CDCT2203 Information Technology and Environment

CDCT2203
INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENT
Marini Abu Bakar
Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar

Dr Sufian Idris
Nor Ieyza Jailani
Roziah Latih
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad

Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang
Moderators: Nurhizam Safie Mohd Satar
Christine Ling Bee Fong

Rames Mariapan
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, November 2008

Second Edition, April 2014 (rs)
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2014, CDCT2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix - xiii
Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

1.1 Information Era 2
1.2 What is Information Technology? 5
1.2.1 Brief History of Computers 8
1.2.2 Computer Classification 9
1.3 Principles of Information Technology 11
1.4 Functions and Benefits of Information Technology 12
1.5 Careers and Information Technology 14
1.6 Information Technology in Malaysia 15
1.7 Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia) 15
1.8 Cyber Laws 17
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
References 19
Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

2.1 What is CPU? 21
2.1.1 Control Unit 22
2.1.2 ALU 22
2.2 Microprocessor Chip 23
2.3 Memory 24
2.3.1 RAM 26
2.3.2 ROM 27
2.3.3 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor 28
(CMOS)
2.4 Data Representation 28
2.5 System Unit 31
2.5.1 Power Supply 32
2.5.2 Motherboard 32
2.5.3 ROM Chip 33
2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board 33
2.5.5 Port 35
2.5.6 PCMCIA Card and Slot 36
2.6 System Clock 37
2.7 Bus Line 37

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 39
Key Terms 39
Topic 3 Input and Output 40

3.1 Input and Output 40
3.2 Input Methods 41
3.2.1 Keyboard 43
3.2.2 Terminal 45
3.2.3 Pointing Device 46
3.2.4 Scanning Device 49
3.2.5 Other Input Devices 52
3.3 Input Control 54
3.4 Output Methods 55
3.5 Output Devices 56
3.5.1 Printer 57
3.5.2 Monitor 58
3.5.3 Plotter 60
3.5.4 Voice Output Device 61
Summary 62
Key Terms 62
Topic 4 Secondary Storage 63

4.1 Basic Storage 63
4.2 Magnetic Storage Devices 66
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape 66
4.2.2 Hard Disk 68
4.2.3 Optical Storage 69
4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage 71
4.2.5 Cloud Storage 72
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage 72
4.3 Data Organisation Hierarchy 74
4.4 Upgrade Performance 75
Summary 78
Key Terms 78
Topic 5 Computer Software 79

5.1 Software 80
5.2 System Software 82
5.3 Operating System 84
5.4 Functions of OS 86
5.5 Features of OS 89
5.5.1 Multitasking 90
5.5.2 Multi-User 91

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
5.5.3 Multi-Processing 91
5.5.4 Batch Processing 92
5.5.5 Virtual Memory 92
5.6 Types of OS 93
5.6.1 Personal and Server OS 94
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded OS 96
5.7 Application Software 97
5.8 Word Processing Software 100
5.9 Spreadsheet Software 104
5.10 Database Software 107
5.10.1 Types of Databases 110
5.10.2 Database Management System Organisation 110
5.10.3 Client-Server 116
5.11 Document Processing Software 120
5.12 Graphics Software 120
5.13 Software Suite 124
5.14 Groupware Software 124
5.15 Desktop Publishing Software 124
5.16 Multimedia Software 125
Summary 126
Key Terms 126
Topic 6 Programming Language 127

6.1 Programming Language 127
6.2 Why Do We Need to Know Programming Languages? 129
6.3 Programming Language Generations and Examples 130
6.4 Approach: Classification of Programming Languages 135
6.4.1 Imperative Language 136
6.4.2 Object-oriented Language 136
6.4.3 Logic-based Language 137
6.4.4 Function-based Language 138
6.4.5 Script 139
6.4.6 Visual Language 139
6.5 Common Programming Languages 139
6.5.1 C 139
6.5.2 C++ 140
6.5.3 Java 140
6.5.4 Perl 140
6.5.5 Python 140
6.6 Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter 141
Summary 141
Key Terms 144

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 The Internet 145

7.1 Definition of Internet 145
7.2 History 147
7.2.1 How Did the Internet Begin? 148
7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon 149
7.2.3 Development of the Internet 152
7.3 Internet Evolution 153
7.3.1 Internet Timeline 153
7.4 Computers on the Internet 156
7.5 What is the Internet Content? 159
7.6 Managing Internet Information 162
7.6.1 Search Engine 164
7.6.2 Portals 165
7.6.3 Other Methods 167
7.7 Internet Laws 168
7.8 The Internet Today and the Future 169
Summary 171
Key Terms 172
References 172
Topic 8 Software on the Internet 173

8.1 Internet Software 174
8.2 Shareware and Freeware 174
8.3 Open Source Software 176
8.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 180
8.5 Telnet 181
8.6 E-mail 182
8.6.1 E-mail Discussion 183
8.6.2 Ethics of E-mail Discussion 184
8.6.3 Smiley 185
8.6.4 Acronyms 187
8.6.5 E-mail Signature 188
8.6.6 Smart E-mail 189
8.7 Usenet 190
8.8 The Internet Phenomenon 192
Summary 195
Key Terms 196
References 196

COURSE GUIDE

x X PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
CDCT2203 Information Technology and Environment is one of the courses
offered by the Faculty of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia
(OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15
weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to students taking the Diploma in Information Technology
programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours can be
accumulated.

x COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meanings of information technology (IT) and information era;

2. Discuss the uses of IT in daily lives which have affected society,
organisations and individuals in many aspects;
3. Describe the components of IT;
4. Explain the components of a computer system, computer hardware,
software and communication networks; and
5. Discuss the development of the Internet.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 8 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 gives an overview of IT, which covers the principles of IT, functions and
benefits of IT, careers in IT, IT development in Malaysia and cyber laws.
Topic 2 discusses the main computer hardware components, which are the
Central Processing Unit (CPU), main memory, and etc. Specifically, we will focus
on the CPU or the microprocessor, which is at the core of all activities inside a
computer that are responsible for changing raw data into the required
information. Besides that, we will also discuss data representation and coding

COURSE GUIDE xi
system. Towards the end of the topic, you will be introduced to some tools and
hardware in a computer system.
Topic 3 introduces various methods of input and output. The keyboard is the
most popular and frequently used input device. Besides the keyboard, there are
also many latest input and output devices in the market, which will also be
discussed in this topic.
Topic 4 introduces another computer component, that is, the secondary storage.
Here, you will learn the various types of secondary storage available in the
market and the comparison of storage types. This topic also explains the types of
magnetic storage, optic storage and advantages of secondary storage.
Topic 5 introduces the software used in the computer system. There are two
types of main software, that is, the system software and application software.
The system software is used to switch on (start) the computer and to coordinate
the hardware components and the application software. There are three
categories of software within the system software, namely the operating system,
utility programs and language translators. This topic discusses the concept and
types of operating systems being used. Language translators are explained
through programming languages. Programming languages will be discussed
from the perspectives of generation, approach and compilation. At the end of this
topic, you will discuss various types of application software that are commonly
used such as word processing, spreadsheet and graphic software.
Topic 6 discusses programming language. Computer programs are developed

using programming languages. A program is simply a list of instructions to be
followed by the computer so that data can be processed. The process of
producing a program is called programming. Programming is also known as
software development and it consists of steps in producing a list of instructions.
The steps in programming consist of program specification, program design,
program coding, program testing, program documentation and program
maintenance.
Topic 7 focuses on the development and history of the Internet. In this topic, we
will learn about the elements of the Internet and the activities that can be
performed on the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the process of
searching and manipulating information effectively over the Internet.
Topic 8 describes current software on the Internet. Some can be obtained for free,
while others have to be paid for. Open source software will also be discussed
here. We will also discuss a popular method of communication over the Internet
that is e-mail. Initially, e-mail was merely text-based, but now you can send
(attach) various types of data together with e-mails such as document, graphic,

xii COURSE GUIDE
audio and Power Point presentation files. At the end of this topic, we will touch
briefly on Internet scripting languages such as HTML and XML.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course on information technology. Hence, there is no
specific pre-requisite. However, the ability to use computers, especially the
productivity software like word processor, spreadsheet and browser will help
you to perform activities and complete the assignment.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Shelly, G. B., & Vermaat, M. F. (2009). Discovering computer 2009: Complete.
Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xiv COURSE GUIDE

Topic X Introduction to
1 Information
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Define information technology;
2. State six differences between the information era and previous eras;
3. Identify five components of information technology;
4. Discuss a brief history of computers;
5. Restate five classifications of computers; and
6. Explain about Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC
Malaysia).
X INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT), which has been around for more than half a century,
had its beginnings in a laboratory. Now, IT is taught in schools and considered
one of the major resources in a business organisation. IT is even used in the latest
information and communication technology (ICT) gadgets, such as smartphones
and tablets (Figure 1.1).

