones Emilie and Japhet, which traversed Matabeleland in February 1977
and March 2003 respectively, produced daily rainfall exceeding 200mm
(Mugumbate, 2003).
Thus devastating floods from the extremely heavy rainfall often accompany
tropical cyclones. Flash floods of great volume and short duration may result
from the cyclone’s rain, especially in hilly or mountainous terrain. Runoff
from the intense rainfall accumulates quickly in restricted valleys and flows
rapidly downstream, often as a large ‘wave’. Flood flows frequently contain
large concentrations of sediment and debris loads. The damage is increased
where they cause mudslides that cover or undercut roads, erode agricultural
soil and contribute to serious long term environmental degradation.
In the forecasting and warning aspects of flood risk, there must be close co-
ordination between the meteorological forecasters, and the hydrologists who
will be working with the water authorities and local officials. The meteorolo-
gist, besides forecasting the intensity, movement and evolution of the tropi-
cal cyclone, will also prepare forecasts of rainfall, its time of onset, duration
and the amounts expected. The effects that tropical cyclone
induced floods are capable of
The impact of tropical cyclones producing. This was the result of
The most serious immediate consequence of cyclones is the loss of human tropical cyclone Eline in
lives. The death rate is significantly higher in remote areas of the country, neighboring Mozambique.
(Source: Mozambique Meteorological Ser-
where communications are poor and warning systems and evacuation plans vices)

Table 3.5 Summary of Possible Damage or

Affected/ Structures Agriculture Trees
Hazard Destruction to Property
High winds Damages rural huts, Damage to standing Widespread loss of timber
urban buildings, power crops such as grains
lines, towers

Extensive damage to Extensive damage to Minor loss of trees

Flood losses roads, rail bridges, crops and irrigation
airports, structures etc. systems, scours topsoil,
contaminates wells,
drowns animals

are inadequate, especially in areas where people have been forced to inhabit
more vulnerable spaces, such as low lying agricultural areas. The most sig-
nificant impact of cyclones is the damage they cause to houses and other
physical structures. They can also destroy or damage critical facilities, sup-
ply lines, crops, and/or food stocks. Economic activities are disrupted, thus
creating financial stress. Key installations may also be destroyed or dam-
aged, even those facilities that are critical for responding to disasters and
also for maintaining a safe environment and public order. Among these are
communications installations, electrical generating and transmission facili-
ties, water storage, purification, and pumping facilities, sewage treatment fa-
cilities, hospitals, police stations, and various other public and private facili-
ties.
Houses like these, commonly found
Damage to infrastructure can also be widespread. Towers and transmission in remote areas of Zimbabwe, are
lines may fall as a result of high winds, as shown in the right hand photograph, not strong enough to withstand
above. Large buildings may also be damaged by wind, flying debris or erosion tropical cyclone force.
that undermines their foundations, leading to weakening or even collapse of (Source: CPD)

53

Top- House destroyed during
tropical cyclone Eline in February
2000. Below - Typical houses build
with the assistance of CPD with
standard building codes to resist
tropical cyclone damage.
(Source: CPD)
This house is a tropical cyclone resistant
model house built with the assistance of the
CPD. Here the engineers tried to incorporate
building codes to establish minimum stan-
dards of design and construction using af-
fordable local resources in order to avoid struc-
tural collapse in the advent of yet another
cyclone.
BOX 3.7 ZIMBABWE CYCLONE CASE STUDY 2:
TROPICAL CYCLONE ELINE, FEBRUARY 2000
the building. Transportation facilities, such as bridges, railways, roads and
airports are also vulnerable to damage by both high winds and floodwaters.
Cyclones disrupt agriculture and destroy crops. High winds destroy some
standing crops, especially maize, and damage orchards and forests. Flooding
from intense rains damages certain crops, especially tubers, and may cause
excessive erosion by scouring and eroding the topsoil. Furthermore, access
to critical facilities, like markets for buying and selling agricultural produce,
schools, and points of supply of relief material, may be impeded by damage
to roads, bridges, railways, etc.
Cyclones disrupt economies. The consequences of the disaster may include:
• The loss of investments and jobs;
• The destruction of or damage to factories;
• Production losses resulting from the destruction of harvests or crops
and the death of livestock, etc.
Vulnerable communities
The vulnerability of a human settlement to a cyclone is determined by its site,
the probability that a cyclone will occur, and the degree to which its struc-
tures could be damaged by it. Buildings are considered vulnerable if they can-
not withstand the force of high winds. Generally, unprotected river flood-
plains are considered vulnerable to cyclones.
Tropical cyclone disaster mitigation
Much of the potential impact of cyclones can be reduced or eliminated if
certain precautions or mitigation measures are taken. The following are spe-
cific actions that one can take:
• REGULATORY CONTROLS In areas known to be vulnerable to floods, land
has to be regulated so that villages are built on high ground, away from
known flood areas. Land use control and regulation can be an effective
tool for reducing vulnerability, although it is not a simple, universal cure.
Controls must be relevant to local conditions, to the degree of physical
hazard, to the existing local economy and to the probable future
socioeconomic status of the area. Also involved are numerous human
factors that have to do with the inhabitants’ perceptions of the hazard
54
 they face and the available means of altering the incidence of damage. When a cyclone is on it’s way and a cyclone
warning is issued, community members are
The established way of life and existing land use will determine, to a advised to:
greater or lesser extent, what regulated uses are to be recommended. · Listen to local radio or television for further
For example, in Muzarabani, these critical considerations were ignored warnings;
·Board or tape windows, and store loose ar-
and houses which were built on high ground away from the flood hazards ticles inside;
were either sold or left uninhabited as the intended owners left to go · Lock up pets, fill water containers, fuel car
and place it under cover;
back to live in their original homes (CPD, verbal communication). · Check the emergency kit and put spare cloth-
ing and shoes in plastic bags; and
· Keep children home from school.
• BUILDING REGULATIONS Strict building regulations are unrealistic (and
almost always unenforceable) for the majority of Zimbabwe’s villages When the cyclone strikes, those in its path
since they typically receive no engineering input and are made from are advised to:

locally available, inexpensive materials. As a result, cases of collapsed · Stay inside and shelter in the strongest part
of the house (e.g. the bathroom); and
huts during tropical cyclones as shown in the photograph on the left, · Protect themselves with a mattress and or
below, are common in the rural areas. The CPD has devised a workable blankets and anchor themselves to a strong
fixture (such as water pipes) or get under a
alternative to rigid building codes with more flexible building strong table.

performance standards.
The primary objective of these standards adopted by CPD was to encourage
the development of more disaster resistant houses (i.e., with a substantially
increased level of safety), rather than to require that all houses be built to a
very high, often expensive, engineering standard. This means that any type or
size of house may be built, and any material may be used to build the house,
depending on what is appropriate to the economic situation of the homeowner,
as long as the final structure is cyclone resistant and as long as it does not
endanger the lives or property of neighbors or passersby.

• PUBLIC AWARENESS Systematic methods are necessary to inform people

about the threat of tropical cyclones. Public awareness programmes must
explain some very basic and frequently misunderstood issues on the
nature of the associated disaster risks – the anticipated hazard, the type
of disaster impact and the condition of vulnerability to which the local
population is exposed. Basic disaster mitigation and preparedness
measures can provide substantial and permanent benefits without
necessarily causing the government or individuals additional expense.

Tropical cyclone disaster preparedness and response

Several important activities are necessary during the run up to a possible
cyclone disaster:
• Developing a disaster preparedness plan to sequence the activities and
responsibilities of each participant;
• Developing an effective forecasting system;
• Developing warning and evacuation procedures for people threatened
by floods;
Impact Midlands Manicaland Masvingo Matabeleland South Total
Injuries/deaths 3 45 65 23 136
Houses/huts destroyed 28 8 46 357 439
Toilets destroyed 4 268 1 146 29 944 23 829 59 184
Schools damaged 1 438 1 238 9 141 3 186 14 999
Clinics damaged 43 46 390 59 538
Table 3.6 Impact of Tropi-
Dams damaged 4 3 30 17 54 cal Cyclone Eline on the
Bridges damaged 12 2 32 42 88 Worst Affected Provinces of
Livestock lost 13 15 179 Zimbabwe

55
BOX 3.8 ZIMBABWE’S TROPICAL CYCLONE
WARNING SYSTEM
Figure 3.13 Flood Prone Areas of
Zimbabwe
Floods occur when water covers land that is
normally dry. Many communities in Zimbabwe
experience some kind of flooding, but people
who live near rivers or in low lying areas live
with the greatest threat of floods. Periods of
heavy rain, not necessarily in their area, can
lead to rises in the water level of streams and
rivers to a point where the normal channels
can no longer hold the volume of water. Silt-
ation of rivers can also lead to loss of channel
capacity. Below are flooded villages, during the
greatest non cyclone induced floods of the cen-
tury in 2007/08 season, which had been built
in the low lying area of middle Save River.
• Training in first aid and trauma care, and maintaining stocks of necessary
medical supplies; and
• Establishing an emergency communication system as well as public
service messages regarding evacuation, health, safety, and security.
Advise for inhabitants of tropical cyclone prone areas
Before the cyclone season begins, those who are likely to be
affected by cyclones are advised to:
• Know their community cyclone plan, if there is one, and how
the cyclone warning system works;
• Check that their house is in good condition, particularly the
roof;
• Cut overgrown tress and trim tree branches clear of the house;
• Clear their property of loose items likely to cause damage in
high winds; and
• Create an emergency kit of tinned food, water containers,
emergency lighting, first aid materials, medicines, and plastic bags.
Flood Hazards and Disasters
What are floods?
Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters in terms of
human hardship and economic loss. As much as 90 percent of the damage
related to all natural disasters (excluding drought) is caused by floods and
associated debris flows. Floods can also result in significant property damage
and major social disruption. The damage caused by the floods caused by
tropical cyclone Eline floods is still evident in many parts of the country.
Floods can be defined as the temporary inundation of normally dry land areas
from the overflow of natural or artificial confines of a river or other water
bodies (Burton, 2003).
56
The causes of floods and flash floods
Several factors contribute to flooding. Two key elements are rainfall intensity
and duration. Intensity is the rate of rainfall and duration is how long the rain
lasts. Topography, soil conditions, and ground cover also play important roles.
Other, less common, causes in Zimbabwe arise from the operation of dams
Flooding occurs in known floodplains like in
the Muzarabani (as the name suggests), when
prolonged rainfall over several days, intense
rainfall over a short period of time, or debris
jams cause a river or stream to overflow and
flood the surrounding area. Floods can be slow
or fast rising, but generally develop over a
period of hours or days.

– dam failure and dam backflow.

Most flash flooding is caused by slow moving thunderstorms, thunderstorms
repeatedly moving over the same area, or heavy rains from tropical cyclones.
Flash floods take from several minutes to several hours to develop but, by
definition, they occur within six hours of a rain event, after a dam or levee
failure, or following a sudden release of water held by a debris jam. Flash
floods can occur without warning. Floods can roll boulders, tear out trees,
destroy buildings and bridges, and scour out new channels. Floodwater can
reach heights of 3 to 6 metres and often carries a deadly cargo of debris.
Flood producing rains can also trigger catastrophic debris slides.

Common types of flooding in Zimbabwe

The three most common flood types experienced in Zimbabwe are:
• SLOW ONSET FLOODS Flooding of rivers in the vast flat areas of Muzarabani
in the northwest, may last for one or more weeks, or even months. Floods
in these areas can lead to major losses of livestock and damage to crops,
as well as extensive damage to rural homes and road links.

• RAPID ONSET FLOODS Flooding can occur more quickly in the mountain
headwater areas of the larger rivers as well as in the rivers draining to Submerged Villages and fields in
the coast. The rivers are steeper and flow more quickly in these areas, Middle Save River during the
with flooding sometimes only lasting for one or two days. These floods greatest non cyclone induced
floods of the century
(2007/08 season)

BOX 3.9 FLOODS MAROON VILLAGERS,

LIVESTOCK IN CHIPINGE

57
Zhowe dam on Mzingwane river is
also useful for flood mitigation.
(Source: E. Madamombwe, ZINWA, 2006)
Weak houses that succumbed after
being subjected to excessive
moisture during floods. Structures
like the toilet in the background
(top), which were build with
cement and fired bricks and with
impervious barrier near the
ground withstood the tropical
cyclone Eline (2000) induced heavy
rains and floods.
(Source: CPD)
can be potentially much more damaging and can pose a greater risk to
life and property. This is because there is generally much less time to
take preventive action, and a faster, more dangerous flow of water. This
type of flooding could affect most of our major towns and cities.
• FLASH FLOODS Flash flooding results from relatively short, intense bursts
of rainfall, often from thunderstorms. It can occur in almost all parts of
Zimbabwe and poses the greatest threat of loss of life. Storms of this
type usually have a small area extent and only generate floods on small
headway streams, tributaries or in poorly drained urban areas.
In rural areas these floods are most often experienced in arid and semi arid
areas, usually in the Matabeleland and Masvingo regions. This is because
these areas are characterised by steep slopes causing high velocity flow
and sparse vegetation, which when combined with a high intensity, short
duration rainstorm is a recipe for flash floods.
As land is converted from permeable surfaces (fields or woodlands) to
impervious surfaces (e.g. roads and parking lots), it loses its ability to absorb
rainfall. By improving the drainage system, urbanisation contributes to an
increase in the volume of quick flow and hence the velocity of the runoff.
Runoff is increased to between two and six times what it would be on natural
terrain. During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swiftly moving
rivers, while basements and viaducts can turn into death traps as they fill with
water. In cases where drainage systems are unable to cope, they become a
serious problem instead and can also cause severe damage to infrastructure
such as roads, bridges and buildings.
People are often swept away after entering floodwaters on foot or in vehicles.
During the urban flash floods of 1999, a man was swept away in the streets
of Harare while trying to cross a flooded drain to take his child home after
school. Flash floods can be predicted but the level of accuracy would depend
on the efficiency and technological capacity of the meteorological services.
Severe storms and cyclones, especially in southern Zimbabwe, can cause
vast areas to be affected by flash floods. Damage may be limited to property
and stock losses but, in some of the more severe cases, human lives have
been lost or fatal injuries sustained by people caught in flash floods. One
such case was the flash floods that occurred in the normally dry Tsholotsho
district in December 2005 (CPD, 2006).
Flood Mitigation
There are both structural and non-structural flood mitigation measures in
place in Zimbabwe:
USE OF DAMS AND WEIRS Although these were put in place to improve water
security, they also serve as flood mitigation structures. The flood control is,
however, limited by the amount of storage available and the way these dams
are operated prior to and during the rainy season. Zimbabwe being in a semi-
arid region, it is difficult for water managers to release water in anticipation
of floods because of uncertainties in the occurrence and magnitude of runoff
during the coming season.
58
 During and after the flood, if you remain in
FLOOD RESISTANT STRUCTURES If weak structures like houses are subjected your home or when you return, take these
to water for long periods of time, the water may move from the ground up- precautions:
· School children, motorists, bus drivers
wards following the walls. Rising damp commonly occurs in walls at or near and members of the general public must
not attempt to cross fast flowing streams,
the ground level and in solid ground floor slabs at the junction with walls. flooded rivers or stormwater drains;
This may significantly weaken the structure, leading to it succumbing to the · Do not be afraid if a helicopter rescue is
necessary but follow instructions from the
moisture and disintegrating, as shown in the photographs below. The rise of helicopter crew;
· Do not eat food that has been in contact
moisture can most effectively be stopped by the use of an impervious and with floodwater and boil all water until sup-
continuous barrier using materials like built up felt or plastic. The use of plies have been declared safe;
· Do not use gas or electrical appliances
fired bricks and cement also assist in making the structure strong. that have been affected by the flood until
they have been safety checked;
· Beware of snakes and spiders, which may
The non-structural flood mitigation measures range from flood forecasting move to drier areas in your house;
to rescue operations, as well as defining areas to settle. Meteorological · Avoid wading, even in shallow water and,
if you must enter shallow floodwater, wear
forecasts are issued throughout the year and, during the wet season, the solid shoes;
· Check with police for safe routes before
amount of rainfall is also predicted. This information is used in forecasting driving anywhere and don’t enter water
the river flows so as to assess whether there will be floods. Based on this, without checking the depth and current;
· Keep listening to the local radio or TV
the appropriate authorities take the necessary steps to ensure the information station and heed all warnings and ad-
vice; and
is disseminated and the potential victims evacuated before or during the flood · Do not jump into a river to rescue some-
events. one if you are not trained as the rescue
crew is trained to do this job.

Advice for inhabitants of flood prone areas

Know the local flood history and ask the local council or CPD about the
following:
• Local flood plans and, if it becomes necessary to evacuate, how to find
the nearest safe location.
Prepare an emergency kit that includes:

• A portable radio and torch with fresh batteries, candles and waterproof
matches;
• Reasonable stocks of fresh water and tinned food, strong shoes and
rubber gloves;
• A first aid kit and basic first aid knowledge and good supplies of essential
medication; and
• A waterproof bag for clothing and valuables and your emergency contact
numbers.

A storm killed two people and damaged homes and schools during the last week of
November 2004. The storm that lasted 30 minutes affected 200 households and killed a Some of the people injured by the storms
70 year-old woman who was electrocuted by a fallen ZESA pole and a 74-year old man
who was struck by lightning.

Save the Children (UK) which was part of the team that went to assess the area together
with the Civil Protection Unit donated the kits that consist of pots, blankets, soap, cutlery,
plastic cups, plates, buckets, water purification tablets and plastic sheets. Zimbabwe Red
Cross supplied 25 family tents. The Civil Protection Unit has already assessed 75% of
the damaged area. The storm damaged 6 primary schools and 2 secondary schools
including teachers’ houses, classrooms and a laboratory. Other institutions that were
damaged include Kemurara Clinic, Grain Marketing Board, District Development Fund,
Vocational training centre in Murombedzi, Zimbabwe Republic Police offices and Zvimba
Rural District Council. Marahwa and Changamuka villages were the hardest hit with 56
A destroyed house
households affected. Mucheri and Kasange villages had 20 and 12 households affected
respectively. Affected villagers have resorted to staying with neighbours while
reconstructing their homes. Villagers were urged by the authorities to plant trees to act as
wind breaks.

Extracts from UN Zimbabwe Humanitarian Situation Report (11/2004) BOX 3.9 THE ZVIMBA STORM

59
The causes of thunderstorms
Thunderstorms develop when dense cold air
overlies less dense, warm, moist air, result-
ing in strong upward currents and conversion
of heat energy into wind and electrical poten-
tial. When the atmosphere is especially un-
stable and wind flow can provide the most
efficient input of energy to the cloud, a se-
vere thunderstorm develops, complementary
up and down draughts, capable of producing
the following:
HEAVY RAIN Intense up draughts produce rain-
drops through condensation of moist air. As
raindrops become too large to be supported,
they fall, producing heavy rain, which can ex-
ceed intensities of 200 mm per hour, causing
flash floods.
HAIL Hailstones form in a thunderstorm when
raindrops freeze at high levels and then are
recycled through up and down draughts, grow-
ing all the time. Hailstones larger than cricket
balls have been observed in Australia. Such
large, usually jagged, ice hazards can inflict
serious damage or even fatal injury.
LIGHTNING This is a serious hazard in Zimba-
bwe and is discussed in more detail in the
following section.
Figure 3.14 Reported Lightning
Death Toll from 1990 to 2003
Source: CPD Newsletter (March 2003)
Figure 3.15 Site of Lightning
Counters Installed by ZESA at
Meteorological Stations
Source: Zimbabwe Meteorological Office
Act on flood warnings:
• Listen to the local radio for information and check that your neighbors
know of the warning;
• Stack furniture and possessions above the likely flood level, (on beds
etc. and in the roof) with electrical equipment on top, and secure heavy
objects that could float and cause damage;
• Move garbage, chemicals, poisons, fuel etc. to a high, secure place;
• Protect or relocate stock and equipment in commercial or industrial
premises;
• Move to higher ground if living in low lying areas or near streams or
rivers and, if on a farm, move livestock to high ground;
• Check your car, fill it with fuel and check the emergency kit and fresh
water stocks;
• Remember that many children are carried away while trying to cross
flooded rivers and do not send children to school if they have to do this;
and
• Do not attempt to go to work in a field that is across a river or in between
rivers because of the danger of becoming trapped.
Severe Thunderstorms
By definition, ‘severe’ thunderstorms produce flash flooding,
damaging hailstones (2 cm or more in diameter), destructive
wind gusts (90 km/h and above), tornadoes, or any combina-
tion of any of these.
Thunderstorms that do not produce any of these dangerous phe-
nomena are not regarded as ‘severe’ but may still cause death,
injury or property damage due to lightning strikes.
Lightning Hazard
Lightning wreaks havoc in Zimbabwe every rain season, killing an average of
83 people a year (Figure 3.14) and injuring several hundreds more, mostly
children, as well as countless livestock. This figure is, in fact, likely to be an
underestimate as additional deaths go unreported in remote rural areas of the
country. When compared to the average figure of 73 (http://
www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/basics/wlightning.htm) for the whole
of the United States, the significance of our average yearly fatalities becomes
even more startling; the United States is about 25 times the area of Zimbabwe
with more than 25 times the population. Our neighbour South Africa with
storms of the same nature of those in Zimbabwe, but more than three times
the area and four times the population, has only 40 deaths per year (UZ, 1991).
These deaths and injuries usually occur when trees and huts in which people
are sheltering or sleeping are struck by lightning or burnt by fire caused by
lightning. It kills not only human beings, but also farm animals, at times in
large numbers. Zimbabwe also holds the record on lightning fatalities in the
Guinness Book of Records, with 23 deaths in one strike in Manicaland, and
100 cattle were killed by one strike in Gutu in 1991 (UZ, 1991). A lighting
research done by the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) in 1991 showed that Gutu
district leads the country, with ten fatalities per year.
60
In addition to the impact on homes and farms, enormous damage can be done
by lightning to Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) substations Figure 3.16 (a) An electric storm
and power lines, to TelOne rural lines, microwave link towers and relay links, cloud. Note the huge vertical
to Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings (ZBH) relay transmitters and to National extent.
(Source: CPD)
Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ) overhead lines. All of these facilities are vital
to the national economy. The total runs into millions of US
dollars every rainfall season. The hundreds of insurance claims
sent to the Meteorological Services annually for lightning con-
firmation bears witness to the high losses incurred through
damage of domestic electrical appliances.

ZESA has installed lightning counters throughout the country

to monitor lightning activity so as to find ways to protect their
installations (Figure 3.15). For those who can afford it, insur-
ance provides some recompense for equipment, property and
livestock lost, but lives are irreplaceable. We have no alterna-
tive except to search for and find national countermeasures to
remove Zimbabwe from its infamous position in the global
lightning causality statistics. Many people are killed due to
misinformation and inappropriate behaviour during electric storms. A few Figure 3.16 (b) Electric Storm
simple precautions can reduce the dangers posed by lighting. Therefore, in Cloud and Cloud to Ground Dis-
this section we seek to explain the perils associated with lighting and then charge through a Human Being
recommend some countermeasures.

The nature of lightning

Lightning, the ‘bolt’ from mythology has long been feared as an atmospheric
flash of supernatural origin or the great weapon of the gods. In biblical times
it figured as the manifestation and expression of the anger of Yaweh and fea-
Can reach 10
tured
to during the presentation of the ten commandments to Moses and the
13km height

Israelites. Thus it is not only in Zimbabwe that lightning is greatly feared.

Statistically, lightning poses a greater threat to individuals than most other
natural hazards. Today, scientific explanations have largely replaced mystical
ones, and experimental procedures have replaced intuitive concepts. Yet we
remain in awe of lighting and, therefore, it is not surprising that explaining
lightning as a natural phenomenon which can be avoided and against which
precautions must be taken is still challenging.

Lightning is emitted from clouds of large vertical extent, as shown in the

photograph above [Fiigure 3.16 (a)]. These clouds do not allow light to pass
through them, hence the dark appearance they have from the ground. They are
convective clouds that usually form after a hot and humid day. Scientists posit
that during their formation, different cloud particles (i.e. particles and water
droplets) are charged differently depending on their size. Small ice particles
and droplets are positively charged and are swept to the top of the cloud by
upward air currents (updrafts within the cloud) leaving behind negatively
charged heavy large drops and ice particles at the base of the cloud [Figure
3.16 (b)]. Thus the positively charged particles concentrate at the top while
negative ones remain at the bottom. Because the earth is generally positively
charged an electrical potential gradient is formed between the earth and the
base of the cloud.

61

Figure 3.17 What should be
known about Cloud to Ground
Lightning
Figure 3.18 Causes of Lightning
Hut Deaths and Injuries
Some important facts about lightning
Many Zimbabweans believe lightning can be
directed to strike a predetermined target by
witchcraft. The following are a few facts that
help to dispel the myths about lightning:
· Lightning can strike in the same place more
than once;
· People struck by lightning can survive if first
aid is administered promptly and medical as-
sistance sought thereafter; and
· Lightning casualties do not carry an electric
charge so it is quite safe to touch them.
Stages in this Cloud to Ground Lighting Strike
1 This cloud to ground lightning occurs when positive
charges are built up on the tree
2 A negative charge called the ‘faintly luminous
streamer’ or ‘leader’ flows from the cloud base towards
the tree.
3 A positively charged leader called the ‘return stroke’
leaves the tree and runs into the cloud
4 The lighting bolt that is seen is actually a series of
downward striking leaders and upward striking return
strokes, all taking place in a fraction of a second
5 The narrow channel that carries the discharge is
heated more than the temperature of the sun giving
very high luminosity (hence burning up the tree)
6 This burst of heat makes the air around the bolt
expand explosively producing the sound heard as
thunder
7 Since light travels a million times faster than sound,
lighting bolts are seen before hearing the thunder
As the charge separation continues within the cloud, the potential difference
between the base of the cloud and the ground increases correspondingly, up
to some critical limit. When the potential difference between the cloud base
and the ground is large enough to overcome the insulating effect provided by
the air, an electrical discharge takes place in the form of lightning, taking the
least resistant path to the ground. (Figure 3.16) This type of lightning is called
‘cloud to ground discharge’. There are other types as well, such as intra-cloud
discharge, which occurs either within the cloud itself or between two clouds
in close proximity. The cloud to ground discharge is the type that poses dan-
ger to people on the ground. It is easier to understand this phenomenon if we
compare to it to a motorcar battery with a positive and negative terminal as
well an electrical potential gradient between them. If a material of low resis-
tance is placed between the terminals, sparks occur as a result of electrical
current being carried from one terminal to the other. When a strike occurs,
the narrow channel that carries the discharge is heated to about 20 0000 C,
giving very high luminosity (Figure 3.17). This extremely high temperature
causes sudden explosive expansion and contraction of air, creating shock
waves. These high temperatures are also responsible for the burning that is
normally associated with lighting, while the waves are what we hear as thun-
der.
How lightning kills
The following are some of the ways in which lightning kills:
• Direct strike to the head or side flash leads the current to be near the
back and at the top of the neck (Figure 3.18), which may lead to
respiratory failure, even though the heart may still be beating.
• Current discharge through the heart disturbs the pumping and the
circulation of the blood.
• Death from burns sustained by fire, which may have been caused by the
lightning.
• People clearly missed by lihtning behave in a confused and haphazard
manner causing injury or death to themselves.
62
Protective measures against lightning Figure 3.19 Two Poles and Bare
There is virtually no place that is absolutely safe from the lightning threat. Wire Conductor
However, some places are safer than others. Large enclosed structures (sub-
stantially constructed buildings) tend to lower the risk more than smaller or
open structures but the degree of risk of lightning injury also depends on
whether the structure incorporates lighting protection devices, and the mate-
rials and construction techniques used. In general, vehicles that are fully en-
closed, like cars, buses, vans etc., with their windows rolled up, provide good
shelter from lightning. Care should be taken not to have contact with metal or
conducting surfaces outside or inside the vehicle.
Locations to avoid during an electric storm include high places and open fields, Figure 3.20 Single Metal
isolated trees, unprotected gazebos, rain or picnic shelters, communication Conductor
towers, ZESA electricity pylons, flagpoles, light poles, metallic washing lines,
metal fences golf carts and water (lakes, swimming pools, rivers, etc.).

Advice for minimising the risk of lightening strike

If indoors:
• Avoid going outdoors and keep clear of windows, pipes and metal that
may be protruding to the outside;
• Only use the telephone if it is absolutely necessary;
• Unplug all electrical appliances; and
• Do not wash dishes, or take a bath or a shower.
Key
h = height of the wooden protection pole. It
should be at least twice the height of the struc-
ture to be protected.
d = distance of the pole from the structure. It
should be at least half the height of the pole.

If outdoors:
• Shelter inside a big solid building or a car with the windows rolled up; Figure 3.21 Metal Conductor in a
• Avoid using an umbrella because of the metal and be aware that a raincoat Tree
does not offer insulation against strikes;
• If far from a safe shelter, avoid being the tallest object, by crouching and
put your feet together, keeping your head as low as possible and, if in a
group, spreading out rather than all remaining together;
• Never shelter under an isolated tree;
• Immediately get down from any high place e.g. a tree or rooftop;
• If you are in on a mountain, hide in a cave if possible;
• Do not ride in an open vehicle, tractor, bicycle, donkey or scotch cart;
• Do not repair a vehicle, tractor or plough; Key
d = distance. It must be at least half the height
of the tree. If the height of the tree is double
the height to be protected, there is no need
for a pole, as just a wire suffices

Figure 3.22 How Wind Blows

Roofs Off Houses
UNDP DHA, (2001)

When lightning is seen or thunder is heard,

consider going to a building or a vehicle. Light-
ning usually precedes rain, so do not wait for
the rain to begin before suspending activi-
ties.

Every individual is ultimately responsible for

their own personal safety. Parents and teach-
ers must take responsibility for the safety of
children in their care. Avoid unnecessary ex-
posure to the lightning during storm activity.

63
BOX 3.10 LIGHTNING KILLS 10 ZIMBABWE
WORSHIPPERS

Vapostori worship in the open

wearing white robes
(source news.bbc.co.uk/.../jpg/
_38509259_zimcult300.jpg)

Table 3.7 Wind Gusts with Poten-

tially Damaging Effects, 1968 to
1978 • If inside a boat, swimming or fishing, try to leave the water as soon as
Zimbabwe Meteorological Office
possible;
Date Speed Place • If in an open space e.g. football pitch, athletics ground, ploughing field,
July 1968 50 knots Nyanga
April 1969 57 knots Masvingo
church gathering or any public gathering, leave immediately and seek
April 1969 57 knots Grand Reef shelter.
March 1971 68 knots Wankie NP
August 1971 76 knots Lake Kariba Some long term protection measures are:
January 1973 75 knots Lake Kariba • Installing lightning protection devices at homes in the rural areas;
February 1973 61 knots Lake Kariba • Avoiding the use of metal caps on top of thatching; and
December 1974 85 knots Kariba Airport
May 1975 63 knots Masvingo
• Growing trees rather than cutting them down.
September 1976 75 knots Lake Kariba
October 1978 64 knots Grand Reef
Figures 3.19 to 3.21 show some examples of protection schemes ideal for
June 1978 63 knots Lake Kariba people living in the rural areas.
November 1978 75 knots Chiredzi
Extreme Wind Gusts
Civil Protection Department
Officials inspect a house severely dam- In a mature electric storm, extreme wind gusts are caused by the mass of cold
aged in a heavy hailstorm that occurred air dragged down by falling rain and hail or air cooled by rain falling through
in Kadoma on 26 December 2003. it and evaporating. The high density of this air compared with the air adjacent
Four houses were destroyed during the to the storm accelerates it towards the ground where it is deflected horizon-
storm but fortunately no deaths were tally at great speed, producing a cool gusty wind that can be strong enough to
recorded cause significant damage. This squall may last for only a few minutes or, on
(Source: CPD) occasion, an hour or more but the peak speed is only experienced within a
few minutes of the onset.
At their most violent, these dangerous, damaging gusts are known as ‘micro-
bursts’ and ‘down-bursts’. Table 3.7 shows that wind speeds as high as 85
knots have been recorded at Kariba in 1974. Winds of this magnitude can
snap large trees in two and demolish buildings by taking the roof off, capsize
small aircraft, blow over people, and probably most dangerously, capsize water-
borne vessels. This is a hazard of consequence at Lake Kariba and may origi-
nate many kilometres from the shore. While the weather overhead may ap-
pear to be clear and the winds light, the sudden arrival of a severe squall from
some storm many kilometres away from the shore or escarpment can occur.
Figure 3.22 shows how strong winds destroy houses.

64
Where and when severe storms occur
Severe storms can occur at any time of the year throughout Zimbabwe.
Most strike from September to March when solar energy is the greatest,
but severe winter storms are common on the Zambezi escarpment. The
frequency of land gales is difficult to specify. Table 3.7 shows land gales
that had the potential to damage property for the decade 1968 to 1978. The
dates clearly show that these damaging winds have occurred during all the
months of the year.

Fog and Mist as Visibility and Barrier Hazards

When water droplets of the order of one fiftieth of a millimetre in diameter
(about 200 times smaller than rain drops) are held in suspension in the air,
visibility is greatly reduced due to multiple reflections. If the concentration
of the water droplets is great enough to reduce visibility to less than 2 km but
not less than 1 km, it is referred to as ‘mist’. As the concentration becomes Winding roads that pass through
higher and the visibility falls below 1 km, or even as low as a few metres, the mountains are more dangerous
term ‘fog’ is used. Thus it is only the level of visibility that is used to distin- than usual in the presence of fog.
guish between mist and fog; otherwise they are identical. Since fog com- (Source: CPD)
prises dense clouds of water droplets immediately above land or water sur-

Figure 3.23 Annual Mean Number

of Days with Fog by Location
Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe
(1981)

Radiation fog is most common just after the

rain season when the skies are clear and the
air still fairly moist. In winter and the hot sea-
son, the air is usually too dry for much fog to
form. During the rain season, when the air is
moist enough, radiation at night is often in-
hibited by middle level cloud layers, reducing
the loss of heat at ground level, and the inci-
dence of fog is sporadic and local, depending
on the extent of cloud during the night.

faces, where land and water transport is dominant, it becomes a weather haz- Table 3.8 Effective Temperature
ard because it impairs visibility and hence judgment by drivers and pilots. Scale
Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe
Where main roads pass through mountains, fog can be a danger and visual (1981)
sensing and signals are essential to safe activity or operations. People’s lives
may be at risk if they become lost in treacherous environments, especially in Effective Temp. Degree of Comfort
the mountains. Fog hazard in Zimbabwe is generally most prevalent from Feb- Above 27.1o Injurious to health
24.2 o – 27.1 o Excessively warm
ruary to June, with a peak at the beginning of the winter season in May. 20.5 o – 24.3 o Warm
16.7 o – 20.4 o Optimum comfort
‘Radiation fog’ occurs as result of radiative cooling of moist air, usually on 12.8 o – 16.6 o Cool
clear still nights. ‘Advection fog’ occurs where warm moist air moves over a Below 12.8 o Very cold

Zone Area Boundaries Effective Temperature Characteristics

I Central plateau of the eastern border mountains Optimum conditions, seldom uncomfortable Table 3.9 Five Main Zones Demar-
II Sub plateau area above 600 m Comfortable to warm
cated by Effective Temperature
III Between approximately 600 m and 400 m Hot days and warm nights
IV Limpopo and Zambezi valleys below 400 m Hot days and nights Mean Conditions
V Zambezi valley downstream of Chirundu Excessively hot Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe
(1981)

65
Figure 3.24 Effective Tempera-
ture Regions of Zimbabwe
Source: Climate Handbook of Zimbabwe
(1981)
People who sleep outdoors in winter (cold
weather) are obviously at risk of hypother-
mia. They may be stranded out of doors over-
night without protection from the cold.
Meteorologists have combined temperature
and wind to come up with ‘effective tempera-
ture’, which relates to human comfort (Table
3.8). This is expressed in terms of tempera-
ture but cannot be read from a thermometer.
cold surface or cold air moves over a body of warm water. ‘Orograhic fog’
occurs when moist air moving upslope is cold and moisture condenses out of
it. Radiation and orographic fog are the most common types experienced in
Zimbabwe. Because cooling proceeds from ground level upwards, forming
an inversion, the fog develops from ground level upwards and tends to be
sharply limited on top by the inversion, which acts as a ceiling.
Radiation fog forms or collects over low lying ground when cold air drifts
down a slope. It may form before midnight but is more likely to do so in the
three or four hours before dawn. Clearance takes place an hour or so after
sunrise, when freshening winds start a turbulent mixing of air which draws in
drier air from above the fog layer. The fog lifts to become low cloud briefly,
before dispersing, usually within the hour. An examination of records with
the Department of Meteorology shows that radiation fog rarely lasts more
than two hours after sunrise.
In contrast to radiation fog, orograhic fog may last many hours, a day or more
in some localities, due to different methods of formation. Thus as long as the
moist air ascends up a slope, conversion of water vapour into water droplets
by the cooling of air will still take place. Thus orographic fog is confined to
hilly areas. It may occur at any time of the day or night and lasts as long as the
wind continues to blow up the hill slopes. This type of hazard is actually a
cloud base at ground level. This hazard occurs mainly along the eastern bor-
der mountains, which have predominantly moist, southeasterly winds.
Figure 3.23 illustrates the disproportionably high frequency of occurrence
of fog at Chipinge, as compared to other stations. This fog in the eastern
highlands, when at relatively lower altitudes like Chipinge, tends to lift during
the day, whereas in places at higher altitudes such as Vumba, the fog is more
persistent and longer lasting. Other hilly places where the ground rises steeply,
such as Shurugwi, may also experience orographic fog in moist southeast
winds. However the frequency of the occurrence drops rapidly towards the
west of the country. Places in the extreme northeast of the country experi-
ence orographic fog, although infrequently, with northerly or north easterly
winds, e.g. near the northern escarpment as at Karoi. Such fog usually forms
at night and is short lived.
Extreme Temperature Hazard
Of all the weather elements which affect human comfort, temperature and
humidity are paramount as these affect the body’s heat regulatory mecha-
nisms, especially the capacity to perspire and lose heat by evaporation. In hot,
humid climates, relief can be obtained by using air conditioners and fans to
lower the room temperature or humidity, and setting up a breeze to increase
evaporation respectively. At the other extreme, in cold climates, wind chill
may make the difference between survival and death.
The Zimbabwe Meteorological Services (1981) has the following effective
temperatures to measure the degree of comfort:
Our interest is usually in the upper end of the scale, as the lower, cooler end
is not usually attained in Zimbabwe. Therefore when building, the choice of
orientation, building material, size of windows, curtaining, exterior sunshields,
overhangs and ventilation can make the indoor climate cooler, when it is hot
66
outside and vice versa, hence reducing the effective temperature appreciably.
But lack of this knowledge, manifesting itself in poor planning in these re-
spects, can worsen the situation by making the indoor climate worse than
outside conditions, thereby seriously compromising the comfort of the people
living or working indoors and threatening their health and productivity.

Variation of effective temperature climate in Zimbabwe

The Meteorological Services of Zimbabwe calculates the effective tempera-
ture from standard meteorological data for each selected station for the hot-
test months of October though December. Table 3.9 shows the resulting zones
and Figure 3.24 shows the actual mapping of the zones.

Table 3.10 Causes and Symptoms

Common Causes
Wet or inadequate clothing
Exposure to cold, wet or windy conditions
Fatigue and/or excessive perspiration
Lack of readily digestible, high protein food
Alcohol intake or shock (e.g. after an accident)
Common Symptoms
of Hypothermia
Loss of energy and/or stumbling or shivering
Mental/physical lethargy, loss of judgement or determination
Impaired senses, slurred speech or swollen lips or hands

If symptoms appear, the victim must be shel-

Mean conditions were used to demarcate the zones. The south eastern limit tered from the cold and gradually warmed in
a sleeping bag, blankets or heavy clothing,
area is about 300m lower than the northern western limit. This is because, before the body loses its ability to keep warm.
Companions should:
although both sides of the main watershed can experience equally high tem- · Assist by staying very close to the victim
peratures, the southeast regularly experiences bouts of cold south easterlies, to provide body warmth;
· Give the victim small amounts of warm
which lower the average temperature. The absence of these frequent cold spells food and drink (but never alcohol); and
· Not rub or massage the victim or expose
is also a reason that Zone V is only found in the extreme northern parts of them to excessive external heat (e.g.
country. fire).

Measures against extreme temperatures

Some recommended measures to deal with temperature extremes are:
· Build houses with high walls (also effective in winter);
· Construct exterior shading, e.g. trees to the southwest of the building
allowing maximum insulation in winter, at the same time intercepting
the heat of the sun in summer;
· Reduce window size to minimise excessive exterior heat entering the
interior of the building and so reducing the need for air conditioning;
· Increase ventilation, e.g. by installing ceiling fans, noting that ventila-
tion requirements change in winter when sealing the building from
chilling breezes becomes important; Figure 3.25 Frost Risk Map of
· In extreme cases, install air conditioning; and Zimbabwe
· Consider the orientation of the building (north facing buildings col-
lect the warmth of the sun in winter but are sheltered in summer).

Exposure and hypothermia

In Zimbabwe, conditions are not particularly severe, although cold snaps
sometimes occur during winter in the higher areas of Gweru and Harare.
For humans, the most common hazard related to cold conditions is
hypothermia (from cold exposure and pronounced hi-po-ther-mee-ah), which
can be fatal. This occurs when the body core temperature falls below normal
(35°C) due to prolonged heat loss. The condition is often fatal. Note: The dark blue areas are the most risky
areas where severe often causes major dam-
age to crops
When a very cold night occurs, e.g. at Mbare Msika or Gweru Bus Terminus Zimbabwe Meteorological Office

67

Frost damage in winter wheat
(above) and apples (below)
(Source: CPD, 2006)
Heavily damaged crops will quickly show signs
of frost injury, including discoloration, dark-
ening, and a water soaked appearance of
fleshy tissue and pods.
Nocturnal radiation produces widespread
frosts in this cloudless air, affecting not only
the low lying ground as usual, but also ex-
posed vegetation to heights of several
metres. The cold winds compound tempera-
ture loss, hence the wind in this case acts as
an accessory rather than a deterrent to frost.
Common types of damage include death of
dormant flower buds, broad leaved plants,
frost damage to tender shoots, flowers, and
fruits.
An important first step is to select frost toler-
ant plants.
where elderly and homeless people and alcoholics usually sleep without blan-
kets, a continuous exposure to this temperature can cause hypothermia be-
cause their body temperatures drop so low that they develop hypothermia and
eventually, they may freeze to death.
Symptoms are difficult to recognise but, if not treated promptly, can cause
death within an hour! The common causes and symptoms are shown in table
3.10.
Frost Hazard
Frost occasionally causes drastic reductions in winter horticulture and crop
yields in localised parts of Zimbabwe, hence negatively affecting the national
economy. Vegetables are the most vulnerable as they are usually grown in
unprotected areas. Many farmers do not recognise frost damage until harvest
time, and the yield loss is sometimes attributed to other factors. It is impor-
tant to assess the degree of damage as soon as possible after the frost, to
determine whether any action should be taken. Here we define the processes
leading to frost damage as well as how to prevent and reduce frost effects on
crops.
The main frost season in Zimbabwe stretches from May to September and
frost seldom occurs outside these months. Frost incidence rises sharply from
May to reach its peak in the middle of June to the second half of July. The
most severe outbreaks are associated with cold air from the southwest.
Whether or not a particular place is prone to severe or recurrent frost de-
pends on several factors. The most important is the ‘lie of the land’ and whether
this favours the gathering or retention of cooled air at night. As the Map in
Figure 3.25 shows, altitude is paramount in setting the general level of tem-
perature. Thus frost is rarely experienced below an altitude of 500m above
sea level. In addition to altitude, the west and the south of the country are at
the highest risk since the most severe frosts occur with the incidence of bit-
terly cold south westerly winds. The north of the country is also affected but
less often.
The lowest temperatures are mostly recorded in Matabeleland North where
Kalahari sands and valley exposures predominate. This is because the sandy
soils have low specific heat and low conductivity, and therefore cool more
rapidly than clay and other soils. Very low ground minimum temperatures of
-15.6o C were recorded in Matopos on 30 June 1980. Harare also has its fair
share of cold temperatures, recording a ground minimum temperature of -
11.7o C in 1968. Such low ground minimum temperatures are symptomatic
of widespread severe frost, also known as ‘black frosts’. A defining
characteristic of this is that plant stems and leaves are ruptured by the freezing
of the sap or internal water and even large trees may be killed in this way.
This type of frost seems to have become less common, with the worst
widespread incidents on record having been in 1946, 1953, 1968 and 1972
(Met Services, 1981).
How frost damages plants
Frost damage is affected by many factors, and the damage tends to be spo-
radic and not obvious in all plants. When plant tissue is frozen, ice crystals
68
rupture the cell walls and membranes. Alternatively, the cells freeze without Preventing frost damage
It is necessary to place frost sensitive plants
structural damage, but they can then be killed by dehydration. When frozen in sheltered locations. Eastern and northern
exposures tend to be warmest and full sun is
tissues thaw out, they take on a dark, limp and water soaked appearance, simi- warmer than shaded locations, although night
lar to frozen lettuce. Several days after the frost, the tissue begins to dry out temperatures, the cause of most frost dam-
age, will be impacted upon by other factors.
and turns straw brown prematurely.
In terms of plant care:
· Keep plants well watered because frost
Frost is very hard to predict in terms of damage potential in a crop, as there injury occurs when ice crystals form on
are so many factors that affect the tolerance. In general -2o to -3o C frost over the leaf surface drawing moisture from
the leaf tissue and the damage from this
a period of at least an hour is expected to cause damage to crops, and -1o C for dehydration will be less severe if the plant
is not already drought stressed;
an extended period such as three to four hours can cause similar damage. It is · Note that firm, bare, moist soil absorbs
difficult to instantly evaluate frost damage and this is why an assessment should more heat and loses it more rapidly than
soil that is loose, dry, or covered with
be done 24 to 48 hours after the frost for initial symptoms and a week to ten mulch or vegetation;
· Manage irrigation carefully, keeping the
days later to judge the full extent of the damage. A white appearance to the moisture level as even as possible; and
crop is a reliable early indicator of some frost damage. · Don’t over protect, as plants are more
frost resistant if they are hardened to cold
weather.
Frost prevention and control
To adequately protect plants from frost damage it is necessary to: Some additional techniques are:
ADDING HEAT A 100 watt electric light bulb in
an approved outdoor fixture can provide
supplemental heat to covered plants, if
UNDERSTAND COLD WEATHER Despite the known thermodynamic law of fall needed. Be sure to hang them below the fo-
in temperature at ground level with increasing altitude, this is not always the liage, allowing the heat they generate to rise
(within the covered area) and warm the plant.
case since local topography becomes the dominant determinant in winter. Take care that the bulb is not so close to the
trunk or a branch that it could burn.
Dry air, in combination with the long winter months, allows the earth to radi-
ate heat into space, the ground cooling the air in contact with it for a longer APPLYING RUNNING WATER Just a trickle to the ground
at the base of the tree late at night and early
period than in summer when the nights are shorter. The cooler air, being denser, in the morning for no more than three nights
in a row (after which the detrimental effects
tends to flow downhill and collect over low lying ground. The lowest night of drowning the plant cancel out any frost pro-
temperatures are thus found in river valleys and also on level plains from tection benefits). When water is cooled, en-
ergy in the form of heat is released.
which it is difficult for cold air to drain away. Other factors of importance in
MULCHING Mulches insulate against fluctuating
the ground cooling process are the type of soil, cloud cover, moisture in the surface soil temperatures. They can help
air and wind speed. Sandy soils lose more heat than clay soils. The coldest guard against too much daytime warming that
would activate plant growth and increase
temperatures occur around daybreak. Clouds at night can absorb and reflect freeze risk.
heat back to the earth. Calm, clear nights pose the greatest danger of frost Do not prune frost damaged, woody growth
since there is no wind to mix the ascending warm air with the descending cold until the plant begins growing in the spring.
Pruning might stimulate new growth, which
air, and no clouds to radiate heat back to the soil. Humidity slows temperature would be vulnerable to late frosts. The frost
damaged leaves and stems will continue to
change, which is why extremes between night and day temperatures occur so help trap warm air within the canopy. In addi-
quickly in a dry desert climate. For Zimbabwe, the airflow that has a combina- tion, the damage is often not nearly as bad
as it initially looks and new growth may come
tion of most of these frost facilitating processes is the cold, dry southwest- out of tissue that appeared to be dead.
erly air that reaches the country through Botswana and the Transvaal. Bad advice is sometimes given. Readers are
accordingly advised that:
UNDERSTAND PLANT RESPONSE TO COLD The effects of temperature vary with · A large fire, rather than keeping plants
warm and protecting them, creates an up
plant species, stage of growth, age, general health and water content. Young, draft, sending hot air above plants and
sucking in cold air from surrounding ar-
actively growing, flowering, and/or dehydrated plants tend to be most vulner- eas.
able. Cold temperatures and short day length slow plant growth and cause · Mulching prevents the warming of the soil.
This is helpful if you are trying to keep a
dormancy, making plants less susceptible to frost damage. Actively growing deciduous fruit tree from breaking dor-
mancy too early, but it prevents the cap-
foliage is very susceptible to frost damage. If a freeze occurs when there has ture of heat that could be harnessed to
been no prior cold weather to ‘harden off’ a plant, the damage will be more protect a frost sensitive plant like citrus.
· A variety of chemicals have been mar-
extensive. Therefore, the heaviest damage from low temperatures generally keted with claims that they change the
freezing point of the plant tissue, reduc-
occurs in the beginning of the frost season or any time cold temperatures ing the ice nucleating bacteria on the crop
occur after a warm winter period. The lower the temperature, the longer the (thus inhibiting ice and frost formation),
or affecting growth (extending dormancy).
exposure, and the faster the temperature drops, the greater the damage to the To date, these claims have not withstood
scientific scrutiny with regard to any com-
plant. mercially available material.