2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Figure 1.1: Smartphone (Samsung Galaxy S4) and tablet (iPad3)

Source: http://jailbreakhow.net
In this topic, you will be introduced to the IT era. You will also familiarise
yourself with the concept of IT and its characteristics. Other important issues
which we will discuss are the principles, functions and benefits of IT. Towards
the end of this topic, the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia)
and Cyber Laws will also be presented.
1.1 INFORMATION ERA

The 21st century has brought the information era, where it is continuing to
develop at a rapid pace, with computerised systems being used in almost all
types of sectors, from medical and space exploration to education, as well as
banking and manufacturing. The information demand in these fields has
increased the usage and development of many types of complex systems. Prior to
the information era, there were the agricultural era and industrial era, as shown
in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Descriptions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras
Era Description
Agricultural Most workers are peasant farmers, where their lives depend on
Era agriculture (Figure 1.2).
Industrial Work processes are simplified through mechanisation and automation,

Era while the number of factory workers continues to grow (Figure 1.3).
To see more images on the industrial era, please visit
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/ind_rev/images/images-
ind-era.html
Information Most workers get involved in the creation, distribution and use of
Era information.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY W 3
Figure 1.2: The environment during agricultural era

Source: http://www.ckrumlov.info
Figure 1.3: The environment during industrial era

Source: http://www.industrial-revolution.org

In order to understand the evolution of the three eras, please refer to Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Era
Evolution Agricultural Era Industrial Era Information Era

Mostly Peasants/farmers Factory workers Knowledge workers
Workers/ Man and land Man and machine Man and brain
partners
Tools Hand-based tools Machineries Computers/telecommunications
Source: Adapted from Senn (1998)
The technologies used in the agricultural, industrial and information era are all
different. For example, the technologies used in the industrial era (such as bull-
dozers and cranes) were meant to increase physical capabilities, while the
technologies of the information era (such as computers) are meant to enhance
workers productivity. Furthermore, the information era links people together by
communication tools that use IT. Although we are in the information era, both
agricultural and industrial activities are still important.
There are six features that differentiate the information era from the previous
eras (Senn, 1998):
(a) Emergence of an Information-Based Society

In an informative society, more workers are manipulating information,
rather than working in the combined fields of agriculture and
manufacturing.
(b) Success of Business and Management Jobs Depends on IT

For example, the banking business depends very much on IT for
simplifying daily transactions, and making it fast and efficient.
(c) Work Processes are Changed and Transformed to Upgrade Productivity

For example, in the agricultural era, tractors and ploughs were used to
speed up work in the farms. However, in the information era, knowledge
gained in agricultural research plays an important role in determining how
and when to grow, and how to look after crops.
(d) IT Provides Basis for Optimisation

Efficient use of IT does not only speed up routine activities, but also allows
opportunities for a company to study and re-organise work processes for
optimising the use of resources and to raise productivity such as in business
process re-engineering.

(e) Success in IT Depends on the Effectiveness of Using it

For example, in the agricultural era, farmers needed to know the methods
of taking care of buffaloes, cows and land. The industrial era required
industry workers to know and be able to deal with machines effectively.
Finally, the information era requires people to know how IT can increase
productivity and improve product and service qualities.
(f) IT is Embedded or Integrated into Many Products and Services

In the tourism industry, IT is used in ticketing, airports, hotels and rest
houses, car rentals, etc. Indirectly, IT provides added value to products
and services. These values take the form of quality, reliability, skills,
attractiveness and other characteristics that fulfil customers needs.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. According to Alvin Tofler (http://calculemus.org/lect/07pol-
gosp/arch/proby-dawne/materialy/waves.htm), we are now in
the third wave, which is known as the information wave. Discuss
in groups on what information era is and present it during your
tutorial.
2. From the three eras you have read in the text above, in which era
do you think Malaysia is currently? Explain your opinion.
1.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

Before going deeper into this subject, it would be good to be able to differentiate
between data, information and knowledge, as shown in Table 1.3:
Table 1.3: Definitions of Data, Information and Knowledge
Element Definition
Data Raw facts, figures, diagrams and other details, such as quiz marks and
the cost of computers.
Information An organised and meaningful interpretation which is useful about the
data, such as quiz performance and computer specification.
Knowledge Understanding and giving attention to a set of information and on how
the information can be used well, such as to give extra classes or to
upgrade computer performance.

The definitions in Table 1.3 explain that data which have been refined,
formatted and summarised are changed into information. Information that has
been interpreted, decided and acted upon is changed into knowledge. With
knowledge, users can make the best decisions and take appropriate actions.
In general, IT is the main player in the information era. This technology is used to
access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital form. IT
refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation, storage and
distribution of information. Table 1.4 contains some definitions of IT.
Table 1.4: Definitions of Information Technology
Source Definition
Behan and IT is a term for explaining the technology that enables us to record,
Holmes (1990) store, process, retrieve, send and receive information.
Martin et al. IT consists of all forms of technology involved in the collection,
(1994) manipulation, communication, presentation and utilisation of data
(which are transformed into information).
Senn (1998) IT contains three components, which are computers,
communication and expertise. A combination of the three
components creates opportunities for people and organisations to
become more productive, effective and generally successful
without being separated.
Renolds (2010) IT includes all tools that capture, store, process, exchange and use
information.
As mentioned in Table 1.4, we can define IT as a broad-based technology

required to support information systems. IT supports activities involving
creation, storage, manipulation and communication of information, together with
their related methods, management and applications. The core of IT is the
microelectronic component, i.e. the microprocessor chip, which processes data,
information, images, sound, graphics, and etc. that has given birth to modern
computers. Besides the microprocessor technology others include the storage
technology, data capture technology and communication technology.

Today, computers are connected via telecommunication networks transcending

even national borders. As such, IT has been taken simply as a combination of
computers and communications. In order to have a complete IT system, five
components of IT as shown in Figure 1.4, must come together.
Figure 1.4: Five components of information technology

1.2.1 Brief History of Computers

History of computers can be traced back to thousands of years ago the use of
abacus in China. This device computes using sliding beads arranged on a rack. In
1642, Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator called the Pascaline. Charles
Babbages difference engine, an automatic calculator was built in 1812 and later,
Hermann Hollerith in 1890, used punched cards to read and store data.
The history of computers is best explained in terms of generations. The first

generation was about 65 years ago and we are currently in the fifth generation.
Table 1.5 describes five generations of computers.
Table 1.5: Five Generations of Computers
Generation Years Description

1st 19511958 Basically used vacuum tubes, which are electronic tubes,
about the size of light bulbs. Example: Universal Automatic
Computer (UNIVAC) a very large and fast machine, but not
very successful as tubes were frequently burnt out when
overheated.
2nd 19591964 1959 marks the start of the 2nd generation with the invention
of transistors. Transistor is a three legged component which
occupies 1/100th of the space occupied by 1st generation
computers. It is more reliable and has greater computational
power than the earlier generation.
3rd 19651970 With the invention of integrated circuits made of silicon chips
in 1965, computers were smaller, inexpensive and can
perform functions of hundreds of transistors.
4th 1971 The use of the microprocessor, which is a silicon chip that
present contains a central processing unit (CPU) where all the
processing takes place, is the standard in all computers
currently. Computers moved into peoples homes rather
than just being used by large business corporations. Not only
found in computers, microprocessors are also used in digital
watches, pocket calculators, cars, telephones, television sets,
etc. Portable computers were made possible, and there is
greater development in data communications, as well.
5th Mid Artificial Intelligence based computers that could carry
1990s out certain tasks mimicking human characteristics such as
future problem-solving. For example, Expert Systems help doctors
diagnose patients, robots carrying out routine or dangerous
jobs, etc. Humans are able to communicate with computers
using natural language.

In the early years of computer technology, computers were used only by

scientists and engineers. They used computers to do research and development.
Later, computers were used by business and governmental organisations.
Computers were used to support the running of businesses, large and small.
Now, computers are being used by professionals, students and in homes.
In general, microchips have become more powerful, have bigger memory

capacity and other hardware components too have increased tremendously,
without much increase in their physical sizes. Therefore, computers have become
smaller and cheaper with bigger capacity and more capability.
1.2.2 Computer Classification

In the field of IT, there are various types of computers that you can use,
depending on the job you want to do. There are small computers as well as very
large ones. They are specialised in catering for the types of jobs on the basis of
processing power, speed, cost, security and various other criteria. You will see
many of these terms used in the following topics.
There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers.
Indeed, their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such, the
number of classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of
computing hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with no
sharp line dividing the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and cost as
you go down from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the small
microcomputers. The five classifications are shown in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Five Generations of Computers
Computer
Description
Classification
Microcomputer It is a desktop computer, as well as a personal computer (PC). The
label personal computer is associated with microcomputers because
they are designed for use by one person at a time. It is not to be
confused with the microprocessor, which is literally a computer on a
chip. In a microcomputer, the microprocessor, electronic circuitry
and memory chips are mounted on a single circuit board called
the motherboard. It is the motherboard that distinguishes one
microcomputer from another. Important hardware components will
be discussed in detail in the next few topics.
Mainframe This computer is defined as the big sized commercial computer
designed specifically for a multi-user environment and it is used by a
whole corporate body. It normally has more than 100 remote
terminals. The mainframe is very strong in terms of security,
connectivity and data management capabilities. It must reside in a
specially controlled environment with special heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning equipment to control the temperature, humidity
and dust level around the computer.
Minicomputer Until the late 1960s, all computers were mainframes only. They were
just called computers. Later, computer vendors began to introduce
smaller machines to make them affordable to the smaller companies.
This gave birth to the minicomputers. Today, a minicomputer can be
defined as the smallest computer designed specifically for a multi-
user environment. The system must be able to service between two
and 100 remote terminals at one time.
Supercomputer This is the largest, fastest and most expensive computer available.
It is extremely powerful and especially designed for high-speed
numerical computations needed in complex engineering
applications. Supercomputers are processor intensive, whereas the
mainframes are input-output intensive. Supercomputers can perform
arithmetic calculations at a speed of billions of floating-point
operations per second (gigaflops). Cray Research, NEC and Fujitsu
are the leading manufacturers of supercomputers.
Workstation There are other classifications of computers like super-minis, super-
micros, mini computers, etc. they are the intermediate stages of an
earlier classification. Some computers are called servers and clients.
The workstation is a network terminal (intelligent but without disc).
It often refers to a terminal with RISC processors, instead of Intel. In
general, a workstation is simply a high-end personal computer.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Differentiate the terms data, information and knowledge. Then

give one example for each term.
2. Briefly explain the history of computers.
ACTIVITY 1.2
As a learner, which type of computer classified in Table 1.6 is suitable

for you? Explain.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
We can appreciate how IT helps organisations and people. We have heard and
read how IT can increase profitability of companies and businesses. People too
have gained a lot by using the computer to work and for entertainment. On the
other hand, we also know the negative effects of computer viruses which have
caused computer system failures at many organisations and among individual
users.
Certainly, the main objective of using IT is to help people and organisations to

solve problems and to initiate creativity, thereby, making them work faster and
more effectively. IT can facilitate them in their daily activities. Therefore, IT frees
people from routine work, enables them to focus more attention on solving
problems and improves their daily lives. Table 1.7 describes eight IT principles.

Table 1.7: Eight Information Technology Principles
Principle Description
Reliable It is impossible to say that an IT system works 100% all the time.
Sometimes, it works 99% of the time and 1% it does not work.
However, it is important that reliability does not go below a certain
threshold.
Secure The environment in which the IT system operates must be secure
from unauthorised access or malicious destruction.
Flexible People are able to use the IT system anywhere they are and
anytime.
Foster innovation Creativity in developing new software and hardware for the new
era, such as early warning systems for bad weather.
Responsive IT system is able to provide a range of services.
Easy and All the tools and facilities should be easy to learn and use.
transparent
Consistent The IT environment must be consistent and internationally
interoperability accepted so that information can be exchanged readily.
Affordable People should be able to afford the IT systems they intend to use.
1.4 FUNCTIONS AND BENEFITS OF

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Senn (1998) says that IT performs six functions of information work collecting,
processing, generating, storing, retrieving and delivering. In most cases, two or
more functions are done simultaneously. These are mentioned in Table 1.8,
which illustrates the functions, definitions and examples of IT.

Table 1.8: Six Functions of Information Technology
Function Definition Example

Collecting Collecting records of activities to be Reading voter information, reading
used later electricity meters
Processing The process of changing, analysing, Counting votes, processing of
calculating and synthesising all electricity bills, word processing,
forms of data or information processing of taxes
Generating Assembling information into useful Electricity bills, tables, graphs,
forms, whether as text, audio or charts on discs, tapes, CD-ROM
image files
Storing The computing process of storing Income tax records, society
data and information to be used membership records, traffic offence
later records
Retrieving Locating data and obtaining them Faxes, e-mails, voice mails, reports
again
Delivering Taking/sending/presenting to E-mails, voice mails
There are four benefits that the advancement of IT has given to all its users. These
can be seen in Table 1.9.
Table 1.9: Four Benefits of Information Technology
Benefit Definition
Speed A relative value computers can perform within seconds, at speeds that
are much faster than humans.
Consistency Computers are efficient in doing repetitive jobs consistently, i.e.
producing the same results for the same jobs.
Accuracy Computers work very accurately tracking even small differences.
Reliability With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can trust and rely on
computers in producing the same results again and again.
With these four benefits that can be gained from the use of IT, we cannot ignore
the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two categories of
opportunities:
(a) Helping People For example, assisting special people (the disabled),
increasing human productivity and helping people towards having better
lives; and

(b) Helping to Solve Problems For example, assisting in the process of

problem identification, exploring a number of alternative solutions and
implementing the solution with success.
IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and
helping people. Hence, we should know the three basic responsibilities of IT
users as follows:
(a) Knowing the capabilities and limitations of IT;
(b) Using IT ethically and correctly; and
(c) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.
1.5 CAREERS AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY
IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that are
related to IT and careers are:
(a) Information Technology as a Career

Technical knowledge and skills in IT provide job opportunities in the field
of IT. Among careers in IT are system analyst, IT officer, network
administrator, network specialist, software engineer, knowledge engineer,
programmer, data processing manager, project manager, computer system
consultant, system integrator, system administrator, chief information
officer, system engineer, website manager, etc. They are called IT
professionals. Sometimes, they are also considered as important players
behind the computer, i.e. those who develop and maintain software and IT
tools.
(b) Information Technology Users

IT users are generally known as end-users. End-users get involved in the
use of IT but they are not required to have technical knowledge of IT. For
example, doctors use computers to access patient information but they do
not need to know how the system is developed. In general, users can be
divided into three types novice users, semi-skilled users and skilled users.
IT applications are created for them to use.
Both IT professionals and IT users need to communicate with each other for the
increasing use of IT, for creating new ideas and getting the desired benefits.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
State six types of careers in the field of information technology.
1.6 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

MALAYSIA
Multimedia Super Corridor is one of the latest IT developments in Malaysia. It is
a Malaysian agenda for achieving Vision 2020 and the main strategy for
achieving competitive advantage in an economy based on knowledge. As users
of IT, we need to equip ourselves in order to acquire the full benefits of this
technology.
Where are we in the utilisation of IT? As of now, there are still very few factories
or manufacturers that use IT, not to mention the robotic systems. Industries that
do utilise IT, do not fully exploit the potential of this technology. The results of a
review by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and National Productivity
Corporation (NPC), as reported in the Seventh Malaysia Plan, show that most
manufacturers utilise IT for administration, rather than the manufacturing
process. However, there are signs of an increase in the use of IT in the
manufacturing processes of small and medium-sized industries.
1.7 MULTIMEDIA SUPER CORRIDOR

MALAYSIA (MSC MALAYSIA)
One of the national IT development projects that has been hotly debated is the
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia (MSC Malaysia). Multimedia Super
Corridor Malaysia was initially an area covering 15 50km, spanning Kuala
Lumpur City Centre (KLCC) in the north, until the Kuala Lumpur International
Airport (KLIA) in the south. Oil palm estates were converted into an information
valley. Two intelligent cities have been built within the Multimedia Super
Corridor Malaysia area, i.e. Cyberjaya and Putrajaya. Cyberjaya houses the
information and multimedia technology industries, while Putrajaya is the new
administrative centre of the federal government. The Multimedia Development
Corporation (MDeC) was set up to oversee the development of MSC Malaysia.

This project has proven to be a success with the number of well-known

international IT companies coming to the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia
area, far exceeding the original targeted numbers. It was also planned that the
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia area would finally expand to cover the
entire country. (Please visit www.mdec.com.my to know more about the
development of Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia).
A Bill of Guarantees has been provided by the government to attract companies

operating in the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia area, which are awarded
the Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status. These are:
(a) Provision of world-class physical and information infrastructures;
(b) Unrestricted permission for local and foreign knowledge workers;
(c) Ensuring freedom of ownership, by giving Multimedia Super Corridor

Malaysia status companies exceptions from the need to have local
ownership;
(d) Giving freedom to Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status companies

to obtain capital from local and international loans for setting up
Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia infrastructures;
(e) Provision of attractive financial incentives;
(f) Being a regional leader in Intellectual Property Rights and Cyber Laws;
(g) Ensuring that there is no censorship of the Internet;
(h) Provision of a telecommunication tariff that is globally competitive;
(i) Issuing a tendered contract of Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia

infrastructure to companies that intend to make Multimedia Super Corridor
Malaysia their regional hub; and
(j) Provision of an agency with authority to act as a one-stop super shop to

ensure Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia can fulfil the needs of
companies.
Multimedia Development Corporation also acts as a one-stop centre to fulfil the

10 guarantees, especially for speeding up visa, licence and permit applications.
The telecommunication infrastructure to be provided in MSC Malaysia is to be of
2.5G bps up to 10G bps. Besides that, an international advisory panel (IAP) for
MSC Malaysia was also formed, whose members included leaders of
multinational corporations in the field of ICT.

ACTIVITY 1.3
1. Seven flagship applications of Multimedia Super Corridor

Malaysia have been identified. They can be divided into two
categories, i.e. multimedia development and multimedia
environment. The first four applications come under multimedia
development, while the last three applications come under
multimedia environment. Please state the seven applications (to
help you answer this question, please visit the following website
www.mdec.com.my).
2. A number of government departments and the private sector have

developed their own websites and info kiosks. This shows a rise in
the realisation of the concept of information distribution via the
Internet. Give seven examples of various government department
websites or info-kiosks that are available over the Internet. (To
answer this question, you need to browse through the websites on
the Internet).
1.8 CYBER LAWS

Among the guarantees provided for Multimedia Super Corridor Malaysia status
companies are the enactment and implementation of six Cyber Laws, which have
now been passed by the Parliament. Among the laws are:
(a) Digital Signature Act 1997;
(b) Copyright Act (amendment) 1997;
(c) Computer Crime Act 1997;
(d) Telemedicine Act 1997;
(e) Communications and Multimedia Act 1998; and
(f) Communications and Multimedia Commission of Malaysia Act 1998.
ACTIVITY 1.4
There are six Cyber Laws that have been passed by Parliament. Work in
pairs, visit this website www.mdec.com.my and please state all six
Cyber Laws, together with their explanations.