69

The solid earth is the basis of human settle-
ment and material security through the way
that it supports built structures. Thus any pro-
cess that alters that stability or drastically
changes surface conditions threatens the
built areas.
Figure 4.1 How an Earthquake
Takes Place
Adapted from BBC World News http://
news.bbc.co.uk/…./earthquake/img/
earthquake.gif)
The most surface damage is done at the point
on the earth’s surface directly above the fo-
cus, which is known as the ‘epicentre’. The
intensity of the waves, and hence the sever-
ity of the accompanying damage, decrease
as one moves from the epicentre. Apart from
this type of earthquake, resulting from con-
stant gradual movement of the tectonic plates
that make up earth’s crust, there are other
small earthquakes that sometimes result
from human activity, like filling of large res-
ervoirs (e.g. Lake Kariba). The extra weight
added by the immense body of water created
where it did not exist previously creates new
stresses on the underlying rocks, which may
move to adjust to the new equilibrium, thereby
creating seismic waves at the earth’s surface.
CHAPTER 4
Geological Hazards
This chapter looks at natural processes involving tectonic and geomorpho-
logical surface processes of endogenous, tectonic or exogenous origin. The
main dangers emanating from these processes in Zimbabwe are those that
suddenly alter and temporarily undermine or destroy the stability of the land
surface, including the foundation and slope stability, such as landslides, earth-
quakes, mass movements and surface collapse. The location of geologic haz-
ards may vary with the relief and ruggedness of the land, with tectonic activity
or because of the composition, structure and weathering of the underlying
rock and soil surfaces. As artificial extensions of the solid earth, i.e. build-
ings, are constructed out of need by human beings, they depend a great deal
upon the stability of natural surfaces. Most fatalities occur when the build-
ings that house people collapse on them. Survivors are displaced by the de-
struction of their homes and places of work. Dangers emanating from mete-
orites, which frequently visit the earth’s atmosphere and have been encoun-
tered in Zimbabwe, are also included in this chapter.
Earthquake Hazards and Disasters
Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth’s crust.
They usually occur where the earth’s plates meet along plate
boundaries and are caused by the release of huge stresses
due to underground volcanic forces, by the breaking of rock
beneath the surface, or by sudden movement along an ex-
isting fault line. For example, as two plates move towards
each other (see Figure 4.1), one can be pushed down under
the other into the mantle. Because the movement is not
smooth, friction is created and the plate normally becomes
stuck, causing massive pressure on the surrounding rocks.
The rocks then break underground at the hypocentre, when
this pressure is released. When this happens, the energy
waves race rapidly from this point, which is called the ‘fo-
cus’, producing shock waves that are responsible for the earth’s shaking. These
are called ‘seismic waves’ and the shaking is the ‘earthquake’ that we know.
The effects, characteristics and measurement of earthquakes
The effects of earthquakes vary. This is a result of factors such as the strength
of the earthquake, the density of population in the affected area and the level
of economic development of the area struck. Their characteristics are defined
by:
MEASURING INSTRUMENT The magnitude (size) of an earthquake is measured
using a seismometer. This is a machine that measures movements within the
earth’s surface.
MAGNITUDE Earthquakes are measured at the epicentre, a point on the earth’s
surface, directly above the point of rupture in the earth’s crust. Energy re-
leased by (or the magnitude of) an earthquake is expressed on a recording
70
device called a seismograph, using the ‘Richter scale’. This scale is open ended,
as there is no upper limit to the amount of energy an earthquake might re-
lease. The most severe earthquakes so far, have not exceeded 9.5 on the Rich-
ter scale. It is not a simple arithmetical scale; for instance, a magnitude 7.0
creates 10 times the ground motion of a magnitude 6.0 earthquake and the
total energy release is about 30 times greater. This in turn is 30 times greater
than a 5.0 and so on.
Vulnerability of an area to an earthquake
Earthquake damage is largely attributable to the amplitude and frequency of
waves generated by the earthquake. Generally, large earthquakes inflict the
greatest damage because they shake the ground more severely, for a longer
period and over more extensive areas than smaller ones, though it has to be
stressed that the magnitude of the earthquake event is quite often overridden
by local conditions. Local geological conditions greatly influence the ground
surface displacement, which may be horizontal, vertical or oblique, depending
on the wave activity.
Certain soil types, such as those with high clay content, allow earthquakes to
have a crippling effect on buildings. When exposed to moisture, clay expands,
creating huge upward forces strong enough to crack a conventional foundation
in half. Even a small degree of soil expansiveness manifests itself in the
form of cracked plaster, sticking doors and sinking floors. When clay dries,
it shrinks again, creating cracks and valleys in the soil that wreak a new lot of
havoc with conventional foundation systems. Over time, this periodic heaving
of the ground takes its toll on structures, causing premature deterioration,
structural weakness and other chronic problems. Structures built on soft soil
are more severely damaged in earthquakes than those built on firm soil or
bedrock. Soft clay soil shakes more violently than firmer sandy soil, which
in turn shakes much more than hard rock. Steep slopes may also readily cause
landslides in an earthquake.
A History of Zimbabwean earthquakes
Zimbabwe lies over the southern tip of the east Africa rift system. The
southeast (Save-Limpopo basin) and the northwest (the Deka fault zone, mid-
Zambezi basin) areas of the region are covered by Karroo sediments, which
make up 15 percent of Zimbabwe’s surface. These sediments form a wedge
towards the centre of the country. The rest of Zimbabwe is part of a
continental shield with little seismic activity. Considerable activity occurs
along Zimbabwe’s southeastern border with Mozambique and the Deka fault
zone in the mid-Zambezi basin. Seismic activity in central western
Mozambique is of pure tectonic origin, while that along the Zambezi basin
71
VARIABILITY Earthquakes are unpredictable and
strike without warning. They range in strength
from slight tremors to great shocks, lasting
from a few seconds to as long as five min-
utes. They can also come in a series over a
period of several days.
Thus the local site conditions have an impor-
tant influence on ground motion. This is be-
cause wave amplifications are more signifi-
cant in steep topography, especially on ridge
crests, than in uniform topography. But in soil,
especially in alluvial soils, ground motion is
more enhanced both in amplitude and dura-
tion than in rock. Hence, more severe struc-
tural damage is mostly found in unconsoli-
dated material. Most buildings can withstand
some vertical motion, therefore, the greatest
damage is created by waves, which shake the
ground horizontally, although different indi-
vidual buildings shaken by the same earth-
quake respond differently. The effects of
earthquake ground shaking depend on the
specific response characteristics of the type
of structural system used. Not surprisingly,
weaker structures collapse faster than strong
structures.
Figure 4.2 How Ground Shaking
in Earthquakes Damages a House
Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man-
agement Center, 1989
Engineers and seismologists are still uncer-
tain of the exact reason for these effects but
the 180 billion tonnes of water in the dam is
bound to have some effect and a degree of
impounding during dam filling is normally ex-
perienced.
Figure 4.3 The Epicentre of the
Earthquake South of Beira on 23
February 2006
Epicentre
The Herald, 24 February 2006
Although Zimbabwe is in a region of relatively
low seismic activity, the three instrumentally
recorded events which occurred in 1910, 1963
and 1940 measuring 6 for the first two events
and 5.9 for the latter give a clear indication
of the existence of a significant seismic haz-
ard in this region. However, only events of
moderate magnitude, i.e. magnitude of less
than 5 have been recorded since 1940. Earth-
quakes are known to have return periods of
varying lengths. The earthquakes recorded
on 23 February and 15 March 2006, south of
Beira in Mozambique, measured 7.5 and 5.3
respectively, demonstrating the high risk of
earthquake hazard in the southeastern high-
lands of Zimbabwe.
Figure 4.4 Spatial Presentation of
Seismicity of Zimbabwe, 1900–
1994
Key: Red solid circles = earthquakes of sur-
face magnitude 6.0 or more; orange solid
circles = magnitudes 5.0 to 5.9; green open
circles = 4.0 to 4.9; blue open circles = < 3.9
Wherever one lives in Zimbabwe, there is a
chance of experiencing an earthquake but
areas in the Zambezi and Eastern Highlands
(see Figure 4.4) are the most vulnerable. For
those living in a risk area, it is necessary to
know what to expect and what to do if an
earthquake occurs.
suffers reservoir induced seismicity (related to the Kariba dam). Since its
construction and filling in the early 1960s, Kariba has caused an increase in
the number of earthquakes in the area, twenty of which have been higher than
magnitude 5 on the Richter scale.
Zimbabwe earthquake hazard zones
The epicentre location map in Figure 4.4 (below) gives the seismicity of the
area in this study for the 82 year period from 1910 to 1991. Two areas of
high seismic activity are observed on the map:
1 The area along the eastern borders of Zimbabwe with Mozambique,
moving northeastwards into central Mozambique; and
2 The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin to the northwest, tending in a
northeast direction into the Luangwa rift in eastern Zambia.
The Deka fault zone, mid-Zambezi basin is further subdivided into two areas,
the Deka fault zone and the mid-Zambezi basin. Most of the mid-Zambezi
basin lies under the waters of Lake Kariba.
Outside these two areas, epicentres are scattered and sparsely distributed
although southern Zimbabwe also deserves mention. Located at 21_S, 30_E,
this area is not as active as the Lake Kariba area in the mid-Zambezi basin.
However, an earthquake of magnitude 6 occurred in southern Zimbabwe in
1940. This event occurred on the boundary of the Zimbabwe shield and the
Save-Limpopo mobile belt. Since then, a few small magnitude events have
occurred in the vicinity of its epicentre.
Recently, rock bursts have been reported in the Penalonga area, indicative of
mining induced events. The Nyamandlovu Aquifer area has also become active
in seismic activity, recording four significant events from 1999 to 2004.
The Nyamandlovu events signify stresses due to water abstraction. Rock bursts
in the Redwing mine could be associated with stress build up due to successive
underground blasting.
Causes of injury and damage
Most earthquake casualties result from falling objects or debris because
shocks frequently damage or demolish buildings and other structures.
Electricity and telephone lines, or sewer and water mains can also be damaged.
Landslides, ground displacement (faulting), subsidence and even tsunamis
(huge seismic sea waves) may be caused, leaving many people dead, injured
or homeless.
Earthquake risk reduction strategies
There are a number of ways in which damage from earthquakes can be
minimised. These are discussed below:
STRUCTURAL DESIGN The majority of deaths and injuries from earthquakes are
caused by the damage or collapse of buildings and other structures. To design
structures that can withstand earthquakes, engineers must understand the
stresses caused by shaking. Gaining such knowledge requires a long term
commitment because large devastating earthquakes occur at irregular and
72
often long intervals. Building codes provide the first line of defence against
future earthquake damage and help to ensure public safety. Records of build-
ing response to earthquakes, especially those from structures that failed or
were damaged during previous earthquakes, could lead to many revisions and
improvements in the building codes of this country. Our current building by-
laws and codes do not take into account possible seismic effects. Along with
the need to adhere to correct building principles during the construction of
public and private buildings, standard building materials and techniques should
be used in the construction of any structures for habitation and these should
be regularly maintained, including the treatment of termites.
MONITORING INSTRUMENTS A network of instruments will provide even more
extensive data on earthquakes that might be expected in future. Using this
information, scientists and engineers will be able to suggest further improve-
ments to our building codes. Such improvements will help protect the citi-
zens of Zimbabwe from loss of life and property in future earthquakes. Table
4.1 shows the earthquake monitoring stations that have been built in Zimba-
bwe. However efforts still need to be made to ensure that they are all opera-
tional.

Advice for any area where there is a risk of earthquakes Houses that collapsed during the
23March 2006 earthquake in
It is important to know the local earthquake risk by being aware of earthquakes
Earthquakes do not KILL Chipinge. CPD officials inspect
that have occurred in the area in the past and what damage resulted.
Weak structures & buildings DO one of the houses (left).
During an Earthquake:
• If indoors stay there, as there could be falling debris outside;
• Take cover under an internal doorframe, sturdy table, bench or bed:
• Keep away from windows, mirrors, chimneys, overhead fittings and tall
furniture;
• In high rise buildings, stay clear of windows and outer walls, get under a
desk near a pillar or internal wall and do not use elevators;
• In crowded areas, do not rush for doors and stay clear of roof and wall
fittings;
• If outside, keep well clear of buildings, walls, power lines, trees, etc;
• In a city street, with tall buildings, shelter from falling debris under
strong archways or doorways of buildings; and
• If in a vehicle, stop in the open until shaking stops, and beware of ‘downed’
power lines and damage to roads, overpasses or bridges.
After the Earthquake:
• Turn off electricity and water; BY-LAW FORMULATION In many areas the chances
of non compliance with the building codes and
• Check for fuel leaks before lighting matches; regulations are high, primarily due to lack of
resources. Particularly in rural areas, there are
• Check for water or sewage leaks, broken electrical wiring etc; few regular inspections or even the clearly de-
• Check for cracks and damage to buildings, including roof, chimneys and fined structures to ensure that these take
place. Structures in rural areas tend to be built
foundation; in any manner, using any materials without
supervision or conformity with the require-
• Evacuate if the building you are in is badly damaged, as there is always a ments of the building regulations and by-laws
that do exist in the country.
chance of aftershocks;

73
 • Avoid driving unless in an emergency (keep streets clear for emergency
vehicles);
• Do not go sightseeing or enter damaged buildings otherwise loose
material hanging from damaged buildings may fall on you; and
• Stay calm and help others who may need first aid before the arrival of
doctors, if you are able to.

Landslide Hazards and Disasters

Landslides usually occur as secondary effects of heavy storms or earthquakes.
They are a major threat each year to human settlements and infrastructure,

Table 4.1 Seismic Stations Built

in Zimbabwe Station Name Latitude Longitude Elevation(m)

Bulawayo -20.1433 28.6133 1341

Chiredzi -21.0133 31.5800 430

S ECURING L OOSE MATERIAL Non-structural items
such as suspended ceilings must also be ad- Hwange -18.3302 26.5034 615
equately secured to the structural frame. Seis-
mic forces are triggered by the inertia mass
of all objects and elements within the build- Kariba -16.5267 28.7950 805
ing.

LOCATION AND BUILDING PLANNING Location plan- Karoi -16.8293 29.6147 1343
ning is carried out to reduce urban densities
in areas known to amplify ground vibrations.
Avoid irregularities in plan and section. Plan Karoi -16.8517 29.6183 1380
irregularities can result in twisting of the struc-
ture and other stress amplifications.

AWARENESS CAMPAIGN An extensive and vigor-

Matopo -20.4258 28.4994 1215
ous awareness campaign is needed to inform
the public of measures to take in case of earth-
quakes. This should be especially targeted
Mount Darwin -16.7800 31.5833 967
at the very vulnerable communities even in
the most remote locations. Mutare -18.9950 32.6267 1119
imbabwe Meteorological Office
UPGRADING UNSAFE BUILDINGS Incentives should
be offered for the demolition of unsafe build- especially during or immediately after the rainfall season. ‘Landslide’ is a
ings or for upgrading their level of safety.
general term covering a wide variety of landforms and processes involving
the movement of earth, rock or debris down slope under the influence of
gravity. Although they may take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods
Although no scientific early warning has been
and volcanoes, they are much more widespread than those hazards and, over
devised yet for earthquakes, two phenom- time, cause more property loss than any other geological event.
ena might warn of a coming earthquake:

1 ERRATIC ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR Watch out for fright- Causes

ened or confused pets running around,
or a birdcall not usually heard at night; Several factors may cause the resistance in a slope to weaken including the
and
2 G R O U N D W A T E R L E V E L S Watch for sudden following.
changes of water level in wells or arte-
sian bores. INCREASE IN WATER CONTENT caused by heavy rainfall or rising ground water;
After the Earthquake, the first thing to do is INCREASE IN SLOPE ANGLE for new construction or by stream erosion; and
to check for injuries among those around you BREAKDOWN OR ALTERATION OF SLOPE MATERIALS from weathering and other
and tend to these. Do not move a seriously
injured person unless they are in danger. natural processes, placement of underground piping for utilities or use of
landfill.
An earthquake is short lived and hence of-
fers little time to react. Most people are killed Different forms of landslides
or injured as they attempt to move prema-
turely during the earthquake and are struck The materials that compose landslides are divided into two classes, bedrock
by falling or flying objects. Chances of avoid-
ing serious injury are high if one remains calm
or soil (earth and organic matter debris). A landslide may be classified by its
and takes cover as recommended above. type of movement (Figure 4.5):

74
 BOX 4.1 ZIMBABWE: EARTHQUAKE OCHA-
03: 03-MAR-06
The down slope stress may be caused by:
· V IBRATIONS from earthquakes (which have
triggered some of the most disastrous
landslides), blasting, machinery, traffic and
thunder;
· REMOVAL OF LATERAL SUPPORT by previous slope
failure, construction, and excavation;
· REMOVAL OF VEGETATION as a result of fires, log-
ging, overgrazing, and deforestation which
causes loosening of soil particles and ero-
sion; and
· LOADING WITH WEIGHT caused by rain, hail, ac-
cumulation of loose rock or volcanic mate-
rial, weight of buildings, or seepage from
irrigation and sewage systems.

Figure 4.5 Landslide Classifica-

tion by Type of Movement

FALLS A mass of rock or other material that moves downward by falling or

bouncing through the air. These are most common along steep road or railway
embankments, steep escarpments or undercut cliffs. If individual boulders
are large enough they can cause significant damage, especially to settlements
at the foot of hills and mountains.
SLIDES Failure (slippage) along one or several surfaces, may result in the
slide material breaking up and moving down slope.
TOPPLES Overturning forces can cause a rotation of the rock out of its origi-
nal position, resulting in it settling at a dangerous angle, from which it tilts or
rotates forward. Toppling may not necessarily trigger a rock fall or rockslide.
LATERAL SPREADS Large blocks of soil spread out horizontally by fracturing
off the original base. They do not need a steep slope to occur. Lateral spreads
usually break up internally and form numerous fissures and scarps. The pro-
cess can be caused by liquefaction, whereby saturated, loose sands or silts
assume a liquefied state. It is usually triggered by ground shaking (as during
an earthquake).
FLOWS Movement in flows is more rapid, similar to a viscous fluid, and can
cover long distances. Although, generally, water is not essential for flows to
occur, most flows form after periods of heavy rainfall. There are three types
of flows common in Zimbabwe – mudflow, debris flow and the creep. A mud-
flow contains at least 50 percent sand, silt and clay particles, while a debris
flow is a slurry of soils, rocks and organic matter combined with air and wa-
ter. Debris flows usually occur on steep gullies. Flow of soil and bedrock is
called ‘creep’. This is normally very slow, almost imperceptible, and may
A sudden or gradual alteration in the compo-
sition, structure, hydrology or vegetation on
a slope may trigger a landslide. This distur-
bance of the equilibrium of the materials in
the slope may be either natural or human
induced. A landslide is triggered when the
strength of the material comprising the slope
is overpowered by the down slope stress.
Effects of landslides
Two measures determine the effect that a
landslide will have
RATE OF LAND MOVEMENT This varies from excep-
tionally slow, only centimetres per year (which
can damage roads, buildings, pipelines, etc.)
to a sudden total collapse or avalanche of
perhaps millions of tonnes of debris, with the
potential to crush vehicles, buildings and
people, or to sweep away roads, and power
and telephone lines.
DEGREE OF LAND MOVEMENT The distance travelled
by landslide debris can also vary greatly, from
a few centimetres in ‘ground slumps’, to many
kilometres when large mudflows follow river
valleys.

cause telephone poles or other objects to tilt downhill over long periods of
time. The primary mitigation strategy for landslides
is location planning to avoid the use of haz-
ardous areas as settlements or as sites for
Risk reduction strategies important structures. Hazardous steep areas
can be identified by telltale signs of ground
Landslide risk can be minimised by: movement, such as trees tilting (down slope),
water seepage and breaks in the ground.

75
BOX 4.2 NYANGA EXPERIENCES LANDSLIDES
The largest meteorite currently known
on earth (above), Hoba at
Grootfontein, Namibia,
weighing 60 tonnes (photo: Uwe
Reimold) Meteorite similar to that which
hit Zimbabwe (below). Small Meteor-
ites commonly hit the earth. Note fea-
tures of burning on the outside.
• Creating shallower slope angles in hillsides through excavation of top
layers of earth;
• Increasing deep drainage and surface runoff drainage capacity;
• Constructing engineering works, such as pilings, ground anchors and
retaining walls;
• Terracing slopes and reforestation to prevent loss of surface material;
• Directing debris flow into specially constructed channels and rock fall
protection barriers such as trenches; or
• Constructing silt dams and vegetation barriers to protect settlements.
Immediate protection measures for those vulnerable to landslides
The following measures should be taken to afford those in a situation of
landslide risk the greatest possible protection:
• If indoors when a landslide begins, shelter at the least affected end of
the building under a strong table or bench (if possible use a mattress for
extra protection). Hold on firmly and stay put until all land movement
has ceased.
• Out of doors, always take heed of warning signs, and avoid the tops and
bases of cliffs or embankments, especially where there are signs of loose
rocks or debris. Never stand or sit on rock overhangs unless you are
sure they can bear your weight.
• If a landslide threatens, move quickly from its likely path and keep clear
of banks, trees, power lines and poles.
• Evacuation plans for high risk areas should be established and practiced
regularly.
Asteroids and Comets (Extra-Terrestrial)
Thousands of tiny asteroids enter the earth’s atmosphere daily, burning up in
bright streaks as meteors (shooting stars). A very few larger ones reach the
surface as fragments of burnt rock or iron known as ‘meteorites’. About every
700 years on average, a 100 metre diameter (or larger) asteroid strikes the
earth at up to a quarter of a million kilometres per hour. This translates to the
explosive energy equal to a 100 megaton atomic bomb! Its impact with the
earth disintegrates everything in the vicinity and throws up millions of tonnes
of dust into the atmosphere from the large crater that is created. In Southern
76
 BOX 4.3 ZIMBABWE METEORITE

The major meteorite craters in Southern Af-

rica are:1

VREDEFORT in South Africa’s Free State Prov-

ince;
ROTER KAMM in Namibia, measuring 2.5km in
diameter;
HIGHBURY S TRUCTURE in Zimbabwe, measuring
20km in diameter;
M OROKWENG in the North West Province of
South Africa;
KALKKOP CRATER in South Africa’s Eastern Cape
Province, measuring 640 metres in diameter;
TSWAING C RATER/PRETORIA SALTPAN in Gauteng
Province, South Africa, measuring 1 100
metres in diameter;
SINAMWENDA CRATER in Zimbabwe, which is 220
metres in diameter; and
K G A G O D I in Botswana with a diameter of
3.5km;

The largest known meteorite impact craters

on earth are:
Africa alone, eight impact craters have been found, the best known large one VREDEFORT in South Africa, with a diameter of
being at Wolf Creek in the Transvaal. If such an impact occurred in the ocean, 250 to 300km and thought to have been
formed by an impact about 2 020 million
it would trigger an enormous tsunami with unthinkable consequences. Even years ago;
SUDBURY STRUCTURE in Canada, measuring 200km
more frightening is the remote prospect of a much larger asteroid or even a in diameter and thought to have been formed
comet colliding with us in a cataclysmic event that could plunge the world about 1 850 million years ago; and
CHICXULUB in the Gulf of Mexico, which is 180
into years of darkness and a new ice age that would threaten human existence. km in diameter and thought to be about 65
million years old.
Such an event may have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.

77

Many endemic diseases can cause epidemics
if environmental conditions, host susceptibil-
ity, or host carriers change in a way that fa-
vors transmission and infection. Possible ex-
amples include:
· Exposure of non-immune persons or
those that have immune systems weakened
by other diseases such as AIDS, coming from
a non-endemic area (such as refugees, eco-
nomic migrants, or tourists);
· Ecological changes that favour the
breeding of an insect vector, such as the mos-
quito in the rainfall season;
· Increase in human movements which
increases the frequency of contacts (such as
camps of refugees or internally displaced
people, markets, pilgrimages, relatively easy
national and international travel over long dis-
tances);
· Rapid urban development, which may
promote poor sanitary conditions, poverty and
overcrowding, leading to contamination of food
or water supply;
· Increasing vulnerability caused by a
decline in nutritional status; and
· Changes in the patterns of disease,
which may, for example, render a parasite
responsible for a particular disease resistant
to traditional treatment.
Health promotion is essential, not only to
avoid disease but also to promote a positive
lifestyle. Preventive measures may range
from simple washing to complex matters such
as preventing sexually transmitted diseases.
Long term health education can be incorpo-
rated into school curricula and clinic settings
to help change attitudes and practices. Meth-
ods for targeting adults range from house
visits by rural health workers to publicity
through newspapers, posters, radio and tele-
vision.
CHAPTER 5
Biological Hazards
Introduction
Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, includ-
ing exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive substances,
are all termed as ‘biological hazards’. This definition encompasses outbreaks
of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion and extensive infestations. In
this chapter, we concentrate specifically on common epidemics of human,
zoonotic and animal nature that cause concern in Zimbabwe. The havoc that
extensive pest infestation causes for local farmers makes it necessary to cover
this topic in detail.
An epidemic is an unusually large or unexpected increase in the number of
cases of a disease for a given time, place or period. The key points are that the
disease is communicable, the levels of disease are significantly above nor-
mal in a given place at that time, and the outbreak is initially out of control
(UNDP DHA, 2001). An epidemic can evolve rapidly into a disaster if there
is no prompt response.
Epidemics are commonly caused by a disease known or suspected to be of
infectious or parasitic origin, however they can be associated with other haz-
ards. For example, chemical accidents, food shortages, and civil conflict can
cause epidemics of poisoning, malnutrition and microdeficiencies. The main
examples of such epidemics include cholera outbreaks, malaria (seasonal in
low lying areas), measles (sporadic outbreaks), dysentery (sporadic out-
breaks), HIV, meningitis etc.
General control measures for outbreaks
Outbreak control is the emergency response to:
· Reduce the suffering and risk of death for the infected individuals; and,
· Limit the spread of the disease.
The spread of the disease can be limited or eliminated by reducing the source
of infection, by interrupting transmission, or by protecting the persons at
risk. Common sources of infection, such as mosquitoes, rodents, ticks, or
contaminated food, water or soil, can be tackled through environmental mea-
sures. Strategies include spraying of breeding sites, use of protective nets,
sanitising food preparation areas, improving disposal of solid wastes, and dis-
infecting and protecting water sources. Person to person transmission can be
reduced through the use of protective measures addressing the patients, their
contacts and the community. The most cost effective measures are epide-
miological surveillance and community participation for case finding, con-
tact tracing, and prevention of transmission. Public information should pro-
mote specific behaviors to avoid infection or transmission.
78
Community health education helps stem epidemics by alerting individuals to
the signs and symptoms of disease and stressing the need for reporting cases
to local health authorities. With the advance of global epidemics such as HIV
and AIDS, community participation is particularly vital. The death or
immobilisation by illness of productive individuals not only inflicts personal
and economic hardships on families, but also on the society as a whole.

Common Epidemics in Zimbabwe

A number of the most common epidemic conditions are discussed below:

CHOLERA Cholera is perhaps the most contagious of the entire range of com-
mon epidemics experienced in Zimbabwe. Death is swift after the onset of
symptoms. The first outbreak was reported in 1972 in parts of Mashonaland
East and Mashonaland Central provinces. It is believed that the disease was
imported from neighboring countries. Since then, there have been several
outbreaks of cholera reported in virtually every part of the country, claiming

Year Suspected Confirmed Deaths Fatality Areas Affected

Table 5.1 Annual Chol-
era Data for Zimbabwe,
Cases Cases Rate %
1975 546 0 27 4.9 Chipinge, Mutoko
1975–2002

1976 236 0 15 6.3 Chipinge, Mutoko

1983 293 256 16 5.5 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1984 820 610 39 4.8 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1985 123 78 2 1.6 Chiredzi, Masvingo, Rushinga, Mt Darwin

1992 1 135 0 32 2.8 Rushinga, Manicaland

1993 330 0 25 7.5 Rushinga, Manicaland

1998 883 157 46 5.2 Manicaland, Mash West, Mash

East, Mat North, Harare, Chitungwiza.

1999 4 081 0 240 5.9 Manicaland, Masvingo, Mash East,

Mash West, Mat North,
Masvingo, Harare, Chitungwiza

2000 2 402 71 151 6.2 Manicaland province, Mash Central,

Mash West, Midlands, Harare, Chitungwiza

2001 649 0 13 2.0 Mat South, Masvingo Chiredzi,

Mat North Hwange, Lupane.

2002 3 684 0 354 9.8 Binga and Kariba Districts

Factors contributing to an outbreak of chol-

large numbers of lives. Table 5.1 shows that the deaths resulting from cholera era are:
have increased drastically, reaching unprecedented levels in recent years. • Poor clean water supply systems;
• Poor sanitation;
Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by Vibrio Cholerae. Adults and chil- • Heavy rains that tend to cause the con-
tamination of clean water;
dren older than five years can get infected and children below five years may • The poor hygiene practices that tend to
also be infected in extreme cases. According to WHO statistics, among those characterise vending in Zimbabwe; and
• Cross border trading, which brings af-
infected, about 20 percent develop acute watery diarrhoea and, of these 10 to fected people and contaminated food
from across our borders.
20 percent develop rice-watery diarrhoea (without blood) that may be ac-

79
 companied by vomiting and leads to severe loss of fluid. The mainstay of
treatment is rehydration and up to 80 percent of cholera cases can be treated
successfully using only oral rehydration salts (ORS). A person affected by
cholera may die within a few hours following the onset of symptoms, if they
do not receive medical attention quickly.

Transmission
The disease quickly spreads to other people through the consumption of food
and water that has been contaminated with the cholera germs. The germs are
found in the stools and vomitus of a person who is suffering from cholera.
Therefore, it spreads very easily in places where people do not have toilets
and safe drinking water sources. Figure 5.1 illustrates the most common mode
of cholera spread in Zimbabwe.

Prevention and control

The current response to cholera outbreaks tends to be reactive, i.e. an emer-
gency response. While this approach prevents many deaths, it fails to prevent
cases of cholera occurring in the first place. The importance of medium and
long term prevention activities in cholera control needs to be emphasised.
The capacity for disease prevention, epidemic preparedness, and emergency
response varies greatly among countries. Since cholera is easily spread across
borders, regional strategies are needed to ensure that all countries have the
Poor hygiene & sanitation that
capacity to deal with these issues. Among the priorities are:
characterise of most areas in
Zimbabwe’s high density suburbs
are conducive for cholera
outbreaks.

Figure 5.1 The Usual Mode of Trans-

mission of Cholera in
Zimbabwe

• Obtaining better data and ensuring greater information sharing;

• The adoption of a coordinated, multisectoral approach;
The common signs snd symptoms of chol-
era are: • Improvements to sanitation and sewage disposal; and
• Sudden onset of severe rice-watery diar- • Ensuring political commitment and community involvement.
rhoea;
• Severe body weakness;
• Severe loss of water (dehydratio) due to
vomiting and diarrhoea; Case management
• Feeling of wanting to vomit;
• Vomiting at times; The following measures should be observed immediately if there is a sus-
• Stomach cramps; and
• Sunken eyes, dry skin, loss of skin elas-
pected cholera case:
ticity and thirst due to loss of body fluids
(dehydration).
• Do not move the patient(s) to a health facility as this may result in spread
If these are not treated, death occurs within
a few hours
of the disease;

80
 Prompt and appropriate medical manage-
• Inform local health workers immediately; ment of cases can significantly decrease
• Start oral rehydration, using a salt and sugar solution prepared by mixing mortality. With proper management, the case
fatality rate should be below 1 percent. In
750ml of boiled water with six teaspoons of sugar and a level teaspoon of untreated cases, the case fatality rate may
salt, for as long as the patient can drink it; reach 30 to 50 percent. These levels are of-
ten observed in crisis situations with overcrowd-
• Begin antibiotic treatment if available, with medical advice; ing, limited access to healthcare, and pre-
carious environmental management.
• Practice strict personal hygiene, washing hands thoroughly with soap and
water after handling the faeces or vomitus of a person suffering from chol-
era;
• Dispose of faecal matter and vomitus in a toilet or bury it in a pit to pre-
vent contact with flies;
• Boil all clothes and articles soiled by faeces and vomitus or place in a
container of water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach);
and
• Discourage movements of people in and out of the infected areas.

Surveillance systems and multisectoral approaches

Sensitive surveillance and prompt reporting contribute to the rapid contain-
ment of cholera epidemics. In Zimbabwe, cholera is a seasonal disease, oc-
curring nearly every year usually during the rainfall season. Surveillance sys-
tems can provide an early alert to outbreaks, which should assist in the prepa-
ration of preparedness plans and facilitate a coordinated response if an out-
break still occurs.
A multisectoral and coordinated approach is paramount in order to efficiently
control a cholera outbreak. Key sectors to be involved are health, water and
A cholera coordination committee should be
sanitation, fisheries and agriculture, and education. in place in place where cholera outbreaks are
recurrent.

Water supply and sanitation

Cholera is usually transmitted through faecally contaminated water or food.
Outbreaks can occur sporadically in any part of the country where water sup-
ply, sanitation, food safety, and hygiene are inadequate. The WHO recom-
mends improvements in water supply and sanitation as the most sustainable
approach for protecting against cholera and other waterborne epidemic diar-
rhoeal diseases. However, such an approach is unrealistic for the many im-
poverished populations most affected by cholera.

The following measures are recommended:

• Any person with watery diarrhea and sunken eyes should be considered
as a suspected case and should be given ORS;
• All contacts and household members should be observed for development
of diarrhea; Advice for residents of cholera prone areas
Outbreaks can be mitigated and case fatality
• Burial of anyone who has died from cholera should be left to specially rates reduced through several health promo-
trained staff, without delay after disinfection of the body, beddings and tion measures, many of which are suitable
for community participation. Human behav-
all personal belonging of the deceased, and burial ritual and ceremonies ior related to personal hygiene and food
preparation contributes greatly to the occur-
should be kept to a minimum; rence and severity of outbreaks.
• Food should be eaten warm and as soon as possible after cooking;
• Raw food, like fruit and vegetables should be thoroughly washed using
clean, safe water before eating (see photograph, below);
• Pre-cooked food items exposed for a long time should be avoided or, at
the very least, should be covered to protect them from flies or reheated
thoroughly;

81

Raw food, like fruit and vegetables
should be thoroughly washed
(above) using clean, safe water
(below) before eating.
It is very important to try to identify the pos-
sible source of the cholera outbreak, which
may be the source of water, food hygiene
practices or the type of sanitation in the area.
Raise awareness that an apparently healthy
person can harbour cholera germs and trans-
mit them to other people or contaminate food
and water when hygiene conditions are de-
fective
All possible media should be used, e.g. ra-
dio, TV, churches, rallies, public gatherings,
posters, booklets, etc;
Health education of the community aimed at
behaviour change on hand and food hygiene,
safe water and safe disposal of human waste
constitutes the most important component of
prevention and control.
• Hands should be washed frequently with soap and water, especially before
eating or handling food and drinks, after defecation and after handling
sick persons, their belongings (clothes, beddings) or their defecations.
• The ‘run to waste’ hand washing practice should be used in preference to
communal hand washing and use of communal hand towels should be
avoided.
During a cholera outbreak:
• One should drink only water treated by ebullition, chlorination, boiling
or filtration;
• Public water sources should be well supervised to make sure they supply
treated drinking water and that, after treatment, drinking water is stored
in appropriate containers and protected from further contamination;
• Continue run to waste hand washing methods;
• Food should not be prepared at funerals, and large gatherings like parties
and weddings should be avoided;
• All burials should be supervised by health workers as touching or washing
of the body of a person who has died of cholera should be avoided;
• The body of anyone suspected to have died of cholera should be buried
on the same day;
• Discourage the shaking of hands (kubatana maoko pakukwazisana) in
times of an outbreak;
• Dispose of human waste properly, using toilets or defecating in small
pits that should be covered immediately;
• Instruct the community to use appropriate latrines, which should be
regularly inspected;
• Treat and dispose of solid and liquid waste properly, by incineration or
burial;
• Keep homes and public areas, including school dining halls, thoroughly
clean;
• Apply pest control measures against flies, cockroaches and rodents; and
• Keep a cholera patient or suspect where they are to avoid further spread,
keep the number of people visiting and looking after the patient to a
minimum and use gloves or plastic protection during care.
In terms of public awareness:
• All community members, including students, mothers, workers and pa-
tients with other diseases, should be informed of the outbreak and about
the seriousness of cholera;
• The community should be informed that cholera is a highly communi-
cable disease, caused by a micro-organism and spread from one person to
another through food, water, and soiled hands and other items;
• Inform the public that the germ is easily killed by heat (boiling water,
cooking food) or by disinfectants such as chlorine, and that washing with
soap and water helps get rid of germs on hands.
DYSENTERY (DIARRHOEA WITH BLOOD) Dysentery is a disease in which the
lining of the large intestine becomes inflamed, causing stomach pains and
diarrhoea. Some cases involve vomiting and fever. Bloody diarrhoea (dysen-
tery) is most commonly caused by the bacteria shigella dysenteriae (Sd1). A
dysentery case can be described as a patient presenting with diarrhoea with
visible blood in their stool. The diarrhoea causes people suffering from dys-
entery to lose important salts and fluids from the body. This can be fatal if the
82
body dehydrates, especially in children. Overcrowded areas with unsafe water
and poor sanitation (e.g. refugee camps and famine populations) are risk fac-
tors.
Mode of transmission
The bacterium enters the body through the mouth in food or water, and also by
contact with the feaces of infected people. Dysentery is transmitted from
person to person through faecal oral spread, i.e. through consumption of food
and water that has been contaminated with the germs that cause dysentery.
The dysentery germs are present in the faeces of an infected person.
It is estimated that in some parts of the trop-
ics 80 percent of the children acquire bacillary
dysentery before the age of five; the mortal-
ity rate is high among infants and the aged if
the infection is not treated, preferably with a
broad spectrum antibiotic. In adults, bacillary
dysentery usually subsides spontaneously,
but treatment is desirable to prevent recur-
rence. It is primarily a disease of the tropics,
but may occur in any climate.

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms start one to four days after infection. In young children, the
illness starts suddenly with fever, irritability or drowsiness, loss of appetite, Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry
Specific recommended measures are:
nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, bloating and pain during def- · Use a toilet when defecating or practice a
high level of sanitation;
ecation. Within three days, pus, blood and mucus appear in the stool, and the · Cover all food to protect it from flies (see
number of bowel movements increases rapidly, sometimes to more than picture below);
· Collect water for domestic use from safe
twenty a day. At this point, weight loss and dehydration become severe. protected sources (see picture below);
· Use the run to waste method in prefer-
ence to communal hand washing;
Adults, however, may not develop a fever and often the stool doesn’t contain · Thoroughly wash all fruits and vegetables
that are to be eaten raw; and
blood or mucus initially. The disease may begin with just episodes of ab- · Maintain strict hygiene in homes and at
schools.
dominal pain. Later the diarrheoa becomes severe and soft or liquid stool is
experienced with mucus, pus and often blood. Vomiting is common and rap-
idly results in severe dehydration.

The illness also includes abdominal cramps, fever and rectal pain. Less com-
mon complications include sepsis, seizures and kidney failure.

Advice for those risking exposure to dysentry

As with cholera, health promotion efforts should promote improved personal,
domestic, and environmental hygiene. This includes hand washing with soap
after defecation and before handling food, use of clean drinking water, safe Collect water for domestic use
practices for preparing and storing food, and safe disposal of faeces. See from safe protected sources
column 1 for specific advice. (above) and cover all food to pro-
tect it from flies (below).

If a suspected dysentery case has been reported, the following should be done:
• Start oral rehydration, by giving the patient a salt and sugar solution;
• Refer or take patient to the nearest health facility for further management;
• Dispose of all faeces safely in a toilet or in a small pit that should
immediately be covered; and
• Soak all clothes and blankets that have been soiled in boiling water or in
water mixed with sodium hypochloride (household bleach).
• Always collect water for domestic use from safe protected sources and
cover all food to protect it from flies.
Early detection and notification of epidemic
CHICKEN POX (VARICELLA) This is a contagious viral infection but not very dysentery, especially among adults, allows for
timely mobilisation of the resources needed
fatal. It starts with an itchy rash which progresses to clusters of small raised for appropriate case management and con-
or flat spots, then develops into fluid-filled blisters which finally become trol. National and laboratories in local areas
should be strengthened so that they can reli-
scabs ably confirm Sd1 as the cause of an outbreak.

83

people who have not had chicken pox. The person should then be referred to
the nearest health facility.
HIV AND AIDS HIV is one of the most serious diseases considering the huge
risk it presents for Zimbabweans. We, therefore, dedicate space here to ex-
BOX 5.1 AIDS GENERAL FACTS
AIDS is an infection of the human lympho-
cytes (a type of white blood cell) and other
organs. It is caused by a retrovirus, the hu-
man immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is asso-
ciated with late stage HIV infection and
immunosuppession, with reduced numbers
and function of white blood cells. When HIV
infection progresses to illness, the symptoms
are usually due to the failure of the immune
system to resist other infectious diseases
known as ‘opportunistic infections’. These in-
clude tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia or
sepsis, oro-pharyngeal candidiasis, chronic
diarrhoea, chronic skin infections and recur-
rent herpes zoster. The incubation period is
approximately one to three months from the
time of infection to the time that antibodies
can be detected in a laboratory process. The
time from HIV infection to the onset of AIDS
is generally seven to nine years although the
ability to maintain a high quality of life and
health over increasing periods of time has
been enhanced y the many developments in
treatment. At this stage, there is still no cure
for HIV or AIDS.
Transmission
HIV can be transmitted from human to hu-
man through sexual intercourse, injection with
a shared needle, infected blood transfusions,
transplacental or transvaginal routes (i.e. from
mother to child during pregnancy or the birth
process), breast milk or other direct contact
with infected human body fluids. One group
at high risk of acquiring HIV is commercial
sex workers, with or without other sexually
transmitted infections (STIs), noting that
some STI’s may increase HIV transmission.
Others at risk include intravenous drug users
(IDUs), recipients of unscreened blood prod-
ucts and babies born to HIV infected moth-
ers.
Large variations exist between the patterns
of the AIDS epidemic in different countries in
Africa. In some places, the HIV prevalence is
still growing; in others the HIV prevalence
appears to have stabilised and in a few Afri-
can nations, such as Kenya and Zimbabwe, a
decline in new cases appears to be taking
place, probably in part due to effective pre-
vention campaigns.
Isolation of the infected person helps to prevent the spread of infection to
To date, there is no cure for HIV or AIDS and there are no vaccines to prevent
HIV infection.
Anyone can be susceptible to HIV, regardless of their sexual orientation.
Everyone is at risk of getting HIV from blood-to-blood contact, sharing needles
or unsafe sex. Worldwide, HIV is spread most often through heterosexual
contact.
HIV cannot be transmitted through:
o Toilet seats or door handles.
o Touching, hugging, holding hands, or cheek kissing with an HIV-infected
person.
o Sharing eating utensils with an HIV-infected person.
o Mosquito bites.
HIV is transmitted through contact with an HIV positive person's infected body
fluids, such as semen, pre-ejaculate fluid, vaginal fluids, blood or breast milk.
HIV can also be transmitted through needles contaminated with HIV-infected
blood, including needles used for injecting drugs, tattooing or body piercing.
Contact with sweat or tears has never been shown to result in transmission of
HIV.
Casual contact through closed-mouth or ‘social’ kissing is not a risk for
transmission of HIV. Because of the theoretical potential for contact with blood
during ‘French’, or open-mouthed kissing, the CDC recommends not engaging
in this activity with an infected person. However, no cases of AIDS have been
attributed to any kind of kissing.
A person can be infected with more than one STD. A person with an untreated
STD may also be six to ten times more likely to pass on or acquire HIV during
sex. Risk for infection increases 10 to 300-fold in the presence of a genital
ulcer, such as occurs in syphilis or genital herpes.
Safer sex is sexual activity without penetration, or sex with a latex condom or a
latex barrier (in the case of oral sex). Although safer sex can substantially
reduce the sexual transmission of an STD like HIV, sexual abstinence is the
surest way to prevent the sexual transmission of an STD, including HIV.
A person with HIV may not show any symptoms for up to 10 years. Since HIV
affects each person differently, many people with HIV can look and feel healthy
for years. The only sure way to know is to get tested.
Knowing if you are HIV positive will allow you to seek early treatment that can
help you stay healthy longer and enable you not to pass on the virus to
someone else. Regardless of your HIV status, you can learn how to prevent
future infection from HIV or other STDs through counselling offered at many HIV
testing centers.
Antiretroviral drugs don't keep someone from passing the virus to others.
Therapy can keep the viral load down to undetectable levels, but HIV is still
present in the body and can still be transmitted.
84

plaining the pandemic and how some of the preventive measures work.
HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of HIV and AIDS cases of any
region of the world. The World Health Organisation estimates that 22.5 mil-
lion people were living with HIV at the end of 2007 and approximately 1.7
million additional people were infected with HIV during that year. Both HIV
prevalence rates and the numbers of people dying from AIDS vary greatly
between African countries but the situation is worst in Southern Africa. For
example in Somalia and Senegal the HIV prevalence is under 1 percent of the
adult population, whereas in South Africa and Zambia around 15 to 20 percent
of adults are infected with HIV. The countries with the highest prevalence are
Botswana (24.1 percent), Lesotho (23.2 percent), Swaziland (33.4 percent)
and Zimbabwe (20.1 percent). Zimbabwe has the fifth highest HIV prevalence
in the world, alongside having the fourth lowest life expectancy (36.6 years).
The seriousness and extent of the AIDS cri-
sis is only now becoming visible in many Afri-
can countries, as more and more people with
HIV are succumbing to the disease. If the
region does not adopt massively expanded
prevention, treatment and care programmes,
the AIDS death toll in Southern Africa is set
to increase drastically. This means that the
impact of the AIDS epidemic on these societ-
ies will be felt most strongly in the course of
the next ten years and beyond. Its social and
economic consequences are already widely
felt, not only in the health sector but also in
education, industry, agriculture, transport,
human resources and the economy in gen-
eral.

The impact of AIDS in Zimbabwe

HIV and AIDS are having a widespread impact on many facets the Zimba-
bwean society. Some of the major effects of the AIDS epidemic are listed
below:
• AIDS is erasing decades of progress made in extending life expectancy.
Millions of adults are dying from AIDS while they are still young, or in
early middle age. Average life expectancy is now 36 years, three decades
less than when it could have been without AIDS.
• The effect of the AIDS epidemic on households can be very severe. Most
people who are incapacitated or die of AIDS are the breadwinners. On the
other hand, income earners are forced to stay at home so that they can
Since HIV related illness dramatically affects
take care of relatives who are suffering from AIDS related illnesses. Many labour, it retards economic activity and social
progress. Most of those living with HIV or AIDS
of those who die of AIDS have surviving partners who are themselves in- are between the ages of fifteen and 49 – the
fected and in need of care. A significant number of families are now child prime economically active age groups. Thus
employers, schools, factories and hospitals
headed. have to continually train new staff to replace
• The HIV and AIDS epidemic is putting enormous strain on the health sec- those at the workplace who become too ill to
work.
tor. This is because, as the epidemic progresses, the demand for care for
those living with HIV rises. This translates into increased work for health
workers.
• Schools are badly affected by HIV and AIDS. This is where this Resource
Book becomes an important tool as schools can play a vital role in reduc-
ing the impact of the epidemic, through education and support.
• Through their impacts on the labour force, households and enterprises,
BOX 5.2 HIV/AIDS FACTS – ZIMBABWE
HIV and AIDS can act as a significant barrier to economic growth and

85
Thee following general behaviours are impor-
tant to avoid contracting HIV or in dealing
with the disease in someone already infected:
· Seeking early treatment for STI’s, espe-
cially syphilis, chancroid diseases and other
ulcers;
· Avoiding the use of unsafe needles and
sharp objects;
· Protecting yourself from contact with blood
and other body fluids, especially if you have
cuts or wounds yourself; and
· Undergoig voluntary counselling and test-
ing (VCT) and, whatever the result, living
positively thereafter.
Remember to always store condoms away
from sunlight, in a cool, dry place. Also, check
the expiry date on the condom package and
never use a condom that has expired. If the
expiry date (usually marked as ‘Exp’) is not
visible, then check for the date of manufac-
ture (usually marked as ‘MFG’). Do not use
any condoms five years or more after the date
of manufacture. If the condoms contain sper-
micide, then throw them out two years after
the date of manufacture.
development. The disease is already having visible impacts on Zimbabwe’s
economic development which, in turn, severely reduces the country’s abil-
ity to cope with the epidemic.
Advice to those at risk from or living with HIV
In principle, the epidemic appears eminently stoppable. The means to do so
are well known and are largely a matter of knowing some obvious and readily
communicable facts like:
• Casual sex should never be unprotected sex;
• Abstaining from sex is the best way of removing risk; and
• Delaying the onset of sexual activity and then sticking to one faithful
partner is a successful risk reduction strategy (assuming the partner really
is faithful).
HIV Prevention
This section deals with the means for avoiding the main ways in which HIV is
spread in Zimbabwe.
CONDOM USE AND HIV Relative to the enormity of the HIV andAIDS epi-
demic in Africa, providing condoms is cheap and cost effective. Condoms
play a key role in preventing HIV infection around the world. Even when
condoms are available, though, there are still a number of social, cultural and
practical factors that may prevent people from using them. In the context of
stable partnerships where pregnancy is desired, or where it may be difficult
for one partner to suddenly suggest condom use, this option may not be
practical.

BOX 5.3 MALE CIRCUMCISION IN HIV The WHO, the UNAIDS Secretariat and their partners are working to
PREVENTION develop specific policy recommendations for expanding and promoting
male circumcision as a method of HIV prevention. The UN agencies
have noted with considerable interest the announcement made by the
US National Institutes of Health (NIH) in December 2006 on the results
of two trials which showed an approximate halving of risk of HIV infec-
tions among men who were circumcised. The trials carried out in Kenya
and Uganda, support results from the earlier South Africa Orange Farm
Intervention Trial in 2005, which demonstrated at least a 60 percent
On their way to a male circumci- reduction in HIV infection among circumcised men. The UN agencies
sion ceremony emphasise that male circumcision does not provide complete protection
against HIV infection. It should never replace other known effective pre-
vention methods and should always be considered as part of a compre-
hensive prevention package, which includes correct and consistent use
of male or female condoms, reduction in the number of sexual partners,
delaying the onset of sexual relations, and HIV testing and counselling.
The WHO and the UNAIDS Secretariat have convened technical con-
sultations on trial findings and developed policy recommendations for
countries. The groups will be working cooperatively to identify the best
means of increasing the delivery of safe circumcision services in coun-
tries that choose to scale up male circumcision as a means of HIV
ti
86
MALE CIRCUMCISION The provision of VCT has become easier,
cheaper and more effective as a result of the
PROVISION OF VOLUNTARY HIV COUNSELLING AND TESTING The provision of introduction of rapid HIV testing, which allows
individuals to be tested and find out the re-
voluntary HIV counselling and testing (VCT) is an important part of any na- sults on the same day. VCT could – and in-
deed needs to be – made more widely avail-
tional prevention programme. It is widely recognised that individuals living able in most sub-Saharan African countries.
with HIV who are aware of their status are less likely to transmit HIV infec-
tion to others, and that through testing they can be directed to care and sup-
port that can help them to stay healthy. VCT also provides benefits for those
who test negative, in that their behaviour may change as a result of the test out
of a desire to maintain their negative status.

PREVENTION OF MOTHER-TO-CHILD TRANSMISSION OF HIV Most of the chil-

dren living with HIV have become infected with during pregnancy or through
breastfeeding when they are babies, as a result of their mother being HIV
positive. Mother to child transmission (MTCT) of HIV is not inevitable.
Without intervention, there is a 20 to 45 percent chance that an HIV positive
mother will pass the infection on to her child. If a woman is supplied with
antiretroviral drugs, though, this risk can be reduced significantly. Before this
measures can be taken, however, the mother must be aware of her HIV posi-
tive status, so testing also plays a vital role in the prevention of MTCT. A
lesson should be learned from many developed countries, where these steps
have helped to virtually eliminate MTCT.
HIV and AIDS related treatment and care
Although there is no cure for HIV or AIDS, there are many forms of treat-
ment and a number of ways of caring for and easing the lives of those in-
However, there are challenges in ensuring
that drugs are not only supplied to all areas,
but that sufficient quantities of drugs are also
supplied to those areas. This is critical be-
cause once an individual starts to take ARVs
they have to take them for the rest of their
life (see box 5.3). If, for instance, the local
hospital runs out of ARVs, the interruption that
this causes in their treatment could result in
them becoming resistant to the drugs. In
improving treatment programmes, Zimbabwe,
like any other African country, faces the double
challenge of getting new people to start treat-
ment and maintaining the supply of treat-
ment to those who are already receiving ARVs.

fected. Here are some of the ways:

ANTIRETROVIRAL DRUGS Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), which significantly de-
lay the progression of HIV to AIDS and allow people infected with HIV to
live relatively normal, healthy lives, have been available in the more wealthy
parts of the world since around 1996. In Zimbabwe people obtain ARVs in a
variety of ways – from government or mission hospitals and Opportunistic
Infections (OI) clinics; from private doctors or clinics, often through medi-
cal aid; through NGOs and community based organisations; from their work-
places (including the armed forces and police); or through research
programmes.

OTHER FORMS OF TREATMENT AND CARE Treatment and care for HIV consists For those who can afford it, ARVs are avail-
of a number of different elements apart from ARVs. These include voluntary able through private doctors and clinics. They
pay the normal fees for consultations and a
counselling and testing (which is also seen as a preventive mechanism, see medical aid schemes then offers assistance
with the cost of the drugs.
above), food and management of nutritional effects, follow-up counselling,
protection from stigma and discrimination, treatment of other sexually trans-
mitted infections, and the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infec-
tions. All of these can, and indeed should, be provided before ARVs are avail-
able. When ARVs do become available the provision of antiretroviral therapy
The following points are very important to
should be easier and quicker to implement because many of the things apart remember:
from drugs that are needed for successful treatment are already in place. · You MUST get your ARV prescription and
tests through a registered doctor and should
HIV-related stigma and discrimination remains an enormous barrier to the also ask the doctor about getting ‘adher-
ence counselling’; and
fight against AIDS. Fear of discrimination often prevents people from getting · Although ARV medicines vary a lot in price,
tested, seeking treatment and admitting their HIV status publicly. Since laws you must ONLY take the ones your doctor
prescribes.

87
BOX 5.4 WHAT ARE ARVS?
( contributed by Southern Africa HIV/AIDS Infor-
mation Dissemination Service (SAfAIDS))

A partial list of the world’s most common HIV-

related opportunistic infections and diseases
includes:
• Bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis,
bacterial pneumonia and septicaemia
(blood poisoning);
• Protozoal diseases, such as toxoplasmo-
sis, microsporidiosis, cryptosporidiosis,
isopsoriasis and leishmaniasis;
• Fungal diseases, such as candidiasis,
cryptococcosis and penicilliosis;
• Viral diseases, such as those caused by
cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex and her-
pes zoster virus; and
• HIV associated malignancies, such as
Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphoma and squa-
mous cell carcinoma.

BOX 5.5 FAKE ARVS FLOOD ZIMBABWE

MARKET
By Caroline Murapa, 30 July 2007
http://www.zimdaily.com/news/117/ARTICLE/
1925/2007-07-30.html

and policies alone cannot reverse the stigma that surrounds HIV infection,
more and better AIDS education is needed in Zimbabwe to combat the igno-
rance that causes people to discriminate. The fear and prejudice that lies at
the core of this discrimination needs to be tackled, starting with the school
Providing prevention and treatment of op-
portunistic infections not only helps HIV posi- and community, and finally dealing with the national level.
tive people to live longer, healthier lives, but
can also help prevent TB and other transmis-
sible opportunistic infections from spreading
to others.
‘Opportunistic infections’ are infections caused by pathogens that usu-

88
ally do not cause disease in a healthy immune system. A compromised immune The signs and symptoms of meningitis are:

system, however, presents an ‘opportunity’ for the pathogen to infect. Thus • Fever, headaches, stiff neck, sore throat
people with advanced HIV infection are vulnerable to these opportunistic in- and vomiting, often followed by respiratory
illness;
fections and malignancies because they take advantage of the opportunity • In adults, becoming desperately ill within
24 hours and, in children, within a shorter
offered by a weakened immune system. time span; and
• Confusion and drowsiness.
Different conditions typically occur at different stages of HIV infection. In
early HIV disease people can develop tuberculosis, malaria, bacterial pneu-
monia, herpes zoster, staphylococcal skin infections and septicaemia. These
are diseases that people with a normal immune systems can also get, but with
HIV they occur at a much higher rate. It also takes longer for a person with
HIV to recover than it takes for someone with a healthy immune system.
MENINGITIS Meningitis is an acute infection of the central nervous system
which causes the inflammation of the meninges (the covering of the brain)
from which it derives its name. It is caused by several factors, of which the
most common ones are bacteria, viruses and fungi. A more acute and severe
form of the disease is usually caused by neisseria meningitides,
microbocterium tuberculosis, haemophilus influenzae and streptococcus
pneumoniae. About 15 percent of people who contract meningitis die even
with treatment, especially as a result of the bacteria type (Jamu, 2006). There
are several ways in which these organisms reach the brain to cause meningi-
tis, as a direct extension of an infected ear, nose, sinus, head injury or com-
plication by birth defects. The incubation period is between two and ten days.
In meningitis outbreak areas, large outbreaks due to Neisseria meningitis may
occur from November through to May. Outside known meningitis areas,
smaller outbreaks may occur. If two suspected meningitis cases are reported
within a week in a population of less than 30 000, this is considered an indica-
tion of a meningitis outbreak.

Transmission
Meningitis is transmitted from human to human through airborne droplet
spread. It can also spread via blood and body fluids. Attacks are highest among
children aged under fifteen years. Viral or tuberculous meningitis and HIV Viral Haemorrhagic Fever is manifested as
an illness with onset of fever, no response to
related opportunistic infections may mimic this disease. treatment for the usual causes of fever in the
area, and at least one of the following signs:
• Bloody diarrhoea;
Response • Bleeding from gums;
• Bleeding into skin; or
Any suspected meningitis case must be reported to the nearest health facility. • Bleeding into eyes and urine.