Information technology is defined as a broad-based technology required to

support information systems.
There are six differences between the information era and previous eras:
emergence of an information-based society, success of business and
management jobs depends on IT, work processes are changed and
transformed to upgrade productivity, IT provides basis for optimisation,
success in IT depends on the effectiveness in using it, and IT is embedded or
integrated into many products and services.
The five components of IT are data, software, hardware, people and

procedures.
We have looked at brief histories of computers (five generations) and

five computer classifications, which are microcomputer, mainframe,
minicomputer, supercomputer and workstation.
We have learned about eight IT principles (reliable, secure, flexible, foster

innovation, responsive, easy and transparent, consistent interoperability, and
affordable).
There are six IT functions (collecting, processing, generating, storing,

retrieving and delivering) and four benefits of IT (speed, consistency,
accuracy and reliability) in our daily lives.
Latest developments and opportunities in Malaysia created by the progress

of IT should not be ignored.
We need to share experiences, manpower, expertise, wisdom and all these

are also termed as smart partnership to grab the opportunities offered by
IT.
We may not be the first nation to invent IT, but we can use IT as a platform to
make Malaysia a developed nation.

Communication Know how

Computers Multimedia Development
Corporation (MDeC)
Cyber Laws
Multimedia Super Corridor
Flagship applications
Malaysia (MSC Malaysia)
Information era
Personal computer (PC)
Information technology (IT)
Information and communication
technology (ICT)
Behan, K., & D. Holmes. (1990). Understanding information technology

(2nd. ed.). Sydney, Australia: Prentice Hall.
Martin, E. W., DeHayes, D. W., Hoffer, J. A., & Perkins, W. C. (1994). Managing
information technology: What managers need to know (2nd. ed.).
New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Senn, J. A. (1998). Information technology in business: Principles, practices and

opportunities. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Reynolds, G. W. (2010). Information technology for managers. Boston,

MA: Cengage Learning.

Topic X Central
2 Processing
Unit (CPU)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what are central processing unit and memory;
2. Define data representation and coding scheme; and
3. State various tools and hardware inside the system unit.
X INTRODUCTION
A computer system is a combination of hardware and software. Hardware is the
physical manifestation of the computer, while software consists of the programs
that command the hardware.
In this topic, we will discuss the most important component of the computer
hardware, that is the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU
or processor, is at the centre of all activities in the computer that are responsible
for changing raw data into the required information. Then, we will move on to
the
next most important computer hardware the memory. This is the hardware
component that works closely with the CPU. While the CPU performs the
complexity of processing, memory lends itself for storing data, intermediate data
and results from the CPU processes. Besides the data being processed, the
program codes are also stored inside the memory. The processor and memory
work hand in hand while the computer is on. Towards the end of this topic, the
system unit and the system clock will also be presented.

TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) W 21
2.1 WHAT IS CPU?

The CPU or processor is designed and built in various forms. It is a collection of
complex electrical circuits containing thousands or millions of transistors, which
are placed or installed over an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit is also
called the chip, or microchip, because all the transistors are designed or placed
on a very small silicon chip.
In a personal computer (PC), a processor is a microprocessor chip. In a bigger

system, such as the mainframes and the supercomputers, a few circuit boards are
used. The CPU can be present in various forms and is placed on the
motherboard. The function of a CPU is to execute the stored software
instructions, turning data into information. These instructions are executed in
machine language, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Functions of the CPU
There are two sections in a CPU: Control unit and arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
Let us now learn about these sections.

22 X TOPIC 2 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
2.1.1 Control Unit

The control unit of the processor can be compared with the human brain. It
informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions. The three
jobs of the control unit are shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Functions of control unit
In other words, the control unit manages the taking of an instruction, decodes the
instruction to know its aim, instructs the ALU to execute the instruction, and
then directs storing of results to the memory (primary storage), register or cache.
2.1.2 ALU
ALU executes two types of operations, which are basic arithmetic operation and
logical operation, as shown in Figure 2.3:
Figure 2.3: Functions of ALU

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. State two sections of CPU.
2. Explain the functions of the control unit.
3. What are the two types of operations carried out in ALU?
ACTIVITY 2.1
In every computer, the CPU is like the brain of a computer. Why is it

compared to the brain? Explain. Post your answer in the forum and
discuss with your coursemates.
2.2 MICROPROCESSOR CHIP

Inside bigger computers, such as the mainframes and supercomputers, various
CPU functions are carried out by chips on different circuit boards. However, for
microcomputers, the CPU is usually located on one chip only, which is termed as
the microprocessor. The microprocessor contains the control unit and ALU, as
well as the registers and a system clock.
Most new microprocessors are integrated with a multimedia technology

or 3D (three-dimensional) graphics processor. Specific microprocessors for
notebooks and servers are also produced and sold by manufacturers.
There are two types of microprocessor chips, which are:
(a) Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) Chip Microprocessors that

are commonly used are the complex instruction set computing chip. This
technology has been popularised by Intel and has become the basis of its
microprocessors. This chip design has been used very widely and many
programs have been written specifically for this type; and

(b) Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) Chip This type of computer
chip uses the approach of reduced instruction set computing, which
involves less instruction. Its design is simpler and cheaper than the complex
instruction set computing chip. This chip is used mostly inside high-
powered microcomputers. Refer to Table 2.1 for the most popular
microprocessors.
Table 2.1: Popular Microprocessors
Microprocessor Type of Chip Normal Use

Pentium Complex instruction set computing Microcomputers
PowerPC Reduced instruction set computing Apple Macintosh computers
Alpha Reduced instruction set computing Supercomputers, workstations
MIPS Reduced instruction set computing Workstations, video players
SELF-CHECK 2.2
State two types of microprocessor chips and their uses.
2.3 MEMORY
The memory is separated from the CPU but is normally integrated with it and is
accessed by it. Data and instructions need to be present inside the memory before
being accessed by the CPU. The memory simply holds the data and instructions
temporarily, as long as the program being used is operational. In general, the
storage space for the memory can be used in five different forms for:
(a) Storing the operating system and other system software programs that act
as interfaces between hardware and application programs and controlling
computer resources;
(b) Storing application programs like word processors, spreadsheets and

databases;

(c) Storing data temporarily, i.e. data received from input devices or secondary
storage to be processed or to be sent to output devices or secondary storage
after processing;
(d) Storing data required during processing inside an area of storage work; and
(e) Providing additional storage space to programs or data, if required. If the

computer has excessive storage space for memory, the excess space is not to
be used, but it can or is ready to be used. The total memory utilisation
changes during processing.
Figure 2.4 illustrates how the memory communicates with the processor.
Figure 2.4: Methods of how the memory communicates with the processor
There are three types of memory chips as shown in Figure 2.5, which
are random access memory (RAM), read only memory (ROM) and
complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS).

Figure 2.5: Three types of memory chips
SELF-CHECK 2.3
There are many types of memory inside a computer. What are the main
functions of memory?
2.3.1 RAM
The RAM stores the programs and data being processed by the CPU. It is a
temporary storage because as soon as the electrical switch is turned off, all that
has been saved inside the RAM will be lost. However, there is a new type of
RAM that can store programs and data permanently. Flash RAM or flash
memory chip can store data even when there is an electrical failure. This type of
memory is more expensive than the normal RAM and is mostly used in portable
computers. The capability or content of the RAM is measured in bytes. Four units
of measurement that are normally used to describe memory capability are as
shown in Table 2.2:

Table 2.2: Memory Capacity
Unit Capacity (bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1,024
Megabyte (MB) 1,024,000
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024,000,000
Terabyte (TB) 1,024,000,000,000
The two types of RAM chips that are normally used are:
(a) Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Memory that holds data in a dynamic manner.
Data is not stored continuously. Instead, the computer will refresh the data
hundreds of times every second. It is normally used in personal computers;
and
(b) Static RAM (SRAM) Memory that holds data continuously, for as long as
there is electricity, without any refresh process. It is faster than DRAM but
its design is more complex.
ACTIVITY 2.2
To know in detail about computer memory, please visit

http://www.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
2.3.2 ROM
The ROM chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory. The ROM chip
does not evaporate and cannot be changed by users. Read Only means that the
CPU can read or access the program written inside the ROM chip. Computers
cannot write or code or change any data or instruction inside the ROM. There are
four types of normally used ROM, as shown in Table 2.3:

Table 2.3: Types of ROM
Type of ROM Functions

Programmable ROM (PROM) Memory that is programmable only once and then it
can only be read.
Erasable Programmable ROM The content of which can be erased by using the
(EPROM) ultra-violet ray method.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM that can be erased by electricity,
Programmable ROM the content of which can be changed or programmed
(EEPROM) electronically.
Flash Memory Also known as flash ROM flash memory can be
erased and programmed electronically.
2.3.3 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS)
The Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor chip provides flexibility and
expandability to the computer system. It contains important information that is
required every time the computer system starts. This chip provides information
such as the total RAM size, types of keyboard, mouse, monitor and disc drive. It
uses battery power and its content remains permanent even after the electricity
supply is disconnected. Its content changes according to changes in the computer
system, such as the addition of new hardware and RAM.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What do you know about flash memory? State the differences and
similarities between flash memory and ROM or RAM.
2.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Computers consider all data, numbers, alphabets and symbols as numbers. Even
computer instructions are in numerical form (machine language). The numbering
systems used by computers are binary numbers, hexadecimal numbers and octal
numbers, as shown in Table 2.4. Computers use binary digits zero (0) and one
(1) normally called bit, to represent data.

Table 2.4: Numbering System Symbols
Numbering System Number of Symbol Symbols Used

Binary 2 0, 1
Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
There are three binary coding schemes the most popular one uses eight bits to
form one byte. These codes are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode, as explained in
Figure 2.5.
Table 2.5: Coding Schemes
Code Definition
American Standard These codes represent text in computers, communication
Code for Information equipment and other devices that use text.
Interchange (ASCII)
Extended Binary Coded An 8-bit character encoding that is usually used in IBM
Decimal Interchange mainframe operating systems and IBM computers.
Code (EBCDIC)
Unicode A 16-bit code invented to cater for the need of international
languages like Chinese and Japanese.
When a key is depressed on the keyboard, the character is changed automatically

to a series of electronic pulses that can be recognised by the system. For example,
when the key A is pressed, it will cause an electronic signal to be transmitted to
the microcomputer system unit. The system unit will then change the signal into
ASCII code, which is, 0100 0001. Before execution, all instructions and data need
to be converted into binary form. For example, the arithmetic 3 + 5 requires 24
bits with the use of ASCII coding scheme.

It would be good if we can understand the concept of converting numbers

between binary, octal and hexadecimal systems as illustrated in Table 2.6:
Table 2.6: Examples of Numbers in Various Numbering Systems
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

1 0001 01 01
2 0010 01 01
5 0101 05 05
8 1000 10 08
10 1010 12 0A
11 1011 13 0B
15 1111 17 0F
16 0001000 20 10
20 00010100 24 14
160 10100000 240 A0
Please refer to Table 2.7 to see how data is represented in ASCII and EBCDIC
codes.
Table 2.7: Binary Coding Schemas for ASCII and EBCDIC
Symbol ASCII EBCDIC Symbol ASCII EBCDIC

A 0100 0001 1100 0001 ! 0010 0001 0101 1010
B 0100 0010 1100 0010 0010 0111 1111
C 0100 0011 1100 # 0010 0011 0111 1011
D 0100 0100 1100 $ 0010 0100 0101 1011
E 0100 0101 1100 % 0010 0101 0110 1100
F 0100 0110 1100 & 0010 0110 0101 0000
G 0100 0111 1100 ( 0010 1000 0100 1101
H 0100 1000 1100 ) 0010 1001 0101 1101
I 0100 1001 1100 1001 * 0010 1010 0101 1100
J 0100 1010 1101 + 0010 1011 0100 1110
K 0100 1011 1101 0 0011 0000 1111 0000
L 0100 1100 1101 1 0011 0001 1111 0001

M 0100 1101 1101 2 0011 0010 1111 0010

N 0100 1110 1101 3 0011 0011 1111 0011
O 0100 1111 1101 4 0011 0100 1111 0100
P 0101 0000 1101 5 0011 0101 1111 0101
Q 0101 0001 1101 6 0011 0110 1111 0110
R 0101 0010 1101 7 0011 0111 1111 0111
S 0101 0011 1110 8 0011 1000 1111 1000
T 0101 0100 1110 9 0011 1001 1111 1001
U 0101 0101 1110
V 0101 0110 1110
W 0101 1011 1110
X 0101 1000 1110 0111
Y 0101 1001 1110
Z 0101 1010 1110
SELF-CHECK 2.5
We know that people use language to interact. How do computers

interact? Explain.
2.5 SYSTEM UNIT

The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and related
circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located. It is also called
the system cabinet for the mainframes or the system board for the
microcomputers. Even though the system unit also includes hard disks, floppy
disks, CD-ROM and others, we are not going to touch on these devices, as they
are located outside the CPU. We are only going to focus on the following
sections.

2.5.1 Power Supply

The power supply plays the role of changing electrical current from alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC). Normally, there is a fan to cool down the
transformer and other components. If the electrical power is not uniform, e.g.
there is high and low voltage or power surge; this may spoil the main board,
hard disks and others. Hence, it would be better to install special equipment like
uninterrupted power supply (UPS), voltage regulator and so on.
2.5.2 Motherboard
The motherboard (also known as system board, mainboard, logic board and
planar board) is a communication network for the entire computer system. Every
component of the system unit is connected directly to the motherboard. It
functions as a data bus that enables various components to communicate with
each other. External devices like the keyboard, mouse and monitor cannot
communicate with the system unit without the motherboard.
The motherboard is a thin circuit board that is filled with sockets and electronic
components including various types of chips. One chip contains a very small
circuit board embedded in a stamp size piece of silicon. This chip is also known
as the silicon chip, semiconductor or integrated circuit. The chips are packaged
and inserted into the sockets of the motherboard. These electronic components
and chips are fixed to the system board as illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Motherboard

2.5.3 ROM Chip

The ROM chip contains a program that has been developed or burnt at the
factory, i.e. the program that is required for computers to operate, or to start
operating the computer such as hardware checking, Basic input/output system
(BIOS) and so on. The BIOS chip is normally used, and is partly hardware and
partly software.
The BIOS provides a service enabling software to communicate with the input
and output devices. The ROM BIOS contains specific instructions. When a
computer is switched on, the BIOS will perform a power-on self-test (POST),
such as diagnostic tests for the CPU and memory. It will then test
communications with the hardware such as the keyboard, disk drive and others.
Finally, the BIOS will boot up the operating system and submit control to the
operating system.
2.5.4 Slot and Expansion Board

Many computers are of the open architecture, where we can open up and add-on
new devices, thus expanding its capability. Expansion means adding more
memory or devices or software. This is made possible through the expansion slot
and the expansion board.
The expansion slot is a socket on the main board, which enables an expansion
card to be installed. An expansion card, or expansion board, or adapter, or
simply card, is actually a circuit board that gives more memory, or input/output
device control, or software.

An expansion card is inserted into the slot inside the system unit. A port on the
card enables cabling to be connected from the added card to the device outside
the system unit. We will see various functions of the boards or cards, as shown in
Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Functions of Boards or Cards
Board or Card Functions

Network Adapter Connects one computer to other computers. This is a
Card communication network in which users can share data, programs
and hardware. This card normally connects the system unit to a
cable that connects other devices in the network. The network
adapter card is inserted into the slot inside the system unit.
Small Computer Most computers have limited expansion slots. The SCSI card uses
System Interface only one slot but it can connect up to seven devices to the system
(SCSI) Card unit. This card is used to connect devices like the printer, hard
disc drive and CD-ROM to the system unit.
TV Adjuster Card The TV board that contains the TV and video adjuster can change
the TV signals to a form that can be displayed on the monitor.
Personal Due to the size and limitations of portable computers, an
Computer Card additional board of credit card size has been created. This card
can easily be slotted in and changed from the outside of portable
computers. This is called the personal computer card or the
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
(PCMCIA) card.
Memory It is useful for increasing memory and associating with other
Expansion computers. Enables addition of RAM chips.
Display Adapter Enables various colour video displays for monitors being used.
Card
Control Card Enables the CPU to work with various software devices such as
the disk control card.
Accelerator Card Increases the speed of computers.
Emulator Card Enables computers to emulate other devices like the terminals.
Fax Modem Card Receives fax/data/information via telephone lines.
Graphic Adapter Enables computers to use a certain graphic standard.
Sound Card Translates data into sound output.
Voice Card Enables voice output.

2.5.5 Port
The port is a connecting socket located outside the system unit. The port enables
software devices or input/output devices to be plugged in for connection to the
computer, so that they can communicate with the computer system. A cable can
be used to connect input/output devices to the system unit through the port, as
shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Ports
There are various types of ports and their functions are as shown in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9: Various Types of Ports
Type of Port Functions

Parallel Port It is used for connecting external devices, which sends or receives
data in a big amount at a short distance. This port normally sends
simultaneously 8-bit data via eight parallel wires. A parallel port
is used to connect a printer to the System Unit.
Serial Port It connects the mouse, keyboard, modem and other devices to the
System Unit. Serial port sends data one bit at a time, and is
suitable for sending information at long distance.
Accelerated It is used for connecting to the monitor and can support high-
Graphic Port speed graphics and other video inputs.
(AGP)
Universal Serial It is forecasted to replace serial and parallel ports. It is fast and one
Bus (USB) Port USB port can connect a few devices to the System Unit.
Electrical Wire The latest port that is faster than the USB port, and is used to
Port connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the System
Unit.

2.5.6 PCMCIA Card and Slot

This is a new bus standard for notebook computers, handheld computers and
portable computers. The PCMCIA card has been used widely for desktop
computers. It enables devices of credit card size like the memory card (up to 100
MB), modem and hard disk to be plugged in. There are four types of PCMCIA
slots for the cards to plug into, as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: PCMCIA Slots
PCMCIA Slot Functions

Type I Often used for memory card (RAM, flash memory,
electrically erasable programmable ROM), especially for
laptop computers and personal digital assistant (PDA).
About 3.3 mm thick.
Type II Fully capable input/output, used for modem/fax and
adapter for local area network (LAN).
About 5 mm thick.
Type III Often used for devices like moveable hard disks.
About 10.5 mm thick.
Type IV Used for high volume disk drive.
About 18 mm thick.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1. What are the functions of graphic adapter cards? Give examples.
2. What is a motherboard? Explain the components of the

motherboard that is available on your personal computer.