Meningitis outbreaks are usually managed by means of mass vaccination cam-

paigns, while treatment of cases involves using the recommended antibiotics.
VIRAL HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER (VHF) This is a hemorrhagic disease syndrome
caused by the following viruses:
The infection and control principle should be
applied when managing patients and cases
should be quarantined. Port health officers
should be trained to handle such cases. In-
ternational health regulations must also be
applied.

• Ebola and Marburg (filoviruses);

• Lassa fever;
• Rift Valley fever (RVF);
• Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF); and
• Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF).
No cure for VHF is available. Many deaths
Zimbabwe has experienced outbreaks of Ebola, Marburg and Crimean-Congo during an Ebola epidemic are due to severe
dehydration so careful maintenance of hydra-
fevers. The case fatality rate of Ebola ranges from 50 percent to 90 percent tion should be ensured. Unnecessary contact
and there are no preventive treatments or vaccines available. with affected persons should be avoided.

89
The disease begins with these signs and symp-
toms and, by the second week of the illness,
the patient will either markedly improve and
convalesce or will have multi-organ failure and
will die of shock. The incubation period of Ebola
and Marburg fevers is two to 21 days but usu-
ally between five and twelve days, while that
of CCHF is two to twelve days.
The signs and symptoms are:
• A cough persisting for more than three
weeks with blood at times;
• Continuous chest pains with night sweats;
and
• Loss of weight and appetite
Advice for the prevention of SARS
The known methods for preventing infection
are:
· Washing hands with soap after contact with
a person suspected to have SARS;
· Careful personal and environmental hy-
giene (avoiding unnecessary touching of
face, mouth or nose) among those living
with a person suspected of having SARS;
· Avoiding sharing eating utensils, towels and
bedding with a person who may be in-
fected;
· Monitoring of anyone who has been to a
region reporting SARS infection for at least
fourteen days; and
· Avoiding travelling to SARS affected areas
or countries, if possible.
Other precautionary measures are to:
• Ensure adequate ventilation both at home,
and in schools and other public places;
• Cover the mouth when coughing and only
spit into a toilet; and
• Soak all material contaminated with spu-
tum from an infected person in water with
bleach.
Transmission
The disease is transmitted from person to person (Ebola, Marburg, Lassa,
CCHF), by mosquitoes (RVF, dengue) or by ticks (CCHF). Ebola and Marburg
can also be transmitted through sexual contact. Outbreaks may be amplified
when standard barrier precautions are not taken or in ceremonies involving
touching ill or deceased infected persons or their secretions. Sporadic cases
may arise from sexual contact or through exposure to trees, possibly follow-
ing their direct contact with infected animals.
Advice in likely cases of or exposure to VHF
In terms of the Public Health Act Chapter 15:09, VHF is a notifiable disease
and should, therefore, be reported immediately. Report the suspected case to
the nearest health facility. The patient should not be moved in order to avoid
the risk of infecting others.
TUBERCULOSIS (TB) This is an infection of the lungs and other organs. It is
usually caused by mycocterium tuberculosis transmitted from person to per-
son by droplet infection through coughing, sneezing or spitting. Pulmonary
(of the lungs) TB is the most common. Tuberculosis is a leading cause of
infectious illness and death worldwide, with over eight million new cases and
three million deaths per year. Abdominal or other extra-pulmonary sites of
infection may occur after ingestion of unpasteurised cows’ milk. The groups
most vulnerable to TB infection and least able to fight it include HIV positive
people, those suffering from malnutrition and other immune compromising
conditions, the very young and the very old.
Advice for the prevention and control of tuberculosis
Early detection of persons with infectious lung disease is of utmost impor-
tance to reducing the transmission of TB. It is, therefore, important to seek
early treatment if the abovementioned signs and symptoms are experienced.
Tuberculosis is treated using multi drug therapy i.e. at least three types of
drugs are taken at the same time. Treatment should be taken consistently
until finished and lasts for at least six months.
SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME (SARS) This is a respiratory illness
caused by a virus. It has affected countries such as Hong Kong, mainland China,
Singapore, Taiwan, Vietnam and Canada. On 7 April 2003, South Africa re-
ported the first probable case of SARS in Pretoria. By the end of April 2003
at least 3 000 people throughout the world had suffered from SARS and close
to 200 people had died.
The signs, symptoms and indicators of SARS are:
• A high body temperature;
• Cough, shortness of breath and/or difficulty in breathing;
• Chills, headache, general body weakness and muscle pain; and
• Travel within the past ten days to a country that has reported SARS.
Transmission
The disease is spread by direct or indirect contact with secretions from the
eyes, nose or mouth of a person suffering from it.
90
Disease Vectors

Malaria epidemics
Malaria and malaria epidemics are a major public health problem experienced in
Zimbabwe as well as in the rest of Southern Africa. Despite being preventable
and curable, malaria is among the major killer diseases. Half of all Zimbabweans
live in malarial areas and malaria is the second highest killer of children. De-
pending upon the local social and environmental conditions, malaria can be
endemic (all year round), seasonal (increased cases occur as a result of the
seasonal rains) or a combination of the two (year round malaria risk with sea-
sonal increases). While endemic malaria consistently drains health resources
through regular treatment of cases, it is the seasonal malaria with localised
epidemics, which for short periods creates the crisis imposing the most stress
on the health system’s ability to cope.
The MoHCW (2004) reports that more than 5 962 000 people in Zimbabwe
are potentially exposed to malaria each year. This implies that the health of
half of the country’s population is under threat from malaria. UNICEF (The
Herald, 2006) reports that, in the past five years in Zimbabwe, increased
resistance of malaria parasites to drugs has been coupled with the significant
movement of people, due to resettlement or economic emigration. This has
resulted in people relocating from non-endemic to malaria endemic areas.
Because these people have no inbuilt immunity to malaria, epidemics are
occurring with increasing frequency, and fatalities, especially among chil-
dren and pregnant women, are on the increase (MOHCW, 2006). In addition,
new cases are reported from places that did not previously have an endemic
problem.

In 2002, 740 000 clinical malaria cases and 2 200 malaria deaths were re-
ported by the Health Management Information System (HMIS). In the same
period, 12 percent of outpatient attendances and 15 percent of patient admis-
sions to public health facilities were due to malaria. In the ‘endemic districts’,
the burden of malaria is greatest among under-fives, pregnant women and
people living with HIV or AIDS, due to the development of a degree of ac-
quired immunity among adolescent and adult (HIV negative) populations.

Malaria zones and transmission

Malaria transmission in Zimbabwe is largely unstable in nature (epidemic
prone) and is highly seasonal. The intensity of malaria transmission varies
considerably, both temporally and spatially. Approximately 5.5 million people
out of a total population of 12.7 million live in malaria prone areas. Of the 56 Malaria remains a major public health prob-
lem in Zimbabwe as transmission is primarily
districts in the country, malaria transmission occurs in 42. In 2002, a stratifi- unstable, protective immunity does not readily
cation based on a national parasite prevalence survey, HMIS data, entomo- develop and, as a result, all age groups are
at risk.
logical data and expert opinion was prepared. This draft stratification is shown
in Figure 5.3, below, which maps malaria transmission by districts using five
classes – malaria free, sporadic, low, moderate and high. It should be noted
that malaria transmission varies within many of the districts and in some cases,
e.g. Bindura and Muzarabani districts, from ‘sporadic’ to ‘malaria endemic’.
From the map it can be seen that there is a marked zone of moderate to high
malaria transmission. The area follows the eastern border until the Zambezi

91
 River where it turns west and runs along the northern border with Botswana
and Namibia.
There are also areas, such as in the highveld of Zimbabwe and a few isolated
upland areas (higher than 2 000m), which are malaria free. The chief
determinant is the climate, which affects both the life of the anopheles
mosquito and the development of malaria parasites. The development of the
malaria parasite is greatly retarded below 20o C and it ceases to develop

Figure 5.2 Monthly Distribu-

tion of Malaria Cases as a
Percentage of the Population

In spite of taking trusted preventive mea-

sures, visitors to malarial areas, especially
to the low lying areas (altitude 600 to 900m
above seas level) of the country are con-
tracting the disease at the same time that
the available treatments are gradually be-
coming ineffectual.
below 16 o C. Relative humidity of over 80 percent lengthens the life of the
mosquito, enabling it to transmit the infection over a longer time.
The anopheles mosquito is a genus of widely distributed mosquitoes
Figure 5.2 shows the seasonal profiles of comprising around 350 species. The malaria parasite is transmitted to humans
malaria in Zimbabwe, based on data from the
MOHCW and complied by the National Ma- through the bite of the female anopheles mosquito. The most important
laria Research Programme. This information anopheles species in Southern Africa are An. gambiae complex (includes
is usually supplied as a guideline for travel-
lers as to when the risk periods are. The fig- An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis) and An. funestus complex. Plasmodium
ures clearly show that malaria in Zimbabwe is
highly seasonal and that the winter months falciparum is the main parasite that causes malaria in Zimbabwe and these
constitute a low risk period, while the highest are the most serious malarial infections, which may result in severe anaemia
risk is experienced towards the end of and
immediately after the rainfall season. This is and celebral involvement. The malaria vector in Zimbabwe is anopheles
the period when sufficient water has accumu-
lated on the ground to provide conducive arabiensis.
breeding sites for mosquitoes.
As with other mosquitoes, only the females bite and they use the proteins
from a blood meal to produce a batch of eggs. Both An. arabiensis and An.
gambiae breed mostly in relatively clean water with partial or full sunlight
Figure 5.3 Malaria Epidemic
Risk Districts

Preliminary new malaria stratification,

MOHCW (2002)

92

e.g. in marshes, puddles, irrigation water etc. Thus the species avoids polluted
water. Vegetation can be absent or present. Larvae occur between floating
and/or emerging vegetation. Unlike other mosquito larvae, those of the
anopheles mosquito float parallel to the water’s surface. The whole process
from egg to emergence of the adult from the pupa takes little more than a
week at tropical temperatures.
The malaria parasites are plasmodium, a genus of protozoan parasites that
live within the red blood cells of humans. The parasite undergoes its asexual
development in humans and completes the sexual phase of its development in
the stomach and digestive glands of an Anopheles mosquito. There are four
species of plasmodium that cause human malaria – P. vivax, P. ovale, P.
malariae and P. falciparum. In the absence of other complicating factors,
acute severity and mortality occur almost exclusively in P. falciparum infec-
tions. However, in Southern Africa P. falciparum is the predominant species.
The development of P. falciparum in the female adult anopheles mosquito
requires a minimum temperature of 19° C. Above this temperature, the devel-
opment of the parasite in the vector quickens.
The three species bite indoors or outdoors,
wherever hosts are available. An. gambiae and
An. funestus are relatively more anthropophilic
(preferring biting humans to animals) and
endophilic (resting mostly indoors) than An.
arabiensis. An. funestus rarely rests outdoors.
The fact that An. gambiae and An. funestus are
endophilic means that properly applied re-
sidual house spraying can significantly reduce
malaria transmission in areas where they are
major vectors. In fact, An. funestus is no longer
an important vector after its suppression by
residual house spraying in areas of the sub-
region where the method is a major compo-
nent of malaria control programmes.

The duration of sporogony at optimum temperatures for P. falciparum is eight

to ten days. These protozoan parasites enter the host’s bloodstream when they
are bitten by an infected mosquito and then migrate to the liver, where they
multiply before returning to the bloodstream to invade the red blood cells.
The parasites continue to multiply inside the red cells until they burst releas-
ing large numbers of free parasites into the blood plasma and causing the
characteristic fever associated with the disease. This phase of the disease
occurs in cycles of approximately 48 hours. The free parasites are able to
infect any other mosquito that feeds on the host’s blood during this phase.
The cycle then continues as the parasites multiply inside the mosquito and
eventually invade its salivary glands (see Figure 5.4).

The contribution of malaria to mortality varies considerably between districts

because of differences in malaria endemicity, prevention and treatment, as
well as differences in the incidence of other infectious diseases (e.g. HIV),
health service provision and general socioeconomic conditions. Even in coun-
tries where malaria is confined to limited areas, malaria mortality can be high
among vulnerable groups, particularly in epidemic years. For example, in 1996,
the malaria epidemic in Zimbabwe made malaria the leading cause of mater-
nal mortality, being responsible for 40 percent of maternal deaths in low ly-
ing areas. An irrigation scheme that turned
into a health hazard. CPD officials
Figure 5.5 shows the general high prevalence of malaria cases in Zimbabwe. inspect irrigation canals that have
More specifically, these national annual figures show a sustained period of become breeding grounds for ma-
high malaria incidence from 1996 to 2000 and a resurgence in 2003. The laria carrying mosquitos in
incidence was relatively low before 1996. Chibuwe
(Source: CPD)

While the overall malaria mortality may appear low in Zimbabwe, it should
be emphasised that this can rise markedly if an epidemic occurs, as happened
in 1996 and 1997. The relatively modest malaria mortality rate (see Figure
5.6) is partly due to sustained and successful control efforts dating back to
the mid 1940s.

93

Figure 5.4 The Life Cycle of
Plasmodium
There are also a number of human factors
that affect malaria transmission.:
· Vector control efforts, particularly insecti-
cide house spraying programmes and
source reduction in urban areas, have
made previously malaria prone districts
malaria-free. Equally, the breakdown of
vector control has resulted in formerly ma-
laria free areas becoming malaria prone
again, e.g. the Zambian Copperbelt.
· Forced and voluntary population move-
ments can also increase malaria transmis-
sion. Human-made changes to the envi-
ronment also alter malaria transmission
levels. For example, planned urbanisation
leads to source reduction, while dam build-
ing, particularly in semi-arid areas, can cre-
ate focal sites of malaria transmission.
· Global warming has also raised tempera-
tures in areas where the parasite previously
could not live.
Malaria case definition
Malaria is a vector-borne disease caused by a protozoa parasite of the genus
plasmodium and naturally transmitted to man by the female anopheles
mosquito. It usually presents clinically with recurrent attacks of fever, rigors,
anaemia, haemolytic jaundice and splenomegaly (enlarged spleen). It is usually
easy to treat when patients present early and are properly managed, but can
become complicated with a high fatality rate if treatment is sought late or the
patient is not properly managed.
Advice for the prevention and control of malaria
Three key ways of preventing malaria are outlined below:
AVOIDANCE OF BITES Mosquitoes cause much inconvenience because of lo-
cal reactions to the bites themselves and from the infections they transmit.
Mosquito bites spread other diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and
Japanese B encephalitis. Mosquitoes bite at any time of the day but the anoph-
eles bites in the night with most activity at dawn and dusk. If you are out at
night wear long sleeved clothing and long trousers. Mosquitoes may bite
through thin clothing, so spray an insecticide or repellent on them. Insect
repellents should also be used on exposed skin.
Spraying insecticides in the room, burning pyrethroid coils and heating in-
secticide impregnated tablets all help to control mosquitoes. When sleeping
in an unscreened room a mosquito net (which should be impregnated with
insecticide) is a sensible precaution because mosquitoes are attracted to them
by the carbon dioxide and body odor emitted by the sleeper. Thus the net acts
like a baited trap. If sleeping out of doors in mosquito infested areas it is
essential to sleep under an insecticide treated mosquito net.
VECTOR CONTROL Anopheles breeding is relatively limited in extent and de-
finable. Therefore, larval control makes a significant contribution to malaria
94
 Figure 5.5 National Annual Trends
in Malaria Cases, 1988-2003

Source: National Malaria Research Programme

control. However, the effect of localised larval control can easily be swamped
by immigration from outside the control area. Thus a high percentage of all
productive breeding sites within flight range of the community which it is
intended to protect must be found and effectively dealt with. The following
are possible ways of dealing with them:

• Swamps can be drained or filled so as to permanently remove them as

breeding sites;
• Covering all water ponds and removing broken bottles, tins or other con-
tainers that hold water;

Figure 5.6 Inpatient Malaria

Deaths, 1995-2002

• Clearing roof gutters of leaves before the rains, as this will reduce mosquito
breeding sites;
• Cutting long grass around homes and schools to reduce hiding places for
mosquitoes;
• Spraying dwellings with an effective and persistent insecticide before the
peak period of malaria transmission to reduce the population of malaria
carrying mosquitoes;
• Using knock down insecticides to kill mosquitoes indoors;
• Spraying homes with a residual insecticide, which helps kill mosquitoes
that rest on the sprayed walls; and
• Screening water tanks to prevent breeding taking place in them,
Under some conditions, irrigation can be carried out according to a carefully The clinical symptoms of malaria are mim-
regulated, intermittent schedule so that fields are dried once a week and thus icked by many other diseases. A patient with
a clinical syndrome of malaria is a patient
larval lifecycles cannot be completed. Breeding sites may also be stocked presenting with an acute onset of fever and
with larvivorous fish. These are, to some extent, self propagating, but sites any of the following symptoms or signs:

need to be checked at intervals and those where the fish have died out need to · Intermittent fever;
· Shivering;
be restocked from a fish rearing facility. · Headache;
· General weakness of the body;
The idea of creating genes for harmless anopheles mosquitoes in a laboratory · A temperature above 40° C;
· Chills and feeling cold;
has been mooted and may be effective. · Sweating;
· Muscle and/or joint pain;
· Vomiting; and
USE OF PROPHYLAXIS It should be noted that no prophylactic regimen is 100 · Splenomegaly.

95

When sleeping in an unscreened
room, use a mosquito net (above),
which should be impregnated with
insecticide (below) if possible
(Source: PSI)
Above: Spray dwellings with an
effective and persistent insecticide
before the peak period of malaria
transmission.
Below: Swamps should be filled so as
to permanently remove them as
breeding sites.
(Source: MOHCW)
percent effective and advice on malaria prophylaxis changes frequently. There
are currently five prophylactic regimens used, in response to the differing
resistance that exists among the malaria parasites to the various drugs used.
Certain actions should be taken to promote the health of individuals and the
community vis-à-vis the malaria threat. These are:
· If many people are suffering from malaria, notify the local health authori-
ties immediately;
· Inform the school Principal or a community health worker who will either
give medication or refer a malaria patient to the nearest health facility for
treatment;
· If given malaria treatment, take all the tablets as instructed even if the
illness seems to have abated;
· Return to the health facility if the signs and symptoms of malaria con-
tinue;
· If you develop a fever between one week after first exposure and up to two
years after your return from a malaria prone area, seek medical attention
and inform the doctor of the area(s) that you have been in; and
· See that anyone with suspected malaria is treated under medical supervi-
sion as soon as possible, as treatment should not normally be adminis-
tered by unqualified persons.
The drug treatment of malaria depends on the type and severity of the attack.
Typically, Quinine Sulphate tablets are used and the normal adult dosage is
600mg every twelve hours. This can also be given by intravenous infusion if
the illness is severe.
Malaria treatment is available in the following places:
· In the village from village health workers;
· At school through the school Principal;
· In shops, on request for a full course of malaria treatment; and
· At the nearest health facility.
Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through
faecal waste. Pathogens, which include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and para-
sitic worms, are disease producing agents found in the faeces of infected
persons. These diseases are more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary condi-
tions. The pathogens travel through water sources and interfuse directly through
persons handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly infectious,
extreme care and hygiene should be maintained by those looking after an in-
fected patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the most com-
mon water-borne diseases affecting large populations in tropical regions.
Food poisoning
Food poisoning is a serious health problem that results from consumption of
food contaminated by germs or chemicals, or consumption of poisonous food
like inedible mushrooms.
Depending on the types of germs, early signs and symptoms show within six
hours after ingestion. The common signs and symptoms of food poisoning
are:
96
· Stomach pains and cramps;
Malaria control in Zimbabwe dates back to
· Diarrhoea, which may be bloody; and the 1940s. Strategies used to control malaria
have evolved based on the evaluation of past
· Vomiting and general body weakness. malaria control activities, changes in the ma-
laria distribution and interaction with partners
Food poisoning is most common where food is prepared in large quantities based on the following:
· The African Region Malaria Control Strat-
and is left cold and served without adequate warming. However, poisoning egy, 1991;
· The Global Malaria Control Strategy, 1992;
can also be due to drug overdose, either by mistake or intentionally (para · The Harare Declaration on Malaria Preven-
suicide), or ingestion of other toxic substances, such as insecticides, which tion and Control, 1997;
· The African Initiative for Malaria Control in
may also be either accidental or intentional. the 21st Century, 1998;
· The Global Roll Back Malaria cam-
paign,1998;
There are different types of food poisoning but the most common at schools · The Abuja Declaration on Roll Back Malaria
and other institutions is that caused by salmonella. Salmonella germs are gen- in Africa, 2000; and
· The Global Fund Against Malaria, TB and
erally found in the environment, including the skin surfaces of food handlers HIV/AIDS, 2002.
(cooks and waiters), eggs and chickens, and human and animal waste. If food
is prepared in an unclean environment or if eggs and meat and other food
items are obtained from unlicensed suppliers, the risk of food poisoning is
very high. Chemical food poisoning occurs if there is accidental or inten-
tional contamination of food by chemicals used for control of household or
agricultural pests
Means of prevention of food poisoning include:
• Preparing food in a clean environment where there is clean, hot or cold
water;
• Preparing food where there is adequate space for its storage and adequate
refrigeration or cooling for food that decays quickly;
• Keeping foodstuffs separate from cleaning and other chemicals;
• Restricting the premises used to prepare food from entry by members
of the public and also providing fly screens;
• Proper use of safe chemicals to control rats and cockroaches that may
contaminate food;

Cause Water-Borne Diseases Table 5:3 Water-Borne Diseases

and their Causes
Bacterial infections Typhoid
Cholera
Paratyphoid fever
Bacillary dysentery

Viral infections Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice)

Poliomyelitis

Protozoal infections Amoebic dysentery

• Always serving food quickly, while it is still hot; and

• Thoroughly heating leftover food before it is served again.
Where food poisoning has occurred:
• In an institutional setting, it should be reported to the head of the
institution, e.g. school Principal immediately and also to the
Environmental Health Officer.
• Patients should be reassured;
Water-borne diseases
Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases
spread primarily through contaminated wa-
ter. Although these diseases are spread ei-
ther directly or through flies or filth, water is
the chief medium for spread of these dis-
eases and hence they are termed as ‘water-
borne’ diseases. The most common water-
borne diseases and their causes are shown
in table 5.3.

97

BOX 5.6 MINISTRY OF HEALTH REINTRODUCES
DDT FOR INDOOR RESIDUAL SPRAYING
Districts Using DDT for Indoor Spraying
(Green)
To facilitate adherence to international stan-
dards and guidelines, it is only the Ministry
of Health officials who will handle and use
the chemical. To date, the MOHCW has al-
ready trained teams who will be spraying the
selected areas. In addition to indoor residual
spraying, the MOHCW together with other
partners such as UNICEF, WHO are also pro-
moting other malaria mitigation and preven-
tion measures such as information dissemi-
nation through the radio and television on
malaria prevention, distribution of insecticide
treated mosquito nets and effective case
management.
• Anyone present should be observed so that severe cases can be identified
for urgent management;
• Large quantities of drinking water should be given to anyone infected
while they await transfer to the nearest health centre; and
• The parents or guardian of child patients should be informed.
Where poisoning is a result of a drug overdose or ingestion of a toxic sub-
stance (either by mistake or intentionally), treat as above and transfer the
patient to the nearest health centre with the remainder of the substance that
has been ingested or the empty container.
Zoonotic Diseases
Anthrax
In countries in which the disease is not well controlled, regular outbreaks of
anthrax can become serious epidemics affecting both animals and humans.
For example, when civil war interrupted normal vaccination and regulatory
controls in this country in the late 1970s, the world’s largest outbreak of
human anthrax occurred in rural Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) from
1978 to 80, in which 10 738 cases were recorded and 182 people died.
However, some attribute this outbreak to covert action by Rhodesian security
forces because of a number of unusual features of the epizootic during that
period. The disease spread over time from area to area, until six of the eight
provinces were affected. Yet anthrax usually appears as a point source
outbreak, without significant geographic spread. Only the African owned cattle
in the tribal trust lands were affected; cattle belonging to whites were not
involved.
Anthrax is not common in Zimbabwe and clinical cases of the disease are
seen only sporadically. Most cases occur in cattle, with some in goats and a
few in pigs. Donkeys and horses are rarely affected. The areas where cases
occur tend to be those where there have been previous outbreaks, areas with
calcium rich soils, drought prone areas, overstocked areas, mainly over popu-
lated communal farming areas, flood plains and low lying areas along major
rivers. On average each year, in the whole of Zimbabwe, 50 cases occur, with
usually only a small number of cases in each affected area or farm (one to
three cattle).
98
Case definition
Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the spore forming bacterium
Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic
lower vertebrates (cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and other herbivores) but
it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals or
According to the Public Health Act, all those
who handle food, i.e. cooks and waiters,
should be medically examined every six to
twelve months to ensure that they do not carry
food poisoning germs that may be spread to
prepared food. Food handlers who have
wounds should be excused from handling food
and ideally should be assigned other duties.

tissue from infected animals.

The clinical forms of anthrax in animals are described as:
• ‘Peracute’ (very acute), in which death occurs within a few hours at most
of the onset of clinical signs;
• ‘Acute’, in which death occurs from 24 hours to a few days after onset;
Because of their lack of experience, school
and children face particular risks. They should be
taught not to keep cooked food, especially
• ‘Subacute’ or localised, which lasts for several days and may end in meat, for a long time before eating it espe-
recovery. cially when they travel on trips or have ar-
rived back at school after the holidays. They
should also be encouraged to empty tinned
foods completely once opened.
The types of human anthrax found in Zimbabwe are:
· Cutaneous (skin), the most common type found in Zimbabwe and the least
harmful if treated appropriately;
· Gastrointestinal anthrax, contracted from eating the meat of an infected
animal; and
· Inhalation/pulmonary anthrax, which is the least common but causes the
most concern since it is the highly lethal, laboratory modified type that is
used in bio-terrorism, and has a case fatality rate of about 90 percent if
untreated.

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in humans vary depending on how the
disease was contracted and usually occur within seven days. They are as fol-
lows:

FOR CUTANEOUS ANTHRAX About 95 percent of infections occur when the

bacterium enters a cut or abrasion on the skin, such as when handling con-
taminated meat, hides or leather of infected animals. Skin infection begins as
a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within one or two days
develops into a vesicle (blister) and then a painless ulcer, usually 1 to 3cm in
diameter, with a characteristic black necrotic (dying) area in the center. Lymph
glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20 percent of untreated cases of
cutaneous anthrax will result in death but deaths are rare with the use of ap- In this country, anthrax was first reported in
propriate chemotherapeutic agents that either kill the bacteria or otherwise Matabeleland in 1898. Since then, in addition
to the controversial major outbreak during the
interfere with their normal biological functions. war of liberation mentioned above, sporadic
outbreaks have occurred in various parts of
the country.
FOR GASTROINTESTINAL ANTHRAX The intestinal disease form of anthrax may
follow the consumption of contaminated meat and is characterised by an acute
inflammation of the intestinal tract. Initial signs of nausea, loss of appetite,
vomiting and fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting of blood, and
severe diarrhoea. Intestinal anthrax results in death in between 25 percent and
60 percent of cases.

FOR PULMONARY ANTHRAX Initial symptoms may resemble a common cold.

After several days, the symptoms may progress to severe breathing problems
and shock. This form of anthrax is usually fatal.

99
Figure 5.8 Average Distribution
of Anthrax Cases in Zimbabwe,
2001-2005
Zimbabwe Veterinary Services

Anthrax has been gradually on the rise in Zim-

babwe (see Figure 5.9) but the country has
the potential to easily keep this disease un-
der control.

Anthrax Cases
Per District
<1
1 - 25
26 - 51
52 - 77
> 78

Figure 5.9 Anthrax Cases in

Zimbabwe, 2001-2005

Figure 5.9 shows that the biggest outbreak

was reported in 2005 and suggests that the
rising number of cases necessitates more
stringent measures of control and prevention
of the disease.

Mode of transmission
B. anthracis spores can live in the soil for many years, and humans can be-
come infected with anthrax by handling products from infected animals or by
inhaling anthrax spores from contaminated animal products. Anthrax can also
be spread by eating undercooked meat from infected animals.

The signs and symptoms of anthrax in hu-
mans vary depending on how the disease was
contracted and usually occur within seven
days.
Anthrax is quite unusual in that it is not contagious (i.e. it is not spread from
animal to animal or from one person to another person.). Instead, it is spread
by the release of bacterial spores from the carcass of an animal that has died
of the disease and the subsequent ingestion of these spores by other animals.
The period during which infection is likely is short and the risk of spread of
infection by preclinical infected animals is limited.

100
The following are some of the ways in which the disease is transmitted:
· Most commonly to herbivores, by eating pasture on or around a former
death site or sniffing and licking around a recently dead anthrax carcass;
· Eating contaminated, improperly treated meat meal, as products from ani-
mals that have died of anthrax can transmit infection if there has been
inadequate heat treatment to destroy spores or vegetative organisms;
· Contact with dead animals or the contamination left at their death site or
burial site;
· Skins and hides spreading infection to new areas if treatment and scouring
effluent is allowed to drain onto pasture;
· The transport of incubating infected animals transferring infection across
Meat obtained from animals that are normal
paddocks, properties and districts; and and healthy at antemortem and postmortem
inspection poses no risk of anthrax infection.
· Deep ploughing of pastures previously contaminated with anthrax The skin and hides from such animals are
carrying effluent, or the unearthing of old graves, as the carcass of an also free of infection. However, schools are at
risk of anthrax if the meat is obtained from
animal that has been infected and dies remains a possible source of infec- suppliers not known to the school who may
have slaughtered an animal suffering from
tion for many years. anthrax. Therefore meat supplies to schools
and other educational institutions should be
obtained from registered abattoirs.
Advice on the prevention and control of anthrax
If a postmortem examination is conducted and anthrax confirmed, the carcass
and all disposable equipment should be destroyed as quickly as possible and
the immediate area disinfected. Staff handling such cases should seek medi-
cal advice.
Mass killing of animals is not required for anthrax control. Antibiotic treat-
ment of valuable infected animals (with temperatures higher than 40° C) may
allow complete recovery if given early in the course of the disease.
If there are reports of an outbreak of anthrax among animals in an area, avoid
killing sick animals for meat. Animals that look sick should be reported to the
nearest veterinary officer. Avoid any close contact with animals suspected of
suffering from anthrax. The treatment of animal products such as skins, hides
and meat possibly infected with anthrax should not be attempted. The follow-
ing measures are necessary:
DISPOSAL Dead animals should be disposed of under the control of govern-
ment officers using methods designed to eliminate contamination. All mate-
rials that are likely to have been infected, including the animal itself, should
be disposed of by burning or deep burial at the site in which it has died.
DECONTAMINATION At contaminated sites, infected materials, personnel, cloth-
Usually, the first indication that grazing ani-
ing and equipment should be decontaminated according to Veterinary Ser- mals may have anthrax is when they are found
dead in the kraal or veld. Bloodstained dis-
vices guidelines. charges at external orifices are the usual char-
acteristics of the disease but not all anthrax
VACCINATION This should be done under the guidance of Veterinary Services. cases show these signs. However in almost
all cases, the blood fails to clot. This mani-
Animals vaccinated twice, at a six to twelve month intervals are normally im- fests when samples are collected from car-
casses for diagnostic examination, or if the
mune for life. carcass has been attacked by predators. Dairy
cattle may show a change in temperament
PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN INFECTION As anthrax is a significant zoonotic and a drop in milk production. If a carcass of
an animal that has died is opened, dark
disease, all people handling dead animals or other infected material, includ- unclotted blood and an enlarged,
haemorrhagic spleen are immediate indica-
ing live vaccines, should wear protective glasses, gloves and clothing and pro- tors of anthrax (de Vos, 1994). However, an
tect skin breaks from infection. People exposed to infection, either through enlarged spleen, cited as a characteristic fea-
ture of anthrax and regularly seen in cattle,
wounds or through a needle prick while vaccinating animals with live vaccine, is uncommon in other animals. In any case,
not all the signs are uniformly present in all
should seek medical advice. cases of anthrax.

101
Anthrax does not form a carrier state in sus-
ceptible animals and live animals can only
spread the infection by being moved when
they are in the incubation phase of the dis-
ease, dying and releasing bacteria at the new
site.
Pasteurisation of milk and milk products de-
stroys vegetative bacteria. Thus, anthrax veg-
etative bacilli cannot survive in milk and nei-
ther can vegetative bacteria sporulate in
unpasteurised milk.
Public awareness is necessary. The commu-
nity should be made aware of the dangers of
anthrax through public media or outreach
programmes. However, Zimbabwe is a major
beef exporter to European countries and an-
thrax is a sensitive issue, both in respect of
public health perceptions and in relation to
trade, particularly with some trading partners.
When anthrax is suspected, the local veteri-
nary officer must be advised. If confirmed,
the Veterinary Services should be notified. They
will then develop a public communications
strategy, including appointment of spokes-
persons.
Incidents and outbreaks of anthrax are un-
likely to seriously affect Zimbabwe’s export
of livestock and animal products. Outbreaks
are normally contained within a few months,
thus limiting the period from the start to the
lifting of trade restrictions and making the
likelihood of long term economic effects low.
However, the losses emanating from the in-
ability to trade while quarantine restrictions
remain in place, the losses from mortalities,
which can be high, and the cost of increased
vaccination may be economically significant.
Animal health authorities should advise the
public health authorities when anthrax is di-
agnosed and ensure that appropriate refer-
ral procedures are established so that any-
one handling carcasses, tissues or body flu-
ids of animals known to be, or suspected of
being, infected with anthrax is able to seek
medical advice and preventive treatment as
necessary.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD)
Foot and mouth disease is endemic throughout the Middle East, Africa, South
America, Asia and parts of Europe. In Zimbabwe, there are minor annual
outbreaks of possible FMD, which are easily contained. The biggest outbreak
was in 2003 when there were 350 suspected cases. Such a major outbreak of
FMD has the potential to cause major national socioeconomic consequences
through very serious international trade losses, national market disruptions
and severe production losses in the livestock industries that are involved.
Although the prevalence of FMD in Zimbabwe is relatively low, vigilance
needs to be high because the disease can easily reach epidemic levels when
control and prevention measures are relaxed, as was the case in 2003 when
more than ten times the usual number of cases was reported. In this instance
control and preventive measures applied were so effective that in the
following year reported cases were less than the average reported annual
cases and the subsequent year had the lowest number of reported cases for
the period (see Figure 5.11).
The nature of the disease
Foot and mouth disease is a rapidly developing, very highly communicable
disease that occurs almost exclusively in cloven-footed animals, such as
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The disease is characterised by the formation
of vesicles and erosions in the mouth and nostrils, on the teats, and on the
skin between and above the hoofs, hence the name ‘food and mouth’.
The most susceptible species are ungulates (hoofed mammals). Zimbabwe
has large populations of domestic and wild animals that are susceptible to
infection by the FMD virus, ranging from intensively managed animals in
dairies and piggeries, through more extensive cattle and goat enterprises, to
wild pig, cattle and buffalo herds. The FMD virus may also be transmitted to
mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, chickens and various wild species. However
these are not generally implicated in the spread of FMD. Horses and donkeys
are resistant to FMD.
However in cloven-hoofed animals, FMD should be considered whenever
vesicles are seen and a provisional diagnosis of FMD should be made where
a combination of the following signs is present:
• Acute lameness in a number of animals due to sore feet, manifested in
animals preferring to lie down;
• Back off from feed and excessive salivation;
• Suddenly appearing vesicles or blisters on the mouth, nose, feet and teats
which quickly rupture to leave erosions or ulcers;
• Fever; and
• In dairy cattle, a considerable drop in milk yield.
Modes of transmission
FMD is one of the most contagious animal diseases. Very large amounts of
virus are present in all tissues, secretions and excretions before and during
the development of clinical signs. Animals are infected via inhalation, inges-
102
 BOX 5.7 THREE PEOPLE DIE OF ANTHRAX

tion and by artificial or natural breeding. The primary method of transmission is

by direct contact, via the breath.

Transmission occurs most readily when animals are in close proximity, such
as at watering and feeding points, stockyards and milking sheds. Spread of
infection between properties and areas is frequently due to the movement of
infected animals or contaminated vehicles, equipment, people and products.
Some of the features of transmission in particular species are:

PIGS These are the major amplifying host for the disease. Although pigs are
primarily infected while ingesting infected feedstuff, they are the most effi-
cient producers of the virus in respiratory aerosols (breath). Thus, spread of
FMD from an infected piggery could be rapid and widespread, allowing the

Figure 5.10 Foot and Mouth Disease Outbreaks by

District, January-December 2004

Therefore, FMD represents the greatest

threat to Zimbabwe’s livestock industries and
export markets. It has the potential for rapid
and extensive spread and could jeopardise
the export of all beef and beef products, at
least in the short term. In the case of an out-
break, it is necessary to eradicate FMD in the
shortest possible time, while also striving to
limit the economic impact.

103
Figure 5.11 Foot and Mouth
Disease Occurrence, 2001-2005
Humans can become infected through skin
wounds or the mouth lining by handling dis-
eased stock or the virus in the laboratory, or
by drinking infected milk, but not by eating
meat from affected animals. In humans, in-
fection is temporary and mild, only very oc-
casionally resulting in clinical disease (fever,
vesicles on the hands, feet or in the mouth).
Thus, FMD is not normally considered a pub-
lic health problem.
Where these classical signs and symptoms
of FMD occur, the Veterinary Services should
be consulted immediately.
disease to gain a substantial foothold before the first clinical cases come to the
attention of regulatory authorities.
CATTLE Cows are highly susceptible to aerosol infection as they have a higher
respiratory tidal volume than other species. Cattle are considered the best
indicator species for the presence of FMD virus in an area.
SHEEP AND GOATS These may be important reservoirs of infection because
they are usually only mildly affected clinically by FMD and infection may
not be noticed.
The marketing and production systems in Zimbabwe sometimes result in the
rapid dispersion of animals over wide geographic areas. The ability to trace
livestock movements and product is of critical importance to the early control
of an outbreak of FMD. The movement patterns of goats may be particularly
important because of the possibility that they are infected without showing
clinical signs. From experience of FMD, the spread of the disease in cattle
ranges is more likely in the dry season, when animals congregate at watering
points. Feedlots represent a special hazard as cattle at these points have an
increased chance of becoming infected from aerosols.
Advice for the prevention and control of FMD
Control of FMD relies on three basic principles:
1 Preventing contact between susceptible animals and the FMD virus;
2 Stopping the production of the virus by infected animals; and
3 Increasing the resistance of susceptible animals.
These principles can be applied by:
· Stopping the spread of infection through quarantine and movement con-
trols;
· Eliminating sources of infection by slaughtering infected and exposed
animals;
· Eliminating the virus by decontamination of premises, vehicles, equip-
ment and materials, or disposal of contaminated materials; and
· Establishing immunity by vaccination.
Urgent and meticulous trace-back and trace-forward of all contacts with in-
fected animals and premises are vital if the disease is to be effectively con-
tained.
104
 An extremely cautious approach to the sal-
Surveillance efforts in the event of an outbreak are aimed at: vage of animal products and by-products is
· Defining the extent of the disease; required. Milk heated to 75o C for 15 seconds
or 135o C for one second may be used for any
· Detecting new outbreaks; and purpose except for feeding (as whole milk,
other products, by-products or waste) to sus-
· Establishing disease free zones. ceptible livestock.

There is, as yet, no specific cure for FMD. Palliative treatment only allevi-
ates the signs and does not prevent the spread of infection. Animals that are
considered to be most infected or at risk should be destroyed first. The rec-
ommended method of disposal of carcasses, milk and feedstuff is by burial
rather than cremation. Burial is generally easier, quicker, uses fewer resources,
is less polluting, and removes the risk of creating infective plumes, which
could spread the disease. However, several factors, such as topography, soil
type, and water table depth, must be considered in selecting a burial site. Burial
must be performed in a manner that prevents wild pigs gaining access to car-
casses.
In the event of an outbreak the following actions are important:
• Cooperate with animal health inspectors, veterinarians or extension of-
ficers, because FMD is a disease of national importance; The movement patterns of animals in Zim-
babwe are a critical factor in the dissemina-
• If signs similar to FMD are found in cattle, pigs, sheep and goats, contact tion of FMD. Transmission of virus from car-
rier African buffalo to in-contact cattle is pos-
the local animal health inspector, veterinarian or extension officer imme- sible.
diately;
• Restrict the movement of animals and animal products, especially into,
out of or within the affected zone;
• The ‘stamping out’ method in animals in the restricted zone, which in-
volves quarantine, slaughter of all infected and exposed susceptible ani-
mals and sanitary disposal of destroyed animals and contaminated animal
Native breeds of cattle and pigs are reported
products, to remove the source of infection; to be less susceptible to infection and dis-
ease than European breeds.
• Preemptive depopulation of susceptible animals to minimise spread;
• Quarantine and movement controls on animals, animal products and items
coming into contact with either in declared areas to prevent the spread of
infection;
• Decontamination of facilities, products and items coming into contact
with either to eliminate the virus on infected premises and to prevent spread
in declared areas;
• Tracing and surveillance to determine the source and extent of infection
and to provide proof of freedom from the disease;
• Zoning to define infected and disease-free areas;
• A public awareness campaign to facilitate industry and community coop- In terms of public awareness, the community
should be made aware of the FMD and its far
eration; reaching consequences. Every effort should
be made to make meat producers aware of
• Only allowing movement of animals or animal products in the area sur- FMD. An FMD outbreak would result in the
rounding the restricted zone (the surveillance zone) with a legal move- immediate closure of many of Zimbabwe’s
major export markets for livestock and live-
ment permit; and stock products, causing a contraction in eco-
nomic activity, particularly in the pastoral, live-
• Vaccination of animals and not moving vaccinated animals and their prod- stock and meat processing industries, with a
ucts without the necessary permits. knock-on reduction in employment.

In addition to the disruption and distress caused by the control and eradica-
tion measures in the infected areas, the widespread financial losses arising
from the trade costs of an outbreak of FMD would result in significant social
costs to individuals and communities throughout rural Zimbabwe. As noted,
employment would be affected over a whole range of industries, from the

105
Zimbabwe has large and widespread popula-
tions of wild animals that are susceptible to
FMD, such as warthogs, water buffalo and
deer. These animals are frequently in close
contact with domestic stock, sharing pastures
and watering points. If wild animals are con-
sidered to be a risk factor in the dissemina-
tion or persistence of infection, then
programmes aimed at reducing contact be-
tween infected stock, wild animals and
uninfected susceptible stock should be con-
sidered as soon as possible.
A media campaign for when an outbreak is
underway must emphasise the importance of
farmers inspecting susceptible animals regu-
larly and of reporting suspicious lesions and
unusual deaths promptly. The public should
not be pushed to panic and avoid meat prod-
ucts. The importance of movement controls
and what this means to individuals needs to
be strongly emphasised.
Vaccination should be carried out as per rec-
ommendation of the local Veterinary Services.
farming and subsidiary industries to rural growth points and government de-
partments.
Rabies
Rabies is one of humanity’s oldest and most feared diseases. First described
in a Mesopotamian tract dating from 1800 BC, the illness was known to the
ancient Greeks as ‘lyssa’, meaning ‘frenzy’. But the Romans, adapting the
Latin word meaning ‘to rage’, gave us the name by which the disease is known
today.
Rabies is almost invariably fatal, viral encephalitis affecting any warm blooded
animal. It is a preventable viral disease, which is characterised by a unique
mode of transmission, through the bite of a rabid animal. Domestic animals
account for less than 10 percent of the reported rabies cases, with cats, cattle,
and dogs most often reported rabid. Thus naturally, rabies is commonly found
in wild animals (90%). In Zimbabwe, human fatalities associated with rabies
occur in people who fail to seek medical assistance, usually because they
are unaware of their exposure.
Case definition
Rabies is caused by a virus belonging to the Lyssavirus genus of the family
Rhabdoviridae. The Lyssavirus genus also contains a number of related viruses
that have the potential to cause rabies like disease in man and animals.
Rabies virus causes acute encephalitis in all warm blooded hosts, including
humans. Although all species of mammals are susceptible to rabies virus
infection, only a few species are important as reservoirs for the disease.
Birds do not play any part in the maintenance or spread of rabies infections.
The most common animal families in maintaining rabies cycles in Zimbabwe
are Canidae, which in this country are represented by domestic and wild dogs,
and hyenas.
The warm blooded animals affected can be regarded as accidental or ‘dead
end’ hosts, and hence have no epidemiological significance in sustaining
rabies epidemics. Therefore, this section concentrates on the most active
transmitting host, the dog.
Modes of transmission
Urban rabies can be spread to new areas most rapidly by dogs with furious
rabies that have running fits (where they may travel for 30 km or more) or by
pets moved to new areas by their owners. Transmission of rabies virus usually
begins when the infected saliva of a host is passed to an uninfected animal
through contamination of a fresh wound with the infected saliva. This is
usually from the bite of a rabid animal, but can also result from licking abraded
skin or mucous membranes. The virus cannot penetrate intact skin. Various
less common routes of transmission have been documented and include
contamination of mucous membranes (eyes, nose or mouth) and aerosol
transmission, but these occur so infrequently that they are not considered in
framing control strategies. However, rabies has occurred in both humans and
animals after immunisation with vaccine that accidentally contained tissue
106
adapted rabies virus because of incomplete inactivation. Insect vector
transmission does not occur.

After uptake into peripheral nerves, the rabies virus is transported to the cen-
tral nervous system (CNS) via retrograde axoplasmic flow. Typically this oc-
curs via sensory and motor nerves at the initial site of infection. The incuba-
tion period is the time from exposure to the onset of clinical signs of dis-
ease. It may vary from a few days to several years, but is typically one to three
months. Dissemination of the virus within the CNS is rapid, and includes early At the individual and family level, the social
impacts could even affect the long term co-
involvement of limbic system neurons. Active cerebral infection is followed hesion of the community. The ethics of slaugh-
tering large numbers of healthy livestock and
by passive centrifugal spread of the virus to peripheral nerves. The amplifica- wildlife is always an emotive issue, while the
tion of infection within the CNS occurs through cycles of viral replication burial or burning of carcasses and products
also raises environmental concerns.
and cell-to-cell transfer of progeny virus. Centrifugal spread of the virus may
lead to the invasion of highly innervated sites of various tissues, including the
salivary glands. During this period of cerebral infection, the classic behav-
ioral changes associated with rabies develop.

Signs and Symptoms

In dogs there is a prodromal stage, which lasts two to three days but is often
missed by the dog’s owner. In this stage there may be a sudden change in Rabies is spread throughout the country but
the main concentration is in Harare where
temperament. Dogs that are normally friendly towards people might suddenly there is the highest concentration of dogs and
become snappy and uncertain, and shy dogs may become affectionate. This the greatest number of dog bites are reported
in hospitals.
stage is followed by one of two syndromes – ‘furious’ or ‘dumb’ rabies. The
dumb form is more common, but some dogs alternate between dumb and fu-
rious rabies. The clinical course is often shorter in dumb rabies but in both
forms death occurs three to seven days after the end of the prodromal stage.

Figure 5.12 Confirmed Rabies

Cases in Zimbabwe since 2001

In the furious form the dog becomes unusually restless, seldom lying or sit-
ting in one spot for more than a short time and, if confined, moves around
ceaselessly in the confined space. The pupils are dilated, and there is loss of
the corneal reflex, and sometimes a squint. The animal assumes a watchful,
puzzled or apprehensive look (an important sign) and may snap at imaginary
objects. There is a change in phonation (voice), often with a characteristic
low pitched, hoarse howling. At certain periods the dog seems possessed of
abnormal strength and insensitivity to pain. Bars of cages, furniture and other
objects are frequently attacked to the point that the animal’s teeth are reduced
to stumps and the mouth lacerated. If the dog is not under restraint, this excit-
able energy is manifested in furious, aimless running (sometimes for long

107

Figure 5:13 The Infectious Path
of the Rabies Virus in Dogs
Following primary infection (see Figure 5.13
and 5.14), the virus enters an eclipse phase
in which it cannot be easily detected within
the host. This phase may last for several days
or months. Investigations have shown both
direct entry of the virus into peripheral nerves
at the site of infection and indirect entry after
viral replication in non-nerve tissue (i.e.
muscle cells). During the eclipse phase, the
host’s immune defenses may confer cell-
mediated immunity against viral infection
because the rabies virus is a good antigen.
The uptake of virus into peripheral nerves is
necessary for progressive infection to occur.
distances) and snapping at animate or inanimate objects in its path. There is
depraved appetite, with animals eating such items as stones, sticks or earth.
The furious signs abate after one to four days and are replaced by rapidly
progressing ataxia, convulsions and ascending paralysis.
The manifestation of rabies in humans can be divided into six stages, as
presented in Figure 5.14.
Advice on the prevention and control of rabies
Decontamination is possible because the infectivity of the rabies virus is
deseaned and sprayed with one of the disinfectants listed above.
4. The virus incubates in the body
for approximately 3-12 weeks.
The dog has no signs of illness
during this time.
3. Rabies virus 5. When it reaches the
spreads through brain, the virus multiplies
the nerves to the rapidly, passes to the
spinal cord and salivary glands and the dog
brain. begins to show signs of
disease.
2. Rabies virus 6. The infected animal dies
enters the dog 1. Dog is bitten by within 7 days of becoming
through infected a rabid animal. sick.
Saliva.
There is no treatment for rabies after symptoms of the disease appear. Disease
prevention is entirely prophylactic and includes both passive ant
phylaxis) or for protection before an exposure occurs (pre exposure prophy-
laxis).
Individuals can help to prevent the spread of rabies by:
· Caring responsibly for any pets;
· Keeping vaccinations up to date for all dogs and cats so as to provide a
barrier of protection to owners if an animal is bitten by a rabid wild ani-
mal;
· Direct supervision of pets to avoid their contact with wild animals;
· Seeking veterinary assistance for the animal immediately in the event that
a pet is bitten by a wild animal;
· Calling local animal police to remove any strange stray animals sighted,
as these may be unvaccinated and could be infected with rabies;
· Spaying or neutering pets to help reduce the number of unwanted pets that
may not be properly cared for or regularly vaccinated;
· Avoiding direct contact with unfamiliar animals; and
· Being aware of how to handle exposure, should it arise.
108

Wild animals are for the wild. Neither take them into your home nor try to
nurse sick animals back to health. This is a job for trained specialists. Keep a
safe distance from wild animals when visiting them, and do not handle, feed,
or unintentionally attract wild animals by holding food. It is important to teach
children of the dangers of rabies, including telling tell them never to handle
unfamiliar animals, wild or domestic, even if they appear friendly.
Public awareness on rabies is very important and deserving of full attention
as irresponsible overseas reports of an uncontrolled outbreak of rabies in
Zimbabwe could have a negative impact on tourism. The requirements for
ensuring public awareness are:
• Close cooperation of the public to enable people to take the necessary
precautions both for themselves and for the sake of their animals, and to
assist the authorities in the management of the eradication campaign;
• Keeping the public informed on the public health aspects of rabies and
the requirements related to the control and eradication campaign;
• Campaigns to educate the public on the nature of the disease, especially
the clinical signs in animals and the mode of transmission of the disease
to humans and the need for compulsory vaccination at schools,
community centres, health centres, factories and other places of mass
gatherings;
• A strong emphasis on the usually fatal course of the disease and the danger
of handling rabid animals;
• Encouragement and facilitation of reporting by members of the public
of any animal bite incidents with details of the offending animal, the
presence of stray dogs and of any deaths of dogs, cats and wildlife.
Newcastle disease
Newcastle disease is a contagious viral infection causing a respiratory ner-
vous disorder in several species of fowl including chickens. It is also com-
109
In the dumb form, the dog remains quiet, is
not irritable, and only bites when provoked.
It is lethargic and may hide behind any cover.
The watchful, apprehensive look in the eyes,
noted in the furious form is also present. There
is paralysis of the hindquarters and muscle
tremors. A characteristic late sign is paralysis
of the jaw (‘dropped jaw’). The tongue is also
paralysed and hangs flaccidly from the mouth,
and there is drooling of saliva. The dog is
unable to eat. It is also unable to lap water,
although it may try hard to do so.
Posters at schools, veterinary and medical
clinics and other places with special informa-
tion and guidelines on measures to be
adopted by the public and where to obtain
treatment when the need arises.
Figure 5.14 Stages of Infesta-
tions in a Human
If exposed to a potentially rabid animal, wash
the wound thoroughly with soap and water,
and seek medical attention immediately. A
healthcare provider will care for the wound and
will assess the risk for rabies exposure. The
following information will help the healthcare
provider assess your risk:
· Where the incident occurred;
· The type of animal involved;
· How the exposure occurred (provoked or
unprovoked);
· The vaccination status of the animal; and
· Whether or not the animal can be safely
captured and tested for rabies.
Steps taken by the healthcare practitioner
will depend on the circumstances of the bite.
The important factor is that care is sought
promptly after being bitten by any animal.
Potentially rabid animals should be ap-
proached with extreme caution. Consider
destroying the animal if human safety is at
stake although every effort should be made
to capture and safely confine them if this is
possible without risk to humans.
municable to humans. Newcastle disease is probably the most feared disease
of poultry throughout the world, and it has spread to all continents in recent
decades. It is a focus for concern in domestic poultry throughout much of the
world’s agricultural community because of the severe economic losses that
have occurred from illness, death, and reduced egg production following in-
fection with pathogenic or disease causing strains. Repeated large scale losses
of rural chickens from Newcastle disease in Zimbabwe have created a need
for enhanced awareness of Newcastle as a disease of concern.
Prior to an outbreak in 1967, Zimbabwe was reported to be a Newcastle
disease free country (Hutchzermeyer, 1973). According to extracts from
Chitate and Gutai (Zimbabwe Country Report, undated) Zimbabwe has had
only limited outbreaks of Newcastle disease, apart from the major outbreaks
of 1994. Three limited outbreaks occurred, first in 1957 along the border
with Zambia, and in 1975 and 1986 along the border with Mozambique. On
each occasion, strict quarantine, movement control and vaccinations quickly
controlled the disease.
The Veterinary Services Department (DVS) mounted vaccination campaigns;
ten million birds were vaccinated in 1994 and six million in 1995, all in the
communal sector. Newcastle disease has largely been a disease of rural, back-
yard flocks. Few outbreaks have been experienced in the commercial sector
due to the strict biosecurity and routine vaccinations. In 1995, of a total of
172 outbreaks, only 14 (8 percent) were reported from commercial flocks
and none of these was large commercial producers who had good biosecurity
and sanitary controls. During 1996, no commercial flocks recorded outbreaks
of Newcastle disease and the 21 outbreaks reported were all in backyard rural
poultry. Table 5.4 shows the annual occurrence of Newcastle disease & vac-
cinations by the DVS in communal areas.
Features of the disease
Different types or strains of the virus (varying in their ability to cause ner-
vous disorder, visceral lesions and death) have been recognised. The most
lethal infection of chickens of all ages, which affects the respiratory and neu-
rologic tissues, is referred to as ‘neurotropic velogenic’ Newcastle disease
or NVND. Although mortality rates from this strain peak at 50 percent in
adult chickens and 90 percent in young chickens, morbidity or illness from
NVND may reach as high as 100 percent of a flock. The NVND form of
Newcastle disease is not found in Zimbabwe but it is possible that it could be
introduced from other countries via pet birds or by other means.
Mode of Transmission
Newcastle disease is highly contagious. Dissemination of virulent Newcastle
virus between flocks has generally been attributed to the following (in de-
scending order of importance):
• Movement of infected birds (including vaccinated birds);
• Movement of feedstuffs, personnel and equipment into and out of pre-
mises;
• Movement of infected poultry products and byproducts; and
• Faecal virus contamination of clothing or footwear, equipment, litter,
manure and feed.
110
Illness in humans can result from close contact with infectious birds.
Generally, headaches and flu-like symptoms develop and last for four to seven
days. A mild, superficial inflammation of the eyes with reddening
(conjunctivitis) is common. Serious illness or permanent vision impairment
is rare.

Advice on Newcastle disease prevention and management

Newcastle disease is a notifiable disease, which means that any person is
required by law to report incidence of the disease, whether confirmed or sus-
pected, to the Veterinary Services. Disease surveillance is implemented
through a network of eight provincial offices, 58 district veterinary offices Chicken suffering from Newcastle
and 320 animal health and management centres (AHMCs). The AHMCs are disease
(Source: http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/
confined to the communal, resettlement and small scale farming areas. Staff diseases/images/v2/nd1.jpg)
is required to report suspected Newcastle disease within 24 hours to the Epi-
demiology Unit of the Field Branch. Based on postmortem findings and epi-
demiology, a provisional diagnosis is made and control measures are initi-
ated. The worst epidemic of Newcastle disease in
Zimbabwe started in December 1993 in
Sengwe communal area of Chiredzi district,
on the border with South Africa. By June 1994,
The measures to prevent initial outbreak or later spread of Newcastle disease the disease had affected most of the com-
are: munal areas of Masvingo province. Because
of the complexity of rural movements, con-
trol of poultry movement ceased to be effec-
VACCINATION This is practiced widely and is the recommended method for tive as a means of controlling the disease.
Three months later, the disease had spread
prevention. The vaccines may be introduced by drops into the nostril or eye, to most provinces, making vaccination the
addition to the drinking water or applied in spray form. only logical control strategy.

QUARANTINE AND MOVEMENT CONTROLS Experience has shown that Newcastle Table 5.4 Annual Newcastle
disease can spread very rapidly and can be carried over long distances by trans- Disease Occurrence and DVS
port of contaminated materials (such as bird cages, pallets, egg filler flats, Vaccination of Rural Poultry
manure, feed and other equipment), as well as by contaminated personnel.
Strict control over the movement of anything that could have become con- Year No. of ND No. of Birds
taminated with the virus, by the immediate imposition of tightly controlled Outbreaks Vaccinated
quarantine on all places suspected of being infected, is essential. 1994 281 10 000 000
1995 172 6 000 000
ZONING Understandable pressure to impose inter-district (and possibly even 1996 21 215 800
intra-district) movement controls on poultry products may be expected. 1997 64 371 600
1998 80 3 837 400
SURVEILLANCE Active surveillance should be initiated as soon as Newcastle 1999 8 417 000
disease is confirmed. In the initial stages, at least, samples should be taken of
all species of birds that die in the affected area and they should be checked A milder form of the disease is caused by
for Newcastle disease lesions. Specimens should be submitted to approved ‘mesogenic’ or moderately virulent strains.
These are a less pathogenic form of Newcastle
laboratories for virus isolation. disease which causes neurologic signs but,
except for very young susceptible chicks, mor-
tality is low.
DESTRUCTION OF BIRDS Efficient, humane procedures must be used to kill
birds before disposal, without moving them from the site.
DISPOSAL Infected material must be transported elsewhere for disposal ei-
ther through burial or burning, with particular attention being paid to elimi-
The least lethal Newcastle disease strains are
nating factors that will contribute to the spread of the virus. For example, classified as ‘lentogenic’ or low virulence. They
truck body trays must be waterproof and all loads carefully covered with plas- cause mild or hardly noticeable respiratory in-
fections in chickens. They do not usually cause
tic to ensure that material cannot be blown about. disease in adult chickens, but the respiratory
disease can become serious in young birds.
Some strains of lentogenic Newcastle disease
DECONTAMINATION This entails cleaning and disinfection of the infected site cause asymptomatic-enteric infections with-
to remove all infective material. The Newcastle disease virus is susceptible out visible disease.

111
The signs and symptoms of Newcastle dis-
ease are not greatly different from those of
other respiratory diseases. The signs most
frequently observed are:
· Loss of appetite, fever and weakness;
· Swelling and cyanosis of the comb and
wattles;
· Watery, bile stained, distinctively bright
green or bloody diarrhoea;
· Respiratory signs, which may include in-
creased respiratory rate, respiratory dis-
tress, coughing and a high-pitched sneeze
(‘snick’); and
· Nervous signs, which can include loss of
balance, circling, backward progression and
convulsive somersaulting, rhythmic
spasms, stiffness and twisting of the neck,
head tremors, and wing and leg paralysis.
Twisting of the neck is the main
symptom.
(Source: http://www.affa.gov.au/—/
newcastle_disease1.jpg)
Treatment of birds infected with Newcastle
disease is ineffective and not appropriate. The
disease does not always respect even the best
management programmes, but good
biosecurity practices will help to reduce the
possibility of exposure to the Newcastle dis-
ease virus.
to a wide range of disinfectants, including detergents. Initial cleaning of or-
ganic matter from sheds, equipment, vehicles and so on by brushing and wash-
ing with a detergent is the most important step before disinfection.
Pest Infestation
Food losses to pests in Zimbabwe are considerable. It is estimated that up to
35 percent of the crop production is lost in spite of pesticide and other con-
trol programmes. The primary pests are insects, diseases and weeds, although
mammals and birds can inflict serious crop damage. Armyworms, quelea birds
and locusts are the most common pests. This section looks at the ecological
factors influencing the outbreak of pest infestations, the ways they inflict
damage, controlling pests through integrated pest management, and the spe-
cific pests of most concern in Zimbabwe.
Definitions and characteristics
A pest may be defined as any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people,
their animals, crops or possessions. The pests of most importance here are
those that lead to a loss in crop yield or quality, resulting in loss of profits to
the farmer and reduced stocks for subsistence or export.
Insect outbreaks are usually the result of a combination of the following eco-
logical factors:
TEMPERATURE Often the most important factor governing insect development
is temperature, particularly during the development phase of pests such as
locusts.
MOISTURE Most insects that attack crops rely on adequate rainfall to pro-
mote egg hatching and host plant growth. For example, locust outbreaks and
plagues seem to be correlated to the end of an extended drought.
MONOCULTURAL CROPPING The larger the area planted with a single crop, the
greater the potential for pest problems. Also, the longer a monoculture is
maintained in the same area, the greater the number and severity of pests.
INTRODUCTION OF PLANTS OR PEST SPECIES TO NEW LOCATIONS Some pest
problems occur when crops or new pest species are introduced into new bio-
logical communities.
OVERCOMING GENETIC RESISTANCE Insect pests have been shown to have the
genetic capacity to evolve and overcome resistance in their host.
HOST PLANT ASSOCIATION AND CROPPING PATTERNS When a crop is harvested,
pests move on to the next crop.
RESISTANCE OF PESTS TO PESTICIDES AND OTHER EFFECTS Although pesti-
cides work quickly to control pests, the effects of pesticides are short lived
and pests usually reoccur in larger numbers. Pests may also develop resis-
tance to pesticides, while the pesticides themselves may kill the natural preda-
tors of pests, allowing the pests to flourish.
WEATHER PATTERNS For flying insects, such as locusts, prevailing winds are
important in determining where they will fly and whether they will survive.
112
The movement to a different area may coincide with more favorable condi-
tions, allowing some pest species to escape control and increase in number.
Pest injury to crop yield can occur when the harvested part of the plant is
directly damaged by the pest. Or injury can occur indirectly when the har-
vested part of the plant is diminished or lost because other parts have been
damaged or lost.
Insects with piercing and sucking mouthparts damage plants by:
• Causing loss of plant vigour by removing excessive quantities of sap
and chlorophyll, such as the whitefly and aphids;
• Damaging floral organs and reducing seed production, as with chapped
bugs, wheat shield bugs and chinch bugs;
• Causing premature leaf falls, as do diaspidid scales;
• Injecting toxins into the plant;
• Providing entry points for pathogenic fungi and bacteria;
• Reducing the photosynthetic area on the leaf surface; and
• Transfering plant pathogens.

Vulnerability Factors
Vulnerability to pest infestation depends partly on the presence of the
environmental factors that cause pest numbers to rise and pest damage to
seriously affect food supply. These variables result from human manipulation
of agricultural cropping systems and climatic conditions. In developing
countries, however, the ability to predict infestations and treat the pests is
limited by resource constraints, such as lack of trained personnel.
Furthermore, in some cases crop yields are normally insufficient to feed the
local population, many of whom may be subsistence farmers. Therefore, pest
infestation poses a serious social and economic threat and renders these
populations vulnerable to disaster.

Advice on prevention and control of pest infestation

The concept of integrated pest management (IPM) was originally developed
for the control of insects but its principles are now in use for control of
disease and weeds as well. The driving forces behind the concept were the
susceptibility of humans and animals to the effects of toxic pesticides and
the fairly rapid development of pest resistance to pesticides.
The common goals of most IPM programmes are to use multiple strategies
to maintain pest damage below the economic injury level, while providing
protection against hazards to humans, animals, plants and the environment.
The development of an IPM programme involves the following steps:
1 Identifying the pests in the system
2 Developing suitable monitoring or forecasting techniques. This involves
the measurement of pest populations (numbers of eggs, larvae, insects,
spores, etc.) or amount of damage or loss.
3 Establishing economic thresholds, i.e. the pest population or disease in-
cidence causing losses in crop value exceeding the cost of pest manage-
ment.
4 Developing a pest management strategy. It is necessary to identify the
least hazardous chemical and the lowest possible dose that can be used,
and the appropriate cultural and biological techniques to be integrated
into a pest management strategy.
Biting insects may damage the plant by:
· Reducing the amount of leaf and photo-
synthetic area, hindering plant growth, usu-
ally by leaf eaters, such as locusts and ar-
myworms;
· Tunnelling into the stem and interrupting
the flow of sap, as with stem borers and
shoot flies;
· Destroying buds or growing points and caus-
ing subsequent distortion or proliferation,
as with fruit bud weevils;
· Causing premature fruit fall, as with cherry
fruit fly, codling moth and apple sawfly;
· Attacking flowers and reducing seed pro-
duction, as with blossom beetles and Japa-
nese beetle;
· Injuring or destroying seeds completely, or
reducing germination due to loss of food
reserves, e.g. by maize weevil, pea pod
borer and bean pod borer;
· Attacking roots and causing loss of water
and nutrient absorbing tissue, as with wire-
worms and various beetle larvae; or
· Removing stored food in a tuber, e.g. by
cutworms and wireworms in potatoes.

113
Certain pests serve as vectors of human and
animal disease. These include the tsetse fly,
Integrated pest management usually targets containment rather than eradica-
Glossina species, which is a vector for African tion. The key IPM tactical approaches are:
trypanosomiasis, the Simulium blackfly which
is a vector for onchocerciasis, the Anopheles
mosquito which is a vector for malaria, and CULTURAL CONTROL Some cultural practices are well established and others
the human body louse (Pediculus humanus are experimental. All involve decisions made by the farmer. They include;
humanus), a vectors for epidemic typhus. A
pathogen or parasite is passed from pest to • Varying the depth of tillage according to pest species,
host, where development takes place. In Af-
rica, the tsetse fly passes parasites that cause • Planting resistant crop varieties,
trypanosomiasis, a disease that induces ane- • Using crop rotation and fallow periods,
mia and often leads to death in humans and
livestock. Animal dependent societies have • Diversifying cropping systems,
experienced significant livestock losses to the
tsetse fly. • Timing sowing and harvesting to avoid pest attacks, and
BOX 5.8 EARLY WARNING PROCEDURES BY

AREX

Early warning systems

Prediction allows better control and use of pes-
ticides. To determine when pesticides should
be used, an assessment should be made
where applicable of the ‘economic injury lev-
els’ of the pest population. For all outbreak
pests, labour intensive surveys, including col-
lection and analysis of samples, produce a
total picture which must then be communi-
cated to the vulnerable farmers. Environmen-
tal factors such as wind, temperature and rain-
fall have been employed in predicting pest
attacks. • Planting ‘trap’ crops that lure insects away from primary crops.

PHYSICAL METHODS These include handpicking pests from plants, driving

insects into a trench, placing bags around fruit, netting, greenhouses, use of
lethal temperatures (both high and low), and use of electromagnetic energy
such as ultraviolet light.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL This involves control by living organisms. Predators

include birds, frogs, spiders, insects, nematodes and pathogens.

CHEMICAL METHODS This method of control is very quick in action and comes
in different forms – repellants, antifeedants (which block feeding response),
fumigants, smokes, stomach poisons, contact poisons and systemic poisons.
Pesticides have some negative side effects. These are that;

Identifying pests in the system, includes
• major pests that usually cause damage
above economic injury levels,
• minor or secondary pests that cause
damage above the economic injury level
only occasionally,
• potential pests that normally do not
cause economic losses, and
• migratory pests that can cause serious
damage on a periodic basis.
• Insect populations may rapidly surge back after treatment wears off,
• The pesticide may also destroy the target insects’ natural enemies and
the numbers resurge,
• A secondary pest may take hold, and
• The toxic chemicals in pesticides are absorbed into the environment.
INSECT BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Chemicals containing pheromones (hor-
mones produced by insects and released as behavior cues to other insects)
and other agents can be used to disrupt mating, attract pests to traps or repel
them from crops.
REGULATORY ACTIVITIES Most such activities are directed at preventing the

114
introduction of pests into new areas, mainly through quarantine measures.
The FAO has established a system of international plant protection whereby
an International Phytosanitary Certificate is essential for importation of plant
material into almost every country of the world. Eradication reduces the pest
population to the point where the economic damage is not significant. In cases
of disease vectors for humans, such as the mosquito, complete eradication
may be the goal. The cost in both economic and environmental terms may
preclude eradication programmes in developing countries unless the
programme uses non-chemical methods.

The small scale farmer, who bears the major responsibility for food produc-
tion, is also likely to face the greatest crop losses to pests. It is vital that
information regarding pest infestation and control is shared between govern-
ment ministries, extension agents and farmers. The farmers are able to de-
scribe the type of pest problems prevalent in their areas and cultural methods
used to control them. They can assist extension agents to determine when a
pest population is reaching a threatening level and at what point pesticides
will have to be used. Government representatives may provide technical ex-
pertise, informing farmers about new discoveries and influencing their deci-
sions regarding use of cultural or biological control of pests. Farmers can
use cost free methods of pest control and save national expense. The exten-
sion services may demonstrate methods of pesticide application and provide
a means for farmers to obtain equipment and pesticides or arrange for the
farms to be treated.

If the scale of pest infestation is too large to be handled locally or by the

nations it affects, international organisations may be called in to provide the
equipment and pesticides necessary. If food losses are great and can be ex-
pected to affect the health of the population, food will have to be moved to
the affected area from surplus areas. If no surplus exists, food will have to be
imported or secured from donors.

Major and common pests in Zimbabwe

Three of the most damaging pests occurring in Zimbabwe are discussed be-
low:

AFRICAN ARMYWORM (NHUNDURURU OR IMHOGOYI) The African armyworm is

the larval stage of the night flying moth scientifically known as Spodoptera
exempata. It is a serious economic pest in pastures and cereal crops. Army-
worms usually advance in a mass across fields (hence the name ‘armyworm’),
devouring all green plants in their path like maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and
rice. The larvae or caterpillar, when occurring in large numbers, can consume
these green plants faster than 400 head of cattle per hectare. Thus they can
quickly devastate cereal crops by defoliaton, causing 100 percent yield loss
if they attack young plants, and can make pastures unfavourable for livestock.
They do this in broad daylight. Zimbabwe, along with other countries in South-
ern Africa, can suffer serious agricultural losses due to the armyworm. The
life stages of the African armyworm are shown in the photographs below and
its biology and epidemiology are outlined in Figure 5.15.

115
Life stages of the African After molting through six stages or instars over fourteen to 22 days, the lar-
armyworm: Adult Moth, Pupae vae pupate in the soil to emerge as moths, which re-infest either at the same
and Larvae place or up to several hundred kilometres downwind.
(Source: K. Mushore AREX)

The seasonal cycle of the armyworm begins with the low density breeding of
dry season populations in the cool, coastal highlands of Kenya and Tanzania.
These small populations of the solitary phase, which do little crop damage,
occur in scattered grassy areas where it is not economical to spray or control
them. As the Intertropical Convergence Zone begins moving southward, causing
the annual onset of the summer rains in December, the strong winds accom-
panying the thunderstorms carry some moths to the interior of the continent
where primary outbreaks occur. It is these climatic changes at the onset of
the rainfall season, particularly when following a drought season, that result
in production of abundant forage which may trigger a response in the females
laying the eggs. Because each female can lay 800 to 1 000 eggs (on grasses
and cereal crops), as few as 30 moths could cause a serious outbreak of 15
million armyworms within two generations or two months.
Adult Moth
Within a few days, the larvae hatch, and subsequently grow to around 30mm,
dark striped and voracious, with up to 1000 caterpillars occupying each square
metre. The young larvae, at first, eat the upper and lower surface tissue of the
leaves. As the larvae become older and increase in size, they are able to bite
through the entire leaf, starting from the edges and usually eating all but the
midrib. Hence large numbers are able to devastate an area of grassland or
crop in a few hours, before characteristically ‘marching’ to the next source of
food. Heavy infestation results in total loss of leaves, often leading to severe
crop loss or necessitating replanting. When caterpillars change to moths, they
become airborne and are able to be carried downwind for great distances.
Thus mass migration of these moths occurs covering many thousands of square
kilometres, easily traversing international boundaries. As the number of cat-
erpillars and moths increases, so the plague spreads, aided by intertropical
convergence winds, which carry the moths south to Malawi, Zambia
Pupae Mozambique and Zimbabwe. They breed very fast making them difficult to
control.

Outbreak characterisitcs
Frequent outbreaks of the worm occur, and larval densities are often in ex-
cess of 1 000 per square metre and may cover tens or even hundreds of square
kilometres. Outbreaks usually follow the onset of wet seasons when dry grass-
lands produce new growth and cereal crops are planted. Major outbreaks of
armyworm are commonly preceded by extended drought.

Prevention and control

In order to prevent or, at least control, outbreaks of armyworm:
• The caterpillars need to be killed when they are very young;
• Information about rainstorms is needed to provide a warning to farmers
to check their maize and other cereals for young caterpillars, which can
be expected to appear one week after rain;
• It is necessary to control the first outbreak so as to prevent second gen-
Larvae eration outbreaks;

116
 Facts about Armyworms: Figure 5.15 Biology and
MOTH Epidemiology of the Army Worm
(5-16days)

• Female capable of producing 200-1 000

eggs in a lifetime
EGGS PUPAE
• Therefore, fifteen male moths and fifteen
2-4 days (7-15days)
female moths can produce
15 000 caterpillars in one month
LARVAE
• This translates to 15 000 000 caterpillars in
(14-22 days)
two generations!!!

• Chemical control1 is used as the only effective means and is readily avail-
able at AREX for farmers;
• It is effective to dig a ditch in front of the worms, as they then find the
extensive section of loose soil too difficult to scale;
• Mobilise resources and have them ready in all provinces in anticipation
of an outbreak; and
• Conduct public awareness campaigns on radio and TV, in newspapers,
magazines and posters and at field days.

Surveillance and monitoring are important. Army worm forecasts are based
on information from a number of sources, the most important being networks
of light and pheromone traps distributed throughout Zimbabwe and operated
nightly under the supervision of trap operators. The incidence and extent of
recent outbreaks of larvae and the current weather conditions are monitored.
Daily weather forecasts need to be followed, particularly the winds, which
influence the direction of moth migration.
As an international and migratory pest, ar-
myworm control is a responsibility of the gov-
ernment in Zimbabwe through its Agricultural
QUELEA BIRDS Humans have always coexisted with birds. Some are beneficial Research and Extension division (AREX). In
and others are in conflict with human needs in a number of ways and become the past, chemical sprays have been used,
sometimes partially funded by donors, but,
pests. The red billed quelea bird (Quelea quelea lathamii) is the most impor- in recent years, donor funding for chemical
pesticides has been withdrawn and, with the
tant granivorous (seed eating) bird pest in Africa, capable of consuming 4 government unable to fund adequate provi-
grams of grain per day. The birds are known to be the most numerous and sion, farmers have been left to either pay for
pesticide application, or face the threat of total
destructive birds in the world, with an estimated population of roughly 1.8 crop loss. In Zimbabwe, serious outbreaks of
armyworm occur regularly, causing up to 90
billion. In Zimbabwe, the birds occur in colonies of millions. Normally the percent losses of crops and pasture in some
birds feed on grass seeds but, in the absence of these, they attack crops, mainly districts in bad years.

at the dough stage, sucking out the soft grain. Damage caused in individual
fields can be as high as 100 percent if no control measures are taken.

Since Quelea birds move in large numbers, they cause extensive damage to
cereal grains, like wheat, rice, barley, sorghum and millets at the ‘milk’ (dough)
and ripening stages. They are also a particular problem for winter wheat be-
cause there is no readily available alternative source of food in winter when
the other grass is dry. The effect is mainly due to loss of grain as well as
flattening of growing plants. It is estimated that the loss of cereal due to red
If the moths are present in a locality, out-
billed quelea is at least US$ 1 billion annually (AREX, 2004). Clearly, these breaks of the caterpillars can occur following
birds are a threat to food security especially in the Matabeleland provinces. a rainstorm. The rainstorm acts to concen-
trate and deposit the airborne moths. The
Small grains, which are naturally drought tolerant, are mostly grown in this moths subsequently lay eggs, which hatch into
caterpillars. Outbreaks of the caterpillars are
semi arid region and hence form part of the community’s staple food but seen about two weeks after the rainstorm.

117
Migrant pests are a regional problem. Re-
gional cooperation is, therefore, a necessity.
Zimbabwe is a member of the International
Red Locust Control Organisation of Central
and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA) and the In-
formation Core for Southern African Migrant
Pests (ICOSAMP), which monitors the pest
situation in the region as well as giving fore-
casts.
farmers are being forced to shift from growing the usual drought tolerant
small grain cereals to growing maize, which the birds do not eat. As a result,
the crop failure rate has increased because the climate of these areas is too
dry for normal maize growth.
Quelea bird control
Several methods, including lethal and non-lethal ones have been used to con-
trol the birds but with only limited success. The non-lethal methods include
scarecrows, noise making devices, slings to flame throwers, burning of roosts
and colonies, and cutting trees harboring roosts and colonies. Lethal meth-
ods include chemicals and explosives. The non-lethal methods are limited in
their application, given the shortage of labour in most agricultural settings,
while explosives can only be applied in small areas. This leaves chemical
control as the major intervention in highly infested areas, apart from growing
crops that are not prone to quelea birds, such as cowpeas and maize. Recently
the use of chemical poisoning, using fenthion (Queletox) in backpacks, ve-
hicle mounted sprayer or by aerial spraying, has been on the increase. But this
method has been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly. Another com-
plaint is that some local communities eat the bird, so poisoning the birds may
affect the people as well, thereby compounding the problem. There is, there-
fore, a need to strengthen capacity to enable forecasting and timely control
to ensure the impact of quelea birds is minimised.

The locusts fly with the wind at a speed of

RED LOCUSTS Locusts are part of a large group of insects commonly called
about 16 to 19 km/h depending on the wind, grasshoppers, which have large, strong hind legs for jumping. Locusts differ
during daylight hours when air temperatures
are above 26° C. Locusts can stay in the air from other grasshoppers in that they have the ability to change their behaviour
for long periods of time. For example, the
country recorded only a hazard in 1994 and
and habits, forming swarms of adults or bands of hoppers (wingless nymphs).
in 1998, when swarms literally flew right over The swarms that form can be dense and highly mobile and can migrate over
Zimbabwe and hence did not cause any sig-
nificant damage. Locust swarms can vary from large distances. The red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata) shares the sub-
less than one square kilometre to several
hundred square kilometres. There can be
family Cyrtacanthacridinae with other locusts, e.g. the desert locust
between 40 million and 80 million locust adults (Schistocerca gregaria), the tree locust (Anacridium melanorhodon) and
in each square kilometre of swarm.
the bird locust (Ornithacris cavroisi) and it is sometimes mistaken for these
other locusts.
Red billed quelea, the world’s
most numerous bird.
(Source: Kruger National Park, South Africa)

The quelea birds are confined to about 25

countries south of the Sahara, on the sahel
and savannah regions. Queleas are found
throughout Zimbabwe (Mundy and
Herremmans, 1997). For example, between
June and July 2005 they were found in Mazowe
and Bindura districts, Mashonaland Central
Province, Mashonaland West and Manicaland.
Ten farms (390ha) were affected and crop
damage ranged from 10 percent to 40 per-
cent at the time of assessment of these re-
gions (AREX, 2005) Breeding occurs entirely
outside the country’s highveld region (Jarvis,
1989) and in natural reserves, starting in
January after sufficient rains.

118
The red locust is a major pest in Central and Southern Africa. It breeds in wet The red locust is easily identified by its
grasslands all over sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, significant red locust typical body colour. The overall colour
outbreaks are known to occur on average, once in ten years (AREX, 2003). is a mixture of light beige and brown.
It is never green. There are seven clear
The main outbreak areas have been identified in Zambia, Tanzania and Malawi.
transversal brown bands on the elytra
Almost all of southern Africa was invaded during the last great widespread (thus explaining its species name
plague (1930 to 1944). Crops cultivated in breeding biotopes, like maize, ‘septemfasciata’) and its hindwings are
rice, sugarcane, fruits, wild herbaceous species and trees such as acacias, red at their base. There are two typical
eucalyptus and pines, were often attacked. These outbreak areas are reacti- wide lateral brown bands on the
vated, especially during dry years, in response to the reduced colonisable pronotum.
(Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)
surface area available to this hygromesophilic locust, thus increasing popula-
tion densities to above the critical phase transformation threshold. In inva-
sion years, swarms can be distributed over a few hectares and up to hundreds
of square kilometres.

When populations reach high densities and become more crowded, swarms
are formed. They change their behavior from that of acting as an individual
(solitarious) insect to that of acting as part of a group (gregarious) and invade
surrounding areas. The appearance of the locust also changes – solitary hop-
pers can become green or brown and gregarious hoppers are bright yellow
and red-brown with black markings. Damage can be very severe, as this locust
has a habit of razing crops to the ground. An adult locust can consume roughly
its own weight in fresh food (i.e. about 2 grams) each day. A very small part of
an average swarm (or about one tonne of locusts) eats the same amount of
food in one day as about ten elephants or 2 500 people (Wikipedia, undated).
Countless locusts make up a swarm. The damage that they are capable of in- A swarm of locusts
flicting is shown in the photographs below.

Moisture is a crucial factor for the red locusts. They actively seek moist
environments in seasonal flood plains with large grassy lowlands and some
tree cover. They are generally graminivorous. In farming zones, they often
colonise grain crops, especially when the fields are hedged in with bush and
when waste, and fallow lands are interspersed between the fields. Red locusts
become sedentary when shelter, perches and food are available

Control
(Source: IITA)
At present, the primary method of controlling red locust swarms and hopper
bands is by aerial spraying of a variety of chemicals, though organphosphate Locust damage to sorghum crops
(Source: Australian Plague Locust Commis-
chemicals are commonly used. These chemicals are applied in small, con- sion)
centrated doses, referred to as ultra low volume (ULV) formulation. Vehicle
mounted sprayers and, to a lesser extent, knapsack and hand held sprayers are
also used. These current control measures, which rely mainly on the use of
broad spectrum chemical insecticides are largely successful, provided the
locust populations are targeted in time.

However, the breeding sites that are targeted are wetland areas, which repre-
sent rich sources of biodiversity and are of international conservation value.
Thus, an alternative to conventional chemical control is urgently needed. Re-
sponsibility for red locust control rests with AREX at the local level but overall
sub regional control and monitoring is done by the International Red Locust
Control Organisation for Central and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA), which
is based in Zambia

119
CHAPTER 6
Technological Hazards
Introduction
Technological hazards are also referred to as human-made hazards. These
are associated with technological or industrial accidents, infrastructure
failures or certain human activities that may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental
degradation. They are also sometimes referred to as ‘anthropogenic’ hazards.
As in most countries, development and population growth in Zimbabwe have
contributed to an increase in technological hazards and accidents, which
sometimes become disasters. They include hazardous materials accidents
(e.g. oil or chemical spills), dam failure, industrial toxic waste spillage,
industrial and domestic fires, occupational injuries, and road transportation
accidents. This category also includes landmines planted by the Rhodesian
security forces during the war of liberation, as the death toll from explosions
of these mines has reached significant levels.

Transportation systems are designed to move people, goods and services

efficiently, economically and safely from one point to another. Despite this
broad goal, transportation systems also create hazards. Accelerated movement
comes with risks, and the corresponding accidents that occur disrupt lives
and transportation systems daily. Vehicles collide, trains derail, boats capsize,
and aeroplanes crash. The transportation of hazardous materials brings about
substantial involuntary risks to people along the route and to the environment.
This sub-section looks at the road, rail, air and water transport accidents that
occur in Zimbabwe.

Road Traffic Accidents

Road accidents are a serious problem throughout the world, in social, health
and economic terms. But considering the huge numbers of passengers, the A coordinated approach to a
frequency of travel, and the vast distances covered, modern transport methods transport accident. Different CPD
are relatively safe. Accidents, and occasionally disasters, happen if organs recovering a bus that had
components or systems fail, or safety procedures are ignored. It is said that plunged from a bridge near
road accidents are the second largest cause of deaths among economically Mabvuku.
active people (fifteen to 44 years) in many countries, and the WHO considers
the number of deaths to be of epidemic proportions. Indeed, between 50 and
200 people are killed each year for each million inhabitants in most developed
as well as developing countries.

While most countries on other continents have succeeded in checking and

even reversing the number of road fatalities, current trends in Africa indicate
that the carnage will increase with increasing motorisation, unless there is
effective remedial action (Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas, 2000). Table 6.1 shows
that, while about 10 percent of the road deaths in 1999 occured in Sub-

120
 Saharan Africa, only 4 percent of the global vehicles are registered in this
region. On the other hand, only 14 percent of road deaths occurred in the
entire developed world (North America, Western Europe, Australasia and
Japan) yet this region has 60 percent of all globally registered vehicles.
In Zimbabwe, road traffic accidents are by far the most frequent type of
disaster, at 71 percent of all disasters. These accidents constitute a major
burden on the health delivery system, with 60 percent of national healthcare
being consumed by the injuries and/or disabilities of victims of road
accidents. Figures from the CSO in Table 6.2 show that there is at least one
major national disaster a year involving the road and traffic. The 2002 statistics
show that an average of 115 accidents is recorded a day and five to six people
are killed. About 150 people are killed every month as a result of road traffic
accidents.

Table 6.1 Distribution of Esti-

mated Road Deaths, Motor Ve- Region Fatalities Motor Vehicles Population
Sub Saharan Africa 10% 04% 10%
hicles and Population
Jacobs and Aeron-Thomas (2000)
Developed World 14% 60% 15%
Asia/Pacific 44% 16% 54%
Central and Eastern Europe 12% 06% 07%
Latin America/Caribbean 13% 14% 08%
Middle East/North Africa 07% 02% 05%

Table 6.2 Zimbabwe Road Traffic
Disaster Statistics, 1990-1998
CPD
Zimbabwe has a very high rate of people killed on the road (11.1 per 100 000
inhabitants) compared to other states in the region, like Mozambique,
Tanzania and Kenya, as well as developed countries like Norway and Sweden.
This may be attributed to the fact that the number of vehicles per 100
inhabitants in Zimbabwe is only surpassed by that in the developed countries.
Figures provided by the Central Statistical Office (CSO) indicate that, from
1980 to 2002, there has been an overall increase in road traffic accidents as
well as in the number of people injured. Using the 1980 figure as the base
figure, the number of road traffic accidents reached its peak of 270 percent
in 1998 before dropping to 240 percent in 2002. The number of those injured
increased to 160 percent by 2002. However, the number of road traffic deaths
remained below the 1980 level for much of the period; it peaked at 80

Date Type of Disaster Province/Place Deaths Injuries

1/4/1990 Umzingwane Bus Disaster Matabeleland South 18 -
1991 Nyanga Bus Disaster Manicaland 89 -
1/1/1993 Popoteke Bus Disaster Masvingo 12 -
1995 Runde River Bus Disaster Masvingo 17 -
12/8/1995 Mbizi I Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 15 4
12/4/1996 Musani Bridge Lorry Accident Manicaland 29 -
11/10/1997 Mbizi Bus Accident Mashonaland East 38 -
5/1/1998 Nyanga Bus Accident Manicaland 44 -
18/10/1998 Suffocation Incident (Zimbabweans in an unventilated truck on their way to South Africa via Botswana).
Botswana 18 -
24/11/1998 Mvuma Bus Disaster Midlands 26 35
25/2/2000 Chawasarira Bus Disaster Mashonaland East 36 -

121
 Figure 6.1 Road Fatalities Rates
for Zimbabwe, Aftican Countries
and Selected Developed
Countries
Assum et al (2000)

percent in 1998 before dropping to 50 percent or below for the rest of the
period to 2002. In line with this, the number of those who die in relation to
the injured has dropped slightly from 8.9 percent to 7.4 percent.
The sharp drop following an all time peak in accidents in 1998 is most prob- Table 6.3 Road Fatalities, Total
ably due to traffic police interventions which saw increased road traffic law and by Vehicles and Inhabitants,
1994-1999

Kenya Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Norway Sweden

Fatalities 2 617 960 1663 1274 303 580
per 10 000 vehicles 60 137 66.1 27 1.2 1.2
per 100 000 inhabitants 10 6 5.6 11.1 6.8 6.6
Vehicles per 100 inhabitants 1.7 0.44 0.8 4.1 58 56

enforcement and deterrent fines in the ensuing period. However, due to non
revision of the fines in line with the current hyperinflationary environment,
the value of the fine has been eroded to such an extend that in 2007 a motorist Figures for Kenya (1995), Tanzania (1995)
and Zimbabwe (1994) from Assum (1998);
offender pays a road traffic fine that cannot buy a box of matches in a shop. Figures for Mozambique and Norway (1997)
from Assum et al (1999); Figures for Sweden
Thus if it were not for the national fuel shortages, which limit the number of from National Road Administration (1999 and
kilometres travelled per vehicle, the rise in accidents would have been higher 2000)

than the figures displayed from the year 2001.

Vulnerable road users – passengers, pedestrians and drivers – are the worst
affected. Passengers account for the highest proportion of casualties followed
by pedestrians (Figure 6.4). However, due to their high vulnerability,
pedestrians account for the highest proportion of road fatalities, and the
involvement of pedestrians is much greater in the urban environment than in
rural areas. Passengers rank second and drivers account for a small share of
road deaths.
Some of the most important factors known to increase the risk and/or sever-
ity of accidents are:

Figure 6.2 Road Traffic Accident

Statistics, 1980-2002
Zimbabwe Central Computing Services

122
Figure 6.3 Public Transportation
Disasters as a Percentage of 1980
Baseline

Figure 6.4 Road Traffic Accident
Casualties by Category, 1997-2002
ROAD USER FACTORS These include poor driving standards, young and negli-
gent drivers, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, ignorance of
traffic rules and regulations leading to speeding, perilous overtaking, distrac-
tion of drivers by passengers, speaking on cell phones while driving, and re-
luctance to use safety devices such as safety belts and helmets.
VEHICLE FACTORS Including inadequate maintenance of vehicles (worn tyres
leading to tyre bursts, poor brakes, non-functioning lights), overloading of
public service vehicles and trucks, use of unsuitable vehicles for transport of
passengers, and poor crashworthiness design.

It is generally acknowledged that human er-

ror and is an underlying cause of almost all
accidents – in terms of observation, decision
making and response to the situation at hand
– including breaking highway regulations,
speeding, overloading etc. Research in sev-
eral countries concludes that human error is
involved in over 90 percent of all road acci-
dents and that only a small proportion of ac-
cidents can be directly attributed to vehicle
defects, or faults in road design or mainte-
nance. However, careful analyses of accidents
have made it clear that accidents are often
the result of a critical combination of several
factors and that it is not always correct to pick
out a single main cause. It may be more
appropriate to use the concept of ‘accident
contributing factors’ or ‘risk increasing factors’
to explain why an accident took place.

ROAD FACTORS Such as high or no speed limits and poor visual guidance,
failure of traffic control signals, poorly controlled intersections and uncon-
trolled access, narrow roads, hilly terrain, poor alignment standards and poor
maintenance of pavement and shoulders, and steep ditches and hard objects
near the road.

TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS These may include a mix of motorised

and non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians, negligence of pedestrians, stray
animals, poor traffic management and enforcement of the traffic code, dark-
ness and inclement weather conditions, and inadequate emergency medical
services. Economic pressure factors have also become more important fol-
lowing the liberalisation of road transport services, as intense competition
for passengers has resulted in more speeding and reckless driving by drivers
of public service vehicles.

123
Although the factors cited above are the most commonly reported in routine
police statistics, there are broader, underlying and related factors contribut-
ing to the rising magnitude and burden of road traffic injuries. These include:

· The rapid growth in motorisation and human population;

· Increased spatial interaction of road traffic in terms of the volume and
direction of movement;
· Deficiencies and problems in road user behaviour;
· Conditions and environment of work in the public transport sector, with
special reference to buses and kombis;
· The social and economic conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe;
· Serious deficiencies in the development and maintenance of the road net-
work; and
· Deficiencies in road safety planning, management, enforcement and in-
terventions.
Road users are clearly the critical element in the system. Their behavior has
to be addressed if significant gains in safety are to be achieved. Key factors
are a basic understanding of the traffic system, and an ability to recognise and
avoid danger, and to exercise safe behavior. Knowledge of the traffic system Though all these factors contribute to higher
accident risks and give a lead on where cor-
and how to behave in traffic can be improved through better education and rective actions may be taken, it is clear that
any countermeasures need to be undertaken
publicity campaigns, and through better screening, training and testing of driv- as a part of a comprehensive safety
ers. programme to be effective.

Screening, training and testing of drivers should ensure that those licensed to
operate motorised vehicles fulfill certain minimum requirements with re-
spect to physical and mental capabilities and practical skills, in particular for
operators of public transport. In this context, it is important that the regula-
tory framework governing the transport industry take account of the poten-
tially negative impact of competition on traffic safety by instituting appropri-
ate countermeasures. Furthermore, there is a need for adequate regulations The first requirement for a safe traffic sys-
tem is a framework of appropriate traffic
and testing of vehicles to ensure that they are properly designed, equipped, laws and regulations and guidelines for proper
and maintained. behavior, and adequate education and pub-
licity campaigns targeted at all road users of
all ages and modes of participation. It has to
Roads should also be designed and maintained in line with their function and be stressed that a driving license is not a birth-
the economic, safety and environmental criteria that have been adopted. Key right but a qualification.

aspects to be considered are the type of service to be facilitated (local ac-

cess, collector/distributor, arterial) and type of road users to be accommo-
dated.
Table 6.4 shows countermeasures adopted in Zimbabwe, relative to selected
neighboring and developed countries. The data in the table indicate that
Zimbabwe could benefit from lower speed limits in residential areas, as well
as introducing mandatory seatbelt installation, especially now that the number
of private cars is increasing rapidly. Some general preventive measures are
applicable to different road users, as discussed below:
DRIVERS have considerable responsibility for making sure that the vehicle
they drive is fit to be taken on the road. This applies as much to other people’s
vehicles that they drive, including hire cars, courtesy cars and those belong-
It is important to take account of past expe-
ing to employers and friends, as it does to their own vehicle. They should rience of users’ perceptual and behavioral
check that the tax is up to date, that head and tail lights are working, that the performance, to facilitate easy acquisition of
information and decision making, and elimi-
tyres are properly inflated and have enough tread on them, and that the num- nate elements of surprise. Establishing suit-
able emergency medical care services is a
ber plates match, front and back. Drivers are discouraged from speeding, as very important safety measure.

124
 animals and humans can cross
Kenya Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Norway Sweden the road at any time. Avoid driv-
Speed Limit ing at night if possible and stay
Urban 50 50 50 60 30-50 30-50 alert at all times, as roads are
Rural 100 No 100 100 90 110 often poorly maintained with
BAC limit No Drunk 0.08 0.08-0.15 0.05 0.02 frequent potholes, especially
Mandatory seatbelts No No Frontseats Frontseats Yes Yes during the rainfall season.
The driver should always wear
Table 6.4 Countermeasures in a seatbelt and, if they have children with them, use approved child restraints,
Zimbabwe Compared to Selected which provide excellent protection for children should there be an accident.
Countries, 1990s Children should not be carried in the arms of another passenger because, in
the event of a crash, the child will be thrown around the vehicle interior or
thrown out of the vehicle. A few minutes of undisturbed sleep will work against
fatigue.
CYCLISTS are a very vulnerable category of road user, notwithstanding the
provision of cycle tracks and cycle lanes in some places, and advanced stop
lines at junctions. The visibility of cyclists by drivers remains a great prob-
lem. They should wear reflective or light coloured clothing at night. A com-
mon type of accident involving cyclists occurs when a motorist turns across
the path of the cyclist or pulls into their path or when the cyclist hit from the
A driver going for a drink or party should plan
rear. As a person falls from their cycle, the head is the part of the body likely
ahead and arrange alternative transport to come into contact with the ground or a hard surface first.
rather than driving drunk. Possible plans in-
clude sharing a taxi with friends, catching public
transport or staying overnight at a friend’s MOTORCYCLISTS are particularly vulnerable to not being seen because they
place. Riding with a driver who hasn’t been
drinking or arranging for a friend or relative
are a relatively small object but moving at speed. Sometimes they may not be
to provide a lift are also good alternatives for seen because of the weather conditions or time of day; sometimes it may be
someone who has been drinking alcohol.
because riders wear dark clothing; and sometimes it may be because a driver’s
visibility is obscured, say by a windscreen pillar. Although motorcyclists make
up only a very small percentage of all motor traffic they account for consid-
erable number of deaths and serious injuries. By law both riders and pillion
passengers must wear a protective helmet.
PEDESTRIANS due to their large numbers, are by far the most significant road
users. They are the most vulnerable, in the case of accidents involving other
faster, larger and more solid road users. These can inflict disastrous conse-
quences on pedestrians, either maiming or killing them. Pedestrians can, how-
ever, minimise accidents by observing the following:
• Report (habitual) speeding drivers to the police,
• Use pedestrian zebra crossing points,
• Use the right side of the road, so as to face on-coming traffic,
Most accidents occur in urban areas and at • Avoid crossing the road at curves and blind rises,
speeds below 60km/h. Riders making them-
selves visible by what they wear and by the • Cross traffic light controlled intersections only when the light is green
positions they take up on the road is critical
to safer motorcycling.
for pedestrians,
• Look out for traffic turning right or left when crossing both controlled
and uncontrolled intersections,
• Discourage drivers from drinking or taking dangerous drugs when
driving,
• Do not board vehicles being driven by someone who is suspected to be
drunk,
• Avoid cutting and repairing fences along highways, and

125
 • Do not gather close to an accident site (the vehicles might be carrying
hazardous substances could explode).
There are specific laws and penalties in Zimbabwe for driving under the influ-
ence of either alcohol or drugs. The Zimbabwe Police have the power to:
• Stop drivers at random to test for the presence of alcohol in their system;
• Arrest drivers who test over the legal limit;
• Require a driver to undergo a sobriety test in certain circumstances; and
• Arrest drivers they believe are affected by drugs for the purpose of blood
testing.

Rail accidents
Zimbabwe has experienced a significant number of train disasters over the
years. Recent accidents of note occurred involving the Bulawayo-Victoria
Falls train in October 2000 and the Dete train disaster of February 2003. In
both of these accidents, several hundreds of people were either maimed or
killed. Other accidents involving the daily commuter trains in both Harare
and Bulawayo also occur regularly. Although the annual deaths in train colli-
sions and other rail accidents are much smaller than the number of deaths on
the roads, these rail accidents have traumatised the whole nation when they
occurred. Although the volumes of rail traffic are also much lower than road
traffic, in terms of deaths per passenger kilometre travelled, railway trans-
port is still several times safer than transport by car or bus.
The risk of a train collision is greatly amplified as soon as more than one
train shares a track. The rails are made of iron, as are the train’s wheels. This
significantly reduces friction, meaning that when travelling at speed, trains
take a long time to stop. By the time a driver has seen a hazard ahead it is often
too late to apply the brakes in time. For this reason, the railways have devel-
oped signaling systems to warn the driver, and back up systems to stop the
train if the warnings or signals are ignored. These provide opportunities for
preventing accidents but, if they are absent or ignored, collisions may still
occur.

Train to train collisions are not the only type of train crashes. Trains can col-
lide with other objects on the line (animals, people, cars, parts of structures)
or can derail because of track, train or operator failure. All have been signifi-
cant factors in major train crashes in Zimbabwe in the past decade. Wreckage of NRZ coaches
Possible measures to reduce rail accidents include: following the Dete train disaster,
which resulted in the loss of at
• Discouraging vandalism of rail equipment, including signals and railway least 38 people
lines. If these are vandalised, they should be replaced as soon as pos- (Source:CPD)
sible.
• Embracing a spectrum of measures to prevent trains coming into con-
flict. This includes managing unreliability, as lack of punctuality is a ma-
jor cause of trains coming into conflict. Making trains more punctual
would significantly reduce conflicts as well as improving service qual-
ity.
• Improving signals and other means of helping the driver manage the train
more safely. This may involve sourcing improved and state of the art
warnings systems that will enable drivers to do better in avoiding de-
tected hazards ahead.

126
Figure 6.5 Events that Lead to
Train Accidents
Adapted from ERTMS (2003)
There are also other factors that could exac-
erbate train collision risk. Increasing traffic
and congestion leads to more chances of trains
competing for line space. Unreliability is a
major cause of potential conflicts; as soon as
one train makes an unscheduled stop, many
others behind will have to do likewise. There-
fore, measures to improve punctuality, reduce
congestion, and improve network manage-
ment when the timetable is disrupted, all have
an important part to play in reducing collision
risk.
• Providing enhanced back up systems in case the driver lapses or makes
an error.
• Improving people’s chances of surviving a collision through measures to
reduce casualties if mistakes are made and collisions occur. Newer trains
with better brakes and crashworthiness represent the railways’ main op-
portunity in this area for reducing risk.
Water transport accidents
Boat accidents include submersion and drowning due to boats overturning or
becoming submerged, and people falling or jumping from damaged water-
craft. Although these types of accidents occur in Zimbabwe, they have not
reached alarming levels due to the limited number of people who use boats.
Of particular note is the Chivero boat disaster in 1995 when 22 students from
Moleli Secondary School perished in a boat accident that was attributable to
overloading of the boat.
Since most boat accidents can be at least partially attributed to the actions of
the Captain, prevention measures are mostly the Captain’s responsibility,
although it is acknowledged that passengers at times contribute to accidents.
The Captain should:
• Never overload the boat;
• Have a good lighting system at night and make sure lights are working
before leaving port;
• Avoid sailing when there are high waves (there may be a lake Captain
who can be contacted to check weather it is safe to commence a journey);
• Avoid areas infested with water animals e.g. hippos;
• Avoid sailing near the banks, and follow designated routes as obstructions
like tree stumps may not be visible;
• Wear a life jackets and provide life jackets for all passengers; and
• Have basic swimming and life saving skills.
Air transport accidents
Zimbabwe has not had any significant air transport disasters. Incidents have
been limited to a few forced landings, and delayed takeoffs due to technical
faults. Air transport faces the greatest hazard from wind. A violent down draft
from a thunderstorm (microburst) on takeoff or landing is one example, but
127
any exceptionally large local wind gradient (wind shear) can affect lift ad-
versely at low altitudes. In many air disasters, wind is considered the primary
contributing factor. Small aircraft are much more vulnerable to storms and
are often warned to completely avoid them. An airport wind-warning system
generally consists of a set of anemometers, the output of which is analysed
by computer. A warning is issued when levels differ by some predetermined
threshold.
Prevention of air traffic accidents would be assisted through improved weather
forecasting, which is generally viewed as the principal means for reducing
hazards, and regular maintenance and repair of aircraft.
DRIVER FATIGUE Fatigue can severely impair judgment and it can affect any-
one. It is particularly dangerous because one of the symptoms is decreased
ability to judge one’s own level of tiredness. Other symptoms vary between
individuals but may include boredom manifested in yawning often, feeling
irritable, restlessness, drowsiness, tired or sore eyes and slow reactions. Fa-
tigue can include poor concentration with some micro sleeps, leading in the Prevention of air traffic accidents would be
case of road traffic to missing road signs, making fewer and larger steering assisted through improved weather forecast-
ing, which is generally viewed as the principal
corrections and having difficulty in staying in the correct lane. It is important means for reducing hazards, and regular
to note that driver fatigue is not simply a function of time spent in control of maintenance and repair of aircraft.

the vehicle but relates to many factors, including hours since last sleep (hours
of wakefulness) and time of day or night. Fatal crashes in which fatigue is
identified as a factor are more likely to occur late at night and in the early
hours of the morning. Most of all, fatal fatigue accidents occur during public
holidays when people tend to stay out late and during school holidays when
drivers are overworked to cater for the increased number of passengers.
USE OF MOBILE PHONES It is not safe to be in control of a vehicle while using
a hand held mobile phone, either when talking, sending or receiving text mes-
sages, playing games or taking photos. It is also not safe to perform these
activities when the vehicle is stopped but not parked, for example, while wait-
ing at traffic lights. A hands-free device can reduce the physical effort to make Most fatal fatigue accidents occur during pub-
and receive calls but it doesn’t necessarily make it safe to use a phone while lic holidays when people tend to stay out late
and during school holidays when drivers are
driving because it is still easy to lose proper control of the vehicle. overworked to cater for the increased num-
ber of passengers.
SPEEDING Speeding increases both the risk of an accident and the severity of
the accident. The risk of a crash in an urban 60km/h speed zone causing death
or injury increases rapidly even with relatively small increases of speed. The
key issue in speeding related crashes is the fact that most motorists underes-
timate the distance needed to stop. A car travelling at 60 km/h in dry condi-
tions takes about 38 metres to stop. A car travelling at 72 km/h needs an extra
12 metres.

Zimbabwean acts and laws for teachers to familiarise themselves For those intending to use a phone in their
with vehicle, it is possible to minimise the risk
by;
There are various Acts and regulations, including Statutory Instruments, that • Making sure the hands-free phone is set
up and working before taking off,
govern the use and movement of vehicles, and the control of roads and road • Keeping conversations short and not en-
gaging in complex or emotional conver-
traffic. Some of these are: sations,
• The Road Traffic Act, Chapter 13:11; • Telling the person on the other end that
one is driving and may have to end the
• The Road Traffic (Licensing of Drivers) Regulations RGN 240/77; call;
• Never sending text messages (SMS)
• The Road and Road Traffic (Construction Equipment and Use) Regula- while driving, and
tions RGN 412/72; • Ending the call if it is distracting from
driving.

128

BOX 6.1 ZIMBABWE BUS CRASH KILLS 11
A truck that skidded off the road
after heavy rains. Such occurrences
are common during the first rains
of the season as the roads are
particularly slippery due to
accumulated oil spillage on busy
roads during the dry season.
(Source: CPD)
• The Road Traffic (Rules of the Road) Regulations RGN 308/74; and
• The Road Motor Transportation Act 1/97.
Traffic Related Hazards
Rain, fog, dust, smoke, sunlight and darkness are transportation hazards that
compromise the vision of system users. Smoke from wildfires routinely dis-
rupts roadways in the dry season, especially when the wind blows the smoke
across the road. Darkness also has a significant effect on road safety, espe-
cially when combined with fog, smoke or dust. Fog has been known to cause
spectacular road accidents involving several vehicles on a roadway. Rain is a
common hazard that compromises visibility and the quality of a road, rail or
airport surface, particularly during the wet months of the year. The braking
distance of vehicles is drastically increased in wet weather due to the slip-
periness of roads and oil spills that accumulate on the road surface during the
dry season increase slipperiness. In a road network context, skidding is the
most common explanation for accidents that occur from these hazards. The
photograph below shows a truck that skidded off and dangerously blocked the
road. It is fortunate that there were no other road users nearby, otherwise a
more serious accident could have occurred. Heavy rain may also cause occa-
sional malfunctioning of traffic lights due to power cuts caused by lightning
strikes on power stations. Flooded rivers as a result of rain may also sweep
away buses and cars, and railway lines might be weakened due to erosion of
underlying structures by rain.
Landslides and rock falls
Weather induced geomorphic hazards that commonly affect transportation
corridors include landslides and rockfalls. These are mostly found along long
stretches of winding road or railway that travel through areas with rock faces
and steep slopes in mountainous terrain. Some examples of such portions of
roads are found along the Shurugwi-Shabani road (Boterekwa), the Harare-
Mutare Road (Christmas Pass) and the Harare-Chirundu road. These hazards
can damage or reduce the serviceability of infrastructure, crush or bury
vehicles, and result in death. In some cases they occur with little or no warning,
but they are typically preceded by intense rain. In the year 2000, rocks and
soil on hilltops shifted positions during the torrential rains of tropical cyclone
129
Eline and moved onto the road in the Boterekwa area, rendering it impassable
for several hours.