2.6 SYSTEM CLOCK

The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed rate
to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The control unit is very
dependent on the system clock for doing its jobs. The system clock controls the
speed of operation in the computer. This speed is measured in megahertz (MHz).
One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second. The faster the clock
speed, the faster the computers ability to process information.
2.7 BUS LINE

The bus line is also known as data bus or simply bus, which connects the CPU
components with each other. It also connects the CPU to various other
components on the motherboard. The bus is a data passageway along which bits
move. This data passageway is similar to the highway. The more lanes it has, the
faster the traffic moves. Similarly, the bigger the bus capacity is, the faster the
speed of computer execution. Figure 2.8 shows the bus line on the CPU.
Figure 2.8: Bus line
When a microprocessor chip changes, the bus line also changes. Most of the
devices like the expansion board, will work with one type of bus only. There are
three types of bus lines (see Table 2.11), as follows:

Table 2.11: Three Types of Bus Lines
Types of Bus Line Description

Industrial Standard The industrial standard architecture bus was built for the
Architecture (ISA) IBM personal computer. It has a capacity of 8-bit and 16-bit.
Despite being not fast enough for most of todays computer
applications, the industrial standard architecture bus is still
used widely.
Peripheral Component The peripheral component interconnect was originally built
Interconnect (PCI) to fulfil video needs as a result of using the graphical user
interface. The peripheral component interconnect bus has a
capacity of 32-bit and 64-bit, which is 20 times faster than
the Industrial Standard Architecture Bus. The peripheral
component interconnect is used to connect the CPU,
memory and expansion board.
Accelerated Graphics Port The accelerated graphics port is the most recent bus with
(AGP) twice the speed of the peripheral component interconnects
bus. The accelerated graphics port is used specially for
accelerating graphic performances. It is often used for
graphics, 3D animation and for replacing the peripheral
component interconnects bus in video data transfers.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Explain three types of bus line with their characteristics and uses.
ACTIVITY 2.2
In a group, discuss how data moves inside the computer. Present it in

your tutorial.

A CPU is divided into two sections or units, which are the control unit and
arithmetic logic unit.
The control unit of the processor can be compared with the human brain. It
informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions.
Arithmetic logic unit executes two types of operations, which are arithmetic
operation and logical operation.
Both CPU and memory always need each other. However, the memory is not
part of the CPU.
The RAM stores the programs and data being processed by the CPU.
The ROM chip contains a program that is loaded in the factory. The chip does
not evaporate and cannot be changed by users.
The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and
related circuits are placed) and other electrical components are located.
The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electronic pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing.
The bus line is also known as data bus, or simply bus, which connects the
CPU components with each other.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Personal Computer Memory Card

Bus line International Association (PCMCIA)
Control unit Port
Central processing unit (CPU) Random access memory (RAM)
Complementary metal oxide Read only memory (ROM)
semiconductor (CMOS) Software
Dynamic random access memory Static random access memory
(DRAM) (SRAM)
Hardware
Motherboard

Topic X Input and
3 Output
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain various input methods and devices; and
2. Explain various output methods and devices.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to the two most important
components of computer hardware, the processor and the memory. To enable the
processor to process data and the memory to store them, data needs to be
brought into the computer. After processing, the resulted information needs to be
taken out of the computer. These two jobs of "taken in" and "taken out" are done
by the input/output unit of the computer system.
In this topic, you will learn about various input and output methods. The
keyboard is the most popular input device used. Besides the keyboard, there are
many other latest input and output devices that are available in the market. They
will also be discussed here.
3.1 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to be
carried from users to the computer. Input may be required to answer questions
and it needs processing. Output is like a link between computer processing and
people. Output to be produced is determined by the analysis of user needs. Input
and output devices are also referred to as peripherals. We are going to see how
input and output devices work.

TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT W 41
ACTIVITY 3.1
In a group, discuss how we can interact with computers.
3.2 INPUT METHODS

Various types of source documents require various input methods and devices
(refer to Figure 3.1). Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the
machine (computer) and transferred as input, directly into the computer. Indirect
data entry requires various media and processing of the data source before the
actual computer processing. In general, there are three approaches to data entry,
as shown in Table 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Input devices

42 X TOPIC 3 INPUT AND OUTPUT
Table 3.1: Three Approaches to Data Entry
Approach Description
Offline data entry After data has been entered, it will be changed into a suitable
form and will be verified. Data will be corrected if there are
errors. All data that has been confirmed as correct will be
processed. This method is less often used now and this is
also referred to as batch method.
Online data entry Similar to offline data entry; the difference is that the data
entered is directly examined and corrected. Processing will
be done after all the data has been entered.
Interactive data entry Similar to online data entry, except that data is examined
every time it is entered and processing on the data is done
immediately. There is no need to wait for all data to be
entered.
Input devices take data and programs that can be read or understood by humans,
and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer. This new
form consists of electronic signals of 0 and 1, which can be read by machines
as explained in the section on data representation.
There are two types of input devices:
(a) Entry via Keyboard Data is transferred as input into the computer via a
keyboard that resembles the keyboard of a typewriter, but contains a few
additional keys. For this type of entry, users read the original document,
called source document. The contents of this document will be entered via
keyboard; and
(b) Direct Entry Data is already in a machine-readable form and

simultaneously entered into the computer, without using a keyboard.
An example of an input device that uses both types of entries (entry via keyboard
and direct entry) is the point-of-sale (POS) terminal. It is a kind of electronic cash
register that is used widely in business.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Name five input devices.
2. What is the difference between offline data entry and interactive

data entry?

3.2.1 Keyboard
The devices that are often used are keyboard for data entry and terminal for
displaying what has been entered. There are various forms, styles, sizes,
arrangements, touch or feel and number of keys on a keyboard
(a) Number of Keys Normally there are 101 keys, but it also depends on
types of computers, especially types of microcomputers, whether desktop
or handheld. Handheld computers provide fewer numbers of keys because
of their small size.
(b) Group/Type of Keys There are three types of keys, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Three Types of Keys on Keyboard
Keys Description
Alphanumeric Consists of numbers and alphabets, similar to the typewriter.
Cursor Cursor is a symbol on the display screen, which shows the site of
Movement data to be entered; also called arrow.
Numeric Also called numeric keypad; these are separate keys for numbers
(09), which have been arranged like a calculator. Sometimes, there
are two objectives, depending on the Num Lock key, i.e. cursor or
numeric movements.
(c) Functions Keys that are labelled as F and normally F1F12 have their
functions defined by the software.
(d) Special Objectives Normally called additional keys, these are keys which
have specific tasks like Backspace, Delete, Insert, Escape, Home, Pause,
Print Screen, and others.
(e) Arrangement Arrangements of alphanumeric keys, which normally

follows the QWERTY order because the first five keys at the top line for
alphanumeric letters are Q, W, E, R, T and Y. A new arrangement is the
DVORAK order. This new arrangement of keys is made following the use
of keys, i.e. the keys that are always used will be placed at an easily
accessible location. As such, vowel letters A, E, I, O and U are normally
placed on the left, while D, H, N, S and T on the right. The next five keys
that are most often used are placed on the top line and so on.
(f) Touch/Feel Now, the softness of pressing the keys and the sound emitted
can be controlled by software.

(g) Styles (and Size or Shape) These are designed according to its inventor, to
be user-friendly and more ergonomic. Ergonomics is a study of how to
make something user-friendly, less danger-prone or less uncomfortable to
users.
Figure 3.2: Keyboard

Source: http://www.omgchrome.com
(h) Physical vs. Virtual Nowadays, mobility is the top concern of everyone.
Most people want to be able to move hassle free. With this concern in mind,
a virtual projection keyboard was designed and developed. A virtual
keyboard works by projecting the keyboard image on a surface (e.g. table).
The right keystroke is captured when the user presses an area covered by
the image of the key.
Figure 3.3: Virtual keyboard

Source: http://images.gizmag.com/hero/ctx-virtual-keyboard.jpg

The keyboard contains control and buffer keys. Whatever is typed will be stored
inside a buffer (which can store more than one symbol) and later, will be scanned
by the computer processor after receiving interrupt signals from the control key.
3.2.2 Terminal
The terminal is an input (and output) device that connects you to a mainframe or
other types of computers, called a host computer or server. There are three types
of terminal, as shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Types of Terminals
Terminal Description
Dumb Terminals Used for input and to receive data, but cannot process data by
themselves. They are used only to access information from the
computer and are often found at airline companies, post offices and
road transport department (RTD) offices.
Intelligent They have a processing unit, memory and secondary storage like a
Terminals magnetic disk. Basically, an intelligent terminal is a microcomputer
with the communication software and modem or other
communication connectivity. This connects the terminals to a bigger
computer or the Internet.
Network Also known as network computers, they are cheaper alternatives to
Terminals intelligent terminals. Most network terminals do not have a hard
disk drive and must rely on the host computer or the server for
their system and application software.

3.2.3 Pointing Device

Pointing is a natural human activity. There are five devices that utilise this
method, some of which are shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Pointing devices
(a) Mouse Move (roll) to direct a pointer/cursor/icon on the screen. When

the ball at the bottom of the mouse rolls, the vertical and horizontal
coordinates (position) of the mouse cursor changes. By checking the
coordinate, a computer can determine the cursors position and display the
cursor on the screen. It is considered to be the most user-friendly device.
Figure 3.5: Mouse

There are four types of mouse, as described in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Four Types of Mouse
Mouse Description
Ball Mouse It uses balls to move and is also known as a mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse It uses light and requires a mouse pad that can reflect the light. This
mouse contains a section called photo-detector. It functions like the
ball mouse and is normally used on a high-powered computer like a
server.
Touch Sensitive This has a pad that is sensitive to finger touch, for moving the
Mouse icon/cursor.
Wireless Mouse It communicates with the computer by emitting infrared signals or
low-intensity radio signals (see Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Wireless mice

Source: http://www.microsoft.com
(b) Touch Screen It is a monitor screen that is overlaid with a plastic layer. At
the back of the layer, there is an invisible, criss-crossing infrared light. This
arrangement enables a user to choose either an action or instruction on the
screen by using fingers. The touch screen is easier to use, especially when
someone requires information immediately. It is usually used at automated
teller machines (ATM), information kiosks, several restaurants and petrol
stations.
(c) Light Pen It is a pen or a device like a pen, which is light sensitive and
connected via a cable to a computer. The location (or choice) is identified by
pressing its button against a specific position on the screen. It is normally
used for drawing images and selection of menu.