Wind
Landslides can also be earthquake induced.
Wind is a significant hazard to road, water, and air transport. Gusts, eddies,
lulls, and changes in wind direction are often greatest near the ground in
extreme wind episodes (Perry and Symons, 1994). In these episodes, the
majority of fatalities are generally transport related. Wind hazard can be
divided into three categories – direct interference with a vehicle, obstructions,
and indirect effects. Direct interference includes its effects on vehicle
steering, which may push one vehicle into another or run a vehicle off the
road. Extreme winds can overturn high sided trucks when the wind vector is Road hazards that are particularly
orthogonal to the direction of travel because the force of the wind is unpredictable in behavior:
proportional to the vehicle area presented (Baker, 1988). Wind can impede
transport by blowing dust or smoke across a road, thus reducing visibility. It
can also blow trees and other debris onto a road or railway and create temporary
obstacles. Overall, wind can impede transport operation or damage vehicles
and infrastructure, all of which can result in economic impacts, as well as
injuries and fatalities.

School children, wildlife and domestic animals

School children, wildlife and domestic animals are familiar hazards to most
drivers because of many warning signs along roadways. The playfulness and
lack of experience of school children makes them unpredictable and hence a
particular hazard in urban areas. The animal hazard especially, has been
significantly amplified by the cutting of fences along highways that prohibited a) Wild animals
animals from straying into the road. Common examples of animal hazards
include donkeys in both the Matabeleland provinces. These have become a
menace to motorists, especially those who use the Masvingo-Beitbridge
highway. Animal accidents typically result in vehicle damage, but they can
also result in injury or death.
A combination of most of the factors mentioned above has resulted in several
areas being demarkated as black sports due to the high frequency of
occurrences of road accidents. Of particular note is a stretch along Simon
Mazorodze road on which about half of the road traffic accidents in the Harare
municipal area occurs. The other notorious site is the stretch between the
183 and 210 km pegs along the Harare-Gweru road.
Preventive measures in response to the traffic related hazards discussed in- b) School children
clude:
• Being wary of slippery roads;
• During a storm, stopping and parking, and proceeding with caution only
when the storm is over;
• Driving with extreme caution in mountainous regions and looking out
for rockfalls and landslides;
• Watching for fallen trees or power lines on the road;
• Keeping windscreen wipers in perfect condition to facilitate road vi-
sion;
• Not crossing flooded rivers, as water can easily sweep away a car or
even a loaded bus; c) Domestic animals

130
About 50 percent of the accidents
in Harare municipality area occur
along this stretch shown left
(below) and right (bottom), of
Simon Mazorodze Road.
Contamination of the environment can be
by, for example,
• Cynide, a chemical used in gold pro-
cessing which can leak and contaminate
water sources,
• Lead, found in batteries and, to lesser
extent in fuel, which can also contami-
nate the environment,
• Dioxins, which are chemicals found in
the oil of transformers and from burn-
ing plastics at temperatures below 1
000o C and tend to remain in the envi-
ronment and pollute the atmosphere,
or
• Radioactive substances, which can cause
instant death or long term health ef-
fects.
• Poisoning, through ingestion or inhala-
tion, which can be accidental or deliber-
ate in suicide cases, of poisons or toxic
agents, including drugs, industrial
chemicals, pesticides, medical chemi-
cals used in health and veterinary ser-
vices, vector control chemicals, and gen-
eral chemicals. Poisoning can also oc-
cur through consumption of damaged
or expired tinned foods. Deliberate poi-
soning, using rat poison, elephant
flower or an overdose of norolone ma-
laria tablets is fairly common.
• Listening to weather forecast to gain an idea of where heavy rains are
expected;
• Paying head to the crosswalk system that forces animals to cross at spe-
cific areas which are clearly marked for motorists; and
• Not being swept away in the excitement of the Christmas and New Year
holidays, which happen to be during the peak of the rainfall season.
Hazardous Substances
From industrial chemicals and toxic waste, through fuels, to household de-
tergents and air fresheners, hazardous substances are part of our everyday
lives. Urban, suburban, and rural communities located near the country’s ma-
jor transportation corridors, especially those to the border posts, are subject
to higher probability of a significant hazardous substances release. This is
because hazardous material is continuously being transported from one point
to the other and most commonly across borders. Hazards also exist during
the production, storage, use and disposal of these substances, as well as their
transportation over bodies of water, wetlands and environmentally sensitive
areas, and through densely populated centres.
Hazardous substance incidents can range from a chemical spill on a highway
to the contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring methane gas. Natu-
ral disasters, like floods and earthquakes, might also cause spills. The combi-
nation of possible sources of exposure to our sizable population and workforce
presents complex problems. It is difficult to find a home, school, hospital or
place of business in this modern society that is not vulnerable to the possibil-
ity of a hazardous substance release. In fact, there is greater potential for
disaster arising from the use or movement of hazardous substances, than from
most other technological hazards. For example a whole community is more
likely to be affected by a toxic gas leak than by deaths and injuries caused in a
major transport accident.
Hazardous substances are those that, because of their chemical nature, pose a
potential risk to life, health or property if they are released. They present a
direct or indirect threat to human health or the environment through any of
the following means:
• Risks associated with highly explosive and inflammable substances, such
as acetylene used in welding, petrol and liquid petroleum gas, methane
gas from coal and garbage dump sites, mercury compounds, nitrates, and
peroxides, and chemicals that evolve/absorb oxygen during storage.
• Formation of a toxic cloud that is not always visible, and may or may not
smell, e.g. ammonia, which has a strong smell and forms a cloud, and
corrosive chemicals – strong acids and alkalis, peroxides like nitric acid,
hydrochloric and sulphuric acids that also produce toxic fumes.
Chemical plants are one source of hazardous substances, but there are many
others. National Oil Company of Zimbabwe (NICOZ) fuel pipelines run
through some rural areas and towns from Mutare to Harare and an incident
occurred in Epworth, Harare in which pit sand poachers discovered three burst
NOCZIM fuel pipes in Msasa. They started taking the fuel to their homes in
large containers where they either sold it to commuter omnibus operators or
stored it in their homes (The Herald, 21 June 2006). Residents of the area
were fortunate that this highly inflammable liquid did not catch fire, burning
the whole of Epworth suburb with it.
131
Hazardous substance spills
Figure 6.6 Examples of Signs
Spills usually happen in the course of routine daily business wherever hazard- Indicating Hazardous Substances
ous substances are handled or transported. There are many facilities with haz-
ardous substances located in the country’s cities and towns. Business types
that commonly use hazardous substances include hospitals, schools, metal
plating and finishing companies, public utilities, cold storage companies, the
fuel industries, the communications industry, chemical distributors, research
institutes, and high technology firms. The majority of releases that occur during
regular business happen at fixed facilities. Many towns have very large fuel
storage areas accommodating above ground storage and pipelines for fuel
transfers from tankers. Local service stations store petrol and diesel fuel,
while hospitals store a range of radioactive and flammable substances. Inci-
dents would produce severe fire hazards and enormous environmental dam-
age.

While the majority of incidents involve petroleum products, a significant

number also involve other extremely hazardous substances. Extremely haz-
ardous substances are those substances that may do irreversible damage or
cause death to people, or harm the environment when released or used out-
side their intended use. Examples are ammonia, chlorine and sulfuric acid.
The photographs below show an example of a hazardous material accident
during transportation. Many of these events are not reported or go undetec-
ted.
Hazardous substances may also be released as a secondary result of natural
disasters like earthquakes and floods. In either case, buildings or vehicles can
release the hazardous substances they contain when they are structurally com-
promised. Pipelines can be exposed or ruptured from collapsed embankments,
road washouts, bridge collapses, and fractures in roadways.

Classification of hazardous substances

Under the Hazardous Substances Act (HSA), chemicals are classified into
three groups:
1 Banned or severely restricted chemicals. There are twelve chemicals in
this group.
2 Mainly toxic chemicals requiring registration before marketing and use.
They are widely used in industry and agriculture. When using Group II
chemicals, one must be over 16 years, not pregnant, wearing protective
clothing, and appraised of the safety procedures associated with use of
the particular chemical. Group II chemicals shall not be stored together
with food or feeds. They have green, amber, red or purple labels and the
order of toxicity increases from green, through amber and red, to purple
in that order, i.e. green labels are used for the least toxic chemicals,
while purple labels are used for the highly toxic chemicals (Figure 6.7).
3 General domestic, laboratory and industrial chemicals and detergents,
veterinary remedies, alcohols (green triangle) pesticides and organic
acids. These do not require special arrangements prior to marketing or
use although they are all potentially toxic.

Impacts
Hazardous substances spills might cause the short term or long term evacua-
tion of an affected area. Depending on the nature of the spill and local weather

132
Warning signs for poisons, particularly pesti-
cides, are as follows:
Figure 6.7 HSA Colour
Classification of Group II and III Chemicals
CPD officials neutralising the spill
of a whole tanker of sulphuric acid
along Chinhoyi road.
(Source: CPD, 2006)
The colors are user friendly and well appreci-
ated by the common person. Group II chemi-
cals should be kept in their original contain-
ers and repackaging is strictly discouraged.
Disposal of containers should be carried out
as per label instruction. Group II premises
should be regularly inspected
conditions, residences, businesses, hospitals, schools, nursing homes, and
roadways may be evacuated or closed to traffic until cleanup can be affected.
Prevention and management of hazardous substance accidents
At the national level, the Hazardous Substances and Articles Of-
fice and the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) jointly moni-
tor the importation of all national chemicals. Internationally, the
UN Globally Harmonised System (GHS) provides standards for
labelling of chemicals that are in transit under SI 262 of 1984
(Transportation of Hazardous Substances by Road Tankers). Un-
der the GHS each chemical has a substance identity number, an
emergency action code and a hazard warning. The driver of such
a tanker has to carry an emergency procedure card, use direct
routes and avoid heavily populated areas. The tanker must not be
used as a transit storage facility.
For individuals, during a hazardous substances incident:
• If you witness (or smell) a hazardous substances release,
call police or your local emergency number, or the fire depart-
ment as soon as safely possible.
• Stay away from the incident site to minimise the risk of
contamination.
• If you are caught outside during an incident, try to stay up-
stream, uphill, and upwind. Remember that gases and mists are
generally heavier than air and hazardous substances can quickly
be transported by water and wind. In general, try to go at least a
kilometre from the danger area.
• If you are in a motor vehicle, stop and find shelter in a permanent build-
ing if possible. If you must remain in your car, keep the car windows and
vents closed and shut off the air conditioner and heater.
• If asked to evacuate your home, do so immediately.
• If you are told to stay indoors (shelter-in-place) rather than evacuate,
follow all instructions given by emergency authorities. In addition;
• Get household members and pets inside as quickly as possible and close
and lock all exterior doors and windows before closing vents, fireplace
dampers, and as many interior doors as possible,
• Turn off air conditioners and ventilation systems and, if possible in a
large building, have the building superintendent set all ventilation sys-
tems to 100 percent recirculation so that no outside air is drawn into the
building,
• If authorities warn of the possibility of an outdoor explosion, close all
drapes, curtains, and shades in the room, and stay away from windows to
prevent injury from breaking glass,
• Avoid contact with spilled liquids, airborne mists and powders, and
condensed solid chemical deposits,
• Keep your body fully covered to provide some protection with gloves,
socks, shoes, pants and a long sleeved shirt,
• Prevent your animals from coming into contact with any spilled
substances, as most animals will groom themselves by licking and may
ingest toxins this way,
• Do not eat food or drink water that may have been contaminated, and
• Be prepared to turn off the main water intake valve in case authorities
advise you to do so.
133
After a hazardous substances incident be aware that a person or item that has Get medical treatment for unusual symptoms
as soon as possible or, if medical help is not
been exposed to a hazardous chemical may be contaminated and could con- immediately available and you think you
might be contaminated:
taminate other people or items. If you or your animals have come in contact · Remove all of your clothing and shower
with or have been exposed to hazardous chemicals, you should seek and fol- thoroughly (unless local authorities ad-
vise you to do otherwise);
low decontamination instructions from local authorities. Depending on the · Change into fresh, loose clothing and
get medical help as soon as possible;
chemical, you may be advised to take a thorough shower, or you may be ad- · Place exposed clothing and shoes in
vised to stay away from water and follow another procedure. tightly sealed containers, for example
plastic bags without allowing it to come
into contact with other substances and
call local authorities to find out about
Landmine Hazards proper disposal;
· Advise everyone who comes into con-
In many parts of the world where wars have been fought, landmines that were tact with you that you may have been
laid by warring parties continue to claim lives many years afterwards. Be- exposed to a toxic substance;
· Find out from local authorities how to
cause landmines are inexpensive, they have been distributed in huge numbers clean up your land and property; and
· Report any lingering vapours or other
and randomly. Worse still, most of the individuals who lay them do not keep hazards to your local emergency services
records. In Zimbabwe during the liberation struggle, the Rhodesian Army, short office.

of soldiers, felt that a mined border would address both the personnel short-
age as well as the intensifying military threat from freedom fighters. Hence
they laid millions of anti-personnel mines along the borders of Mozambique
and Zambia between 1976 and 1979.

This sub-section offers teachers an opportunity to learn about landmines –

the facts, the issues, the dangers and the preventive measures against them.
While the local landmine community acknowledges a reduction in the num-
ber of landmines and related casualties, it remains ever mindful that landmines BOX 6.2 30 000L SULPHURIC ACID SPILT IN

TANKER ACCIDENT

134
Of all the remnants of the war of liberation,
anti-personnel land mines are the most wide-
are still killing and injuring thousands of unsuspecting people, and that a great
spread and pernicious. Minefields constitute deal of effort lies ahead if this terrible humanitarian tragedy is to be over-
a unique but significant threat to a whole so-
ciety. Their wartime mandate, to kill and in- come. With continued efforts towards mine free status and sustained com-
jure, to arrest the mobility of opponents and
to sow seeds of uncertainty and chaos during
mitment and cooperation from the landmine community, the landmine risk is
a time of war have not yet been given up. within local capacity to reduce. Therefore, teachers in mine infested areas
They were placed in locations that guarantee
detonation by the civilian population and they are asked to redouble their determination to meet the challenge. Political
continue to fulfill their destructive mission of
crippling the society’s infrastructure, even two
will by the government to eradicate landmines has been shown by the signing
and half decades after independence. the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997 and its ratification on 18 June
1998.

The border minefields still contain several thousands of mines and continue
to kill or maim not only livestock and game, but women, men and children
going about their daily lives. Communities in the affected areas are faced
with the choice of attempting to earn their livelihood in the face of this dan-
ger or resettle elsewhere and the latter has not proven a realistic solution.
Thus the presence of unexploded land mines constitutes one of the most sig-
nificant barriers to sustainable development in the country today. They affect
agriculture in particular. On the Zambia-Zimbabwe border, for example, in
the face of starvation and malnutrition, one million acres of land has been
almost totally deserted because it was so heavily mined during the war. Land
mines are commonly hidden in farmer’s fields, and on roads and paths.

Because the minefields are mostly in remote parts of the country, medical
facilities and rehabilitation services are in poor condition meaning that
landmine casualties have had little chance for survival while survivors have no
hope for rehabilitation and reintegration into the society.

The nature of landmines

Anti-personnel land mines are small, inexpensive munitions designed to deto-
nate either by being stepped on directly or by the pulling of a trip-wire con-

BOX 6.3 ZIMBABWE MINE CLEARING SUCCESS

STORY

135
 Figure 6.8 Distribution of
Landmines in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA)

nected to them. Therefore, they are designed to kill or injure anyone who
comes into contact with them. Mines are commonly manufactured from plastic
and are difficult to detect with standard metal sensing mine detection equip-
ment. In addition to being dangerous, mine clearing is a very long and expen-
sive process. Therefore, areas may remain mined for many years.

Landmines can be distinguished from other explosive ordinance as outlined

below:

BOMB Explosive weapon detonated by impact or a timing mechanism.

LANDMINE An explosive device often buried or submerged and designed to be

detonated by contact or time fuse OR Ammunition placed under, or near the
ground or other surface area and designed to be exploded by the presence,
proximity or contact of a person or vehicle.

PROJECTILE Fired, thrown or otherwise propelled object such as a bullet OR

A self propelled missile such as a rocket.

In addition to mines, areas that were active in the war are contaminated with
unexploded ordnance (UXO) – grenades, mortar and artillery shells, bombs,
rockets, and cluster bombs. These may have been hidden or failed to deto-
nate, leaving a deadly legacy of unstable explosives waiting to be triggered in
the same way as a landmine.

Landmine casualty trends

The statistics in Figure 6.9, below show that the number of those either killed
or injured is falling, as more and more people become aware of the dangers
of the minefields. However, efforts should be stepped up to clear the entire
mine infested areas so that the country is spared this hazard.

136
The total stretch of minefields in Zimbabwe
is approximately 700 kilometres and there
are about 210 square kilometres of mined
land. Figure 6.8 shows the following stretches
of land to be, or to have been, landmine in-
fested:
1 Victoria Falls to Mlibizi, 220 km (now to-
tally cleared),
2 Musengezi to Rwenya River, 335 km
(only 130 km cleared)
3 Sheba Forest to Beacon Hill, 50 km;
4 Burma Valley, 3 km;
5 Rusitu to Muzite Mission, 75 km; and
6 Sango Border Post to Limpopo River, 50
km (being cleared as of 2007).
R2M2, An anti-personnel mine
which is very common in Africa
POMZ-2M, An anti-personnel
fragmentation stake mine
Warning:
• Knowing what a landmine looks like does not necessarily mean you will be
able to locate mines in the field. Landmines are often buried, disguised or
simply difficult to see.
• Landmines are indiscriminate. Everyone is vulnerable
Preventive measures in known minefields
Do not ignore the warning shown in Figure 6.10. It shows the presence of
mines in the vicinity.
Avoid travelling in areas of known landmine risk and, if you must do so, ask
local people, especially farmers and animal herders, about areas you are
unsure of. However, do not trust local people blindly. It is possible they know
less than they claim or they may simply have become used to the presence of
mines.
The precautionary measures to take while driving are:
• Follow previous tyre tracks and never drive on an unknown road or where
no one seems to have driven before;
• If following another vehicle, leave plenty of space between them and
you;
• Avoid detours, e.g. do not leave the road or turn around if a vehicle or
obstacle bars the way but reverse to a known safe area; and
• Stay close to vehicles when stationary and do not wander off the track or
road.
If you encounter a mine while walking:
• STOP all movement immediately and warn those who are with you to do
the same;
• Keep as calm as possible and prevent others from panicking;
• Examine the immediate area where you are standing for any visual signs
of mines or trip wires; and
• Visually identify a route to safe ground, retracing your steps precisely if
the ground is soft enough to have retained your footprints.
TMM 1, Anti-tank mine (left). Death lurks beneath the ground: Even
the step of a small child will unconditionally trigger this anti-person-
nel mine (right).
(Source: Mines Eyes-Improvement of Mine Detection)
137
 If you do discover a landmine or ordinance:
• In landmine infested areas, do not touch or experiment with any
suspicious objects;
• Do not be tempted to collect souvenirs;
• NEVER attempt to dismantle a mine or ordinance;
• Never touch an ordinance or mine found lying around or try to move it;
• Do not try to detonate it by any means;
• Vacate any building or area suspected to have been planted with any
explosive device; and
• Report to the police or to army personnel if a suspicious object is found.
Table 6.5 Landmines and
Unexploded Ordinance Incidents,
1980-2004

Figure 6.9 Annual Deaths and

Incident Total Number
Injuries from Landmines, 1980-
People killed by mines and UXOs 810 2004
Zimbabwe Corps of Engineers (ZNA)
People maimed by mines and UXOs 1 560
Animals killed by mines tens of thousands
UXOs attended to 3 692

Electricity Hazards
The unsafe use of electricity can give rise to electrical accidents. To those
who are unskilled and inexperienced in electrical work, electricity is a source
of potential danger. Electrical hazards, unlike many mechanical hazards, are
not usually obvious. A live conductor does not differ in appearance from a
dead conductor, and the lack of earthing of metal enclosure or casing may
pass unnoticed until it is too late, when it is touched and found to be danger- Figure 6.10 A Common Mine
ously alive. An electric shock can cause death within a few seconds. Figure Warning Sign in Southern Africa
6.11 illustrates the frequency of electrical accidents in Zimbabwe.

Main causes of electrical accidents

Well designed and installed electrical accessories and appliances are per-
fectly safe and, if properly maintained, will remain so. However, a number of
people are electrocuted each year, including fatally, in domestic and other
premises, mainly due to carelessness, disregard for basic safety rules, or lack
of proper maintenance. Many of the deaths could be avoided if due care were
exercised in both the use and maintenance of electrical accessories, plant and
appliances.
It should be noted that it is extremely dangerous to:
· Use an appliance if it is not certain that the outside metal casing or por-
tions are properly earthed. If in any doubt, consult a qualified electrician

138
 or contact the nearest ZESA Offices. The use of all-insulated and double
insulated appliances is strongly recommended because of their inbuilt
safety.
· Pull out a plug by the flex (cord). Always switch off the appliance first
then switch off the socket outlet and finally take hold of the plug itself
and withdraw it from the outlet.
· Touch a light switch, socket outlet, electrical appliance or the flex with
wet hands. The skin’s resistance is lower when wet and any leaking cur-
rent will take the least line of resistance to earth. This could be fatal.

BOX 6.3 FACTS ABOUT LANDMINES

· Have long flexes. They can become unsafe, especially if they are frayed
or chaffed.
· Roll flex up so tightly that it becomes twisted. The wires may become
broken; if it is the earth that breaks then the appliance connected be-
comes highly dangerous if an earth fault should develop. Should the bro-
ken wires develop a resistive fault between them and the fuse or the main
switch fail to switch off, then over heating will occur at the fault and a
fire may result.
· Lay flexes under carpets or through floors, walls, windows and doors.
They may overheat and cause a fire or become damaged and lethal.
· Use multi-way adaptors to supply several appliances from a single socket

Figure 6.11 Reported Fatal and

Non Fatal Accidents Involving
Electricity, 2000-2005

139
 outlet. Overloading of the circuit is invariable and if, for some reason, It is also very dangerous to:
· Plug an appliance into a lamp holder un-
the fuse or main switch does not operate, then a fire could result. The less it is small and double insulated, such
as a cell phone charger. Earth continuity
answer is to have more socket outlets. is immediately lost and the appliance,
· Remove switch covers and not replacing them immediately afterwards, should an earth fault develop, becomes
potentially lethal.
or to leave a broken cover on a switch. Fit a new cover as soon as pos- · Clean around switches or socket outlets
sible. Always switch off at the distribution board before working on any with a wet cloth. Use a dry duster and do
not assume that, because they were fault
circuit. free yesterday, the same conditions ex-
ist today.
· Leave an electric heater switched on close
Accidents with high voltage equipment to furniture. Do not lose your belongings,
home or possibly a human life for the
sake of two or three minutes of discom-
Many accidents occur on the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority’s plant fort while the room warms up.
and equipment involving members of the public. It is highly recommended · Take portable electrical appliances into
your bathroom. Favourites are small ra-
that people avoid interfering with ZESA’s power lines and other equipment, as dios and electric fires on an extension
lead. People who do this are courting di-
this is a hazard which may result in severe injury or death. Parents and schools saster. Because water is a conductor of
are requested to educate children and pupils respectively, not to climb poles, electricity, you may be electrocuted if the
appliance accidentally drops into your
fences or any structure belonging to ZESA since such structures are usually bathing water. Also the appliance can be
destroyed if water splashes onto it.
associated with high voltages and contact with or even being near to live parts · Purchase equipment not made to a suit-
could result in severe injury or death. able standard. Bare electrical conductors,
whether in electric heaters, stoves or
The following should be guarded against: within appliances, should never be
touched for cleaning or maintenance
· Climbing of poles carrying powerlines or trees that are close to unless it has been established that the
powerlines. Many accidents occur in rural areas where powerlines are supply to the conductors has been
switched off.
being installed and the locals, not familiar with the electrical hazard,
climb the structures. In towns, where fruit trees sometimes grow under
powerlines, people can be electrocuted while harvesting the fruit.
· Scaling of substation fences or entering substations. Some people dam-
age padlocks and gain access into the substation to seek accommoda-
tion. These premises are a hazard to enter.
· Interfering with high voltage equipment. If a powerline has been dam-
aged during a storm, members of the public should not interfere with the
damaged line and structures and these should be regarded as live.
· Vandalising electrical infrastructure. Theft of conductors is on the in-
crease and, in some cases, the wooden poles are cut, exposing members
of the public to danger. Acts of vandalism are frequent, including drain-
ing of transformer oil and removal of earthing copper conductors. Theft
of cross members from powerline towers for the purpose of making
scotch carts also takes place and this could result in the structures fail-
ing and falling. Black outs would then be experienced and the restoration
of power could take some time. Where the earthing system has been
removed, consumer equipment can also be damaged.
· Carrying metallic irrigation pipes or other long objects vertically under
power lines.

Industrial Hazards
Industrial hazards must have started when humans began making and using
hand tools. They occur wherever there is industrial activity. The hazards have
intensified as humans progressed from the stone age, through the iron age
and the industrial revolution, up to the current time of modern computerised
industrial production. Obviously the iron age had its own problems, associated
with ore mining, smelting, casting and the fabrication of tools and utensils.
When we look at the Great Zimbabwe we see a magnificent monument but
we do not know the cost in terms of human life and limb during the
construction phase. In the 1950s, more than a hundred lives were lost during

140
Electric shock first aid rules the construction of Kariba dam. Then, 424 men were lost at Hwange-
Contact with live conductors causes shocks
and burns, and even death, through electro- Kamandama in June 1976 when methane gas exploded in the mineshaft.
cution. Shocks of great severity usually affect
the nerve centre controlling the breathing or- Accidents at work in Zimbabwe today claim a huge toll in human and other
gans. The heart and lungs cease to function economic resources.
and the person affected begins to suffocate.
Unless prompt action is taken to restart
breathing by artificial means (i.e. artificial res- Figure 6.13 illustrates the main industrial hazards that workers in Zimbabwe
piration), there is only a small chance of sur-
vival. The following simple rules are designed
are vulnerable to.
to enable correct and prompt aid to be ren-
dered to anyone who has had an electric Hazardous processes
shock, while at the same time safeguarding
people who render assistance. Firstly, switch Processes that lead to injury, bad health or death during work are quite varied.
off the current, if possible, and remove the
person from danger. If no switch is readily
They include spray painting, abrasive blasting, welding, working with molten
accessible, do not touch the victim with bare metal, lead work and electrical work. Machines and moving machine parts,
hands but protect yourself by using a suit-
able length of dry cloth, rubber, wood or rope as well as transport and lifting equipment, also pose a significant hazard to
to pull the victim from the live contact (see
Figure 6.12).
workers. Working stands and raised platforms ladders and other access ways
create a risk of falling to death.
Pressure vessels are also dangerous since they may explode unexpectedly.
The outcomes of hazardous processes and environments range from simple
wounds, cuts, bruises, sprains and fractures, to mental disorder and even death.
Table 6.8 outlines various types of hazards as well as the effects related to
each.
Advice on measures to reduce vulnerability to workplace hazards

Figure 6.12 How to Help a Per-

son In Contact with a Live Wire
M. K. Poltev

Education and training is one of the best methods to reduce vulnerability.

Treat all electrical systems as live whenever
there is a power outage due to load shedding
or there is a fault. All fallen power lines should
also be treated as live at all times, even when
they appear harmless.
However, research and the setting of safety standards, use of good safety
management systems and use of engineering and administrative methods also
have a very big impact in industrial accident reduction.
Regular maintenance of equipment and tools, along with constant use of pro-
tective clothing and equipment, directly prevents accidents. Abiding by the
law and laid down safety procedures and constant safety audits (internal and
external) also keep accidents in check.
141
Some of the recommended steps in prevention are given in Table 6.9, below.
Issues that have an impact on the health and safety of workers and need to be
considered in workplace design and operation are the size of the work space,
lighting, noise levels, heat and cold, the atmosphere, safety of high places,
electricity provision and safety, fire or explosion risks, and the presence of
asbestos.
When dealing with hazardous substances at work, ensure that:
· Material safety data sheets have been obtained;
· Safety data is readily accessible to anyone who needs it;
· All substances are appropriately labelled;
· Prohibited substances are not used; and
· Employee health surveillance and records are kept.
Table 6.6 Fatal Accidents Re-
Rating Industrial Sector Fatalities Reported
ported, by Industry, 2000-2003
1 Agriculture 77
2 Transport and storage 67
3 Mining and quarrying 66
4 Food, drink and tobacco processing 20
5 Commerce and distribution 20
6 Personal services 19
7 Electricity production 14
8 Metal fabrication 7
9 Forestry/building and construction 6

Table 6.7 2004 Reported Injuries,

Rating Occupation Total Injuries
by Occupation
1 Production workers 4 515
2 Agriculture and forestry 1 251
3 Service workers 1 242
4 Technical workers 1 158
5 Transport and mobile equipment operators 964
6 Mine and quarry workers 773
7 Sales workers 176
8 Clerical workers 116
9 Administration and managerial workers 108

Figure 6.13 Major Common In-

dustrial Hazards in Zimbabwe

Industries that disregard safe means of production are a potential disaster to

the economy, humankind and the environment. It makes more economic sense
to use safe means of production both in the short and long term. Expenditure
on safe, healthy workplaces is less than the total cost of accidents.

142
 Table 6.8 Different
Workplace Hazards
and their Effects
Workplace accidents have associated costs as
well. These include production downtime, clean
up and investigation, worker’s compensation
insurance and payments, prosecutions and
fines, poor worker morale, industrial unrest,
and bad publicity.
Table 6.9 Steps for
the Prevention of
Workplace Accidents
Risk Management
Workplace Consultation
Workplace Consultation
required during
Physical Hazards
Sources Effects
Noise and vibration Hearing loss; Vibration disease
Radiation, heat and cold Eye and skin injury; Genetic disorder
Poor lighting, electricity Cramps, dehydration and frostbite
Pressure, radiation Fatigue and accidents
Dust, fibres Cancer, poisoning and death
Chemical Hazards
Sources Effects
Chemicals Irritation and inflammation
Toxic materials and waste Allergies; Burns; Acute and chronic
disorders
Fires and explosions Burns, shocks and death
Sensitising agents Genetic disorders
Biological Hazards
Sources Effects
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, plant and animal products Occupational diseases
Healthcare, research Allergies
Agriculture, food processing Death
Physiological Hazards
Sources Effects
Heavy workloads Fatigue
Monotonous, repetitive work Strain injuries
Unsuitable tools and controls Back problems
Wrong working methods Permanent disability
Psychosocial Hazards
Sources Effects
Quality of work (interest, concentration, company) Discomfort; Irritation
Human relations Psychosomatic diseases
Payment systems Mental diseases
• Identification of all hazards
• Assessment of hazard risk level
• Determination of reasonable methods to eliminate or control risks
• OHS training and information
• Emergency provision – first aid, protective gear
• Employers required to consult on issues of workplace health, safety and welfare
• Sharing of relevant information
• Opportunity for employee views
• Acknowledgement of employee views
• Risk assessment processes
• Risk management decision processes
• Changes to premises, work methods/systems
• Changes to work plant, equipment, materials
• Decisions on consultative arrangements
143
 BOX 6.5 MAN BEHEADED AT WORK
From Chakanetsa Chidyamatiyo in BINDURA
(Herald, 25 July 2006)

The following must be reported by anyone

who notices them:
· Death, or injury, illness or violence caus-
ing prolonged absence from work;
· Unsafe plant, equipment, building or
structures;
· Uncontrolled risk of explosion, fire, gas,
steam or dangerous materials;
· The presence of carcinogens; and
· Blood lead levels, blood borne disease
or bodily fluid exposure.

Urban Structure Fire Hazards

The most unwanted human-induced hazard (often a disaster) is fire in large,
occupied buildings like schools, hotels or hospitals. Causes can be accidental
or deliberate but, unless structures have been built to the requirements of
the Model Building By-Laws 1977 and correct emergency procedures are
used, heavy loss of life and property can result. Disastrous fires have affected
several institutions and other properties countywide. Incidents have included
a deliberately lit fire that destroyed property worth more than 1 billion
Zimbabwe dollars at Bindura University on 10 May 2006 and the accidental
electrical fault that caused a fire that gutted the Gokomere Mission school
dormitories eleven days later. The photograph below shows the fire incident
that occurred at Elephant Hills Hotel during a WHO sponsored Southern
Africa Malaria Conference (SAMC) on Malaria on 24 July 2001. The fire
was started by a spark from a welding machine in the laundry, where Safety pays, it doesn’t cost!!
maintenance work was being carried out. The river facing wing, with 135
rooms, and the central block housing the conference room were extensively
damaged
Some of the most common fire hazards are:
In particular, fuel shortages lead people to store drums of petrol at their homes.
This causes a lot of fire accidents as some fires have unintentionally ignited
these drums of fuel.
BACKYARD SHACKS AND BACKYARD INDUSTRIES Shacks are often constructed
of inflammable material like wood and cardboard boxes. Fire can move at a
very high speed through such structures, which are usually attached to each
other and cover large areas, at times up to 50 square kilometres of space.
Since these structures are not planned, they are difficult to penetrate once a
fire starts. Some structures are built on top of fire hydrants which creates
problems of accessing water for extinguishing the fire.

144
Backyard shacks and industries
built of flammable materials
(wood, plastics etc.) such as these
are a fire hazard. Wood and plastic
are highly flammable and fire
spreads quickly once it starts.
(Source: CPD)
Elephant Hills Hotel on fire on the
24th of July 2001
(Source: SAMC Information for Action Leaf-
let)
The most common fires in Zimbabwe are mo-
tor vehicle fires, industrial fires and domestic
fires, of which the later tops the list in terms
of frequency (Figure 6.14). Fire victims are
disproportionately young children or older
adults, due to their inability to react in a timely
manner and seek safety independently. A sig-
nificant number of people who are acciden-
tally involved in fire incidents are young chil-
dren who have not yet appreciated the mag-
nitude of the hazard involved in playing with
fire.
ELECTRICAL HEATERS AND WOOD HEATERS (MBAURA) When left unattended in
the house to provide additional heat, especially in winter, while the occupants
sleep, these can cause fires if flammable material falls on top of the heater.
PLAYING WITH FIRE This is a particular problem with children who have a habit
of experimenting with fire by playing with matches. These seemingly small
fires may eventually engulf a whole building or structure.
ELECTRICAL FAULTS These sometimes cause sparks in houses or vehicles,
which can ignite and cause serious fires.
ARSON Sometimes fires are deliberately started, for instance to settle a score
with someone.
Advice on prevention and control of fire hazards
Injuries and casualties to the occupants of a structure are a primary concern
in all structural fires. These events can also cause the release of hazardous
materials and disconnect utility lines. By knowing the proper way to handle
fire, major loss of life and the actual number of fires in hazard areas can be
greatly reduced. Public education programmes on fire safety, fire alarms and
fire response are important. People should also be encouraged to purchase
fire insurance and understand building codes.
The procedures for extinguishing small fires are:
· Remove the heat, e.g. cool it with water if it is not an electrical fire;
· Remove the air, e.g. smother the fire or cover it completely with a wet
blanket; or
· Remove the fuel, e.g. by shutting off the natural gas.
The procedures for extinguishing natural gas and electrical fires are:
GAS FIRES First, shut off the gas if it is safe to do so, then put the fire out by
using an extinguisher, dry earth or water;
ELECTRICAL FIRES First, shut off the electricity, then put out the fire by using
an extinguisher, dry earth or water.
OIL FIRES Use baking soda, a lid, a bread board or a fire extinguisher to smother
145
 Figure 6.14 Fire Incidents by
Type, 1999-2003

How fire kills

In death by fire, more people die of asphyxi-
ation than from burns. Fire consumes the oxy-
gen in the air, while increasing the concentra-
tion of deadly carbon monoxide and other
toxic gases in the surroundings. When these
gases are inhaled, loss of consciousness or
death may result within minutes. The heat
from a major fire exceeds anything to which
a person is normally exposed. A fully devel-
oped room fire has temperatures of over 593o
C.
the flames.

• Identify two escape routes from every room of your home/school and practice
BOX 6.6 CORE FIRE PREVENTION ACTIONS
using them.
• In case of fire getting out of control, call for help. Before begining to fight a fire with a fire ex-
• Install smoke detectors on every level of your home/school, outside sleeping tinguisher, be sure that:
areas, and inside bedrooms. · You are calm and not panicking;
• Install a fire sprinkler system in your home/school. · Everyone has left or is leaving the build-
ing;
• Keep at least one working fire extinguisher in every room/class.
· The fire department has been called;
· The fire is small and not spreading;
CAUTION: If the electricity cannot be shut off, DO NOT use water on an · Your back is to an exit that you can use
quickly if necessary; and
electrical fire and NEVER use water on a grease/oil fire. · There is not much smoke in the room.

The following are the ways to use a fire extinguisher effectively, or to be ‘fire
extinguisher literate’:
· Consider having one or more working fire extinguishers in your home,
if possible one in each room. An extinguisher rated “A-B-C” is recom-
mended for home use.
· Make sure you know how to use the fire extinguisher. If you do not, get
training from the fire department or a fire extinguisher manufacturer.
Otherwise, you may not be able to use it effectively, or it could place
you in greater danger, as there is no time to read directions during an
emergency. It is recommended that only adults handle and use extin-
guishers.
· Install extinguishers high on the wall, near an exit, and away from heat
sources. Extinguishers should be easily accessible to adults trained to
use them but kept away from children’s curious hands. Heat may make
the contents less effective or cause the extinguisher to lose its charge
more quickly.
· The best method is to point the extinguisher at the base of the fire, rather
than at the top of the flames.
· Squeeze or press the handle, and slowly sweep the fire from side to side
until it goes out.

A fire tragedy occurred at Manhinga village in Manicaland Province, situated 42km

from Rusape in the southwestern part of Nyanga. The village is an orphanage that
was established by the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe. The remains of Glenview Area 8
back yard industries (top) and
The orphanage looks after 92 children of between three and eighteen years of age Masimbaevanhu car park (above).
who were registered through the Department of Social Welfare. A mishap occurred
on 26 August 2001 when the village was gutted by fire following a veld fire. A total of
nine huts was destroyed, along with property worth about half a million dollars. BOX 6.7 FIRE TRAGEDY, 26 AUGUST 2001

146
BOX 6.8 FIRE OUTBREAK IN THE HIGH DENSITY
SUBURB BACK YARD INDUSTRY
It is vitally important that, if you try to use a
fire extinguisher on a fire and the fire does
not immediately die down, you drop the ex-
tinguisher and get out; Evacuate your family
immediately. Even if the fire appears to be
small and manageable, make sure that you
keep the escape route open. Most portable
extinguishers empty in eight to ten seconds.
After some residential fires, people have been
found dead with fire extinguishers near them
or in their arms. Do not try to salvage any-
thing, no matter how valuable. A few seconds
wasted can lose you your life. Once outside,
remain there. Intense heat and toxic fumes
can kill you in seconds.

The following are further precautionary mea-

sures:
F IRE PROTECTION Prevent a fire from starting.
Identifying and eliminating all fire hazards in
and around your residence/school is the first
line of defence. Drowning Hazards
SMOKE DETECTORS In the event of a fire, a smoke
detector can save your life and the lives of Drowning incidents have been on the increase and statistics indicate that chil-
your loved ones by providing an early warn-
ing signal. Most fire victims die from inhala- dren constitute about 30 percent of the drowning reports attended by the Sub-
tion of smoke and toxic gases, not as a re-
sult of burns. Most deaths and injuries caused
Aqua Unit. The true percentage could be slightly higher because some chil-
by fire occur in fires that happen at night while dren who drown in bath tubs or shallow water bodies are retrieved by locals
the victims are asleep.
RESIDENTIAL SPRINKLERS Sprinklers are installed without requesting the services of the Sub-Aqua Unit.
by experts from water sources approved by
installers. Individual sprinkler heads are only
activated when fire occurs. Fire sprinklers have
The onset of the land resettlement programme in 2000 led to in an increase in
been used to protect commercial buildings the number of drowning cases attended to by the Sub-Aqua unit, although the
and there are also sprinkler systems devel-
oped for residences that offer a high level of number of such cases dropped remarkably in 2004. However, the statistics
fire safety for both lives and property. Sprin-
klers can be connected directly to standard
show that drowning reports went up again in 2005. This is probably due to the
home/school plumbing systems. heavy rains received in that year, coupled with the harsh economic environ-
FIRE ALARMS A fire alarm system may also pro-
vide monitoring services by dialing your tele- ment, which compels inexperienced people to fish for both their own use and
phone to report a fire or intrusion to a secu-
rity office, where it will be reported to your
business purposes. The successful agrarian reform has exposed many chil-
local police or fire department. dren who now have access to water bodies with very little, if any, supervision.
The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that a lack of water safety techniques among
members of the public in both rural and urban areas, contributes significantly
to the number of drowning cases. This section considers some of the reasons
that most of Zimbabwe’s dams and rivers swallow lives instead of sustaining
them. Water safety tips are also given to minimise lose of life.

Definitions and types of drowning

Drowning is defined as “The process of experiencing respiratory impairment
from submersion/ immersion in liquid.” (International Life Saving Federa-
tion)
Basically there are two types of drowning:
DRY DROWNING Before someone drowns, they will try by all means to keep
their head above the surface of the water. During the process of struggle, the
victim uses a lot of energy, coupled with rapid breathing because the body is
in a state in which it requires more oxygen than usual. As the victim becomes
tired, their head will occasionally go underwater. Involuntary gulps of water
are taken by mouth and/or nose as the victim tries to breath while submerged.

147
This water is destined for the lungs but, before the water enters the passage to
the lungs, there is a valve at the back of the mouth known as the ‘larynx’.
When the larynx comes into contact with the water, there is a muscular spasm
known as the ‘laryngeal reflex’ that completely seals off the passage to the
lungs. This reflex action is so strong that no water enters the lung passage.
The water from the mouth or nose is, therefore, diverted to the stomach. Mean-
while, the body continues using the oxygen in the lungs until it is exhausted.
The victim will then lose consciousness. The lungs remain dry, hence the
name ‘dry drowning’. In most cases, the victim does not sink to the bottom
due to the air in the lungs, which act as a buoyancy (floating) aid. The top of
the head usually remains above the water’s surface. Since the larynx uses oxy-
gen to maintain its grip, it will eventually release the grip and allow entry of
water into the lungs. The body will then sink to the bottom.
WET DROWNING Unlike in dry drowning, the grip of the larynx is not strong
enough to seal the passage to the lungs or the reflex action does not occur at
all. When the water enters, it displaces all the air in the lungs. Once the water
reaches the lungs, some of it is absorbed into the bloodstream, thereby dilut- After rescuing or resuscitating someone who
ing the blood. This process is known as ‘heamo-dillution’. In approximately had drowned, it is imperative that they be
taken to a hospital so that a physician can
two minutes, water equal to half the volume of blood will have been absorbed. check on heamo-dillution. At the hospital,
For example, if an adult person has approx eight pints or five litres of blood, blood samples of the victim are taken and
thorough checks are made for the presence
in two minutes time four pints or two and half litres of water will have been of water in the blood. If any water is de-
tected, corrective measures are taken. In
absorbed into the bloodstream. This massive heamo-dillution impedes the some cases, death has been recorded after
transportation of oxygen and the heart will reject this thin blood and cease to as long as 24 hours where victims of drown-
ing are resuscitated and appear to be well
function (i.e. cardiac failure). only to collapse and die suddenly.

Causes of drowning
There are many day-to-day activities conducted by individuals that expose
them to the risk of drowning, as well as some involuntary situations that
contribute to drowning cases. The Sub-Aqua Unit has identified the following
situations and activities as the major contributors to the number of drownings:
FLOODS A flood is a sudden or gradual immersion of an area under varying
levels of water. Floods are usually caused by heavy or excessive downpours
in low lying areas, bursting of dam walls and backflows of small tributaries of
larger rivers. A flood usually has an impact on human livelihoods. The most
affected by floods are school children, the general public and motorists.

Fig 6.15 Annual Drowning Inci-

dents Attended by the Sub-Aqua
Unit, 1999-2005

148
Death in fresh water will occur after approxi-
mately two minutes, caused by an acute short-
age of oxygen to the brain cells and other
vital organs of the body. Fresh water is the
water found in rivers and dams that does not
contain any salt.
In seawater, the process is slightly different
in that, instead of water in the lungs being
absorbed into the bloodstream, it is the blood
that loses its fluid content to the water in the
lungs. The blood thereby becomes very think
and difficult for the heart to process. Cardiac
failure occurs within approximately eight min-
utes.
Despite the times given before someone dies,
there are many factors that can prolong this
time. If the drowning involves an infant, death
is prolonged considerably because infants re-
quire very little oxygen to sustain life. The
time can also be extended if the drowning
occurs in very cold water because the metabo-
lism rate is reduced when subjected to cold
temperatures.
In response to these features;
• School children should be escorted during floods,
• Flooded rivers should never be crossed as it is safer to wait until the water
level subsides,
• Bridges should be used where they are available,
• Members of the public should not pressurise drivers to cross flooded riv-
ers,
• Farming on islands should be avoided,
• Although it is not encouraged, if one has to swim across a flooded river, it
is best to swim diagonally following the current, with the head out of the
water,
• Avoid gold panning during the rainfall season, and
• Under normal circumstances, only cross a river in which the water is be-
low knee level.
FISHING Due to economic hardships and exposure to former commercial
farm dams where many species of fish are in abundance, children are sent by
their parents to capture fish in drag nets or by fishing with a rod. When the
catch for the day is big, some of the fish is sold. However, people end up
drowning while undertaking this activity, particularly during the rainfall sea-
son.
Drowning while fishing can be avoided by not fishing alone and choosing a
fishing site that is free of weak crumbling banks, sloping and slippery rocks,
and that does not necessitate standing in the water to fish. Avoid swimming
for a hook if it becomes entangled in weeds or tree stumps and discourage
children from using drag or gill nets.
SWIMMING While swimming is a refreshing and enjoyable activity, especially
during the hot season, it is one of the activities that claims a high number of
children. In swimming pools, the death toll is minimal because lifesavers are
usually readily available. Children from rural areas and farms are more vul-
nerable because they often lack adequate supervision when swimming.
Children should swim under the supervision of a good swimmer or trained
lifesaver and observe the following;
• Never swim alone,
• Do not stay for long periods of time in cold water,
• Do not swim wearing heavy clothing,
• Do not show off, or succumb to peer pressure to go into situations be-
yond your swimming ability,
• Learn how to swim in shallow water under the guidance of a capable swim-
mer,
• Do not overestimate your swimming capability, and
• Do not dive into water of unknown depth, and beware of submerged ob-
jects.
CROCODILE ATTACKS Unlike other super predators that spend a lot of time
and energy hunting for their pray, a crocodile usually lies in wait for its pray
because no living creature can survive without drinking water. A crocodile
may appear to be a simple and harmless reptile but is very swift and vicious
when attacking. Like all other predators, the crocodile will usually attack an
isolated victim.
149
If attacked by a crocodile avoid panicking and attempt to take one or more of Home pools should be fenced and it is im-
portant to ensure that the pool gate is closed
the following actions; and latched at all times.
• Use your thumbs to press the eyes of the reptile or to twist its small
forelegs, If one accidentally falls into any water body,
be it a dam or river, one should not panic but
• If there is a stick within reach, poke it into the mouth of the crocodile, remove shoes and heavy clothing. People
• If you have a knife strike the fragile area between the crocodile’s eyes, tend to close their eyes when hitting the wa-
ter but keeping them open might reveal
• Cling to a tree or anything solid that can be reached, and something to cling onto. Wave one hand to
attract attention and shout for help.
• Shout for help.
HIPPOPOTAMUS ATTACK Hippos are usually harmless but can be extremely
dangerous when provoked, if they are protecting young ones or when encoun-
tered at night. Because of its front teeth, which are approximately 30 cm
long, very few people survive hippo attacks. Therefore, do not provoke hippos,
for example, by throwing objects at them. When canoeing, avoid going near
hippos, especially those with young ones, or crossing between an adult hippo
and its young.
BOAT CAPSIZE The following are guidelines for staying safe while using a
boat;
• Take a lockmaster’s course before operating a boat,
• Ensure that you carry safety material like life jackets, fire extinguisher,
bailers, oars etc. (it is an offence not to, for the first two items),
• Never overload the boat and make sure that people and equipment are
evenly distributed throughout the boat to maintain its stability and bal-
ance,
• Keep a watch on weather conditions that may cause large waves, and
• Avoid hippos especially those with young ones.
ACCIDENTS NEAR WATER Accidents that occur near water claim valuable lives.
Where accidents occur at bridges or where vehicles plunge into water bodies,
they take a high toll because some people die from injuries while the major-
ity die due to drowning. The photographs below shows an incident that oc-
curred at Palmgroove farm on 22 January 2005, when a lorry carrying farm
workers plunged from the dam wall into a dam, drowning 22 people, mainly
children who could not swim to safety.
Important measures to prevent such accidents near water include not driving Members of the Sub-Aqua Unit
while under the influence of alcohol, not overloading buses or other vehicles searching for bodies of people who
and always approaching bridges with caution. In addition, all wells or other drowned when their lorry skidded
pits and shafts must be covered. into a dam in Shamva (above).
Retrieved bodies of those drowned
BATHING For reasons of modesty, people usually take a bath alone in se- (below).
cluded areas. Anyone intending to bath in a dam or river is encouraged to (Source: CPD)

choose shallow places because, if a bath is taken in a deep spot, there is a

danger of slipping into the water and drowning. People are also encouraged to
bath with someone else so that, in the event of a mishap, help will be readily
available.
MURDER The Sub-Aqua Unit confirms that they attend many reports of mur-
der. Criminals forcibly drown their victims, in an attempt to simulate an acci-
dental drowning, or discard the body of someone they have murdered into a
water body. When swimming, people are also discouraged from pushing non-
swimmers into the water because they may end up being charged with murder.

150
It is not recommended practice to fish alone
in crocodile infested dams or rivers. A per-
son who does is an easy target for crocodiles.
When fishing in crocodile infested rivers or
dams, fish from a distance from the edge of
the water body. Never enter water that is known
to be crocodile infested and keep hands away
from the water surface when boating.
Note: An angry bull hippo is characterised by
stubbornness and will allow short distances
with an approaching boat before it submerges.
Some children are also drowned when they
accidentally fall into uncovered wells and
mine shafts.
Buckets and tubs should be emptied when
not in use to avoid curious children putting
themselves at risk by playing with the water
inside.
One painful incident occurred in Rusape in February 2003 when a mother of
two threw her children into a dam, claiming that she had no food for the chil-
dren and, therefore, had decided to drown them. She has since been convicted
of murder. People are encouraged to seek counselling, especially from
churches and voluntary organisations, rather than resort to such measures,
when faced with problems.
SUICIDE There are some people who, when faced with problems, commit sui-
cide by jumping into rivers and dams. Once again, counselling is the better
solution.
Rescue methods
Before undertaking the rescue of a drowning person, consider your safety.
Many people loose their lives while attempting to rescue someone else. Re-
member that speed is vital. Life can be lost through indecision.
In addition to the rescue methods illustrated in the Figure 6.16, the ‘swim
and tow’ is an effective method but it must only be attempted by a trained or
strong swimmer. Before undertaking this type of rescue, always remember
that a drowning victim can be dangerous because once they hold on, they will
not let go.
Therefore:
• Approach the victim from behind to limit the chances of them holding
you;
• Allow the victim to loose energy before getting closer;
• Hold the victim from behind and reassure them immediately so that they
relax; and then
• Tow the victim to safety.
First aid
Teachers and students are encouraged to pursue short First Aid courses be-
cause many people undeservedly loose their lives because of lack of resusci-
tation skills by rescuers. First Aid is a broad subject but this section covers
just some simple and straightforward hints on how to resuscitate a victim of
drowning.
Firstly, determine whether the patient is responsive. If they are unresponsive
and not breathing, resuscitation must begin as soon as the rescuer reaches the
victim, even while in the water.
The first aider should use the ABCs of first aid:
A Ensure an open Airway (by tilting the head backwards or the chin lift).
Assess breathing by looking, listening and feeling for ten seconds.
B If there is no Breathing, administer two effective breaths. Assess signs
of life by checking for movement or breathing.
C If there are no signs of life, carry out Chest Compressions at the rate
of 100 compressions per minute. In adults, use fifteen compressions
followed by two effective breaths through the nose or mouth and, in
children, five compressions followed by one effective breath through
the nose and mouth.
151
When ensuring an open airway, check for foreign objects in the patient’s air-
way. Assess breathing and if it is present, place the patient in the recovery
position and check for continued breathing while you wait for qualified per-
sonnel to arrive, or refer the patient to hospital as soon as possible.
Figure 6.16 Common and Rec-
Reach With a long stick, a scarf, ommended Rescue Methods
clothes or anything else. Crouch or
lie down to avoid being pulled in. Adapted from RoPSA http://www.rospa.com/
safetyeducation/index.htm

Wade Test the depth with a long stick

Do not attempt to relieve water from the
before wading in and then use the patient’s stomach. Doing so could drive
stick to reach out. Hold on to materials (usually food) from the stomach
into the patient’s airway and cause obstruc-
someone else or the bank. tion.

Throw A rope is best – you can then pull

in the person. Otherwise throw something
that will float – a ball, a plastic bottle, a
lifebuoy...this will keep the person afloat
until help comes.
General advice
In order to ensure that the general public
is safe from drowning hazards, children
should be encouraged to learn how to swim
when they are very young.

It is hoped that people will take heed of all

the information given and to help spread it
so that lives are preserved, rather than be-
Row Use a boat if there is one ing lost to this essentially life giving liquid.
nearby and if you can use it safely.
Do not try to pull the person on board
in case they panic and capsize the
boat.
• In 2002, at Zindimo Island in Masvingo, people were marooned on an island along BOX 6.9 SOME DROWNING INCIDENTS
the Mutirikwi River and were rescued by the Air Force of Zimbabwe in conjunction
with the Sub-Aqua Unit.

• In February 2000, 36 people perished when the Chawasarira bus driver attempted to
cross the Mudzi River in flood. The bus was swept by the current and innocent lives,
including those of several children were lost. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and
retrieved bodies of victims at the scene and along the river.

• In Mana Pools, tourists were canoeing down the Zambezi river when three large
crocodiles approached from behind. The tour guide warned his clients to keep their
hands off the edges of the canoe since the crocodiles were waiting for an opportunity
to strike. On realising that the occupants were not careless, one crocodile knocked
the canoe from the bottom. As the canoe was dangling, a 17 year old girl who was in
the canoe with her father held onto the edges of the canoe, presenting the anticipated
opportunity for the giant reptiles. She was dragged from the canoe and had
disappeared within a few minutes. Sub-Aqua Unit divers were summoned and, with
the help of the tour guide, two crocodiles were shot, dragged out of the water and had
their stomachs ripped open. Remains of the girl were recovered from the stomachs
of the reptiles.

• Another case occurred in Gache-Gache fishing camp, where six people in a canoe
were attacked by a vicious bull hippo. Their small fiberglass boat was shattered
before the occupants were bitten by the hippo. The Sub-Aqua Unit attended and
recovered the badly injured bodies of the fishermen. The hippo was shot prior to
diving in the dam.

• In 1995, 22 children from Moleli High School drowned when the boat they were
onboard sank in Lake Chivero. Had the captain observed the requirements when
operating a boat with this many passengers, the lives of the children could have been
saved. If every child had been wearing a life jacket, no one would have died. Sub-
Aqua Unit divers retrieved the bodies.

152

A holistic approach to understanding the en-
vironment assists in identifying the wide range
of issues responsible for the destruction of
the environment in Zimbabwe. The Depart-
ment of Natural Resources (DNR) (2006) lists
these, according to the order of threat, as:
· Deforestation (destruction of trees through
cutting, fires, gold panning, mining activi-
ties etc);
· Pollution through effluent discharge, gold
panning, mining activities, etc;
· Biodiversity loss through fires, poaching,
cutting down of trees and overgrazing;
· Drought, climate change and ozone deple-
tion;
· Land degradation through soil erosion, gul-
lies, gold panning, over grazing and lack
of conservation measures in agriculture;
· Poverty;
· HIV and AIDS;
· Threat from noxious weeds such as, water
hyacinth and Kariba weed in some of the
country’s water bodies and lantana camara
which invades the fields.
CHAPTER 7
Environmental Degradation
Introduction
The benefits to human beings of living in a healthy environment cannot be
underestimated though it is not difficult to pinpoint humankind as the chief
single player in the disruption and destruction of the environment. A lot of
human activities – the basic quest for shelter, clothing and food, as well as
more advanced activities related to industrialisation and economic growth –
damage the environment. These processes, inherent to human behaviour and
activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards), that damage the natu-
ral resource base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems, consti-
tute ‘environmental degradation’.
Environmental degradation is described by the Zimbabwe Environmental Man-
agement Act (EMA) CAP 20:27 as “the depletion or destruction of poten-
tially renewable resources such as soil, grasslands, forests or wildlife, by
using them at a faster rate they are naturally replenished”. It is important to
note that, as defined in the EMA CAP 20:27 and used in this chapter ‘environ-
ment’ is a broad term which encompasses biotic and abiotic variables occur-
ring in the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and so on. The inter-
actions work in combination to determine the potential effects on the envi-
ronment. These potential effects are varied and may themselves contribute to
an increase in vulnerability, and the frequency and intensity of natural haz-
ards. Zimbabwe is faced with a number of challenges pertaining to environ-
mental protection and sustainable utilisation of natural resources. Some of
the main processes involved in the land degradation in the country are out-
lined in Figure 7.1.
Generally, recurrent droughts, poverty, HIV and AIDS, and the unstable
macroeconomic environment have resulted in more people resorting to
activities that have severely negative effects on the environment. This chapter
is devoted to heightening awareness of the environmental activities of
particular concern in Zimbabwe and looks at some of the major environmental
risks and hazards in the country. It also discusses institutional measures that
have been put in place to promote disaster mitigation and impact abatement
in the environment sector, recognising that the effects of natural disasters,
such as droughts and floods, are exacerbated by negative anthropogenic
intervention and pressures on natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, land
resources and forests.
Principles of Environmental Management (according to EMA CAP 20:27)
Authorities, and all other stakeholders, including individuals, should apply
the following principles where their actions affect the environment signifi-
cantly:
IMPLEMENT SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT which must be socially, environmen-
tally and economically sustainable;
153
 Figure 7.1 Interaction of the
Processes Responsible for Land
Degradation in Zimbabwe
Gandiwa and Mutanga (2005)

PROMOTE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION and environmental awareness, and the

sharing of knowledge and experience must be promoted in order to increase
the capacity of communities to address environmental issues and engender
values, attitudes, skills and behavior that are consistent with and support sus-
tainable environmental management; and
THE POLLUTER PAYS for damage to the environment.
The Act specifies that every person has a right to: B O X 7.1 S T U D E N T S SHOULD KNOW THEIR

ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS
• A clean environment that is not harmful to health;
• Access to environmental information;
• Protect the environment for the benefit of present and future generations; and
• Participate in the making and implementation of reasonable legislative policy that
prevents pollution, and secure environmentally sustainable economic and social
development.

Extracted from EMA CAP 20:27

Soil Erosion and Gullies

cline, especially under extensive farming practices. Hence soil erosion has
become an issue of major concern in Zimbabwe. The country ranks among
Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the
the top twenty worst affected countries of the 62 surveyed by the World country and is accelerated in certain parts.
Bank. Studies done on soil loss show that, yearly, the country losses an average Areas of high erosion are those with soils that
are easily damaged by wind and water, while
of 76 tonnes, or 640 wheelbarrows, of soil per hectare. The most seriously moderate rate areas are those with soils that
are not so badly affected. The soils in these
affected area is the middle veld of the Save Runde catchment area, where areas suffer less erosion and often have more
about 96 million tonnes are lost in a single year (DNR, 2005). Population plant cover. The two most important factors
contributing to the statistical variation in ero-
pressure, overstocking and poor farming practices like inappropriate tillage, sion are soil type and population density.

154
 are the major culprits. It is estimated that it takes twenty years of careful
conservation measures for the soil to be restored to an acceptable level of
fertility. Since the people farming in these areas cannot move, are poor and
depend exclusively on farming, this is almost impossible.
Soil erosion is not uniform throughout the country and is accelerated in certain
parts. Areas of high erosion are those with soils that are easily damaged by
wind and water, while moderate rate areas are those with soils that are not so
badly affected. The soils in these areas suffer less erosion and often have
more plant cover. The two most important factors contributing to the statistical
variation in erosion are soil type and population density. Studies show that
there is a direct positive correlation between increases in the extent of eroded
terrain, soil type and increases in population density. This relationship is
especially valid for the communal lands, which are mostly located in agro-
ecological regions III, IV and V. These are areas that receive little rainfall,
naturally have less vegetation and where soils are of poor quality. When the
rains fall in such areas, the soil is easily washed away. But of paramount
importance in soil erosion and its distribution in Zimbabwe is human activity
and the way that it interfaces with natural vulnerability. The relative ranking
(high, medium, low) of districts in Zimbabwe affected by soil erosion and
gullies is shown in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2 Districts in Zimbabwe

Affected by Soil Erosion and Gul-
lies
Approximated from DNR data

The soil erosion process

Soil erosion involves the detachment of soil particles from larger aggregates
and the removal of the particles by flowing water and wind, but is an extremely
complex phenomenon dependent on several forces, which vary both spatially
and temporally. The process of detaching and transporting soil particles is
determined by how much energy is applied, while resistive forces, which are
mainly related to soil properties, help overcome the applied energy forces.
This is why soils that have a high organic matter content and stable aggregates
are able to withstand the effects of raindrop impact more readily than soils
with low organic matter content and unstable aggregates. A good vegetation

155
 Figure 7.3 How Vegetation Pro-
tects Soil from Heavy Rainfall
Source D Macdonald and M Archer: Rural Land
Degradation

Rates of soil formation in Zimbabwe are very

slow (400 kgs/ha/year), whereas rates of soil
erosion are very much greater; estimates for
average soil losses on croplands and grazing
areas on commercial farms are 5 tonnes/ha/
cover constitutes a protective force as it neutralises energy forces by inter- year and 3 tonnes/ha/year respectively. The
equivalent averages for communal lands are
cepting raindrops and dissipating their energy before they reach the ground. 50 and 75 tonnes/ha/year (DNR, 2006).
Protective forces may also include a variety of human factors, such as soil
conservation practices, that either increase or reduce erosion, depending on
their presence or absence (see Figure 7.3).
Vegetation normally protects soil from being washed away by rain and also
from ‘splash erosion’ caused by the impact of raindrops. The raindrops move
the soil particles and pack them together on the surface, sealing the pores and
thereby decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff. ‘Sheet erosion’ is a more
serious form of erosion in which fine layers of topsoil carrying soil nutrients
wash away. Unless the nutrients are replenished artificially, crop yields will
decline.
Zimbabwe is affected mostly by the following types of erosion:
SPLASH EROSION when the topsoil is removed from the surface due the force
of rain drops. The soil particles scattered by the raindrops block soil pore
spaces. This hinders percolation and results in sheet erosion.
SHEET EROSION is often associated with large areas of gently sloping land
which is flooded evenly after a heavy downpour. The fertile surface soil over
the whole piece of land is washed away if there is no vegetation to prevent
this (see Figure 7.3). In the climatic conditions that prevail throughout most
of Zimbabwe, sheet erosion is dominant as an effect of rain splash and run-
off, both surface and sub-surface. Cutting down trees, burning of grass and
the impact of dense population in some areas have created ideal conditions
for sheet erosion. During the windy, dry season, especially in August, Sep-
tember and early October, wind can also aid sheet erosion.

156

Cultivating right in front of a
prohibiting sign for the City of
Harare
(Source: CPD 2006)
The result of overgrazing in
Beitbridge.
(Source: CPD 2006)
RILL EROSION occurs when raindrops on the soil’s surface cause particles to
be gradually washed away along narrow and fairly steep channels, either al-
ready existing or caused by the rain water itself.
STREAM BANK EROSION is a combination if rill and gully erosion. The main
factor causing it is streams or rivers with steep banks. Because the gradient is
steep, rills, and later gullies, are easily created by water rushing down the
slope after heavy rains. This type is most common in densely populated com-
munal lands, and urban areas where stream bank farming is practiced. If the
natural dense vegetation cover along the streams is removed, the soil becomes
exposed and easily washes away down the slopes into the stream. Communal
areas along all major rivers experience this type of erosion.
GULLY EROSION takes place when rain does not sink into the soil after a heavy
or continuous downpour. A gully begins as sheet erosion, where fast flowing
water rushes over the soft soils or rock loosening the soil and washing it
away. Usually this fast flowing water is trapped in and confined to a small
surface, which it cuts into, creating deep grooves and ditches that gradually
lengthen, widen and deepen. The trenches so formed are known as ‘gullies’
and if not controlled can become large. This type of erosion can badly dam-
age land and make it difficult to reclaim. Gully erosion is widespread and
causes the greatest threat to the environment, especially in communal areas.
Unless gullies are repaired through conservation measures, they render the
land completely unusable.
Causes of soil erosion and gullies
The way people use the land has an effect on soil erosion. Certain activities,
especially poor farming methods such as monoculture and its implications
on soil resources, can loosen the soil and reduce its ability to absorb water.
Human activities that accelerate soil erosion and ultimately cause gullies
are:
• OVERGRAZING If too many cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys are reared
in small areas without proper planning, overgrazing results. These
animals, through heavy grazing, quickly remove plant cover, such as grass
and trees. Animals like goats and donkeys uproot the grass when grazing.
This exposes the soil, preparing it for easy erosion by water or wind. If
there are too many cattle in an area, their hooves can loosen the soil,
especially along tracks converging on watering points or dip tanks.
• GRASS BURNING This destroys the plant cover, thereby exposing the
soil to wind and rain. The fire may also kill some trees. Humus in the
soil is also burnt up, creating poor soil structure that will not absorb
much water.
• POOR FARMING METHODS In many steep areas contour ridging has not
been established or is poorly constructed. The steep slopes make it easy
for the rain to wash loosened soils down the slope and into valleys and
streams. When farmers plough up and down slopes, instead of across,
the furrows they establish accelerate soil erosion. Over cultivation and
cultivation of land that is unsuitable for crops can also increase soil
erosion.
• STEAM BANK CULTIVATION This is a common feature of many densely
populated communal lands. Farmers are attracted by the fertile soils
found along the river valleys as well as the proximity of the water source
157
 and some plant vegetable gardens near to rivers. This practice has
accelerated soil erosion and contributed to severe siltation of rivers.
• USE OF SLEIGHS Using sleighs, which loosen the soil, dragging of logs
over bare land and careless handling of ploughs when transporting them
to and from the fields all damage the soil and contribute to erosion.

OPEN PIT MINING Open pit mining and gold panning loosen the soil and ex-
pose it to erosion.
POOR SITING Construction of roads in unsuitable places as well as poor siting
of dam spillways are contributory factors in erosion.
Stream bank cultivation is
Figure 7.4 shows how soil erosion leads to increased flood hazards. common in peri-urban Zimbabwe

Effects of soil erosion and gullies

Allowing soil erosion to take place and gullies to form can affect people in
the following ways:
• Very high rates of siltation of rivers and reservoirs, especially of the
flooding low lying areas as rivers may be diverted from their normal
channels by heavy silt.
• The soil losses its natural fertility, leading to a general declines in crop
yields. It has been estimated by the DNR that, in some areas, the cultiva- Stream bank cultivation along the
tion of maize may only be possible for another fifteen years before soils heavily silted Msengezi Reiver.
become too shallow for crop growth, and that sorghum cultivation may (Source CPD 2006)

be impossible within thirty years.

• Expensive chemical fertilisers are washed away by flooding before be-
ing absorbed into the soil.
• Land for crops is quickly lost, leading to a lack of suitable land for cul-
tivation and grazing and, consequently, poor harvests and livestock.
• A lot of soil washed into rivers means a reduction in the water carrying
capacity of rivers as well as a lowering of the quality of the water.
• Too much silt in rivers, streams and dams may cause the death of fish.
• People’s homes, clinics and schools can be destroyed by gullies.
• Features of the natural environment, including animals, trees and other
plants are destroyed and wetlands are lost.

Figure 7.4 Flooding Due to

Erosion
Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man-
agement Center (1989)

158

A huge gully that formed right
across the main road in Gokwe,
leading to temporary closure of
the road.
(Source: CPD, 2006)
Adding humus, manure and chemical
fertiliser to the soil improves its water hold-
ing capacity by creating a crump structure.
This crumpy porous structure encourages wa-
ter to sink quickly to minimise erosion.
People need to be taught modern ways of
farming, such as not to plough down slopes
and that, wherever possible, steep slopes
should not be cultivated at all. Farmers should
be taught to build contour ridges as in
Charumbira District in Masvingo, where ridges
have been made and are being maintained.
Stream bank cultivation must be stopped com-
pletely. In Zimbabwe, by law, people are not
allowed to cultivate within 30m of a river or
stream.
Public awareness programmes should be
stepped up so that people are aware of the
dangers associated with soil erosion, and this
education should be backed by legislation.
Preventive measures
Preventing gullies is always cheaper than trying to control them when they
have already formed. To prevent gullies, it is important to first manage the
natural resources in the area, i.e. trees, vegetation, and soil, primarily by con-
serving the soil on which the other resources depend.
Soil conservation involves using soil wisely. The most important and first
step in conserving soil is to hold it in place and there are various methods for
this. Erosion caused by falling rain can be prevented by keeping the land un-
der crop or plant cover for most of the year. Cover plants like vertiver grass
and creeping plants and trees should be grown to protect the soil by absorbing
the force of raindrops and enabling the water to trickle into the ground slowly.
Afforestation goes further in that it helps to replace soil cover.
Where there are steeps slopes on hillsides, terraces should be built. Each
terrace is like a level step on the hillside. Grass or stone banks hold the soil in
place and prevent water from flowing downhill. Each terrace slopes backward
into the hillside, so that water is held until it drains into the soil. Terracing has
been successfully used for centuries by farmers all over the world and Nyanga
has many examples of ancient terracing. Also traditional terracing has been
practiced in the eastern highlands where pineapples are grown in strips across
the hillsides. The rows of the pineapples catch the soil and so form terraces.
Farming practices also have a marked impact. For example:
• Mixed farming or intercropping practices stabilise soil particles;
• Erosion caused by overstocking is prevented by reducing the number of
cattle per person (destocking) or by resettling the excess population in
sparsely populated areas, as the Government of Zimbabwe has done in
communal areas throughout the country;
• Strong, well planned grazing paddocks (rotational grazing) as established
in Matanga in Mberengwa make it possible for grass and trees to recover
after heavy grazing by cattle; and
• Dip tank sites can be carefully chosen to minimise gully erosion along
cattle tracks, using fairly level and wooded sites instead of steep slopes
like river valley sides, and drawing the water for the tank from boreholes
instead of streams.
Controlling a gully
Gullies can be controlled by filling and shaping them with a variety of materi-
als, like brushwood barriers, log or stone check dams, stone pitching, gabions
and trees, grasses and other vegetation. By doing so, further soil erosion will
be avoided because the speed and amount of run-off via the gully will be re-
duced.
Where gullies start to form:
• First find out what caused the gully and trace the root of the problem;
• Prevent the primary cause and any other problems that may cause the
gully to get worse;
• Divert water run-off from the gully;
• Keep cattle out of the gully area;
• Slope the walls of the gully and plant trees, shrubs, and grasses along the
slopes and bed so that water runs gently into and along the gully; and
• Lay pruned or dead tree branches across the head of the gully to slow
water run-off, trap soil and debris and allow grass to grow.
159
Blocks or barriers can be built at intervals so as to reduce the speed of running
water. These can be made of tree poles fastened together across the gully or
stones heaped across. After some time, sediment fills up the gully behind
the barrier. To make these barriers more permanent, shrubs grass and trees
should be grown around and on the sediment once it has been built up. Efforts
to control a gully in Matabeleland South are shown in the photograph below.
Some of the soil conservation and
gully control methods used in
Matabeleland South.
(Source: CPD)

BOX 7.1 THE ZIMBABWE CONSERVATION MOVE-

MENT

Recently, the Rural District Councils Act as

amended by the Environmental Management
Act has provided for the establishment of En-
vironment Committees and sub-committees
by all Rural District Councils.

160
 Gold Panning as a Hazard
Environmental inspections by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
have revealed that gold panning is one of the major causes of environmental
degradation in Zimbabwe. The past few years have seen a multitude of people
resorting to gold panning as a coping strategy in the face of the increased
frequency and periodicity of droughts and the prevailing harsh macroeco-
nomic environment, which is characterised by hyperinflation and high unem-
ployment rates. According to the International Fund for Agricultural Devel-
opment (IFAD), by 1997 at least 60 percent of sub-Saharan Africa was vul-
nerable to drought and probably 30 percent was highly vulnerable.
It is estimated that over 600 000 people are directly involved in gold panning
activities along 5 000km of Zimbabwe’s major rivers, including Mazowe,
Angwa, Insiza, Runde and Bubi rivers (Maponga and Ngorima, 2002). Nation-
ally, the worst affected areas are Mazowe District, Kadoma District (wards
12, 14, 15 and 16), Makonde District (Dova Farm, Urume Farm, Chikuti area,
Nyati Farm), Umguza District (wards 1 and 2), Shurugwi District, Kwekwe
District, and Gutu District (see Figure 7.5). These districts are along the Great
Dyke as this region is richly endowed with gold and other minerals. A further
2 million people in Zimbabwe are thought to be earning their livelihood indi-
rectly from gold panning (DNR, 2005).
Gold panning induced siltation has further reduced the water carrying capac-
ity of rivers, thereby threatening the very existence of several millions of
people who rely on water from rivers for irrigation, and domestic and indus-
trial uses. Habitat destruction and fragmentation associated with gold pan-
ning affects biodiversity and riverine ecosystems as well as other sensitive
ecological systems, such as wetlands. Rivers may also be forced to change
course, thus threatening settlements during the rainy season.
CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION At Ran Mine, panners dug tunnels into abandoned
slimes dams. The tunnels are now collapsing and posing a threat of water
contamination by cyanide should there be a heavy downpour (DNR, 2003).
Cyanide is an extremely toxic chemical, the effect of which on biodiversity
and human health can be very dangerous.
Figure 7.5 Districts Worst
Affected by Illegal Gold Panning
DNR (2005)

161
The presence of chemicals like mercury, which is used extensively in gold Table 7.1 Land Rendered
panning activities, has severe and far reaching consequences for riverine eco- Unsuitable for Agriculture by
systems. It is estimated that annually, gold panners use six metric tonnes of Panning Activities in Mashonaland
mercury (Gandiwa, 2006). When mixed with water, as is the case in gold pan-
ning, mercury is lethal to plants and human beings. Mercury has a long life
District Number of Extent of
span in water, remaining active for up to thirty years, thus compounding the
Panners Damage(m²)
problem of water pollution and increasing risk to human health and aquatic
Bindura 3485 1 240 000
life. A study carried out in Insiza revealed that panners are now showing symp-
Shamva 860 202 000
toms of occupational mercury poisoning, such as general body weakness,
Mazowe 10 000 58 000
nausea, and gum inflammation and ulceration (Ngorima and Maponga, 2003). Total 14 345 1 500 000
INFRASTRUCTURAL DAMAGE Irrigation schemes and other related infrastruc-
ture, such as roads and schools, have not been spared the effects of gold pan- Central
ning. According to CPD reports, in 2004, a football pitch at Globe and Phoe-
nix Primary School in Kwekwe was completely destroyed by panners. After
digging up the pitch, the panners moved into the school grounds where they
dug deep pits in front of classrooms and the school Principal’s office. A deep Box 7.2 Quote from a DNR Official
tunnel was dug close to the main school block, threatening the stability of the
structure and putting the lives of innocent school children and teachers at “Gold panning is an alarming
risk. development whose ramifications on
riverine ecosystems are equally
In the same area, the panners went to the extent of digging under the railway frightening and so is the occasional
line resulting in the Harare-Bulawayo train service being temporarily sus- loss of human life”
pended. Gold panners excavated the sides of the road linking Zvishavane and
Gweru, at Boterakwa in Shurugwi, leading to severe structural damage. Fur-
thermore, they tampered with the water reticulation system as they vandalised
the water pipes in search of water for cleaning their gold. In Bindura town,
underground water pipes were vandalised and damaged by panners resulting in
severe water leakage.

The socioeconomic hazards of illegal gold panning

Illegal gold panning has a negative impact on society and on the country’s
economy. The inevitable mushrooming of unplanned gold panning camps re-
sults in poor sanitation and waste disposal, leading to outbreaks of disease
such as cholera and dysentery, not only among the panners, but also spreading
to other community members residing in areas surrounding the gold panning
sites. Illegal gold panning camps usually attract young male adults who, in
turn, attract commercial sex workers, thus contributing to the spread of sexu- Gold panners left (above) power
ally transmitted diseases, including HIV and AIDS. The pits built during gold cables exposed and (below) animal
panning often collapse, leading to occasional loss of human life. It has been drinking water contaminated by
observed that poaching is rampant in areas where illegal gold panners stay and mercury, in addition to degrading
massive destruction of woodlands for fuel is also evident.
the environment.
These practices deprive local inhabitants of income and destroy their local
environment, as the camps are usually inhabited by non residents. Gold pan-
ning induced siltation has reduced the water carrying capacity of rivers and
mercury water pollution threatens the very existence of several millions of
people, both nearby and far off, who rely on water from rivers for irrigation,
domestic and industrial uses. Gold panning has both increased as a result of
and had some negative effects on the land reform as many of the former farm
workers have turned to panning which they are finding far more profitable
than working on either the old or the new farms.
Gold panning prevention and control methods

162
 Resources
BOX 7.3 MESSAGE FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF
Illegal gold panning has now reached unprecedented levels
NATURAL RESOURCES hence this environmental problem that currently needs urgent
attention to avoid disaster to both the biophysical and human
environments. All stakeholders are thus called upon to practice,
promote and adhere to principles of sound environmental
management. We have a heritage to protect for future
generations. Indeed, we should be prepared to endure pain as
we undergo a phase of self-correction and the restoration of
discipline in the environmental management sector.

Gandiwa (2006)

Some approaches that need to be undertaken to either prevent or, at least,

control gold panning are:

RECLAMATION Local authorities and schools should be actively involved in

the reclamation of areas degraded by gold panning, by backfilling of the mined
areas in the public streams.
GOLD PANNING PERMITS Issuing permits, would help to ensure that regula-
tory requirements are adhered to by panners in line with the terms of such
permits.
LAW ENFORCEMENT Statutory Instrument 275 of the Mining (Alluvial Gold)
(Public Streams) Regulations of 1991 and the Environmental Management
Act (Cap 20:27), which set out regulations and punitive measures for those
who engage in activities or operations that have adverse effects on the envi-
ronment, should be enforced. Any person or agency wishing to extract miner-
als must carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to determine
the implications of their activities and must develop a management plan to
mitigate any negative effects on the environment. Law enforcing agents are
seen inspecting the damage left by gold panners in the photograph above.
CAPACITY BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING This should be conducted
for local authorities, whose officers should be trained to produce local envi-
ronmental action plans in compliance with the EMA. Participatory method-
DNR personnel conducting joint ologies to promote integrated sustainable development planning by commu-
inspections with the Zimbabwe nities are recommended. The local communities should be made aware of
Republic Police. methods to manage their environment and natural resources sustainably.
(Source: DNR, 2005)

AWARENESS RAISING CAMPAIGNS Environmental educa-

tion awareness campaigns should be carried out with a
view to raising public awareness and sharing of knowl-
edge to cultivate values, skills and behaviour among the
population, that are consistent with sustainable environ-
mental management.

Deforestation
Forestry resources are essential to the energy and eco-
nomic requirements of the majority of Zimbabweans.
Wood fuel accounts for over 90 percent of the total
energy provision of rural communities and almost 15
percent of this amount is taken from forests. The deple-
tion this causes is accelerated by the demand for indig-
enous building materials, natural forest fires and the land

163
resettlement exercise. The single largest cause of woodland depletion, how-
ever, is from land clearance for agriculture.

Deforestation is the removal or damage of vegetation in a region that is pre-

dominantly tree covered. It is a slow onset hazard that may contribute to di-
sasters caused by flooding, landslides, drought and desertification. It is one
of the major causes of land degradation in Zimbabwe. This process has
reached critical levels, as large areas of vegetation have been removed or
damaged, harming the land’s protective and regenerative properties by expos-
ing the land to the agents and processes of accelerated soil erosion. For ex-
ample, from 1990 to 2000, the country lost, on average, seven times more of
its forest cover than the world average rate (see Figure 7.7). The rapid rate of
deforestation in some parts of the country is believed to be a driving force in
the yearly increase of food shortages in these areas.

Earth Trends (2003)

Of the total land area of 30.226 billion hectares, the combination of cropland
and natural vegetation constitute the largest portion, at 54 percent, followed
by grassland savannah at 43 percent. Forests take up a mere 2 percent, with 1
percent being wetland and water bodies (Figure 7.6). Zimbabwe’s woodland
cover is being denuded at a rate of 1.5 percent per annum. The highest rates
are in the communal areas, where a 50 percent decline in vegetation cover
was experienced between 1963 and 1978. The need to clear land for agricul-
Table 7.2 Ecosystem Areas of
ture caused the loss of about 60 000 hectares of land annually over this pe-
Zimbabwe by Type
riod (DNR, 2006). The use of biomass fuels further compounds the gravity
of deforestation as about 80 percent of household energy demands in both
Total forest area, 2000 (000 ha) 19 040
rural and urban areas come from these. Thus firewood collection can contrib- Natural forest area, 2000 (000 ha) 18 899
ute to the depletion of tree cover, particularly in lightly wooded areas. The Plantations area, 2000 (000 ha) 141
outright destruction of trees for fuel occurs most commonly around cities Total dryland area, 1950-1981 (000ha 26 317
and towns, where commercial markets for firewood and charcoal exist. Well
organised groups and individuals bring fuel wood by vehicle, and animal carts
into cities, hastening local deforestation.
The satellite image gives evidence of the massive deforestation in the com-
munal lands as compared to the adjacent commercial farms, as shown by con-
trasting light and dark tones on the satellite mosaic (Figure 7.8). The small
administrative units are communal lands where the land cover is severely Figure 7.6 Ecosystem Areas by
Type 1992-1993
Earth Trends Country Profiles (2003)

164
 degraded (light colors). The difference in land cover between former com-
mercial and communal lands, as shown by the satellite images, is dramatic.
The former boundaries of the two land systems could be drawn on the image
in many places without the need for a map of administrative boundaries, sim-
ply by outlining the degraded regions. The high vegetation cover in the former
commercial areas reflects the very low population and good land conserva-
tion methods, which should be preserved by the new farmers.

The importance of trees

Trees play a vital role in regulating our atmosphere, ecosystems and weather
systems. They recycle carbon dioxide, a gas now increasing in the atmosphere
and thought to contribute to global warming. They release moisture to the
air, thus contributing to rainfall and moderating local and global climates.
Their roots trap nutrients, improve soil fertility, and also trap pollutants,
keeping them from the water supply. They provide habitats for many species
Fig 7.7 Percentage Change in
Forest Area by Type, 1990-2000

Analysis of multi-temporal satellite images

between 1998 and 2002 for selected districts
has revealed an average loss of 1.4 percent
per annum for both forests and wooded ar-
eas. Certain districts have even registered
wood losses of more than 10 percent during
this period (Gandiwa, 2006). For the period
1990 to 2000, the total area of natural forest
shrunk by about 15 percent, whereas forest
plantations grew by a mere 2 percent (Figure
7.7). Uncontrolled veld fires have also led to
the loss of vegetation in many districts in Zim-
babwe, destroying thousands of hectares of
natural ecosystems.

thus engendering diversity. They nurture traditional cultures by giving shelter,

wood, food and medicinal products. These benefits are lost as trees are
destroyed. The root systems of vegetation help retain water in the soil, anchor
the soil particles and provide aeration to keep soil from compacting. When

Figure 7.8 Landsat Mosaic of

Commercial Farms and Parks, and
Communal Lands

US Landsat Series, Earth Satellite Corporation, Land Cover and Land Use Change Program
(LCLUC)(2000)

165
 Impacts of deforestation
vegetation dies, the nutrients go back to the soil but when root systems are Some of the negative impacts of deforesta-
removed, the soil is destabilised. Water tends to flow off the top of the soil tion are that:
· Destabilised soils are more susceptible to
instead of percolating in, and carries valuable topsoil along with it. This silt landslides and may increase the landslide
risk in areas vulnerable to earthquakes,
eventually forms sediment in the drainage basins. Deforestation poses the like Matabeleland North and Manicaland;
most immediate danger by its contribution to other disasters. · Loss of moisture from deforestation may
contribute to drought conditions, which, in
turn, may trigger famines;
Prevention and control of deforestation · Soil nutrients may also be lost through ero-
sion of topsoil, resulting in decreased food
If the vicious circle of land degradation cannot be stopped, the source of production and possible chronic food short-
ages;
existence of large parts of the country’s population will be severely damaged. · Erosion and dry conditions combined with
loss of vegetation and soil compaction re-
The following are some of the measures to reduce the problems caused by sult in desertification and unproductive
deforestation: lands (see figure 7.8);
· It causes destruction of biodiversity and
traditional cultures, loss of ‘free’ goods,
FOREST MANAGEMENT New farmers have deforested new areas to create agri- such as fuels, food and medicines;
· Dryness may accelerate the spread of fires;
cultural land. Forest management must be considered in the broadest sense · Research has conclusively proven that de-
of land use planning to include solutions for these people as well as for the forestation of watersheds, especially
around smaller rivers and streams, can in-
trees. crease the severity of flooding, reduce
stream flows, dry up springs in dry sea-
sons and increase the amount of sediment
REFORESTATION Social or community forestry, in which trees are planted entering waterways;
outside of regular forested areas, is one viable long term strategy to meet · Additional strain is placed on women it
terms of time and energy, which have seri-
forestation targets. True community forestry involves participation by a large ous implications on their other work in ag-
riculture, housekeeping, productive em-
number of people, ensuring that trees are protected, and improving the liveli- ployment and childbearing;
hoods of the local people by increasing the productivity of the land. · Trees contribute to the hydrological cycle
as well as the regulation of the climate by
acting as carbon dioxide sinks (carbon di-
FARM FORESTRY This is a type of social forestry where woodlots are estab- oxide, greenhouse gas is removed by pho-
tosynthesis); and
lished by farmers on their own land for personal use and for profit. · Deforestation tends to exacerbate other
disasters.
MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL WOODLANDS Recent data suggest that potential
yields from natural woodlands have been underestimated and it should be pos-
sible to increase yields at a much lower cost than establishing new planta-
tions. An advantage of natural woodlands is the natural production of a wide
variety of harvestable products compared to single crop plantations.

Community participation in reforestation

If local people have no say in the planning of their forests or do not under-
stand the importance of them, it is likely that they will not maintain them.
New saplings, if unprotected, can be quickly consumed by domestic animals.
Furthermore, the labour input of the people is usually vital to the project.
Specific steps that can be taken at the community level include:
• Establishing community based education programmes as part of school
curricula and at village councils and the use of media such as radio, tele-
vision and newspapers;
• Encouraging non governmental organisations to foster grassroots
programmes involving small farmers and landless people who depend on
forests and trees for their survival;
• Encouraging programmes at the village or farm level for reforestation,
and mitigation procedures for already deforested land using terraces and
catch dams;
• Introducing alternative cooking stoves that reduce fuel needs, and alter-
native sources of fuel; and
• Promoting means to increase agricultural production, such as the use of
fertiliser and improved seed varieties.

166
Figure 7.9 Comparison of Effects
of Vegetated and Non-Vegetated
Regions
Adapted from Natural Hazards, Disaster Man-
agement Center (1989)

Veld Fires and Bushfires

These are fires that get out of control and, in the process, destroy extensive
tracts of forests and grasslands, as well as animals and other natural resources,
and people and their property. Veld fires tent to be seasonal and are most
common during the dry season. The speeds of onset vary with atmospheric
temperature and wind speed. In Zimbabwe, the collective term ‘veld fires’ is
used to cover all outdoor fires but, in other countries, ‘veld fires’ is used to
describe fires on veld areas with few trees and ‘bushfires’ to describe those
that ravage forests.

Veld fires as hazards

The chance of a veld fire in any given locality on a particular day depends on
the fuel conditions, topography, time of year, wind direction and speed, the
past and present weather conditions, and the ongoing activities (debris burn-
ing, land clearing, bee smoking, etc.). Because the fire cycle is an important
aspect of management for many ecosystems, controlled burns are routinely
conducted. These are not considered hazards unless they get out of control.
The Zimbabwean climate produces a long pe- However fires can end up as disasters, if not quickly detected and extinguished.
riod of winter and spring drought, which trans-
lates as low plant moisture and, as a result, Even a small fire can get out of control and possibly cause a disaster in the
high flammability. Land use patterns have
changed. From early times, fire was used to
wild. In the thickly forested areas of the country, veld fires usually spread as
eliminate shrub land. This management prac- a thin front of flame, with flames usually about as thick as they are high.
tice was used because it was thought to in-
crease water yields, resulting in increased
grassland production. It is during the driest These fires, especially in the plantations, can travel at 1 to 3 km/h, have flames
period of the year, from July to the beginning
of the rainfall season in October, that Zimba-
5 to 10 metres high and thick, and will pass a spot in 30 to 60 seconds. This is
bwe has a large number of veld fires. Hu- because, in the drier seasons, dry grass and shrubs burn easily and, all too
mans are usually the culprits in starting these
fires. Incidences of lightning causing large veld quickly, veld fires can become huge, spreading to destroy everything in their
fires are very isolated, except in some plan-
tations where the exotic trees are flammable
path, including human life, homes and other buildings, crops, livestock, for-
even when they are wet. Figure 7.10 illustrates ests and veld life. Thus a veld fire can be considered one of the most destruc-
the high frequency of veld fires in Zimbabwe,
as compared to other forms of fire. The posi- tive forces of nature. Fire fighters, both professional and volunteer, risk their
tive aspect also being shown also is that the
veld fire incidences show a downward trend
lives each year to control and eventually extinguish them. Most of Zimbabwe’s
during the period reviewed (1999 to 2003). most devastating veld fires have happened where they have raged through the

167
 Figure 7.10 Common Types of
Fire Experienced in Zimbabwe

Causes of veld fires

Collecting honey from the forest is very popu-
lar in Zimbabwe but the main method uses
fire to inactivate the bees. The fires, which
dense plantations of the eastern Highlands and the dense forests of game re- are at times left burning at the site, can grow
to engulf the whole forest. Other causes are:
serves, where even some human life has been lost as well.
· Sparks from moving steam engines;
· Careless throwing away of lit cigarette
Weather and veld fires stubs by the public;
· Use of fires to clear vegetation and open
Low relative humidity, high winds and lack of rain all contribute to increased up new arable lands, as is a long stand-
ing practice in Zimbabwe;
fire danger. Sunshine and high temperatures rapidly dry timber and grass (fuel), · Use of fires to expose game, especially
which burn very quickly. Hot air can lower the moisture content of forests recently among poachers on newly re-
settled farms where the land is still vir-
and grasslands, greatly increasing the speed of the fire. These determinants gin;
· Deliberate sabotage, for example, to
are discussed below: settle scores over land control, and
· Lightning, which has been known to start
WIND Air movement provides the oxygen the fire needs to keep burning. fires especially in plantations with exotic
trees.
Higher winds mean more oxygen and more intense flames. Doubling the wind
speed will quadruple the rate of spread of the fire. Winds also carry burning
embers downwind, which can start new fires. This is known as ‘spotting’.
RAINFALL Dry grass, parched native shrubs and dead leaves and twigs are a
fire’s basic fuel. During droughts and in very hot, windy weather, even heavy
fuels like large logs and the green leaves and smaller branches of large trees
can become dry and flammable.
HUMIDITY Relative humidity is the most commonly used measure of atmo-
spheric moisture and is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapour
actually measured to that which the air could hold at saturation point. Very
low relative humidity of, say, less than 20 percent, causes fuels to dry out and
become more flammable.
HIGH RISK WEATHER PATTERNS By world standards, Zimbabwe has a fairly
low and very unreliable rainfall, and droughts are a significant feature of the
Zimbabwean climate. Dry spells create a high fire risk, particularly if the dry
spell follows a period of good rain that has encouraged lush growth. Weather
systems, like the highs, lows and cold fronts that appear on weather maps,
control the temperature, humidity and wind. Each part of Zimbabwe has its
own special combination of weather systems that produces severe bushfire
conditions but, in all cases, these conditions result from hot, dry winds blow-
ing from Africa’s arid central region.
168

Forest fire danger rating index
indicator. Such indicators are com-
mon in the Eastern Highlands
where there are plantations, to
show the public the rating of the
fire hazard on a daily basis.
(Source: CPD)
It is necessary to be alert to fire alarms dur-
ing the fire season and, in case of a fire out-
break, one should:
· When the fire is still small, beat the fire
using a beater, tree branches or wet sacks
or blankets;
· Douse the flame with water;
· Clear (with a hoe or other implement) a
strip in the direction of the fire;
· Use counter burning; and
· Inform the fire brigade or the nearest
police station.
Figure 7.11 Fire Danger Maps of
Zimbabwe, Rainfall and Dry
Seasons
Figure 7.1l shows the fire hazard mapping us-
ing the fire danger index for different fore-
casting periods.
The fire danger index
Temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, drought and the amount of fuel
can be combined into a ‘fire danger index’, to which colour codes are then
allocated to represent the various defined ranges. The ranges are as follows:
GREEN Burning may be carried out, but with caution;
ORANGE If possible, postpone burning to another day when the fire danger
estimate is in a lower range;
RED Do not do any burning at all, as it could easily get out of control.
Effects of veld fires
The effects of veld fires vary with intensity, area and time of year. Under
adverse weather conditions, veld fires in Zimbabwe’s eucalyptus plantations
cannot be stopped. Effects can be highly destructive, extending to complete
destruction of valuable resources, such as buildings, livestock, crops, vegeta-
tion, timber, veld life and habitat, recreation areas, and watersheds. Losses of
life and personal property occur as well. Severe fires producing high soil
temperatures, create a water repellent layer below the soil surface. The soil
above this layer remains bare and denuded, resulting in increased water run-
off, and becomes highly prone to erosion, often resulting in mudslides. Thus
veld fires also lead to land degradation and formation of gullies, as well as
reducing soil fertility. A further result of this is decreased infiltration, which
may leave farmers without enough water to recharge boreholes, springs and
rivers, as well as less water for livestock, irrigation, wildlife and people. The
high fire frequency is also a threat to historic shrub lands, which risk being
converted to annual grasslands if they are burnt.
Prevention and control of veld fires
Bushfires are usually fought by a large number of trained volunteers along-
side a core of professional firefighters with vehicle mounted equipment (in
accessible terrain). In large bushfires, bulldozers and graders are used to cre-
ate emergency firebreaks ahead of fire fronts. Back burning from firebreaks
is frequently effective in slowing or stopping the spread of fire.
It is a legal requirement that farmers intending to burn vegetation on their
properties notify the occupiers of adjoining land. The following are the re-
quirements:
• Issue a preliminary notice stating the date of proposed burning;
• Burning must take place not less than two weeks or more than eight weeks
after the date of giving notice;
169
• Issue a final notice to all occupiers of adjoining land and the ZRP, stating
the time of the proposed burning, not less than six or more than 24 hours
before burning;
• If, for any reason, the burning does not take place a fresh notice shall be
given;
• Members of the public shall not burn growing or standing vegetation on
any land except in accordance with the law.
Construct fireguards to control fires. These are belts of not less than 9m in
width that should be cleared of all flammable materials. Fireguards should be
maintained regularly to keep them clear of vegetation and fuel reduction (con-
trolled) burning is to be carried out during the cooler seasons (May and June).
The risk of a veld fire occurring can be reduced if people take a reasonable
amount of care and use common sense when dealing with fire or materials Mutare Timber Plantation
that ignite easily. A carelessly thrown cigarette butt, exposing game through destroyed by fire (above) after a
fire, or a campfire not properly extinguished, are common causes of fires small fire was set (below ) to clear
that could easily be avoided. the land for farming.
Source: CPD 2003)
Always follow the weather forecast on radio, television or in the daily
newspaper for advice on when to schedule burning on your property or else
use the fire danger placard if there is one erected near your home. If caught
in a veld fire while driving, stay in the vehicle and do not drive through flames
or smoke. You should:
• Stop at a clearing or by the roadside in a low vegetation area;
· Switch off the ignition and turn on the hazard lights and headlights;
• Stay inside the car unless near safe shelter;
• Keep vents, windows and doors closed; and
• Lie down, below window level, preferably under a woollen blanket until
the fire front passes.
Research shows that in a bushfire, a car petrol tank is unlikely to explode in
the period needed to stay inside the vehicle, using it as a shield against the
deadly radiant heat of the fire front.
If caught in a veld fire when on foot, don’t panic. Cover all exposed skin, then
move across slope, away from the fire front, then down slope towards the
rear of the main fire. Try to use open or already burnt ground. Do not try to Vital points to remember
If you are in a house or car you will be safer
out run the fire, run uphill or go through even low flames, unless you can than in the open while the fire front passes.
If caught in the open you must protect your-
clearly see a safe area close by. self from the radiant heat of the flames by
every possible means. A heavy, pure wool
If it is not possible to avoid the fire, protect yourself from heat radiation by blanket (to wrap around you) and a flask of
water (to drink and to moisten a corner of the
lying face down under an embankment, rock, loose earth or in a hollow, or if blanket as a smoke mask) are basic require-
possible, get into a pond, dam or stream – but not into a water tank. The water ments for bushfire survival and will give pro-
tection against radiant heat, dehydration and
tank may be heated easily by fire resulting in the water boiling. asphyxiation even in intense fires.

An Overview of Pollution
Pollution is defined as the introduction by humans into the environment of
substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living
resources and ecological systems, or damage to structure. Forms of pollu-
tion include:
• Chemicals which destroy flora and fauna or increase their growth to
unacceptable levels;
170
• Physical parameters like radiation noise and temperature variations; and
• Biological means, through the introduction of micro-organisms, which
result in diseases like coliforms.
Three types of pollution that can be tackled at national level – water pollu-
tion, air pollution and littering – are discussed below. This is followed by a
discussion of major global level pollution issues.

Water Pollution
Water is not an infinite resource and Zimbabwe may soon head towards a
water crisis if the resource is not managed well. This crisis is already evident
in many parts of the country, varying in scale and intensity depending on the
year, time of the year and location. The main sources of freshwater pollution
are the discharge of untreated waste, dumping of industrial effluent, and run-
off from agricultural fields. Industrial growth, urbanisation and the increas-
ing use of synthetic organic substances have already had serious and adverse
impacts on freshwater bodies. For instance, the discharge of raw sewerage
into aquatic systems by Harare City Council has polluted Lake Chivero, which
is the major source of water for Harare Metropolitan Province (Gandiwa,
2006). Zimphos, a fertiliser company discharges nutrient rich effluent di-
rectly into the city watercourses (Mugadza, 1997).

The polluted water in turn provides a conducive environment for the prolif-
eration of invasive alien species, such as the water hyacinth, which has now
colonised large parts of Lake Chivero (DNR, 2006). This floating aquatic
weed has affected tourism as well as economic activities such as fishing.
Recent large scale fish deaths and the rate of spread of the water hyacinth
suggest that the ecosystem is being stressed by high levels of pollution in the
lake’s catchment area. Ecological degradation also adds to the problem. Re-
cently deforestation on an unprecedented scale has lead to soil erosion, caus-
ing accelerated run-off and deposit of sediments in riverbeds. The sediment
level in rivers has increased more than a hundred-fold in deforested areas
during the rainfall seasons, leading to serious siltation. Siltation on a massive
scale is now evident in almost all major rivers in the country (Nhapi, 2000).
Therefore, this section concentrates on the fundamental information we need
to resolve our persistent water pollution problems, including understanding
the basic concepts, causes, and prevention and control measures. Table 7.3
shows the major dams providing water for various uses in Zimbabwe. The
need to preserve these waters must not be underestimated.

Water resources are critical to Zimbabwe’s agriculture, as well as its rural

and urban populations. The same is true for agro-industries, the manufacturing
sector and mining, all of which depend heavily on water for their production
processes. The country has no natural lakes and there are only a few perennial
rivers. Water storage development is dependent on run-off accumulated during
the rainfall season. In Zimbabwe, there are presently over 8 000 dams, of
which only 135 have dam walls higher than 15 metres. Thus most dams have
little storage capacity. The total storage capacity is approximately 4 900
million cubic metres, of which 80 percent is stored in 100 dams of more
than two million cubic metres (ZINWA, 2006).

171
 The effects of water pollution are not only
Types of water pollutants and their effects devastating to people but also to animals,
fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable
Some of the sources of pollution of the country’s water bodies are discussed for drinking, recreation, agriculture or indus-
below: try. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes
and rivers. More seriously, contaminated wa-
ter destroys aquatic life and reduces its re-
SUSPENDED PARTICLES Suspended solids include silt and clay particles from productive ability. Eventually, it becomes a
soil run-off, industrial waste, and sewage. A high concentration of suspended hazard to human health. Nobody can escape
the effects of water pollution and yet, it is
solids reduces water clarity, contributes to a decrease in photosynthesis (which undeniable that fresh water is our most val-
ued and sought after renewable resource.
converts carbon dioxide to oxygen), can bind with toxic compounds and heavy
metals, and can lead to an increase in water temperature through greater ab-
sorption of sunlight by surface waters. Warm water holds less oxygen than
cold water, and so this can be detrimental to some aquatic life. Sediment that
is carried by run-off from eroded soil is deposited in drainage basins, reduc-
ing the river’s water carrying capacity and thus exacerbating flooding.
NUTRIENTS Nitrates found in sewage and fertilisers, and phosphates found in
detergents and fertilisers are the source of nutrients for aquatic plants and
algae. Agricultural run-off, urban run-off, leaking septic systems, sewage dis-
charges, and eroded stream banks can enhance the flow of these substances
into lakes. When in excess, they over stimulate growth of these organisms
and can clog navigable waters, use up dissolved oxygen as they respire and
decompose and block light to deeper waters, in a natural process called
entrophication. Human activities tend to accelerate this process by increas-
ing the rate at which nutrients and organic substances enter lakes from the
surrounding watersheds. This deprives fish and other aquatic invertebrates of
life sustaining oxygen as they compete for the scarce commodity, leading to
a decrease in animal and plant diversity. It also affects the general use of
water for fishing swimming and boating.
PATHOGENS These are certain waterborne bacteria, viruses and protozoans
that can cause human illness, ranging from typhoid and dysentery to minor
respiratory diseases. The organisms can enter waterways through a number of
routes, including inadequately treated sewage, storm water drains and septic
systems, run-off from livestock pens and boats that dump sewage.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS Deterioration of water quality may be due to its
enrichment (entrophication) with degradable organic materials including sew-
age, or effluents from food or other industries, farms or fish farms. In addi-
tion, leaching of minerals from agricultural land or from other sources of
enrichment can lead to the development of algal blooms which, when they
die, cause increased biochemical oxygen demand. The higher biological oxy-

Water hyacinth in Seke River. Note

that, in this section, the water is
not navigable.
(Source: CPD 2006)

172
Table 7.3 Major Dams of Zimba- Dam Catchment Capacity Purpose Other Uses
bwe Kariba Zambezi 160 368 000 HY FT
Mutirikwi Runde 1 378 000 IR WS FT
Manyame Manyame 480 000 IR WS FT
Orsbone Save 401 000 IR FT
Mazvikadeyi Manyame 343 000 IR F T MI
Manyuchi Mzingwane 309 000 IR FT
Manjirenji Runde 274 179 IR FT
Sebakwe Sanyati 265 733 IR WS F
Chivero Manyame 247 181 IR WS F
Insiza Mzingwane 173 491 IR WS F
Bhiri Manyame Manyame 172 463 IR F

Key: IR = Irrigation; WS = Water Supply; MI = Mining; HY = Hydroelectric; F = Fishing; T = Tourism

ZINWA (2006)

gen demand (BOD) resulting from these sources of pollution can increase
loss of dissolved oxygen and can lead to the death of aerobes, including fish.
Other problems arise due to release of effluents from manufacturing indus-
What is water pollution?
tries.
When toxic substances enter lakes, streams,
rivers and other water bodies, some are dis- ORGANIC SUBSTANCES When organic matter, such as manure or sewage, in-
solved, lie suspended in the water or are de-
posited on the bed. This results in the pollu- creases in a pond, the number of decomposers will also increase. These de-
tion of water, whereby the quality of the water
deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems.
composers grow rapidly and use a great deal of oxygen during their growth.
Pollutants can also seep down and affect the This leads to a depletion of oxygen as the decomposition process occurs
groundwater deposits.
(eutrophication). Lack of oxygen can kill aquatic organisms. As these organ-
When these pollutants are carried into a
stream by surface run-off it leads to the seri-
isms die, decomposers break them down, leading to further depletion of the
ous deterioration of water quality and ren- oxygen levels.
ders the water unfit to drink without treatment.

Raw sewage from a burst sewer
(above) usually flows to contami-
nate nearby streams (below) that
flow into dams providing drinking
FAECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA These are derived from the faeces of humans
and other animals. These bacteria can contaminate rivers, lakes and oceans by
direct discharge, from agricultural and storm run-off, and from sewage dis-
charge into the water. In a combined sewer system, after heavy rains, untreated
or inadequately treated waste may be diverted into a body of water. Faecal
coliform bacteria by themselves are not pathogenic, that is, they do not cause
illness or disease, but they are associated with viruses and parasites that do
so. Since pathogens are usually scarce in water, they are difficult to measure;
instead coliform levels are monitored, because of their greater abundance,
and their association with pathogenic organisms (Nhapi, 2000).
RECREATIONAL USE OF WATER Untreated sewage, industrial effluents and ag-
ricultural waste are often discharged into the water bodies such as lakes and
rivers endangering their use for recreational purposes, such as swimming and
canoeing. Exposure to polluted water can cause diarrhoea, skin irritation, res-
piratory problems, and other diseases, depending on the pollutant that is in
the water body. Stagnant water and other untreated water provide a habitat for
the mosquito and a host of other parasites and insects that cause a large num-
ber of diseases. Among these, malaria is undoubtedly the most widely distrib-
uted in the country and poses the greatest threat to human health.

Prevention and control

It is necessary that:
• People stop the dumping and discharge of untreated effluent into water
bodies.
water. 173
(Source: CPD)
• Attempts be made to improve soils, which decreases the possibility of TOXIC SUBSTANCES A toxic substance is a chemi-
cal pollutant that is not a naturally occurring
water contamination by toxic chemicals and decreases run-off, thereby substance in aquatic ecosystems. The great-
est contributors to toxic pollution are mercury
lessening silting and sedimentation of waterways. Establishing terraces from gold panning, herbicides, pesticides and
industrial compounds.
and contour bands, building check dams and planting trees and shrubs
can help to stabilise soil.
• Watershed mapping, management and protection including avoiding
unplanned stream bank cultivation and wetland cultivation, be conducted
to ensure a safe and plentiful drinking water supply.
• Proper systems to dispose of human waste are promoted. Regulations
must be established and enforced by government agencies to protect
citizens against the toxic effects of pesticides and other chemicals.
Improvement of soils will also help to absorb and degrade toxins.
• Further studies be made of the effects of pesticide residues. Farmers
may use crop types resistant to pests or use an integrated approach to
pest management, requiring less pesticide.
• Pit latrines and soakaways (for most soils) are at least 30 metres from
any groundwater source and the bottom of any latrine is at least 1.5
metres above the water table. Drainage or spillage from defecation
systems must not run towards any surface water source or shallow
groundwater source (SPHERE Project, 2004).