(d) Digital Board This is a device that can be used to plot or copy certain
drawings or pictures. The item to be copied is placed on a digital tablet.
Then, a specific stylus connected to the computer is used to plot the
material. As the stylus moves from one location to another, the computer
records the locations from the digital tablet. When the material has been
plotted, the image can be displayed on screen, printed on paper or stored in
a computer system for future use. Digitisers are normally used by
designers, architects and engineers.
(e) Pen-Based System This uses a pen to enter handwriting or marks into the
computer containing software to identify and digitise handwriting and also
hand drawings. There are four types of pen-based systems like those
explained in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Four Types of Pen-Based Systems
Pen-Based Systems Description

Recognition of Signal Movement A system that can recognise various reading
or Electronic Checking marks, letters and printed numbers.
Handwriting Saved as a Handwriting is saved as a brief and not as a type-
Sketch/Brief written text.
Handwriting Changed to Type A system that can be trained to recognise clear and
Written Text with Training good handwriting.
Handwriting Changed to Type This system is the most difficult and complex.
Written Text without Training
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. How do computers receive data from the mouse?
2. State two types of pointing devices which are often used.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Normally, data is entered into the computer via a keyboard. Do you

know of other methods that are used to enter data? List and explain
how these methods work.

3.2.4 Scanning Device

Scanning devices translate images, texts, drawings, pictures and similar items
into a digital form for direct entry to the computer. Images that have been
processed can be displayed on the screen, saved on the storage device and sent to
other computers. There are two main technologies that can be used for this
optical recognition and magnetic recognition, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Recognition technology

Source: http://bcdata.com
(a) Optical Recognition This technology device, also known as the optical
reader, uses light to scan images. Examples of optical recognition devices are
illustrated in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Optical recognition
(i) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) An optical mark reader is used as a

device that reads pencil marks in UPSR and PMR examinations and
can be used for marking the objective questions of Section A, OUM
final examinations.
(ii) Fax Machine Fax machine (see Figure 3.9) is used for scanning
images and sending them electronically via a telephone line to a
destination (fax machine). There are two types:
Dedicated fax machine or simply known as fax machine; and
Fax modem, which is installed in a computer to enable electronic

documents to be sent directly to its receiver (either fax machine or
computer). It is faster but is unable to scan non-electronic
documents.

Figure 3.9: Fax machine
(iii) Barcode Reader It is used for reading input in bar form - marks that
resemble vertically shaped zebra stripes.
(iv) Optical Character Reader (OCR) an optical character reader is used

for reading specific pre-printed characters (in specific font), for
example the OCR-A font (the one perfected by the American National
Standards Institute).
(v) Optical Handwriting Reader Optical handwriting reader is used for

reading handwriting, but its capability is still limited.
(vi) Imaging System It is an image scanning device that converts all

texts, drawings, pictures and others into digital form. The imaging
system technology has created imaging industries by combining the
use of scanners, cameras, etc.
(b) Magnetic Recognition This uses magnetic methods to scan magnetic

writing. The technological device used is the magnetic ink character reader
(MICR). The MICR reads the number (in strange form) that is printed using
magnetic ink. The MICR is often used in cheques to facilitate sorting, as
done by the Central Bank of Malaysia and other banks.
(c) Voice Recognition Device This device converts human voice/speech into
digital codes. Human voice is transferred through a microphone that is
connected to a computer. When this input device is combined with sound
cards and appropriate software, a sound recognition system is formed. This
system enables a user to operate a microcomputer to develop documents,
by giving orders using the human voice. It has the potential to be used as a
security method.
(d) Smart and Optical Card The smart card refers to the multi-purpose card,
or MyKad, distributed by the National Registration Department (JPN), as
well as credit and debit cards distributed by various commercial banks like
Maybank and CIMB Bank. The use of the optical card is still restricted
despite its ability to store information of up to 2,000 pages as compared to
smart cards (able to store information up to 30 pages, depending on the
capability of the microprocessor) and magnetic cards (able to store
information of up to half a page).
3.2.5 Other Input Devices

There are other input devices that can receive input in the form of audio, video,
electronic pictures, senses and human biology. Most of these tools enable the use
of multimedia and there are some used for security objectives, such as the
concept of biometry. We can see various other input devices in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Other input devices

(a) Audio Input Device It is used to record or play analogue music in digital
form. It can generally receive various forms of sound as input, whereas, a
sound recognition device can receive only one type of audio input, i.e.
sound input. There are two methods of digitising the audio:
(i) Audio Board The board that changes analogue sound to digital
sound and saves it for future use; and
(ii) Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) Board It emits digital

music, which normally uses the musical instrument digital interface
keyboard.
(b) Video Input Device Enables video pictures to be converted into digital
form through a specific card. There are two types of video card:
(i) Frame Capture Can digitise one frame at one time only; and
(ii) Full Movement Can convert at the rate of 30 frames per second.
The main problem here is storage, not the input. Nowadays, digital video
cameras are available in the market, where the output is in digital form.
Digital video recorders will facilitate multimedia presentation or a form of
new broadcasting on the Internet, i.e. web television.
(c) Electronic/Digital Camera This is similar to the traditional camera except

that images are recorded digitally in the camera or inside the camera
memory and not on film. You can snap a picture, look at it and place it on
the website within a few minutes.
Figure 3.11: Digital camera

(d) Sensor These are input devices that collect data in specific forms directly
from the environment and send them to the computer. Sensors can be used
to track data such as speed, weight, temperature, image, shape, light, air
pollution, etc. Have you ever weighed yourself using an audio enabled
weighing scale at a supermarket? That is one example of a sensing device
used to measure your weight and also your height.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. What is the most common type of input device? Why are there
various types of input devices?
2. State two examples of optical recognition and magnetic

recognition technologies.
3.3 INPUT CONTROL

There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming garbage in garbage out (GIGO). Input control is a
collection of manual and computer control methods that have been designed to
ensure all input data are actually precise when entered into the computer.
ACTIVITY 3.3
How do we know that the data we have entered into the computer is
correct?

3.4 OUTPUT METHODS

Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, cathode
ray, signals, voice, microfilm, etc. In general, there are two types of output (see
Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12: Two types of output
Besides soft copies and hard copies, decisions on output largely depend on a
number of factors, such as:
(a) Frequency of output required Whether always, regular, upon request or

unpredictable;
(b) Cost involved;
(c) How much output to be produced;
(d) How fast the information is required; and
(e) Situation of the users.
ACTIVITY 3.4
How do we view the processing results that we have done inside a

computer? Try to figure out how the results are displayed and discuss
it with your coursemates.

3.5 OUTPUT DEVICES

Data entered needs to be processed by the computer so that they are in a machine
readable form until the output device converts them into a form that can be read
by humans. Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor,
printer, plotter and voice output device. We can see examples of output devices
in Figure 3.13.
Figure 3.13: Output devices

3.5.1 Printer
The image displayed on the monitor is often referred to as soft copy. Information
that is produced on paper, whether from printer or plotter is called a hard copy
(see Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14: Printer
Three popular types of printers always used together with microcomputers are
as follows:
(a) Ink Jet Printer Sends out droplets of ink at high speed onto the surface of
paper. This process does not only produce images of high quality letters,
but also allows printing to happen in various colours. An ink jet printer is a
printer that is reliable, quiet and cheap.
(b) Laser Printer Utilises the emission of a laser beam onto the drum, and is
transferred onto paper by using the toner (as in the photocopy machine).
There is a laser printer that is classified as a postscript printer. Postscript is
a printer language, often called page description language (PDL), which has
been accepted as a standard for laser printer.
(c) Thermal Printer Uses heat element to produce images on heat-sensitive

paper. Originally, this printer is used in scientific laboratories to record
data. This printer is used specifically for producing output that is almost
the same as photographs.

The measure of printer speed depends on the type of printer or the method of
printing, i.e. whether on the basis of characters, lines or pages. The speed is
characters per second, lines per minute or pages per minute. Most printer models
are desktop printers which are difficult to move around (depending on size). The
use of laptop computers leads to portable printers.
Among the criteria in choosing printers are image quality, speed, level of noise
and cost of operation, such as ink cost, spare parts, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What are the factors that influence the speed of a printer?
2. Give two types of printers that are popular now.
3.5.2 Monitor
Monitors are used for output as well as for input. There are two types of
monitors cathode ray tube (see Figure 3.15) and flat panel display (see
Figure 3.16).
(a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) A vacuum tube that is used as a display screen
for the computer or video display terminal. The technology is the same as
the television. The cathode ray tube is an output device commonly used
together with the computer. The smallest unit on the screen is called a pixel
(picture element).
Figure 3.15: Cathode ray tube monitor

(b) Flat Panel Display It is lighter, thinner and uses less power compared to
cathode ray tube. This panel is made up of two pieces of glass/plastic that
have activated materials between them.
Figure 3.16: Flat panel display monitor
The clarity of a monitor is determined by the resolution, which is measured in

pixels. A pixel is a dot or picture element that forms an image on the monitor.
For a certain monitor size, a higher resolution (more pixels) leads to clearer
images. For a certain degree of clarity, bigger monitors require higher resolution.
Standard
A number of standards have been developed to determine the degree of
computer resolutions. Four standards that are commonly used now are shown in
Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Four Computer Resolution Standards
Standard Definition
Super Video Graphics Minimum resolution of 800 600 pixels.
Array (SVGA)
Extended Graphics Resolution up to 1,024 768 pixels; popular standard now.
Array (XGA)
Super Extended Resolution of 1,280 1,024 pixels.
Graphics Array (SXGA)
Ultra Extended The latest and highest standard; its use is continuously
Graphics Array growing, especially for engineering designs at high level
(UXGA) and for graphical fine arts.