Case study: water pollution in lakes Chivero and Manyame

Lakes Chivero and Manyame, which supply water to Harare and Chitungwiza,
are the most seriously polluted water supply lakes in the country. Several
factors have converged to compound the problem. The main one is that Lake
Chivero is fed by the Marimba, Manyame, Nyatsime (not shown in figure
7.12 but upstream) and Mukuvisi rivers. These rivers make up the drainage
system of the two cities. For example, the Mukuvisi River cuts almost right
across Harare. It is the most polluted river as it receives both industrial and
domestic effluent from the high concentration of industries and a highly popu-
lated city. On the other hand, Nyatsime, which starts off in Chihota communal
lands, has some problems of occasionally receiving raw sewage from the city
of Chitungwiza which contributes markedly to the pollution of Lake Chivero.
Sewage samples from Harare City Council’s treatment works at Firle, Table 7.4 Natural and Introduced
Crowborough, Mabvuku, Tafara, Marlborough and Hatcliffe ponds are col- Chemicals with Serious Health Ef-
lected and analysed each year. fects

Chemical Source and Use Effects on Health

Natural. Essential for protection against dental cavities and weakening of Excess fluorides can cause yellowing of the teeth, and damage to the spinal
Fluoride
bones. Found in higher concentrations in some parts of the country like cord and other crippling diseases
Binga

Natural. Increased by overpowering aquifers and by phosphorus from High concentrations can cause poisoning, liver and nervous system damage,
Arsenic
fertilisers vascular diseases and also skin cancer
Pipes, fittings, solder, and the service connections of some household Accumulates in the body and affects the central nervous
Lead
plumbing systems

Petrochemicals Petrol, diesel and other petrochemicals can cause cancer, even at low
Contaminate the groundwater from underground petroleum storage tanks. exposure levels system. Children and pregnant women are most at risk

Pesticides Affect and damage the nervous system and can cause cancer
Agriculture
Salts Makes the fresh water unusable for drinking and irrigation purposes
Naturally occurring

Mining waste and tailings, landfills, or hazardous waste dumps Cause damage to the nervous system and kidney, and metabolic disruptions
Other heavy metals

174
Figure 7.12 Location of Lake
Manyame and Lake Chivero
Relative to Harare

The other major potential sources of pollution along Mukuvisi River are in-
dustrial effluent in the Msasa industrial area, seepage from the landfill area
between Old Chiremba Rd and Cripps Rd, run-off in the city centre area, and
industrial discharges from Graniteside and Southerton industrial areas. Most
companies do not pre-treat their waste before disposal and, where this is done,
it is usually inadequate, as the technology has generally not been upgraded to
match current high production levels. Storm water run-off from the built up
areas usually carries a lot of chemicals, such as lead, phosphate and fertilisers,
thereby accelerating the rate of entrophication in the rivers and, eventually, in
Lake Chivero. A significant portion of Harare and Chitungwiza is composed
of vleis. Vleis provide significant ecological diversity to the areas in which
they are found as well as being an important element of the hydrological cycle.
But these vleis are now the hub of intensive agriculture for city dwellers.
Inevitably, fertilisers and pesticides used in this cultivation eventually leach
into watercourses.
As a result the quality of water in rivers and the lakes has continued to dete-
riorate and there have been instances in which fish were reported to have died
in large numbers. The water hyacinth weed has colonised the nutrient rich
waters and has become too stubborn to tackle, while, treating the polluted
water to internationally accepted standards has become too expensive.

Lake Chivero catchment

The catchment of Lake Chivero comprises 2 136km 2 consisting of
approximately 10 percent urban development and 90 percent rural area. The
Water-borne epidemics and health hazards latter includes communal and commercial farming lands in nearly equal
in the aquatic environment are mainly due
to improper management of water resources. proportions. The population is heavily tilted towards urban, to the extent that
Proper management of water resources has the current astronomical urban population growth will soon not be matched
become the need of the hour as this will ulti-
mately lead to a cleaner and healthier envi- by the water intake and waste water output for the urban areas.
ronment. In order to prevent the spread of
water-borne, infectious diseases, people
should take adequate precautions. The city Case study: water hyacinth weed menace in Zimbabwe1
water supply should be properly checked and
necessary steps taken to disinfect it. Water
pipes should be regularly checked for leaks
Water hyacinth in Lake Chiveo has received so much public attention due to
and cracks. At home, the water should be its proximity to Harare that Zimbabwe had to institute drastic control
boiled, filtered or treated by other methods
and necessary steps taken to ensure that it programmes to tackle the negative effects of aquatic weed infestations in its
is free of infection.
rivers, wetlands and water bodies. Three free floating aquatic weeds – water

175
 Table 7.5 Population in Lake
Urban Area 1969 1982 1992 2002
Chivero Catchment, 1969-1992
Harare 386 000 658 000 1 189 103 1 435 784
Chitungwiza 15 000 172 000 274 912 323 260
Norton 3 400 12 400 20 405 44 397
Ruwa * * 1 447 22 155
Total Population 389 408 42 400 1 485 867 1 825 596
% of National Population 7.6 11.2 14.29 15.7

* no data available

National Census Reports, CSO data

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and the water
carpet, azolla (Azolla azolla) are common in the country’s water bodies.
However, water hyacinth has had by far the greatest negative social and eco-
nomic effects and widespread infestations and is the most in need of lasting
control strategies.
The extent of water hyacinth infestation in Zimbabwe
Water hyacinth is a native of Amazonia and Brazil in South America, which
has, over the past 100 years, spread to many tropical and subtropical regions
of the world (Hartley, 1988). In Zimbabwe this weed has infested many rivers
and water bodies in different parts of the country since its first reported in-
troduction in 1937 (see Figure 7.13). The first serious infestations of the
weed were reported in the early seventies in Lake Kariba where it was con-
tained for a while by aerial sprays of herbicides. In recent times, there have
been reports of increased re-infestations by the weed. It is estimated that, in
1997, the infestations on Lake Kariba covered about 2 500 hectares.
The hyacinth has also seriously infested the Manyame and Mukuvisi river
systems, the Seke dams, Lake Chivero and the Chinamora wetlands. Estimates
Firle Sewage Works discharges into Mukuvisi
River and was designed to treat only 70 000m3
but is now treating 100 000m 3 per day
(Zaranyika, 1997). It is not suprising that stud-
ies done by Zaranyika (1997) show that vir-
tually all the indicators of water quality rose
after the Firle Sewage Works discharge point.
It was then concluded the Firle treated sew-
age effluent was a significant contributor to
the pollution of the Mukuvisi River, especially
in terms of nitrates, phosphates and heavy
metals. With more than 36 000m3 of treated
sewage effluent discharged daily into the
Mukuvisi river, the pollutants make the water
conducive for the growth of hycinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) (Nhapi, 2000). Another study done
by Moyo and Worster (1997) using data from
four sampling sites along the Mukuvisi river,
shows that Lake Chivero receives water that
is physiologically ideal for the growth of the
blue green algae Micrcystis aeruginosa. Gen-
erally the phytoplankton species diversity in-
creased after the discharge of treated sew-
age effluent. Eichhornia crassipes formed
extensive mats at Firle Works and patches
also occurred elsewhere downstream (Nhapi,
2000).

Figure 7.13 Water Hyacinth

Infestation in Zimbabwe
Gurure, 1999

176
Methods of water hyacinth control
There are four main methods for the control
of infestations range between 289 and 921 hectares, equivalent to 14.9 to
of water hyacinth: 34.9 percent of Lake Chivero between 1991 and 1996. Other severe
NUTRIENT ELIMINATION Constant large inflows of
improperly treated domestic and industrial infestations have since been reported in the Mana Pools area, Lake Mutirikwi
sewage provide eutrophicating nutrients
(mainly nitrogen and phosphorous) from in-
and the Mushagashe river, and in many other small rivers and dams in Bindura,
dustrial and domestic effluent that support Mazowe, Mutoko, Mudzi, Triangle and Chiredzi, among others places.
rapid proliferation of weeds. Eliminating the
nutrient source can retard proliferation of the
weed.
Biological characteristics of water hyacinth
M ANUAL CONTROL This method entails the re-
moval of weeds from the shoreline by hand Biologically, water hyacinth is characterised by:
or with rakes and other implements. It is ap-
propriate during the onset when infestation
is low and scattered. However, this method MASSIVE VOLUME AND WEIGHT Water hyacinth has large, broad leaves, tubular
may create other risks, such as drowning, at-
tack by crocodiles or leeches, and the con- stems and large air tubes, which are either free floating or rooted in the ground
traction of water-borne diseases. in shallow waters. It extends a large number of fibrous roots adapted to ab-
MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF WEEDS This method is sorb nutrients from the water. The plant forms dense growths in eutrophic
associated with high costs of procuring or hir-
ing machinery as it typically includes the use waters, forming mats, which may weigh as much as 25 kg/m2 or 2 500 t/ha. Its
of bulldozers and aqua-dozers to mechani-
cally pull out weeds from rivers and lakes. proliferation is associated with the levels of nutrients in the aquatic system.
Since this method has been used success- For example, Lake Chivero is expected to have much higher rates of weed
fully elsewhere, it could be tried in Zimba-
bwe. growth than Lake Mutirikwi because of the high nutrient inputs available there.
CHEMICAL CONTROL Herbicides can achieve rapid
and significant reductions in weed infestations RAPID GROWTH AND PROPAGATION The plant has very rapid rates of growth,
but this methods has a high negative envi-
ronmental impact from the after effects of which may be as high as 5 percent per day, depending on the nutrient levels.
the chemicals.
Its biomass, which consists of over 90 percent water, doubles in fifteen to
eighteen days. Propagation methods are through vegetative means and through
seeds. The seeds can remain viable for periods of up to fifteen years (Scott
and Ashton, 1979). Thus, even if the weed were totally removed, the possibil-
ity for regeneration would be high, necessitating continuous monitoring
programmes after initial eradication.

Problems associated with aquatic weed infestations

The specific problems arising from infestation by aquatic weeds are:

EXCESSIVE EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION Large surface area carpets of foliage, al-

low evapo- transpiration which can be as much as six times that of water sur-
faces not covered by weeds (Friedel, 1979). Large quantities of water are
also lost into the plants, which contain up to 95 percent water. This represents
a major water waste concern where conservation of water is a national prior-
ity.

DISRUPTION OF FISHING AND TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES Boats and fishing nets get
tangled in carpets of weed resulting in occasional breakdowns. The plant com-
petes for oxygen and ultimately deprives other aquatic ecosystems of it. The
presence of large carpets of weeds is not favourable in fish breeding areas
because of its negative effect on fish populations.

OBSTRUCTION OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES The large carpets severely affect

accessibility to the water for recreational purposes. Dead and decaying weeds
also affect the aesthetic appeal of tourist facilities when water and air quality
deteriorate because of debris and unpleasant odours. The impact of weeds on
the tourism industry in Zimbabwe needs to be investigated.

OBSTRUCTION OF WATER UPTAKE AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

Weeds clog water uptake pipes, sometimes resulting in large costs for the

177
 BOX 7.8 ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER DETERIORAT-
ING

repair of damaged pumps and other machinery. Over the years, City of Harare
has had to deal with the increasing costs of repairing and maintaining water
uptake equipment from damages associated with weeds. At Kariba, the func-
tioning of the hydroelectric plant has major implications for the economies
of not only Zimbabwe, but also other countries in the region – Zambia, the INCIDENCE OF DISEASE Water hyacinth provides
favourable habitats for breeding mosquitoes
Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. Therefore, the hydroelec- and snails, agents related to the spread of
tric power generation equipment has to be protected from clogging and dam- malaria and bilharzia respectively.

age by weeds.

Air Pollution as a Hazard

Air pollution is largely the result of transportation and industrial processes,
many of which release dangerous gases into the atmosphere. Thus it is basi-
cally concentrated in urban areas, meaning that much of our urban population
breathes polluted air most of the time. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a major pollut-
ant, is a corrosive gas harmful to humans and the environment. Electricity
generation using fossil fuels is the key source of this compound in some
cities. Excessive release of carbon dioxide is largely blamed for the rising
global temperatures. Burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, contribute also,
emitting other air pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, car-
bon monoxide and lead, mainly from vehicle exhaust. In Bulawayo and Harare,
air pollution problems have manifested themselves as smog, which is directly
related to these emissions, especially in winter when they are trapped at the
surface by temperature inversion.
It has to be noted that, while it is necessary to control the levels of air pollu-
tion in Zimbabwe, the problem is not as serious as in other countries where
gas masks are recommended at certain times of the season for those out-
doors in the city streets. However, Zimbabwe has experienced a rapid expan-
BOX 7.9 DO YOU KNOW THAT…
DNR (2006)

178
Figure 7.14 National Vehicle
Fleet, June 1994-July 1999
IPINA Country Report (2003)

sion in the national vehicle fleet; the number of vehicles almost doubled be-
tween 1994 and 1999 (see Figure 7.14). Zimbabwe’s petrol contains about
0.6 to 0.8 mg Pb/l making it justifiable to monitor Pb levels in the country’s
urban air, especially in the major cities. However, technological developments
now make it possible to treat or collect pollution at its source and the present
tight legislation (EMA) is now forcing companies in this direction.
Wood is the single largest source of energy for Zimbabweans, supplying about
48 percent of total energy consumed by the total population of approximately
12 million. More than 6 million tonnes of wood are consumed annually, sup-
plying mainly rural and urban low-income households (DNR). These devel-
opments have resulted in high emissions of air pollutants. According to city
health data, in 1994 the total annual sulphur dioxide (SO2) emission from
thermal power stations was 141 350 tonnes. Emissions from the industrial
sector in the same year were methane (CH4) 19.08 Gg; nitrogen oxide (NOx)
0.21Gg and carbon monoxide (CO) 1.38Gg.

Figure 7.15 Annual Mean Levels

of So2 in Harare, 1995-2001 (μg/
m 3)
APINA Country Fact Sheet (2003)

179
 Effects of air pollution
The City of Harare’s air quality monitoring data show that the SO 2 The pollution of the troposphere (lower at-
concentration consistently exceeded the WHO guideline of 50 μg/m3 by a mosphere) is damaging to agricultural crops,
forests, aquatic systems, buildings and hu-
factor of 2.25 (range: 1.73 to 3.96) times between 1995 and 2001, with the man health. Primary pollutants often react to
form secondary pollutants (acidic compounds),
year 2000 recording the highest SO2 concentration over the seven year period a frequent cause of environmental damage.
(see Figure 7.15). The following effects are possible:
· Wood smoke has been identified as a
significant risk factor for acute respira-
Examples of areas seriously affected by air pollution tory infections, yet in Zimbabwe about 70
percent of the poor in rural and peri-ur-
A visit to Torwood Township near ZISCO in Redcliff bears witness to the ban homes are daily exposed to high
indoor air pollution concentrations;
effects of air pollution on the environment as well as on health. The area has · Crop and vegetation damage by injury
to plant tissue resulting in reduced growth
literally assumed the colour of exhausts emitted from the blast furnaces at or death of vegetation, reduced crop pro-
the mine. The minister responsible for the environment in 1988, had to halt duction in agriculture and increasing sus-
ceptibility to disease and drought;
further expansions of the township because of compelling medical evidence · Decline in forests due to leaf damage by
acidic compounds, acidification of soils,
of serious health hazards posed by gas and dust emissions from the Zisco nutrient overload and the stresses of mul-
Steel Works. For the same reason, cement and major chemical plants are tiple pollutants;
· Damage to aquatic ecosystems so that
normally sited west of towns e.g. Sable Chemical near Kwe Kwe and Cement they no longer support life due to water
(salination and acidification);
Siding in Bulawayo, so that the pollutants do not blow into inhabited areas · Reduced atmospheric visibility and cli-
from the prevailing winds which have a predominantly easterly component. mate change;
· Corrosion of building materials, such as
metals, stone and brick;
· Damage to the respiratory tracts of hu-
Control of air pollution mans with a negative impact on overall
human health; and
Pollution can be controlled by laws to establish appropriate standards, and by · A greater burden of the effects on those
technology to achieve these standards. Control measures must mainly be car- who are already the most poor and vul-
nerable.
ried out at the source since, unlike water, air is difficult to clean once pol-
luted. The strategies are contained in the specified duties of the Air Pollution
Control Unit of Zimbabwe mentioned in Box 7.10.

The Air Pollution Control Unit is headed by an Air Pollution Control Officer BOX 7.10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL UNIT
who works with Air Pollution Control Inspectors to execute the following duties:
• Examining plans and proposals for new specified processes and for
extensions to existing, works like changing from fossil fuels to renewable
energy, encouraging effective use of energy;
• Advising industry on abatement technologies for air pollution from all specified
processes;
• Carrying out routine systematic visits to industries for the inspection of
abatement equipment on its operation and maintenance;
• Creating an awareness of air pollution problems in industry by regular
consultation with the public;
• Advising and assisting local authorities in the implementation of smoke control
regulations within their areas of jurisdiction;
• Engaging in isokinetic stack emission sampling of emissions from specified
processes throughout the country; and
• Enforcing the provisions of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act.

Any establishment that emits substances that pollute the air will have to apply for a BOX 7.11 DID YOU KNOW THAT…
license from the Environment Management Board and will have to operate according to
the conditions stipulated in that license, otherwise it may to be cancelled.

‘The penalty for emissions that contravene the prescribed standards is five years
imprisonment or a fine not exceeding 15 million dollars, or both such fine and such
imprisonment. The offender is also liable to pay the costs for removing the pollutants and
for restoration of the environmental damage’.

Air Quality Standards, EMA

There are a number of specific activities undertaken in Zimbabwe to monitor

air pollution. These are summarised in Table 7.6. 180
Table 7.6 Summary of Zimbabwe
Air Pollution Information
Extracted from Country Fact Sheet, APINA
(2003)
Littering is the ratepayer’s burden
The accumulation of litter will need urban au-
thorities to clean up, purify the dirty water and
repair burst sewers clogged by litter, thus add-
ing to their routine work and expenses. They
will not have any other alternative except to
pass on these expenses to ratepayers, re-
sulting in high rates payable to the council.
The vulnerability of the area to diseases
means that medical bills will be higher and
even death may result when there are dis-
ease outbreaks, such as cholera, dysentery
and typhoid. Urban flash floods may also be
caused by the blockage of storm drains caus-
ing traffic jams and road accidents to occur.
According to EMA (CAP 20:27) litter is any-
thing thrown away as unwanted material that
accumulates in a disorderly manner. It is a
state of untidiness and dirt. People create lit-
ter in homes, workplaces, prison camps,
schools, college campuses, streets and roads
(through vehicle windows as they travel). Lit-
ter can be leftover food, empty food contain-
ers, plastic, wastepaper, broken bottles and
rubble from construction, old scrap metal from
vehicles and engines, etc.
Main sources of Vehicular
air pollution Industrial processes
Mining and mineral processing
Energy production.
Agricultural and waste management.
Status of monitoring No systematic national monitoring exists but random monitoring is
carried out, including specific donor funded projects
Data from City of Harare Monitoring Unit, research projects and
industry available
The Air Pollution Control Unit (APCU) of the City of Harare Health
Department,
-carries out routine air pollution monitoring at 8 sites (data available
for 1995-2001)
-investigates complaints from residents on air pollution
-controls open burning
-is expected to inform the public of air pollution in the City of
HarareThe unit focuses on three pollutants – SO2, nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and black smoke/soot
Pollutants monitored SO2, CH4, NOx, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate
matter (PM), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia (NH3)
Number of monitoring Three sites used in 1990-91 study by the University of
stations Zimbabwe and 8 routinely by the Harare City Health Department
Capacity to study air Exists at the University of Zimbabwe, other research
pollution institutions and in industry
Air quality standards Drafted and to be implemented
Littering
The disposal of solid wastes is a major problem for many towns. Seemingly
endless streams of lorries are used to haul wastes long distances to disposal
sites from carefully designated collection points, keeping our towns clean.
But, with the growing population in towns and consequent increase in produc-
tion of solid wastes, there is a growing trend towards on-site disposal, which
only used to be practiced in the rural areas. The management of urban waste
and surplus materials is very important for the proper environmental manage-
ment of a town and all stakeholders should play their part, especially as indi-
viduals, in avoiding littering our towns.
Litter as a hazard
If organic solid waste is not disposed of and has an odour, major risks are
incurred of fly and rat breeding and surface water pollution. Uncollected and
accumulating solid waste may also create a depressing and ugly environment,
discouraging efforts to improve other aspects of environmental health. Health
hazards may result, leading to the outbreak of diseases such as cholera, dys-
entery and typhoid. Solid waste often blocks drainage channels and leads to
further environmental health problems associated with stagnant and polluted
surface water, such as bilhazia and malaria outbreaks. However, the most con-
spicuous and easily identifiable aspect is the loss of the aesthetic value and
beauty of an area.
Prevention and control of litter
Table 7.7 gives some of the actions that should and should not be taken to
avoid littering and the consequent damage to the environment.
181
Recommended treatment of refuse Figure 7.16 Grading of Litter
In your own home, it is recommended that you: Using Labelled Litter Containers
• Separate refuse by type, ensuring that material meant for the compost
does not go into the litterbin. Compost materials include vegetable and
fruit waste, garden waste, newspapers and cardboard boxes, i.e. material
that is biodegradable. Biodegradable materials are materials that are
capable of being broken down by living organisms into organic matter.
• Newspapers, empty bottles, empty plastic containers can be collected
and sold to companies that recycle e.g. National Waste Collections
Company recycles newspaper.
• Take a shopping bag or basket when going shopping to avoid carrying
too many plastic bags from the shops, as these may create more litter at
home.
At school or on a collage campus, you are advised to:
• Develop a college or school environment policy and implement it;
• Collect all wastepaper from offices, classrooms and lecture rooms for
recycling; There is growing trend towards
• Set up an Environment Club, which will help in identifying and solving onsite litter disposal in most
environmental issues at the school or college; and suburbs in Zimbabwe (below)
• Label containers to assist in separating litter e.g. bottles, plastic (http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Zimbabwe).

containers, biodegradable waste and wastepaper (see Figure 7.16).

Cooperate bodies and businesses should be responsible and practice recycling
or collecting potential litter arising from company products. They can also
design environmentally friendly and more biodegradable packaging for a
cleaner environment. Offering deposits on packaging returns, such as bottles,
tins and plastic containers for reuse is the best practice
Municipalities, Rural District Councils and persons responsible for the
maintenance at any site are required to:
• Ensure that refuse is collected regularly and on time;
• Provide containers that are suitable and large enough to contain the litter;
• Put in place by-laws that help control litter within their areas of
administration;

BOX 7.12 THE PENALTY FOR CAUSING LITTER-

ING

Table 7.7 Litter Don’ts and Dos

Don’t Do
Discard, dump or leave any litter on any land, Place litter in a container provided for that
storm drain, water surface, street, road or purpose on the street, roadside, school,
site in any place not provided for such pur- college campus or at home
pose Discard litter at a place that has been specially
set apart for such purpose, like a waste
Throw litter through windows and doors of disposal site or dumpsite
private or public vehicles Put litter in a container provided for that
purpose in a public vehicle

182

Figure 7.17 Minimum and Maxi-
mum Temperature Trends,
Beitbridge, 1951-2001 (oC)
• Provide adequate, and well planned and designed waste dumping sites and
landfills; and
• Carry out public awareness raising campaigns for a litter free environment
in their areas of jurisdiction.
Global Warming
Global climate change is now viewed as a serious issue by the Government of
Zimbabwe, as the weight of scientific evidence regarding climate change ap-
pears to indicate that the threat from global warming due to a build up of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) is real. (Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tour-
ism, 2003). Government has acknowledged that large scale anthropogenic
activities throughout the world may have global consequences, traversing
continents as well as national boundaries. The government signed the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 at
the Rio Earth Summit and ratified it in November of the same year. While
Zimbabwe’s contribution to global emissions of GHGs is relatively small,
the driving force behind this concern is the potentially serious impacts that
global climate change might have on the country (Ministry of Mines Environ-
ment and Tourism, 2003). Human-induced global warming will present people
and the government with real challenges in the future, particularly in terms of
pollution control, regional water management policies, and food production.
Given the heavy dependence of the country on rainmfed agriculture, the ab-
sence of natural lakes, frequent occurrence of droughts in the region and a
growing population, the potential social and economic impacts from climate
change could be devastating.
Zimbabwe Meteorological Office
Figure 7.17 indicates a steady increase in both the annual minimum and an-
nual maximum temperatures for Beitbridge town in Matabeleland South over
the previous half century (1951 to 2001). However, there is no evidence to
link this increase in temperature exclusively to climate change, as it could
also be a manifestation of natural climatic variability. Despite this lack of a
conclusive climate change related trend, the several models used to predict
the temperature change for Southern Africa confirm that the region will not
escape the effects of global warming (IPCC, 1990).
Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmo-
sphere and oceans, caused by modification of the chemical composition of
183
the atmosphere, particularly by increasing those gases that absorb the earth’s
infrared radiation.The term is also used for the scientific theory of anthropo-
genic global warming, which attributes much of the recently observed and
projected global warming to a human-induced intensification of the green-
house effect. Temperature change is just one aspect of the broader subject of
(human-induced) climate change. The scientific opinion on climate change,
as expressed by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
is that the global average surface temperature relative to 1990 is projected to
increase by about 2° C (http://www.wmo.ch/climate/1996/wmo/statement).
Since comparable records began in 1861, the 1990s were globally the warm-
est decade. Figure 7.18 shows an increase in global temperatures since 1860.
Recent scientific evidence also indicates that the 1900s were the warmest
century during the last 1 000 years. The ten warmest years have all occurred
since 1983. The four warmest years were 1998 (+0.58°C above normal), 1997
(+0.44), 1995 (+0.38) and 1990 (+0.35) (http://www.wmo/climate/1999).
Like most other regions of the world, the temperature series in Africa show
long term warming. The warmth of the last century is near record levels in
Southern Africa (WMO, 1998).
The (GHGs) emitted by Zimbabwe, in order of importance are, carbon diox-
ide, (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). These national emissions
are significantly influenced by a population distribution that is approximately
30 percent urban. The remaining 70 percent live either in rural areas or on
commercial farms. Wood fuel forms the main energy source for most rural
people. Paradoxically trees play a vital role in recycling carbon dioxide by
taking in carbon dioxide, transforming it chemically, storing the carbon and
releasing the oxygen into the air. When trees are cut down for fuel wood, they
release stored carbon to the air as carbon dioxide to further aggravate the
global warming problem. Recently, in Central Africa, the virgin rainforests
were found to have air pollution levels comparable to industrial areas (Nhapi,
2000). A major cause of this pollution is the fires that rage for months in the
dry season across huge stretches of land to clear shrubs and trees for the
production of crops and grasses and, at times, to aid in hunting. Forest fires
have become annual outbreaks of unprecedented levels and are causing major
concern in Zimbabwe as well. The concerns do not stem from deforestation
alone, but the considerable amounts of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmo-
sphere during the process.

The impacts of climate change on Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe is landlocked, largely semi arid, has no natural lakes, and suffers
from periodic droughts. A shift in rainfall patterns and to a warmer climate
could have severe implications on the economy, especially in terms of water
resources, vegetation and forestry, agriculture, manufacturing based on agri-
culture, and tourism. It is also vulnerable to a high incidence of malaria due to
possible expansion of malaria endemic areas. Thus critical areas of potential
climate change impacts are related to water supply, food security and health.
The two main climatic parameters that determine the socioeconomic pros-
pects, as well as the problems in the country, are the annual rainfall (its spatial
and temporal distribution) and temperature fluctuations. Some socioeconomic
constraints may manifest themselves in the following sectors:
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE The majority of the population is still engaged in
subsistence agriculture and depends on rain (and catchment dams) for crop

184
Figure 7.18 Global Temperatures
in the Past 150 Years
TOURISM This depends on sustained
biodiversity, both in terms of favoured wild-
life species, such as elephants, and a healthy,
supportive ecosystem. A warmer climate could
result in changes to the ecosystem, the food
chain, and the wildlife that tourists come to
see. Most of the tourism in Zimbabwe is par-
ticularly susceptible to droughts. If water lev-
els are low in the Zambezi river, this cuts back
on recreational activity in the Kariba Dam and
at the Victoria Falls. Recurrent droughts and
the expansion of human settlements may lead
to decimation of wildlife population. For ex-
ample the 1991/92 drought resulted in the
deaths of wildlife, especially elephants, in
major national parks. The major national
parks of Hwange and Gonarezhou are located
in semi-arid ecological zones of the country
and other tourism centres that are also de-
pendent on good rains to maintain their beau-
tiful scenery and sustain flora and fauna may
not be spared.
production. A warmer regional climate poses threats of reduced water sup-
plies and expanding areas in which the staple crop, maize, may become more
difficult to grow. Increase in rainfall extremes may lead to highly variable
yields in arable agriculture (both rain fed and irrigated). Livestock produc-
tion may face the problem of poor and variable rangeland productivity and
desertification processes.
WATER DEMAND The water demand is made up of water used for domestic
purposes, irrigation, livestock, industry and energy generation. Increased
drought frequency and severity of droughts is likely to add more stress to
water demand for these uses, especially an increase in irrigation water re-
quirements due to increased potential evapo-transpiration. Preventative and
rehabilitative afforestation activities may be negatively affected by deficient
rainfall.
THE WATER SUPPLY-DEMAND RELATIONSHIP Studies done on the Zimbabwe
river catchment system shows that, although the catchments will in any case
be water scarce as a result of an increase in demand due to population growth
and allied uses, climatic change will make conditions more severe.
HUMAN HEALTH Another threat from global warming is its impact on human
health. A particular threat is the potential spread of malaria to a wider geo-
graphical area of the country. Presently, malaria tends to be a year round prob-
lem only in low lying areas such as the Zambezi valley, although the trends are
on the increase. (refer to Chapter 5 for more details on malaria). Warmer
temperatures allow mosquitoes that transmit diseases such as malaria and
dengue fever to extend their range and increase both their biting rate and their
ability to infect humans. Thus the vector mosquito may migrate into higher
elevation areas where malaria is presently not a serious problem. Other cli-
mate change associated diseases that are expected to increase, are cholera,
dengue fever, yellow fever and general morbidity.
Adaptations to ameliorate climate change
The following are actions to consider in order to lessen and reverse the impact
of climate change:
CHANGE LAND USE PRACTICES Forest diversity and extensiveness, should be
maintained by altering land use, harvesting and planting practice to allow for-
185
ests to adapt to climate change, conserving large tracts of natural forest (for
example, the demarcated forest reserves, nature reserves and national parks)
and expanding as well as connecting protected areas with conservation corri-
dors for wildlife (NDR, 2006).
PROTECT AREAS UNDER STRESS Protecting critical habitat and potential areas
HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION Generation of
hydroelectric power at Kariba (Zimbabwe)
could be adversely affected. For example, the
Kariba Hydroelectric Power Station on the gi-
ant Zambezi River was unable to provide the
normal supply of electrical energy to either
Zambia or Zimbabwe during the 1991/92
drought.

of expansion of species and forest communities likely to come under stress TROPICAL CYCLONES Tropical cyclone increasingly
cause flooding due their increased frequency
due to altered climate regimes. With tourism, water management within na- and intensity. From 1950, twelve tropical cy-
tional parks may have to be explored to keep wildlife within the parks and clones affected the country, but four of these
were in the past decade. These were Bonita,
reduce migration to external areas. 1996, Lissette 1997, Eline 2000, and Japhet
2003. The most intense tropical cyclone of
the century, as measured by rainfall and de-
IMPROVE FOREST MANAGEMENT Managing and planning land uses around for- struction was Eline in 2000 (Met Office).
ested areas, to identify and manage areas of potential forest migration or de-
cline, especially corridors or buffer zones along water bodies.
INCREASE DAMS AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES More dams could be built to
increase national water storage capacity. The amount of water stored as ground-
water is still unknown in Zimbabwe. Improvement in the knowledge of ground-
water storage may indicate that groundwater is a feasible source of water that
can be developed to cushion the impact of climate change.
INVEST IN WATER CATCHMENT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Investment in water
catchment and distribution systems, like the Zambezi Water Project, could
counter the effects of climate change, by tapping water from the Zambezi
River. Immense volumes of water, which otherwise flow daily into the Indian
Ocean, could greatly reduce water problems to the perennially water deficit
provinces of Matabeleland.
USE WATER EFFICIENTLY It is estimated that agriculture currently uses about
80 percent of the country’s surface water resources. Irrigation efficiencies
vary from 40 to 60 percent. The improvement in water use efficiency is one
form of adaptation that has minimal costs.

CHANGE TO DROUGHT RESISTANT CROPS The agriculture sector is quite vul-

nerable, with marginally productive areas likely to shift to non-agricultural
use. For areas where crop production becomes non-viable, livestock and dairy
production may be developed as major agricultural activities. Other solutions
relate to developing new plant varieties that are more drought tolerant and
disease resistant crops, so that farmers can change to these. They could also
switch to different crops that grow in the new climatic conditions.

INVEST IN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS In areas of high temperatures and high evapo-

transpiration rates the introduction of irrigation systems would help to sus-
tain agricultural production. Switching from monoculture to diversified agri-
culture is one of the more popular adaptive measures. However, it can be
expected that local farmers – mainly subsistence – are conservative and would
only gradually accept growing other crops.
INCREASE FARMING SKILLS Cash crops, such as tobacco, need high levels of
skill, specialised equipment and capital to grow successfully.
USE SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS Use of supplementary feeds and livestock breeds
INTRODUCE NEW SPECIES Introduction of both na-
tive and exotic species, as a means of facili-
tating shifts in forest range (for example,
planting native or exotic species that may
already be favourably adapted to future cli-
mate at the latitudinal or altitudinal ecozones
of present community ranges). Such species
may include drought or heat resistant spe-
cies for regions projected to become drier.

186
that are adaptable to drought will enable farmers to cope with some adverse
climate change impacts. This again requires cash injections and the more vul-
nerable groups are usually not considered creditworthy, or are sceptical of
borrowing and possess no formal training on agricultural practices.
MANAGE THE CHANGES Changes in agriculture management practices can also
offset the negative impacts of climate change. The timing of farming opera-
tions (for example, planting dates, and application of fertilisers, insecticides,
and herbicides) becomes imperative if farmers are to reduce their vulnerabil-
ity to climate change. Changing plant densities and application rates of
fertilisers and agrochemicals would also help farmers to cope with the im-
pacts.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

To protect the health and economic wellbeing of current and future
generations, it is necessary to reduce our emissions of heat trapping gases
by using the technology, know how, and practical solutions already at our
disposal. Existing strategies include:
• Reducing the rate of deforestation (see section on deforestation above).
Planting trees helps to meet community needs for wood and to provide
profits for individual farmers practicing agroforestry.
• Increasing the efficiency of energy production and use. Energy efficiency
should be promoted in urban areas and renewable energy sources such
as wind power, water power, geothermal, and solar, should be supported.
These may be of great use in areas where no electricity sources exist.
• Developing regulations to curb pollution from traffic emissions and
industry in urban areas.

Ozone Depletion
Chloroflocarbons (CFCs) are used in the country as coolants in air condi-
tioners, and propellants in aerosol spray cans. They are also used to clean
electric parts, as hospital sterilising agents, and as blowing agents to puff
liquid plastic into Styrofoam and other foams used for insulation and packag-
ing. In addition, they are used in preserving stored agricultural products like
maize. CFCs were first produced by General Motors in 1928, specifically to
replace the more expensive and toxic refrigerant ammonia. The inventor was
highly regarded as the multiple purposes of CFCs became apparent. The prob-
lem arose when it was discovered that the presumed friendly gas lowers the
concentration of an even more life sustaining gas in the atmosphere, ozone.
Ultraviolet radiation is a high energy wave that can cause cell damage in plants
and animals. It is associated with skin cancer and cataracts, and reduced phy-
toplankton in the oceans (Fig 7.19).
The depletion of ozone in the atmosphere removes the shielding effect pro-
vided by ozone, thus exposing the earth to the harmful effects of UV radia-
tion. The ultraviolet light interacting with oxygen molecules also creates natu-
ral ozone. Problems occur when chlorine is present because the ultraviolet
light breaks down ozone, to oxygen molecules. The chlorine atom then frees
itself to attack other ozone molecules, repeating the same process (see Fig-
ure 7.20), eventually depleting the atmosphere of this shielding molecule.
Thus the thinning of the ozone layer is caused by released CFCs (i.e. with

187
 BOX 7.13 INDICATORS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) and World
Resources Institute (WRI) (1999)

chlorine). A trend of decreasing ozone has been observed since the industrial
revolution due to the increase of CFCs, which are non-reactive in the lower
atmosphere but catalyse the destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere.
All substances containing CFCs are collectively known as ozone depleting
substances (ODS).

Effects of ozone depletion

Ozone depletion has negative effects at a number of different levels, as
elaborated below:
HEALTH EFFECTS Reductions in ozone levels lead to higher levels of ultravio-
let light reaching the Earth’s surface. The sun’s output of ultraviolet light does
not change; rather, less ozone means less protection, and hence more ultra-
violet light reaching the earth. Non-melanoma skin cancer will certainly in-
crease in light skinned individuals and people living near the equator. Ultra-
violet light also reduces the ability of the body’s immune system to fight
foreign substances entering through the skin. Diseases of the eye, such as
cataracts and deterioration of the cornea and retina, are also associated with
UV light.
Ozone is a rare form of oxygen, which is com-
EFFECTS ON MARINE LIFE Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food posed of three (normal oxygen gas has two)
webs. Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper atoms of oxygen. Most of the atmospheric
ozone is concentrated in the upper atmo-
layer of the water column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net sphere, or stratosphere, forming the ozono-
sphere or the ozone layer, and is located from
productivity. Ultraviolet radiation can penetrate the ocean’s surface, 11 to 24km above the earth. The gas is a
damaging the phytoplankton, thus affecting their growth and reproduction. As natural sunscreen that filters some (about 30
percent) of the ultraviolet radiation travelling
fish provide an average of 14 percent of the animal protein in the world (60 from the sun to Earth, as some of the UV is
used up in the breakdown of ozone to oxy-
percent in Japan), the impact could be significant. gen gas.

188

The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites cap-
tured this pair of images over Mount
Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and
February 21, 2000 (above).
A composite of Landsat-7 images from Novem-
ber 2000 to February 2001 shows the present
stage of Lake Chad. The small patch of blue
that is now the lake stands in stark contrast to
the wide swath of the old lake bed (shown in
green, indicating vegetation).
(source GSFC 2001)
Africa’s “Shining Mountain” may soon shine no more. The snow and ice on the
summit of Mount Kilimanjaro is melting so fast that some scientists believe its
icecap could be gone by the year 2015. The icecap formed more than 11 000 years
ago. Researchers say the ice fields on Africa’s highest mountain shrank by 80
percent over the past century.
About a foot and a half of the summit’s glacial ice is lost each year due to rising
surface temperatures. There is concern that the loss of Kilimanjaro’s icecap could
impact upon both the local climate and the availability of fresh water for local
populations who depend upon the glacial melt runoff, particularly during the dry
seasons.
The Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 satellites captured this pair of images over Mount
Kilimanjaro on February 17, 1993 (top), and February 21, 2000 (bottom).
Melting Snows of Kilimanjaro in March 1993 (above) 2000 (below)
http://ocrl.kordi.re.kr/directory/20021224e.htm
A Shadow of a Lake: Africa's Disappearing Lake Chad
(NASS Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) Online News Release 27/02/01)
Lake Chad, once one of the African continent's largest bodies of fresh water, has dramatically decreased in size due to
climate change and human demand for water. Once a great lake close in surface area to North America's Lake Erie,
Lake Chad is now a ghost of its former self. According to a study by University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers,
working with NASA's Earth Observing System program, the lake is now 1/20th of the size it was 35 years ago.
Found at the intersection of four different countries in West Africa (Chad, Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon,) Lake Chad has
been the source of water for massive irrigation projects. In addition, the region has suffered from an increasingly dry
climate, experiencing a significant decline in rainfall since the early 1960's.
The most dramatic decrease in the size of the lake is shown in the fifteen years between January 1973 and January
1987. Beginning in 1983 the amount of water used for irrigation began to increase. Ultimately, between 1983 and 1994,
the amount of water diverted for purposes of irrigation quadrupled from the amount used in the previous 25 years. The
first image, taken with the Argon satellite in October 1963, and three subsequent Landsat satellite images taken in
January 1973, January 1987, and January 1997, show the progression of the lake as it shrinks. This additional time
lapse sequence shows Lake Chad shrinking ever smaller over the course of four decades. The red color denotes
vegetation on the lake bed and the ripples on the western edge of the lake denote sand dunes formed by the wind.
Solar UV light radiation has been found to cause damage in the early develop-
mental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and some animals. The most
severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval devel-
opment. Even at current levels, solar UV radiation is a limiting factor, and
small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the
size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.
EFFECTS ON PLANTS The physiological and developmental processes of plants
are affected by UV radiation, even by the amount of ultraviolet light in present
day sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and a lim-
ited ability to adapt to increased levels of UV light, plant growth can be di-
rectly affected by UV radiation.
Indirect changes caused by UVB (such as changes in plant form, how nutri-
ents are distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases and sec-
ondary metabolism) may be equally, or sometimes more, important than the
immediate damaging effects of UV light. These changes can have important
implications for plant competitive balance, herbivory, plant diseases, and bio-
geochemical cycles.
International cooperation
International cooperation to limit CFC emissions through an international
treaty called the Montreal Protocol intended to reduce production and use of
CFCs by 50 percent from 1986 levels before the year 2000 in industrialised
nations, but developing countries were allowed to increase their use slightly.
Meanwhile research is attempting to address the need for CFC substitutes,
minimising loss to the atmosphere, and recycling. Countries can regulate im-
port and use of aerosols and disposal of refrigeration units.
189
 Figure 7.19 How the Ozone Layer
Shields Earth’s Life from
Uultraviolet Radiation

Table 7.8 Country Sta-

Area/Sector Substance Application Consumption ODP ODP tus: ODS Consumption
Refrigeration R12 Charging and servicing in Zimbabwe (tonnes)
113.0 1.0 113.0
(Domestic)

Refrigeration R12, R115, Car and 15.0 1.0 15.0

(Commercial) R11, R22 room AC; Commercial 0.5 0.6 0.3
display units; Room AC cleaning 68.0 1.0 68.0
and system purging; 28.0 0.056 1.54
Large display units

Foams R11 Blowing agent 20.0 1.0 7.0

8.2 10.0 82.0

Fire fighting H1301, H1211 Charging fixed and portable units 5.0 3.0 15.0

Aerosols R12 Propellant; Seedbed fumigation; 7.0 1.0 7.0

Soil

Agriculture MeBr Sterilisation; Grain stack fumigation 600.0 0.7 420.0

Figure 7.20 How CFCs Destroy

Ozone in the Atmosphere

Possible risk reduction measures are:

· Total prohibition of importation and use
of ODS;
· Increased tariffs on ODS imports;
· Code of practice/conduct of sale measures
on use of ODS;
· Individual governments specifying ODS
phasing out procedures;
· Procedure for permits and period of valid-
ity for ODS use;
· A ban on second hand ODS equipment;
· Penalties for non-compliance including de-
terrent fines, imprisonment and cancella-
tion of permits;
· Providing incentives for recovery of ODS
equipment already in use; and
· Providing incentives for importers of non-
ODS and ozone friendly equipment.

190
CHAPTER 8
Disaster Risk Managemnet in the Education Sector

Introduction
As discussed in previous chapters, Zimbabwe is so prone to various disasters
that the important role that educators and students can play in creating aware-
ness in their communities is obvious. Moreover children are among the most
vulnerable population group during a disaster, especially those attending school
at the time of the event. During disasters, it is quite common for school build-
ings to be destroyed, at times, injuring or taking the lives of children and
teachers. Access to education in the aftermath of a disaster can be interrupted
and rebuilding schools can take years because of the, often high, costs in-
volved and the limited resources available in a country such as Zimbabwe.
Learning about disaster risk management in primary and secondary schools The photograph below shows how an educa-
and even at higher levels, helps students to play their essential role in saving tion institution can easily be turned into a di-
saster prone institution, churning out ‘haz-
lives and protecting members of the community in times of a disaster. Mak- ardous’ graduates. The Bindura University of
Science Education’s faculty of Commerce was
ing disaster risk education an integral part of the national school curriculum gutted by fire during a student demonstra-
helps to build greater awareness of the issues across entire communities. tion on 10 May 2006. Such incidents clearly
demonstrate a lack of disaster literacy among
Educators and students can do a lot of work in generating awareness, identify- the students. Fortunately no one was hurt
during the fracas but the event goes down in
ing areas of vulnerability, coping with them and working together as a team to history as the worst in the country’s institu-
reduce the impact of disasters on the community. They should manifest the tions of higher learning.

deep social responsibility that an institution such as a school or college has

within its surroundings. In addition to their role in formal education, institu-
tions must also protect students from natural and human made hazard. Invest-
ing in strengthening school structures before a disaster occurs, reduces the
long term costs, protects generations of children and ensures educational
continuity after the event.

The country’s worst fire disaster

at an institution of higher
learning. The whole of Bindura
University Faculty of Commerce
was razed to the ground along with
property worth more than $Z 280
million during student unrest on
10 May 2006.
(Source: BUSE May Newsletter, 2006)

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BOX 8.1 DISASTER EDUCATION
Although the reviewed Civil Protection Act
(2005) advocates the integration of disaster
risk reduction issues into the education sys-
tem, hazard mitigation is not the responsi-
bility of government agencies alone. Small,
inexpensive measures can be taken to re-
duce vulnerability in the education sector and
can make a great impact. Simple things like
wrapping textbooks in plastic bags and stor-
ing them a few metres off the floor at the
end of each school term may save thousands
of dollars if wind and torrential rain from se-
vere storms or tropical cyclones happen to
flood a classroom.
In this chapter, we look at how schools can entrench a culture of disaster
resistance. A three part approach to reducing the vulnerability of schools is
adopted, focusing on the roles of buildings, teachers and students, and the
community. The purpose is to make schools, especially those in high disaster
risk areas safer, enabling them to act as a locus for disaster risk reduction and
helping to build the disaster risk reduction awareness of children, parents,
teachers and local communities. Schoolteachers and children can become
model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe disaster in
the recent past. It is with this chapter that teachers should be able to ascertain
that students have acquired disaster prevention literacy, and knowledge of lo-
cal disaster history and local natural disaster mechanisms, and have devel-
oped a spirit of volunteerism and harmony. The underlying factor is the rec-
ognition that disaster training/education at all levels is the key to creating a
“…If education is meant to prepare students for life, then it must take into account that
there are natural and man-made hazards which simply cannot be ignored. Every
community is vulnerable, to a greater or lesser extent, to the threat of loss of life and
property as a result of a disaster. A proper education does not promote fear or fatalism. It
empowers students to take the necessary measures to reduce the level of risk, and to act
as multiplying agents in their own communities.”
Manuel Ramirez, Regional Consultant, Disaster Education, Costa Rica
cadre of trained personnel in the global battle for disaster reduction (see Box
8.1).
In this section we concentrate on primary and secondary school buildings and
the children in this age group, as our information indicates that, by virtue of
their location and numbers, they are the most vulnerable. However, lecturers
should recognise that universities and colleges can also play a key role as
agents for change, by exercising their immense capacity to modify attitudes
and customs, a key factor in disaster risk management. Because they train
teachers, among other professionals, the effects can multiply and cascade to
primary and secondary education, ensuring that future generations are disas-
ter risk management literate.
During Cyclone Eline, many schools were blown to pieces, especially in
Matabeleland South and Manicaland. Such incidences of severe damage to
schools show the vulnerability of Zimbabwe’s educational sector to hazards.
There are a number of notable hazards with a direct bearing on educational
institutions, some of which are:
• Droughts that have occurred over the years and are the most serious
hazard in Zimbabwe, especially affecting the school going age group;
• Scores of school children being swept away by flooded rivers every year
while trying to cross on their way to and from school;
• Water bodies that pose a serious threat, as in the case of the Lake Chivero
ferry tragedy of 1997, in which 22 school children perished when their
boat capsized;
• Bus accidents e.g. the Nyanga bus disaster of 1990, in which 89 school
children were killed;
• Many school buildings being gutted by fire every year, e.g. the complete
destruction of the Faculty of Commerce Staff Block worth Z$ 280
million at Bindura University, during student demonstrations in May
2006;
192
• Mass hysteria, which occurs intermittently, particularly in boarding
schools;
• Infrastructure damage, such as roofs being blown off by strong winds
and collapse of buildings; and
• Other potential hazards, including disease outbreaks, fires, food
poisoning.
etc.
As gloomy as this picture may appear, there is much that can be done by school A school whose roof was blown off
officials to plan for disaster, to mitigate the risk, to protect the safety of during a severe thunderstorm in
students and educators, and to ensure that schools recover quickly. The Civil Zvimba
Protection Department (CPD) cannot undo the damage of a severe storm on (Source: CPD, 24 November 2004)
an unprepared school or push back the clock after a flood has swept away a
child’s school year. Prevention is always the best disaster action.

Types of School Crises

There are many types of crises that can affect schools but they fall broadly
into three categories – personal tragedies (both in and out of school), in-
school or on-site crises, and out-of-school or off-site crises.

Personal tragedies
Copping with bereavement, of individual pupils and/or staff, is one of the
biggest challenges facing many institutions. Occasionally, the need to deal
with shock and bereavement among the entire staff and student body occurs
after the death or serious injury of a pupil or member of staff, perhaps as a
result of a road accident or sudden serious illness. Personal tragedy, such as
death or bereavement, is difficult for any person to handle. Schools need to
be aware of the main symptoms that pupils and staff might exhibit when they
have been unable to grieve; a decline in performance and an inability to con-
centrate are two particularly noticeable ones. Counselling facilities should School under water December
be made available at any institution and symbolic acts of comfort, such as 2007. The school was built near the
attending funerals or holding a memorial day when someone who was a part banks of the Save River
(source CPU, December 2007)
of the institution has died should be considered.

In-school or on-site crises

These include:
• Death of a pupil or member of staff through accident or illness;
• Fire or flooding of building (or other destruction); and
• A deliberate act of violence, such as a knife attack or the use of a firearm.

Death at school:
BOX 8.2 WORST CASE EXAMPLES
A deputy headmaster of Rusvingo Primary School in Harare’s Highfield suburb, was shot
CPD
dead through the mouth while one of the female primary school teachers, was shot three
times in the shoulder, hip and stomach right in front of primary school children by an
identified woman.

Death out of school:

Such whole institution shock occurs occasionally, as seen earlier (Chapter 6) when Moleli
Secondary School and Masvingo Teachers’ college lost 34 and 23 students respectively
in different accidents.

Incident at school:

Students from Belvedere Teacher’s College in Harare jumped out of the second floor of a
dormitory building after an earthquake at midnight on 23 February 2006. Fourteen were
injured, three of them seriously.

193

Figure 8.1 Disaster Cycle and
School Functions
However, as disaster risk management edu-
cation is just beginning in Zimbabwe’s
schools, it is assumed that there are neither
sufficient materials nor a concrete approach
to this type of education at the moment.
Teachers facing this problem should not feel
at a loss when carrying out disaster mitiga-
tion education. Disaster prevention and miti-
gation should be taught, starting from the
student’s own immediate reality – their so-
cial, economic, and natural environment. It
is vital that students be encouraged to change
their perceptions and attitudes toward risk
management, instead of the educator sim-
ply providing information and expecting stu-
dents to memorise it. This book can always
be supplemented through consultation with
the CPD.
Out of school or off-site crises
Some examples are:
• Deaths or serious injuries on school trips;
• National tragedies affecting many schools; and
• Civil disturbances, including acts of terrorism.
Box 8.2 below shows some of the worst cases of deaths and other incidents
that have occurred in Zimbabwe involving students in and out of school pre-
mises.
Disaster Risk Management Training and Education in Schools
Zimbabweans naturally regard schools as a refuge during disasters as well as
a gathering place for various other functions, such as national election poll-
ing stations and food relief distribution points. Schools also have another
important function, in that that they offer the only place where disaster risk
management education can be carried out systematically. Schools thus have
two functions – a place of refuge and a place of disaster mitigation education
(see Figure 8.1).
Disaster risk management training and education are essential components in
ensuring the long term benefits of disaster risk reduction strategies and goals.
Their natural function of knowledge dissemination makes schools the most
relevant institutions to lay the foundation for an understanding of the con-
cepts and the knowledge necessary for disaster resistant communities. This
section follows the approach of Glasgow (1986), who emphasises the neces-
sity of using the formal education system to,
…teach deliberately towards, not just acquisition of knowledge
with respect to possible disasters, but towards the development
of mental problem solving skills and most importantly of all and
most difficult of all - towards the inculcation of an attitude of
concern for the environment which will lead to a commitment to
participate in a disciplined way in activities for its protection and
improvement.
Disaster management education so far has been aimed mainly at ensuring that
staff and students know how to respond during an emergency and immedi-
ately after a disaster has occurred, e.g. training in evacuation and extinguish-
ing fires. When the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach was
introduced in Chapter 2, learners should have noticed that not only concrete
aspects, such as building codes, reconstruction of buildings, roads and bridges,
a reliable supply of water and so on are vital, but also that less tangible as-
pects, such as the importance of the community, help from neighbours, the
194
 Students need personal and social skills to:
importance of human life, and welfare and human rights, are also an integral · Learn and practice safety skills;
part of disaster mitigation. This should stimulate students to think about how · Take responsibility for their own actions
and those of others;
we live in a symbiotic society by linking the natural and the social environ- · Be able to ask for help;
· Develop the confidence to give advice;
ment, thus making it easy to relate disaster mitigation to every aspect of school · Deal with unhelpful stereotypes and pres-
studies. It is possible for teachers to offer disaster mitigation education as a sures; and
· Recognise risk and make the safest pos-
part of every subject if they wish to. sible choices.

Developing the curriculum

Disaster risk management education is not necessarily about isolating children
and young people from all potential hazards, but about equipping them to
deal with situations safely. The curriculum developer’s aim should be to
identify where in the curriculum they can teach the personal and social skills
vital to disaster risk management. Safety issues provide an excellent context
for the development of these personal and social skills. But in an overloaded
curriculum it is necessary that the range of important safety contexts are
covered – home, school, work, road, rail, water, leisure – and that they are
introduced and developed to match the age and ability of children and young
people. Regular participation in mock drills and minimum emphasis on
learning of concepts should be encouraged at school going age.
The national curriculum has health and safety as an important requirement in
the teaching of subjects that are laboratory based, and in those subjects where
students carry out practical activities and use tools and equipment. Since the
students work in an environment with hazards and risks in these subjects, it
is during the introductory stages of these subjects that pupils can be taught
(based on the understanding provided in Chapter1) to:
• Recognise the types of hazard they face, the risks and risk control;
• Identify the nature of hazards, assess consequent risks and take steps to
control the risks to themselves and others;
• Use information to assess the immediate and cumulative risks; Figure 8.2 Safety Education in the
• Manage their environment to ensure that they do not expose themselves English Curriculum
and others to risks; and Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/
• Be able to explain the steps they take to minimise or eliminate the risks. /www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/
keystage1.pdf)

195
BOX 8.3 THE GREEN CROSS CODE
Figure 8.3 Safety Education in the
Mathematics Curriculum
Adapted from RoSPA Safety Education (http:/
/www.rospa.com/safetyeducation/info/
keystage1.pdf)
Personal and social skills
Entrenching a culture of taking responsibility for social and moral issues in
students is vital. This can be achieved by designing safety rules and safer
ways of doing things within the school environment. Students are very prone
to peer pressure and they need skills to deal with these pressures and the
kind of stereotypes that can encourage risk taking. Envying and imitating the
habits of their film heroes e.g. of driving fast, are some examples. Personal
and social skills like assertiveness are useful in situations where pupils need
to ask for help or ask someone to stop doing something dangerous. The green
cross code is a very important road crossing skill to be adopted by every
student (Box 8.3). Health skills, such as first aid procedures, also need to be
taught and practiced.
Selecting and adapting disaster material to meet specific subject objectives
The educational objectives of the teacher or trainer should be based on the
needs of the course participants. The following are some examples of how
the resource book could be used in developing programmes. It is envisaged
that teachers will be able to find relevant material to assist in achieving the
196
long term goal with respect to disaster reduction, in developing an educated
and trained Zimbabwean society, capable of building resilience to natural haz-
ards. Teachers can incorporate disaster preparedness into lessons of science,
geography, art, reading and other subjects. They can also use stories, activi-
ties and games to make disaster preparedness appealing, especially when deal-
ing with youngsters. Examples of how disaster risk preparedness could be
incorporated into the Mathematics and English curriculums are shown in Fig-
ures 8.2 and 8.3. These are by no means exhaustive and could also be repeated
in other core subjects.
Information on several types of disasters that may be selected for illustration
and demonstration can be found in the earlier chapters of this resource book.
This includes graphs and pie charts as well as raw data.
If counselling services are presently absent
at the institution, they must be established
alongside health facilities. Integrating ado-
lescents needs in health services, including
counselling, enhances their access to neces-
sary information. Intersectoral linkages, mass
awareness, local community mobilisation,
health service providers’ orientation and
sensitisation, peer education and information
centres would be instrumental in sustaining a
pragmatic approach for HIV and AIDS pre-
vention and management in schools.

Incorporating disaster management in the secondary curriculum

Several chapters in this resource book can be used to provide case studies,
projects and success stories for various subjects in the curriculum, as out-
lined below:
CASE STUDIES While studying disaster mitigation, the students should not
only attend lectures to obtain knowledge, but also set problems or give them-
selves tasks to accomplish, possibly in cooperation with other students. They
may use case studies, such as the one concerning a solution flooding in
Muzarabani (Chapter 3) or the one on possible downstream and national ef-
fects of the Kariba Dam wall failure (Chapter 4).
PROJECTS Students may be encouraged to do projects or field assignments
on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping of their community,
how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a disaster and the proce-
dures to follow if such an event occurred. They may also recognise other
potential hazards in and around their communities.
SUCCESS STORIES Students may want to discuss how Zimbabwe has managed
to lower the AIDS infection rate and other success stories in the fight against
common hazards in the country.
Integrating HIV and AIDS prevention and management in the education sys-
tem.
The gravity of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe schools clearly shows that spo-
radic effort alone will not address adolescents’ vulnerability to the disease in
the country context. This has to become an integral part of the public health
and education systems, which have the largest network and outreach. Teach-
ers should be aware that adolescence has specific reproductive and sexual
health needs. In the absence of appropriate information, education and coun- Road safety education can contribute to the
general educational goals of the whole cur-
selling, and silence around sexuality, adolescents tend to indulge in high risk riculum by promoting moral, cultural, men-
tal, and physical development, and prepar-
behaviour, thereby becoming susceptible to HIV infection. ing children for the opportunities, responsi-
bilities and experiences of adult life. School
Schools should work towards devising and implementing strategies that road safety education programmes should
address the safety needs of all ages, although
primarily include community awareness and mobilisation as well as the recommendations and activities described
in this resource book are mainly applicable
orientation and sensitisation of the nearest district functionaries, health to school age children. Teachers must also
service providers and other schoolteachers on adolescent sexual and not forget the needs of pre-school children
and of adults, especially the needs of young
reproductive health (ASRH). Efforts should be made to frequently work with adults who may be the most in need of a
steadying influence.

197
Within an education for living programme,
road safety education could be:
and bring relevant key stakeholders together on a common platform to share
· Offered as a specific topic; experiences about adolescent vulnerability to HIV. This may help in
· Offered as part of a section on safety or
personal safety; developing an enabling environment for ASRH. If counselling services are
· Included within themes such as responsi-
bility, citizenship, leisure, relationships etc;
presently absent at the institution, they must be established alongside health
or facilities. Integrating adolescents needs in health services, including
· Promoted as part of events, for example
theatre in education performances. counselling, enhances their access to necessary information. Intersectoral
Within curriculum subjects, road safety edu-
linkages, mass awareness, local community mobilisation, health service
cation could be offered: providers’ orientation and sensitisation, peer education and information
· As a specific life skills option; or
· Within national curriculum subjects; centres would be instrumental in sustaining a pragmatic approach for HIV
and AIDS prevention and management in schools.

Incorporating road safety education into the curriculum

We focus on how to incorporate the section on Road Traffic Accidents in
Chapter 6 because this is the most worrying technological hazard faced by
Zimbabwe. Road traffic accidents are one of the main causes of death and
injury to children of school going age. Most road accidents are preventable
and the risk can be reduced through measures that include education, training
and environmental improvements. Road safety education is an essential part

BOX 8.4 EXAMPLE OF ROAD SAFETY POLICY

DOCUMENT FROM AN UNIDENTIFIED SCHOOL

198
of a child’s education and the time and resources available for road safety
education should be safeguarded against curriculum pressures.
Pupils at primary level are generally beginning to make independent journeys
on foot, by bicycle and by public transport, while students at secondary level
begin to experience an even wider range of opportunities for independent
travel. The safety lessons learnt at primary school should help to establish a
sound basis for safer behaviour as pedestrians and cyclists and prepare
children for the transition to secondary school and associated freedoms,
while those learnt at secondary school should assist to establish a sound
foundation for safer behaviour as adult road users.
A number of teaching ideas are provided here that demonstrate how road In addition, this meeting gives the school an
opportunity to explain to parents:
safety education may either be taught within ‘education for living’ or · The policy of the school when taking pu-
pils on outings; and
integrated into curriculum subjects. The bottom line is that learners need to · The possible need for parents to act as
know: volunteer helpers to accompany children
on school outings or to help with activities
• How to keep themselves and others safe, now and in the future; such as pedestrian training and cycle train-
ing.
• About the road environment and how it functions; and
• How to influence positive changes in that environment.
Practical activities and events might include:
• Pedestrian awareness training;
• Cyclist training;
• Pre-driver training;
• Theatre in education and road shows, which are usually coordinated by
the local road safety officer;
• A suspended timetable safety day, e.g. if the school has a traffic police
officer who is willing to come into school and talk to the pupils about
their job and how the children should use the crossing patrol.

Road safety education before children start school

The most appropriate time to initiate road safety issues with parents is when
their children are about to start school. The issue of road safety education
should be highlighted to parents or guardians who accompany their children
on the first day of school. Schools have the option to develop a letter or
agreement for the parents to sign that outlines parental responsibilities for
the safety of their children on the roads.
The advantages of parents walking to school with their children should be
outlined to encourage this practice. They are:
• Daily exercise and fresh air for both the parent and the child;
• A time to talk to the child; and
• An opportunity for parents to practice road safety with their child, study Rural schools
Due to the scarcity of traffic on rural roads,
the effects of different weather conditions on road safety, plan a route children living in rural areas who travel to town
with the child on which there are protected crossing places, discuss how to attend school face more problems than chil-
dren familiar with urban areas. Some ways of
to walk on roads where there are no footways or crossing places and helping children from rural areas cope in an
urban road environment include:
explain the importance of wearing reflectors so as to be seen by other · Arranging class outings to a nearby town,
road users. where the children can experience a
planned traffic trail; and
· Investigating the specific problems of
transport and travel in rural areas, the
Developing responsibility types of traffic using the roads and safety
issues relating to walking and cycling, es-
Road safety education should aim to develop pupils’ understanding of the pecially where danger warning signs have
dangers of traffic, so that they appreciate safer strategies appropriate to their been removed by vandals.

199

Other road safety practices to consider
While identifying safe practices, teachers and
students could also consider writing a safety
policy for the school, covering:
· School transport, school vehicles and
school trips;
· The journeys of pupils to and from school,
especially arriving and leaving;
· Use of bicycles;
· School uniforms and other clothing; and
· Dangerous behaviour.
A safe road environment is not the responsi-
bility of schools alone but they have an im-
portant role to play in helping to provide
safety education for all their pupils. The school
can make a difference. Useful working part-
nerships with external agencies, such as road
safety units, the police and health promotion
units, will certainly assist.
own circumstances. Possible activities include school debates, pupil road
safety committees and school outings and visits.
Every child is entitled to a safer journey to and from school. Teachers should
ensure that surveys are carried out of the most frequently used routes and
then record information on the safest crossing places so that this is available
for all parents and pupils to follow. This could also lead to the identification
of possible improvement, e.g. a request to the local council for a school
crossing patrol or zebra crossing.
Checklist for pre school and primary school road safety training
Children should always:
• Be protected, supervised and accompanied on any school activities off•
the premises;
• Walk on the pavement where available;
• Recognise that roads are for traffic and pavements are for people;
• Recognise features of their local roads and the people who will help them
to cross the road;
• Be able to distinguish between safe and unsafe places to walk and to cross-
roads;
• Know that they must stop at the edge of the carriageway, look all around
and listen before crossing;
• Recognise and play in safe places;
• Develop the ability to keep themselves safe;
• Know the safest route to school;
• Know how to travel safely to and from school;
• Understand and use the principles of the Green Cross Code;
• Know that there are rules governing the behaviour of pedestrians and traf-
fic;
• Understand the problems faced by all road users, particularly problems
associated with visiblity and with the effects of weather;
• Understand that traffic accidents cause avoidable deaths and injuries; and
• Be given the opportunity to take pedestrian and cyclist training.
Checklist for secondary schools and colleges’ road safety training
Training at this level requires the development of self esteem and the ability
to value others. Students need to gain skills in decision making, combined
with an understanding of the consequences of choices, and they need to know
how to use roads safely.
Students should be:
• Given the opportunity to investigate the local road environment, consider
the safety aspects of traffic movement and identify hazards;
• Assisted to develop an understanding of how accidents happen, and of
common accident situations, particularly those involving their age group;
• Encouraged to think clearly about their own and other people’s use of
the roads as pedestrians, cyclists and passengers;
• Required to consider the consequences of an accident and the effect on
those involved, and their families and friends;
• Given the opportunity to take cyclist training if they have not already
done so;
200
• Encouraged to explore and understand their own behaviour relating to
road use, both as an individual and as a member of a group;
• Able to understand the effect of alcohol and other drugs on the body’s
physical and mental performance, particularly the detrimental effect on
pedestrian and driving skills so that they are able to make informed
decisions about drinking and road use;
• Encouraged to consider how best to reduce the probability and
consequences of road accidents; and
• Given the opportunity to explore the transport options open to them and
decide which best meets their needs, wants and resources, taking into
account training, safety factors, legal requirements and environmental
consequences.

Disaster risk management in other curriculum subjects

The ways in which disaster risk management can be incorporated into other
subjects in the school curriculum include:
ART Secondary school students may develop road safety advice that is de-
signed and produced (poster or leaflet) for pupils in feeder primary schools.
A competition could be initiated to find the best designs. Some students might
develop their designs using computers if these are in place in their school.
DRAMA Pupils could be encouraged to write and perform short plays on road
safety issues that are relevant to them. These may be based on safety themes
such as speed, drink driving and joyriding.
GEOGRAPHY Hazard mapping of areas of high road traffic accident risk may TECHNOLOGY The design of traffic lights taking
account of speed, distance and stopping dis-
be done for the local area, based on information from the local police station. tances could be studied. Speed data to be
The planning of safe routes to school and other places may be included in the collected outside the school from the Traffic
Police (who use radar guns) and average
map making. Emphasis might be placed on a discussion of safe routes, gen- speeds and stopping distances calculated
from the data obtained. Factors affecting ve-
eral safety concerns and the behaviour of road users, as well as on the map hicle stopping distances, such as rainfall and
reading skills. the condition of tyres, could be investigated.
This topic is easy to link to what students see
happening in real life. The students have to
MATHEMATICS Students could undertake a drink and drive survey at a local report the results and comment on the safety
implications and consequences of inappropri-
police roadblock during an important holiday. The data would then be analysed ate stopping distances during different
by age group with the results as well as the national implications being pre- weather conditions.
sented at a parent’s day. Accident data provided in Chapter 6 could be used for
drawing national graphs and carrying out trend analysis to strengthen the pre-
sentation.
ENGLISH All students are expected to be road safety literate. Topics related to
road safety should feature prominently in essay writing e.g. topics like pre-
paring for a trip by school bus or developing a school trip policy.
SCIENCE When considering health issues, the effect of alcohol and drugs on
the ability to drive is to be considered and discussed. First Aid skills should
be incorporated as part of the science curriculum.
“Most schools will have no experience of disasters and when they do occur much of the response BOX 8.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF A DISASTER MAN-
AGEMENT PLAN
is a ‘flying by the seat of one’s pants’ activity. This is why two things are particularly important:
ensuring there is a ready made plan to help deal with the incident, and ensuring that there is an
adequate command and control system.”

David G. Kibble

201
The schools need to incorporate health and
safety and this will include a range of sensi-
tive issues, such as death and violence. Plans
should be made to explore these within the
curriculum, so that students will be able to
cope with and resolve the range and com-
plexity of feelings that a crisis can engender.
Schools that adopt the ‘ostrich’ approach are
at a disadvantage and are likely to take
longer to recover in the event of a disaster.
The essential stages in the planning process
are shown in figure 8.4. This process of di-
saster planning often leads to an improve-
ment in procedures that ensures a greater
level of safety. Preventive measures are de-
vised that lower the likelihood of tragedies
and accidents.
Figure 8.4 Planning Process
Stages in an Institution
Disaster risk management planning in
schools
While safety planning is familiar to schools,
disaster planning is relatively new to the
country’s education sector. High profile acci-
dents and disasters in the education sector,
referred to above, have demonstrated the
common sense of disaster planning and, con-
versely, the often tragic cost of failing to iden-
tify hazards and their potential for sudden,
dramatic escalation if the arrangements to
control and contain them are inadequate. Each
school, therefore, should develop plans that
include teaching students and staff what to
do during the sort of disasters that are likely
to occur in their area, whether these occur while
they are at school or at home.
Understanding the work of disaster management professionals
Students should be given the opportunity to visit career guidance shows and
see for themselves disaster related professionals exhibiting and describing
their work. The opportunity should also be taken to invite these professionals
into the school, especially after a major disaster has taken place, to talk about
their experiences during and after the disaster. Guest teachers or lecturers
could come from universities, police stations, fire stations, life line related
companies, government departments, non governmental organisations,
volunteer organisations, and so on. Identifying the responsibilities and skills
of the school crossing patrol, firefighters or police sub-aqua units, for
example, could be the basis for thinking about their own safety skills and
knowledge. Discussing the roles of disaster management professionals can
help children to understand the importance of disaster related issues.
The planning process
Although no amount of foresight and planning can completely prevent disas-
ters occurring, since many tragedies are entirely outside the control of the
school, the school must be prepared to cope with the effects. The Total Di-
saster Risk Management (TDRM) approach described in Chapter 2 offers
effective measures to deal with local disasters. This is an ‘all hazards’ ap-
proach involving joint consultation of all stakeholders. By planning in ad-
vance and anticipating as many health and safety variables as possible, schools
can ensure that the decisions made on the day of a crisis are not only made
quickly and effectively, but are correct and automatic responses arising out
of the time spent on pre-planning for the disaster. When an incident does
occur, the school should be in a strong position to contain and control events,
thus ensuring that normality returns to the institution as soon as possible and
that unnecessary damage is not done to the children and staff, or to the valu-
able relationships built up between the school, parents and the local commu-
nity.
The school disaster management plan
The Civil Protection Department (CPD) recommends the following actions
for all school officials:
IDENTIFY HAZARDS LIKELY TO AFFECT THE SCHOOL Begin with a determination
of which natural and technological disasters are possible in your area. Con-
tact the CPD for help. Don’t assume you know all the risks. You may be sur-
prised to learn that your area is subject to natural disasters you hadn’t antici-
pated. For example, earthquake risk is not restricted to Matabeleland North
alone, but southern Manicaland is also active. Also, remember that disasters
can have a cascading effect, e.g. tropical cyclones can bring mudslides, earth-
quakes can cause fires, thunderstorms can cause downed power lines and so
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on. Think about how transportation routes or other external factors may also
affect your schools, e.g. if you are near a major highway where hazardous
chemicals are transported, your school could be in danger of the effects of a
chemical spill.

Once you have worked out what disasters are possible in your area, assess
your structures. If you are in a wildfire area, for example, do you have bushes
trimmed back from the buildings and non-flammable roofs? If you are lo-
cated in a tropical cyclone prone area, do you have the roof securely attached?
And if you are in earthquake active areas, like Chipinge and Matabeleland
North, ensure that heavy appliances are securely bolted to the walls. Most of
the injuries and deaths related to natural disasters are caused by falling ob-
jects, fires, the release of hazardous materials, flying debris and roof col-
lapse. Therefore, these are some of the hazards to look for when doing your
assessment.
MITIGATE AGAINST THESE HAZARDS Hazard mitigation is any action taken to
reduce the loss of life or damage to property from any hazards. Based on your
assessment and using information on mitigation contained in the earlier chap-
ters of the resource book, it is best to prioritise your needed mitigation mea-
sures by degree of life safety, cost, frequency of identified potential hazard
and potential number of people exposed. Some hazards cannot be mitigated

Figure 8.5 Stages of a Disaster

Response Plan

In addition to the plan, it is useful to place

emergency telephone numbers of the follow-
ing at strategic points:
· District Administrator and directors of Area
Civil Protection and District Education;
· Chair of Parents-Teachers Association;
· Home School Liaison Officer;
· Education social worker;
· Social Services;
· Emergency services – ambulance, police,
fire brigade;
· Medical team – school doctor, school
nurse;
· Emergency Department at the local hos-
pital;
· Emotional/behavioural support team –
educational psychologist, clinical child psy-
chologist, child guidance clinic;
· Counselling services;
· Local religious group leaders;
· Local traditional leadership e.g. Chief and
Headman; and
· Local press and media contacts.

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Necessary follow up actions to the response
plan include:
· Determining the best escape routes from
each building in case of evacuation;
· Identifying a preferred assembly point and
alternative assembly point in case of
evacuation;
· Making arrangements for the manage-
ment of psychological distress;
· Making arrangements for a sick bay; and
· For large institutions, providing a ground
map and ensuring that the grid reference
of the school is known.
Your plan should also address the needs of
students and staff with disabilities and this
must be incorporated into the practice of di-
saster drills.
Signs to look out for include withdrawn or quiet
students, those acting in an overly respon-
sible or parental manner, hyperactive children
with little focus, children who are edgy, jumpy
or quick to anger, vying for attention, out of
control or with an attitude of not caring. Very
young children may show regressive and an-
tisocial behaviour. Classroom exercises that
can help include discussions of the recovery
from the disaster, as they can temporarily
reduce academic performance expectations.
They also encourage involvement in school
recovery efforts and, thereby, more speedy
resumption of social activities.
The reactions of children to disaster are af-
fected most by the following five factors:
1 Their perception of the adults’ reactions;
2 The direct exposure they have had to the
destruction;
3 The child’s developmental age;
4 The existence of problems prior to the
event; and
5 Previous experience of another disaster.
Students are responsible for policing each
other so that they maintain the facilities and
refrain from vandalism.
against; others are too costly to mitigate. For example mitigation efforts in
the future might include moving schools that are in particularly risky loca-
tions. Mitigation of community risks is probably beyond the control of school
officials.
DEVELOP A RESPONSE PLAN Mitigation activities alone cannot prevent the oc-
currence of disasters. Therefore a school disaster management plan, includ-
ing the definition of an evacuation route, can be seen as an insurance policy
for the school against disasters. Disaster management is planning how to re-
spond when an emergency occurs and is designed to help save lives and
minimise damage by preparing both students and staff to respond appropri-
ately. It leads to an awareness of the possibilities of preventing disasters from
happening in the first place. This type of preparedness involves proper plan-
ning, organisation, staff, student and community involvement, training and
dissemination of information. Remember that, at all stages, good communi-
cation is vital to the successful management of any crisis.
DEVELOP A STRATEGY FOR COPING AFTER A DISASTER This is a sequence of
steps recommended in preparing an emergency contingency plan (see Figure
8.5). The drafting of the strategy should be an interactive and consultative
process, resulting in a clear understanding of roles and responsibilities, greater
awareness of the prevailing hazards, the establishment of a communications
system and danger warning signals, and a written plan.
Facilitating coping and psychological healing after a disaster
Schools need to be aware of the range of symptoms children and teachers
may show after a traumatic event. Never underestimate the traumatic effects
of a major crisis on people’s lives and never try to forget or ignore what has
happened. There may still be funerals to attend, legal processes to get through
and people to support, and anniversaries of an event serve as reminders, whether
we like it or not. Psychological trauma after a disaster is very real.
Therefore, it is important that schools plan ahead of time to deal with the
inevitable psychological aftermath and monitor the situation on a regular ba-
sis. Watch particularly for major changes in behavior that may suggest post
traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]. The CPD has a pamphlet that includes in-
formation that teachers may use to identify children at risk psychologically
and for conducting classroom exercises to help students voice their fears and
overcome them.
Identifying at-risk students is one of the most important things your staff
can do after a disaster. The children most likely to be affected by a crisis
include:
• Those who had the longest contact with the hazard, and whose lives were
at the greatest risk;
• Those who actually witnessed death or carnage (e.g. a violent act or
accident);
• Children from unstable homes (where support systems are lacking);
• Weak or less able children; and
• Very young children, for whom vivid memories of the event may linger
until they become mature enough to understand and cope with them.
Once the immediate crisis is over, it is important to facilitate recovery from
the traumatic event. This requires an environment where students, faculty and
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staff receive support. Fear itself can be extremely debilitating following an
emergency. The much needed sense of security in the school and in the lives
of all those affected is restored by providing a safe atmosphere in which stu-
dents and adults can voice concerns, fears and feelings, and can express grief.
Facts, whenever possible, about what has actually happened and what can be
expected to happen (including burial ceremonies, if appropriate) should also
be freely provided. There should be as little disruption of normal school rou-
tines as possible.
The roles of teachers and students
Teachers are to ensure that:
• The disaster response plan exists and is revised regularly, preferably
annually;
• Recommendations are made to the local disaster management team and
thus to Government, of the school’s urgent disaster related needs, etc;
• Security measures are in place for off limits areas of the school;
• Students, teachers and other workers who are at work are accounted for
daily, usually by means of roll call; and
• Necessary drills identified in the Response Plan are carried out regularly
with the students.
The importance of school buildings in disaster management
Safe school buildings are as important as disaster risk management education
and they are a key priority area for action outlined in the Hyogo Framework
for Action 2005-2015: Building Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters, which 168 Governments adopted at the World Conference on Di-
saster Reduction in January 2005. In line with this Framework, integration of
disaster risk education into national curriculums and building safe school fa-
cilities are two priorities that contribute to a country’s progress towards the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
It is possible, of course, to construct solid disaster resistant buildings. Al-
though there are likely to be economic constraints, schools must meet vari-
ous requirements so that they are ready to withstand various kinds of disaster.
Depending on the type and severity of a particular disaster, the building may
have to provide shelter for a large number of people who could end up staying
there for several days. The vulnerability of school facilities must not be seen
only in terms of the need to prevent catastrophic damage that may destroy the
buildings. It is also necessary to prevent lesser damage that might affect the
continuity of the services provided. For example, if a school is unusable, the
children will have to go to other schools, often in shifts, and their education
will suffer.
When an extreme natural event is expected, emergency shelters, often school
buildings, might be opened to house the local population and keep them out
of harm’s way, as was the case with tropical cyclone Eline in Chikwarara,
situated at the confluence of the Bubi and Limpopo rivers. Many people had
to seek refuge at the school, which is located on high ground. Thus they relied
on the structural integrity of the buildings to protect them and save them from
the weather elements. Unfortunately, in many other cases in the country, school
buildings have not withstood the impact of a cyclone and have ended up
roofless or flooded.
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A hazardous learning environment.
One of the schools that was badly
damaged by the earthquake of 23
March 2006 in Chipinge. The
school has been earmarked for
reconstruction by the CPD.
School buildings often serve multiple pur-
poses in a community. For most of the day,
they house one of the nation’s most precious
resources – the students. Although intended
primarily to serve as educational institutions,
they may also be used as polling stations
during elections, gathering places for com-
munity, meeting places for clubs and religious
organisations, storage places for books and
other technical equipment, post disaster food
distribution centres and public shelters in
emergencies. Therefore, when a school build-
ing is vulnerable to hazards, the welfare of
the entire community is at risk. A school build-
ing in the state shown below is no longer safe
for either the students or the community.
Some of Zimbabwe’s school buildings are gifts
from donor organisations or foreign govern-
ments. Decisions to donate to a particular
community and specific site are usually made
hastily, in concurrence with politicians, and the
funding agencies do not always take into con-
sideration the local natural hazards. The
schools, therefore, may not be built with spe-
cific hazard vulnerability criteria in mind, but
based on the immediate need of the com-
munity.
In addition, schools are usually built on mar-
ginal pieces of land owned by the govern-
ment that are unsuitable for commercial or
agricultural use. Thus, proper site selection
criteria are usually not applied.
The maintenance of existing buildings cov-
ers two areas:
1 General maintenance on an annual ba-
sis to prevent the building from falling
into a state of disrepair; and
2 Specific maintenance, including any up-
grading or renovation required to enable
the building to resist tropical cyclones,
earthquakes, fires and floods.
It is common knowledge that a structure that
is not properly maintained is more vulner-
able to natural disasters. Unfortunately, school
buildings are often poorly maintained and
usually little money, if any, is set aside for
maintenance in recurring budgets. Even
though school building manuals for some
schools were developed for non-technical staff
(school principals, principals, and teachers),
the manual contains only a series of check-
lists and hints on how to prolong the life of
school buildings. School maintenance should
become a routine activity, like changing the
oil in a car or visiting the dentist for a six-
monthly cleaning.
Information on disaster preparedness can
be expanded through the preparation of in-
dividual or family plans, and plans prepared
by churches, local organisations, etc. The in-
volvement of the Parent-Teacher Association
is also a means of involving the community
at large. A disaster risk management literate
school should strive to let the information spill
over to produce an equally literate local com-
munity that will be disaster resistant.
It should be recognised that schools have
multiple roles in enhancing the disaster re-
duction activities carried out by local commu-
nities. When a local community organises it-
self to prevent disasters and prepares to cope
better with an insurgent major hazard, schools
become a focal point for the spread of knowl-
edge of the risks and the resources present
in the community. They are also responsible
for instilling in the younger generation the
educational element that facilitates respect-
ful behaviour, and interaction between groups
in the society at risk and the local environ-
ment. Schools can provide a suitable inter-
face between the disaster reduction
programmes that they initiate themselves and
the less accessible groups of the society at
risk, including families.
Reducing vulnerability with reference to buildings
Ideally, vulnerability to natural hazards should be considered before
construction begins. Engineers estimate that safety measures against natural
hazards add a very small fraction to the capital cost of an entire project at the
time of initial construction. The cost of structural mitigation varies according
to the hazard. For example, mitigation for earthquake prone areas is typically
more costly than mitigation against wind and rain.
Before going into the problem of vulnerable buildings, the first step is to
create a database or profile of the existing stock of school buildings. How-
ever, the record keeping systems of schools often do not allow easy access to
basic information about school or shelter buildings, such as the date of con-
struction, design type, as-built drawings and plans, or the institution that fi-
nanced the construction. It is necessary to know what types of hazards are
prevalent in the area and how the building will perform if faced with these
hazards. Once this information is collected, a strategy can be developed and
priorities set to retrofit or upgrade the buildings.
Experts in structural engineering can suggest ways to mitigate hazards at the
school. After school officials have the necessary information about existing
hazards and structural mitigation possibilities, they can identify the costs of
mitigation and the feasibility of the steps to be taken. The building maintenance
section of the Ministry of Education must also be informed to allow for
timely and appropriate maintenance within resource limitations. The need
for community capacity building has to be recognised. Where possible,
community/local builders should be used during construction to help build
identification and ownership. It may even be possible, based on the nature
and scope of the work to be done, to implement youth skills training modules,
thereby enhancing the construction skills capacity of the local community
and building greater awareness among young people. The community should
be made aware of the reasons that the school has decided to retrofit its
buildings so that members are encouraged to do the same at their homes.
Education and training on disaster management for communities
The role that teachers and students can play in creating awareness in local
communities cannot be overemphasised. Schoolteachers and children can
become model disaster managers for a community that has faced a severe
disaster in the recent past. They can work in generating awareness, identify-
ing the vulnerabilities and recommending coping mechanisms. Working as a
team, they can reduce the impact of disasters on the community. These are
examples that reiterate the strong social responsibility that an institution such
as a school bears. To achieve this end, the school’s curriculum activities should
not be tied to the classroom alone. Students should be encouraged to do projects
or field assignments on various aspects of preparedness, like hazard mapping
of their community, how vulnerable their school would be in the event of a
disaster, and the procedures to follow if such an event did occur. They may
scout for other potential hazards in and around their communities or identify
the most prevalent hazard in the region or locality. A detailed study of these
local hazards can lead to the discovery of ways to reduce the vulnerability of
both the school and the community.
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TERMINOLOGY

Basic Terms in the Field of Disaster Risk Reduction

The following is a list of terminology selected and adapted from those that the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Secretariat
presented in 2004. These basic definitions were produced in order to promote a common understanding of this subject, for use by the public,
authorities and practitioners.

Acceptable Risk The level of loss a society or community considers acceptable, given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and
environmental conditions. In engineering terms, ‘acceptable risk’ is also used to assess structural and non-structural measures undertaken to reduce
possible damage at a level which does not harm people and property, according to codes or ‘accepted practice’ based, among other issues, on a known
probability of hazard.

Biological Hazard Processes of organic origin or those conveyed by biological vectors, including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins
and bioactive substances, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Examples of biological hazards are outbreaks of epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insect plagues and extensive infestations.

Building Codes Ordinances and regulations controlling the design, construction, materials, alteration and occupancy of any structure to ensure
human safety and welfare. Building codes include both technical and functional standards.

Capacity A combination of all the strengths and resources available within a community, society or organisation that can reduce the level of risk, or
the effects of a disaster. Capacity may include physical, institutional, social or economic means as well as skilled personnel or collective attributes, such
as leadership and management. Capacity may also be described as ‘capability’.

Capacity Building Efforts that aim to develop human skills or social infrastructure within a community or organisation that are needed to reduce the
level of risk. In extended understanding, ‘capacity building’ also includes development of institutional, financial, political and other resources, such as
technology, at different levels and in different sectors of the society.

Climate Change The climate of a place or region is changed if, over an extended period (typically decades or longer), there is a statistically significant
change in measurements of either the mean state or variability of the climate for that place or region. Changes in climate may be due to natural processes
or to persistent anthropogenic changes in atmosphere or in land use. Note that the definition of ‘climate change’ used in the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change is more restricted, as it include only those changes that are attributable directly or indirectly to human activity.

Coping Capacity The means by which people or organisations use available resources and abilities to face adverse consequences that could lead
to a disaster. In general, this involves managing resources, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. The strengthening
of coping capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and human-induced hazards.

Counter Measures All measures taken to counter and reduce disaster risk. They most commonly refer to engineering (structural) measures but can
also include non-structural measures and tools designed and employed to avoid or limit the adverse impact of natural hazards and related
environmental and technological disasters.

Crop Failure Abnormal reduction in crop yield such that it is insufficient to meet the nutritional or economic needs of the community.

Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society, causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental
losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.
A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) A group of chemical compounds used in industry and in the household, the excessive and universal use of which
is believed to be one of the causes of ozone depletion, with resulting environmental damage.

Declaration of Disaster Official issuance of a state of emergency upon the occurrence of a large scale calamity, in order to activate measures aimed
at the reduction of the disaster’s impact.

Disaster Management The body of policy and administrative decisions, and operational activities pertaining to the various stages of a disaster at
all levels.

Disaster Risk Management The systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills and capacities to implement the
policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and
technological disasters. This comprises all forms of activity, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit
(mitigation and preparedness) the adverse effects of hazards.

Disaster Risk Reduction (Disaster Reduction) The conceptual framework of elements considered to have the potential to minimise vulnerability
and disaster risk throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the
broad context of sustainable development. The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action, as described in
ISDR’s 2002 publication, Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives, page 23:
• Risk awareness and assessment, including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis;
• Knowledge development, including education, training, research and information;

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• Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislative and community action;
• Application of measures, including environmental management, land use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of
science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments; and
• Early warning systems, including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and reaction capacities.
Early Warning The provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions, that allows individuals exposed to a hazard to
take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response. Early warning systems include a chain of concerns, namely:
• Understanding and mapping the hazard;
• Monitoring and forecasting impending events;
• Processing and disseminating understandable warnings to political authorities and the population; and
• Undertaking appropriate and timely actions in response to the warnings.
Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. The boundaries
of what could be called an ‘ecosystem’ are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focus of interest or study. Thus the extent of an ecosystem may
range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire earth (IPCC, 2001).
El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global atmosphere that results in irregularly
occurring episodes of changed ocean and weather patterns in many parts of the world, often with significant impacts, such as altered marine
habitats, rainfall changes, floods, droughts, and changes in storm patterns. The El Niño part of ENSO refers to the well-above-average ocean
temperatures along the coasts of Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile and across the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, while the Southern Oscillation
refers to the associated global patterns of changed atmospheric pressure and rainfall. La Niña is approximately the opposite condition to El Niño.
Each El Niño or La Niña episode usually lasts for several seasons.
Emergency Management The organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all aspects of emergencies, in
particular preparedness, response and rehabilitation. Emergency management involves plans, structures and arrangements established to engage
the normal endeavours of government, and voluntary and private agencies in a comprehensive and coordinated way to respond to the whole
spectrum of emergency needs. This is also known as ‘disaster management’.
Drought Index A computed value which is related to some of the cumulative effects of a prolonged and abnormal moisture deficiency.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Studies undertaken in order to assess the effect on a specified environment of the introduction of any
new factor that may upset the current ecological balance. An EIA is a policy making tool that serves to provide evidence and analysis of
environmental impacts of activities from conception to decision making. It is utilised extensively in national programming and for international
development assistance projects. An EIA must include a detailed risk assessment and provide alternative solutions or options.
Environmental Degradation The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs. Potential
effects are varied and may contribute to an increase in vulnerability and the frequency and intensity of natural hazards. Some examples are, land
degradation, deforestation, desertification, veldt fires, loss of biodiversity, land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise and ozone
depletion.
Forecast Definite statement or statistical estimate of the occurrence of a future event (UNESCO/WMO). This term is used with different meanings
in different disciplines.
Geological Hazard Natural earth processes or phenomena that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation. Geological hazard includes internal earth processes of tectonic origin, such as earthquakes, geological
fault activity, tsunamis, volcanic activity and emissions, as well as external processes, such as mass movements – landslides, rockslides, rock falls
or avalanches, surfaces collapses, expansive soils and debris or mud flows. Geological hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin
and effects.
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) A gas, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs), that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation, warming the earth’s surface and contributing to climate change (UNEP, 1998).
Hazard A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social
and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. Hazards can include latent conditions that may represent future threats and can have
different origins – natural (geological, hydrometeorological or biological) or induced by human processes (environmental degradation and
technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its location,
intensity, frequency and probability.
Hazard Analysis Identification, studies and monitoring of any hazard to determine its potential, origin, characteristics and behaviour.
Hydro-Meteorological Hazards Natural processes or phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature, which may cause injury
or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Hydro-meteorological hazards include floods,
debris and mud floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunderstorms, hailstorms, rain and wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms,
drought, desertification, wild fires, temperature extremes, sand or dust storms, permafrost and snow or ice avalanches. HydroMeteorological
hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects.
Industrial Hazards A disaster term used to describe technological accidents of an industrial nature or involving industrial buildings (e.g.
factories). It comprises a number of disaster subsets – chemical spill or leak, explosions, radiation leakages, collapses, gas leaks from industrial
sites, poisoning, fires and other technological accidents involving industrial sites.
La Niña see El Niño-Southern Oscillation.
Land Use Planning Branch of physical and socioeconomic planning that determines the means and assesses the values or limitations of various
ways in which land is to be utilised, with the corresponding effects on different segments of the population or interests of a community being taken
into account in resulting decisions. Land use planning involves studies and mapping, analysis of environmental and hazard data, formulation of
alternative land use decisions and design of a long range plan for different geographical and administrative scales.Land use planning can help to
mitigate disasters and reduce risks by discouraging high density settlements and construction of key installations in hazard prone areas, control
of population density and expansion, and in the siting of service routes for transport, power, water, sewage and other critical facilities.

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Mitigation Structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, environmental degradation and
technological hazards.
Natural Hazards Natural processes or phenomena occurring in the biosphere that may constitute a damaging event.Natural hazards can be
classified by origin namely, geological, hydro-meteorological or biological. Hazardous events can vary in magnitude or intensity, frequency,
duration, area of extent, speed of onset, spatial dispersion and temporal spacing.
Pest Infestation Pervasive influx and development of insects or parasites affecting humans, animals, crops and materials.
Preparedness Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely and
effective early warnings and the temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations.
Prevention Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards and means to minimise related environmental, technological
and biological disasters. Depending on social and technical feasibility and cost/benefit considerations, investing in preventive measures is
justified in areas frequently affected by disasters. In the context of public awareness and education related to disaster risk reduction, changing
attitudes and behaviour contributes to promoting a ‘culture of prevention’.
Public Awareness The processes of informing the general population, increasing levels of consciousness about risks and how people can act to
reduce their exposure to hazards. This is particularly important for public officials in fulfilling their responsibilities to save lives and property in the
event of a disaster. Public awareness activities foster changes in behaviour, leading towards a culture of risk reduction. This involves public
information, dissemination, education, radio or television broadcasts, use of printed media, as well as the establishment of information centres and
networks and community and participation actions.
Public Information Information, facts and knowledge provided or learned as a result of research or study, available for dissemination to the public.
Recovery Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring or improving the pre-disaster living conditions of the affected
community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk. Recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction) affords
an opportunity to develop and apply disaster risk reduction measures.
Relief/Response The provision of assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to meet the life preservation and basic
subsistence needs of those people affected. It can be of an immediate, short term, or protracted duration.
Resilience The capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting or changing in order to reach and
maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure. This is determined by the degree to which the social system is capable of organising itself
to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better future protection and to improve risk reduction measures.
Retrofitting (Upgrading) Reinforcement of structures to become more resistant and resilient to the forces of natural hazards. Retrofitting involves
consideration of changes in the mass, stiffness, damping, load path and ductility of materials, as well as radical changes, such as the introduction
of energy absorbing dampers and base isolation systems. Examples of retrofitting include the consideration of wind loading to strengthen and
minimise the wind force, or in earthquake prone areas, the strengthening of structures.
Risk The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property loss, livelihoods and economic activity disrupted or
environment damaged) resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Conventionally risk is
expressed by the notation: Risk = Hazards x Vulnerability. Some disciplines also include the concept of exposure to refer particularly to the physical
aspects of vulnerability. Beyond expressing a possibility of physical harm, it is crucial to recognise that risks are inherent or can be created or exist
within social systems. It is important to consider the social contexts in which risks occur and that people, therefore, do not necessarily share the
same perceptions of risk and its underlying causes.
Risk Assessment/Analysis A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing
conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or harm to people, property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend.
The process of conducting a risk assessment is based on a review of both the technical features of hazards, such as their location, intensity,
frequency and probability, and also the analysis of the physical, social, economic and environmental dimensions of vulnerability and exposure,
while taking particular account of the coping capabilities pertinent to the risk scenarios.
Structural/Non-Structural Measures Structural measures refer to any physical construction to reduce or avoid the possible impacts of hazards,
including engineering measures and construction of hazard resistant and protective structures and infrastructure. Non-structural measures refer to
policies, awareness, knowledge development, public commitment, and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and
the provision of information to reduce risk and related impacts.
Sustainable Development Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs. It contains within it two key concepts: the concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s ability to meet
present and future needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Sustainable development is based on sociocultural development, political stability and
decorum, economic growth and ecosystem protection, all of which relate to disaster risk reduction.
Technological Hazards Danger originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or certain
human activities, which may cause injury or the loss of life, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Some
examples are industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport, and industrial or technological accidents
(explosions, fires, spills).
Vulnerability The conditions, determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility
of a community to the impact of hazards. For positive factors that increase the ability of people to cope with hazards, see definition of capacity.
Veldt Fire (Wild Fire) Any fire occurring in vegetation areas regardless of ignition sources, damages or benefits.

209
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ANNEX I
GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND POLICY GUIDELINES
1. GUIDING PRINCIPLES
1.1 Humanitarian Charter
The Humanitarian Charter is derived from international human rights laws. It describes the critical tenets that guide humanitarian action and asserts
the rights of populations to protection and assistance. This manual recognises the overall principles of the Humanitarian Charter. Thus preparedness
in the education sector advocates for the preservation of and the right to life with dignity, protection against threats and availability of basic
necessities in case of disasters.

1.2 The Rights of the Child

The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a United Nations agreement that outlines the rights of children worldwide. It has five broad
areas:
i. Survival rights - these are basic rights to life and include shelter, food and medical care.
ii. Development rights – these are requirements that enable a child to reach their fullest potential and include access to information,
education, and freedom of thought, play and cultural activities.
iii. Protection rights – these relate to safeguarding children from neglect and other forms of abuse. The African Charter on the Rights
and Welfare of the Child also advocates for mentally or physically disabled children to have the right to special measures of
protection in keeping with their physical and moral needs and under conditions that ensure their dignity, and promote self
reliance and active participation in the community.
iv. Participation rights – these advocate for children to be able to actively engage in various roles in their communities.
v. Environmental rights – every child has a right to a clean environment.

1.3 The Rights of the Teacher

1.3.1 Employment injury benefit
According to ‘The 1966 Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers’ by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation in cooperation with International Labour Organisation, Paris, 5 October:
i. Teachers should be protected against the consequences of injuries suffered not only during teaching at school but also when
engaged in school activities away from the school premises or grounds.
ii. Certain infectious diseases prevalent among children should be regarded as occupational diseases when contracted by teachers
who have been exposed to them by virtue of their contact with pupils.

1.3.2 Means of providing social security for teachers

i. The social security protection of teachers should be assured as far as possible through a general scheme applicable to
employed persons in the public sector or in the private sector.
ii. Where no general scheme is in existence for one or more of the contingencies to be covered, special schemes, statutory or non
statutory, should be established.

1.3.3 Professional freedom

While teachers should exercise the utmost care to avoid accidents involving pupils, employers of teachers should safeguard the
teachers against the risk of having charges levelled against them in the event of injury to pupils occurring at school or in school
activities away from the school premises or grounds.

1.3.4 School buildings

i. School buildings should be safe and attractive in overall design and functional layout; they should lend themselves to effective
teaching. They should be constructed in accordance with established sanitary standards and with a view to durability, adaptability
and easy, economic maintenance.
ii. Authorities should ensure that school premises are properly maintained, so as not to threaten in any way the health and safety
of pupils and teachers.

2. POLICY GUIDELINES
2.1 Civil Protection Policy in Zimbabwe
The policy states that every citizen of this country should assist where possible to avert or limit the effects of a disaster. Central Government
initiates hazard reduction measures through relevant sector ministries with the local administration taking the responsibility for implementing and
maintaining its effectiveness. The education sector is bound by this policy.

2.2 Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture/ Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education - Commitment and Policy Guidelines
The two Ministries are committed to emergency preparedness and response issues. This is evidenced by the following:
2.2.1 Legislation
i. Section 57 of the Education Act ensures healthy practices in schools to avoid health hazards. The purpose of this section is to
safeguard the health of pupils and students attending any educational institution.
ii. Statutory Instrument 59 of 1993 Section 5, ‘Inspection by Health Authorities’, states that any school and the pupils thereof shall
be subject to inspection by government medical officers, health inspectors or other qualified officers of the Ministry of Health
and Child Welfare. Section 4 of the instrument details specifications for standards facilities, sanitary and water requirements for
schools.
iii. Statutory Instruments 87 of 1992 and 70 of 1993 on School Development Committees and Associations respectively empower
School Development Committees and School Development Associations to take all measures that appear to them to be necessary
or expedient to preserve and maintain the property and facilities of the school.

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 2.2.2 Related policies
There are a number of policy circulars that relate to risk reduction and emergency preparedness in the education system e.g.
i. Policy Circular No. P. 5: Scholars Participation in Inter-School Non Sporting Competitions
This policy circular is intended to protect children against injuries, abduction, abuse and other forms of maltreatment. A contract
is entered into between the parent and school before the child participates in any such competition.
ii. Policy Circular No.51: Medical and Health Topics: Policies and Procedures to be Observed.
The policy stresses important medical and health topics. The school environment should be kept scrupulously clean with
adequate and functional sanitary facilities.
iii. Policy Circular No. P.19: Fire Precaution and Procedures and Civil Defence Procedures in Private and Government Schools
and Institutions
The policy spells out precautions that should be taken by every learning institution in the prevention of fires and the preparation
of contingent measures for fire disasters. It also instructs heads of schools to conduct preparedness fire drills in their respective
schools at least twice a year in which both teachers and pupils participate. Assistance in preparedness education and fire drills
procedure can be sought from the Fire Brigade. The circular also advises heads to invite Fire Brigade officers to give lectures/
lessons on fire disaster preparedness.

2.3 Ministry of Health Policies and Guidelines

i Immunisation
A record on immunisation must be presented to early childhood education and care and to the school. This must be up to date.
ii Allergies
Schools should oblige parents to provide information on a child’s allergies and the steps to be taken in case of emergency.
(Teachers are encouraged to believe parents when they provide such information)
iii Chronic Diseases
A record must be kept of children who suffer from chronic diseases. These include heart conditions, asthma, diabetes mellitus,
epilepsy etc. The record must include essential information on dos and don’ts and medication taken, if any.
iv Other Medical Conditions
A record must be kept indicating other medical conditions like prosthesis and various forms of disability etc.

2.3.1 Hygiene
i Food Handling
Strict hygiene practices must be observed in food preparation and storage in terms of prevailing regulations. A system must be
in place to ensure facilities for washing of hands.
ii Environmental Hygiene
o The environment must be clean with provisions for appropriate refuse collection and disposal.
o If children are to do the cleaning, for instance toilets, they must be provided with recommended protective clothes such
as gloves and heavy duty, rubber soled shoes.

2.3.2 Safe water and sanitation

These must meet the set minimum standards according to the Public Health Act of 1996, Chapter 15.09. Environmental Health Technicians
should reinforce set standards without discrimination.

2.3.3 Nutrition
Nutritious meals must be provided or arranged for by parents and guardians. Where possible there should be a nutrition garden and an
orchard.

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ANNEX II
CIVIL PROTECTION DEPARTMENT BASIC SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
i. Safe education infrastructure.
All development of education infrastructure must meet prevailing regulations and set standards as per building by-laws. Due care
must be taken in siting of schools particularly with regards to pre existing or anticipated hazards such as blasting in mining areas.
Buildings in such environments must be constantly monitored for structural defects and requisite corrective action should be
taken timeously. In general all educational infrastructure must be adequately monitored to ensure that it does not pose danger to
the occupants.

ii. Sick Bay

o Person with basic knowledge in First Aid and resuscitation
o Two to four beds, hand washing facilities, refrigerator and furniture items e.g. desk and chair, cardiac table and two to
four stools, bed linen e.g. bedspreads, blankets, sheets, pillows and pillow slips
o Back rest
o Skips for dirty linen, bins for refuse
o Toilet with hand washing facilities and a shower
o Over the counter essential drugs e.g. Paracetamol and lotions like Betadine and Sodium Hypochlorite (bleach)
o Oxygen cylinder with tubings and masks (different sizes)
o Gloves, bandages, sanitary pads, sterile blades or new razor blades.
o Blood pressure (BP) machines and thermometers for checking vital observations
o Up to six receivers for vomitus, bedpan
o Take note of expiry dates of medicines, drugs and chemicals

iii. First Aid

Teachers and pupils/students should be trained in First Aid.
o Schools are to provide fully equipped First Aid kits

iv. Traffic Safety and Educational Trips (Circular No. P54)

o A system must be in place to ensure children are conversant with traffic safety rules
o Parental consent must be sought for school trips
o Correct and appropriate roadworthy public service vehicles must be provided
o Use a vehicle with a certificate of fitness
o No overloading. Daylight travel encouraged
o Correct record of those on a trip must be maintained at the school
o Students/pupils should be under supervision

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ANNEX III
WORKSHOP HAZARDS (Metalwork, Woodwork, Laboratory, Home Economics and Technical Graphs)
Introduction
Workshops or rooms for practical subjects may be dangerous places due to the nature of the tools, equipment and materials that are used. The
following are some of the dangers or hazards that may be experienced and ways of minimising them.
Hazard 1: Fire and Explosion Risks (suffocation, shock, death and destruction of property
Causes: Electrical faults, gas, highly flammable liquids (spirits, solvents, resins, petroleum based adhesives)
Remedy, Prevention:
o Switch off all electric switches and gas taps
o Use fire-fighting equipment i.e. hoses, sand, extinguishers, etc.
o All electrical equipment, eg. plug wiring, insulation , fuse size, earthing, voltage and current, to be regularly checked for faults, by
qualified personnel
o Gas connection to be checked for leakages
o Workshops and storage rooms to be well ventilated
o Storage rooms to bear bold danger warning signs
o Cabinet to be used for keeping harmful materials, under lock and key
o No smoking, no forms of natural flame in the vicinity of inflammable stores
o Inflammable stores should be under strict supervision by someone fully conversant with the dangerous nature of the content
o Only enough quantities of flammable liquid should be available outside the store or cabinet
o Containers of flammable substances must be kept closed, when not in use
o Training operations on how to use fire fighting equipment and fire drills to be practiced regularly
Hazard 2: Burns (a) Fist Degree (b) Second Degree (c ) Third Degree
Causes: a) Scalds/contact with hot objects
b) Heavier contact with very hot objects or solvent flames
c) Severe burns (evidence by white/charred look)
Remedy, Prevention:
o Submerge burnt part in cold water and apply dry dressing
o Submerge burnt part in cold water until worst pain subsides , gently blot dry and apply dry sterile gauze then consult a doctor
NB Do not use an antiseptic preparation ointment or spray
o Call a doctor /ambulance immediately. Apply dry sterile dressings
NB Do not remove clothing, use cold water or apply any burn remedy
Hazard 3: Electrocution (shock, death)
Causes: Defective or faulty electrical equipment
Remedy, Prevention:
o Switch off all main switches and gas taps
o All electrical equipment to be efficiently earthed
o Reduced voltage tools (and use of power packs) strongly recommended
o All electrical equipment to have good insulation
o Wear protective clothing (like rubber soled shoes)
o Avoid wet or damp areas
Hazard 4: Poison
Causes: a) Swallowed
b) In contact with skin
c) In eyes
Remedy, Prevention:
o Dilute poison by giving patient as much water or milk as possible; Try to get a conscious person to vomit (salt water will help); Do not
try to make an unconscious or convulsing patient drink anything; Keep all chemicals in locked sore rooms
o Wash contaminated area with cold water for at least 15 minutes; Remove all contaminated clothing; Do not use any medication on
affected skin
o Wash thoroughly the affected eye(s) with cold or lukewarm water for at least 15 minutes and keep eyelids open
Hazard 5: Skin Hazards
Causes: Direct handling of harmful materials (liquids)
Remedy, Prevention:
o Use industrial gloves
o Use barrier creams
o Such materials to be used under strict supervision
Hazard 6: Breathing Hazards (suffocation/fainting, death)
Causes: Inhaling toxic fumes and dust
Remedy, Prevention:
o Workshop to be well ventilated
o Provision of respirators and face masks
Hazard 7: Injuries, Cuts, Bruises, Bleeding
Causes: a) Inhaling toxic fumes and dust
b) Sharp objects
c) Careless and incorrect use of hand tools and machines
d) Ill maintained, defective or faulty tools and machines
e) Poor storage of tools and materials
f) Slippery floors
g) Congestion
Remedy, Prevention:
o Rinse the cut under a running tap, and then apply dressing; Consult doctor (for tetanus injection)
o Tools and machines to be used for the job they are designed to; Users/operators to be well trained and to demonstrate a high level of
competence in the use of tools and machines; Strict supervision encouraged
o Regular maintenance of equipment
o Checking and rectifying faults before using equipment
o Tools and materials to have proper racks
o Floors to be free from fluids eg. water, grease and oils
o Workshop to provide sufficient, clear and unobstructed space

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