3.5.3 Plotter
Plotters are used specifically for producing bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings and three-dimensional illustrations. A plotter can produce multi-
coloured documents of high quality and also documents bigger than that
produced by other printers. There are four types of plotters, which are:
(a) Pen Plotter It moves pens or pencils on the paper draft. This plotter is
very cheap and easy to maintain, but it is slow and less capable of
producing voluminous images and shaded images.
(b) Electrostatic Plotter It uses an electrostatic charge that is faster than a pen
plotter or ink jet plotter. An electrostatic plotter is used for applications that
require voluminous output of high quality, such as those in advertising and
design of graphic arts.
(c) Ink Jet Plotter It produces art lines and multi-coloured output by emitting
droplets of ink onto the paper surface. Its best characteristics are speed,
high quality output and operating quietly. Its main weakness is the
possibility of its jet getting blocked, and this requires more maintenance.
(d) Direct Imaging Plotter or Thermal Plotter It produces an image by using

heat-sensitive paper and pin heated by electricity. Its cost is almost the
same as the electrostatic plotter. It is reliable and suitable for voluminous
amount of work. Its main weakness is the need for expensive paper and it
normally produces an output of two colours only. It is suitable for map-
making applications.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
1. What is the use of a plotter? Elaborate.
2. State the differences between a CRT monitor and a flat panel

display monitor.
ACTIVITY 3.5
In your opinion, what is the difference between a printer and a plotter?

3.5.4 Voice Output Device

There are two types of technology, i.e. voice output (speech coding and
synthesising), as shown in Figure 3.17, and sound output (frequency modulation
[FM] synthesising and virtual acoustic), as shown in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.17: Voice output
Figure 3.18: Sound output

Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is to enable data to
be carried from users to computer.
Output is like a link between computer processing and people.
Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by a machine (computer)
and transferred as input directly into the computer.
Indirect data entry requires various media and processing of the data source
before the actual computer processing.
There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming garbage in garbage out.
Output can take various forms, such as screen output, printed paper, signals,
voice, microfilm, etc.
Output devices used together with microcomputers are the monitor, printer,
plotter and voice output device.
Acoustic Output devices

Data entry Plotter
Garbage in garbage out (GIGO) Point-of-sale (POS)
Hard copy Pointing device
Input devices Printer
Keyboard Scanning device
Magnetic recognition Soft copy
Monitor Terminal
Optical recognition

Topic X Secondary
4 Storage
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe five advantages of secondary storage;
2. Explain two types of magnetic storage;
3. Recognise four types of optical storage; and
4. Identify other types of storage devices.
X INTRODUCTION
After our discussion on input and output in the previous topic, we shall now
move on to another computer component device; secondary storage. You will be
introduced to various types of secondary storage in the market, together with
their comparisons.
4.1 BASIC STORAGE

Storage in a computer holds data and information to be retrieved for future use.
Users normally store digital photos, video, audio and documents. As a student, it
is crucial that your computer has the capability to store your learning materials,
such as digital notes and assignments. Besides that, the computer itself requires
storage to store system and application software.
Primary storage holds data temporarily, while secondary storage does otherwise.
Secondary storage is the physical material on which a computer stores data,
instructions and information. A storage device is designed to store data and
instructions in a permanent form and to retrieve them back. This storage does not
64 X TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE
disappear because data is stored in magnetic, optical or optical magnetic form as

illustrated in Figure 4.1. It is also a method of storing data, information and
instructions outside the computer.
Figure 4.1: Variety of secondary storage devices

Source: http://digisupersonic.com/
On the latest technological development, primary storage is moving towards a

large capacity using small microelectrical circuits, while secondary storage is
moving towards a large capacity using magnetic and optical media. An example
of secondary storage are hard disks, solid state drives, memory cards, universal
serial bus (USB) flash drives, optical disks, smart cards, magnetic stripe cards and
microfilm. Cloud storage is another option, in which the storage media is not
visible to the users.

TOPIC 4 SECONDARY STORAGE W 65
Capacity of a storage medium refers to the number of bytes (characters) that can
be held. Figure 4.2 shows the capacity of a storage medium.
Figure 4.2: Storage capacity
The speed of storage devices is defined by access time. Access time measures the
amount of time it takes to locate the required data on a storage medium.
The five advantages of secondary storage are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Five Advantages of Secondary Storage
Characteristics Advantages
Size Can accommodate large amounts of data.
Data stored can reach gigabyte (GB) or terabyte
(TB).
Reliability It can be considered safe.
Convenience Data can be accessed immediately.
Economic Storage costs can be reduced.
Lifetime It is permanent and can be used for archiving.
Some storage has a lifespan of up to 100 years.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Why do we need storage inside a computer? Explain.

4.2 MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

A magnetic storage device refers to equipment which uses a magnetic head to
read and write data. It gets the data to and from a magnetisable medium. The
medium may be a plastic tape coated with fine particles of a metal. The two
magnetic storage devices are magnetic tape and hard disk.
4.2.1 Magnetic Tape

A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll. To be specific, a magnetic tape is a thin plastic tape that has
been covered with materials, which can be magnetised. Data on the tape is
represented by magnetic particles that are digital data in discrete forms of 0
and 1. A tape contains a number of tracks or channels which are normally used
to store data. Normally, there are seven or nine tracks. Data on the tape will be
deleted before new data is written on it. The number of tracks on the tape
depends on the number of read/write heads that are present on the tape drive
unit.
As the tape is in roll form, data will be stored serially. Every tape column (seven
or nine tracks) will represent one character. For data that is stored serially, the
storage method used is serpentine, where data is stored one by one along one or
two tracks at one time. Data will be written from the beginning to the end of the
track concerned, and this will continue onto the part that has not yet been used,
as shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Magnetic tape

Besides that, there is also data that is stored in parallel. For the parallel type, data
will be written block by block or record by record. Every block of data will be
separated by a space, which is called inter-block gap. For record by record, the
space is called inter-record gap. The space is required because the tape cannot
stop immediately after it has been rolled. Normally, the use of tape is only
35%70%, depending on the blocking factor.
A magnetic tape drive is measured by how much data can be stored on the
magnetic tape and also the speed of the tape passing through the read/write
head. The combination of these two determines the rate of transfer or the number
of characters per second that can be sent to the primary storage. Tape density is
measured by character per inch or bit per inch. Data density varies from 800 bpi
to 7000 bpi. The tape length is normally 600 m, 366 m or 731 m.
Therefore, a tape of 366 m with 6,250 bpi can store up to 180 MB of data. The size
of data that can be stored is normally between 40 MB to 5 GB. The drive that can
upgrade its maximum loading is digital audio tape (DAT). A digital audio tape
drive consists of two read heads and two write heads which read/write one type
of magnetic pole only. Data on the tape will be accessed and written serially.
There are two types of magnetic tape magnetic tape unit for large computers
and tape cartridge unit for personal computers. Currently, most tapes are used
for safe storage and copy storage because they are portable and cheap. Storage
size of a normal magnetic tape is between 20 GB40 GB.
The disadvantage of a magnetic tape is the slow rate of serial data access. Its
advantages are it is cheap, portable and long lasting.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Give two advantages of secondary storage.
2. Various types of storage are available in the market. State three

types of magnetic storage commonly used.

4.2.2 Hard Disk

A hard disk is a storage device that contains one or more inflexible, circular, thick
and strong metallic platters that use magnetic particles to store data, instructions
and information. The disk is enclosed in an airtight, sealed case to protect it. A
hard disk that is mounted inside the system unit of a computer is called an
internal hard disk (refer Figure 4.4). It is not as portable as the external hard disc.
Figure 4.4: Internal hard disk
The hard disk can store and access data faster and has a higher capacity. The
hard disk is a very sensitive device. Its read/write head floats on the disc surface
at a distance of 0.000001 inches. This very close distance allows dusts, atoms of
smoke, human hair and fingerprints to cause destruction to the read-write head.
This damage can cause some or all the data on the hard disc to be destroyed as
well.
An external hard disk is a separate hard disk that connects with a cable to a USB
port on the system unit or communicates wirelessly. Meanwhile, a removable
hard disk is a hard disk that you insert and remove from a drive. Compared to an
internal hard disk, external and removable hard disks (Figure 4.5) are better in
terms of:
(a) Transport a large number of files;
(b) Easily store large audio and video files;
(c) Secure the data; and
(d) Add storage space to a notebook and desktop computer, without having to
open the system unit.

Figure 4.5: External and removable hard disk
ACTIVITY 4.2
How does it look like in a hard disk drive? Visit the following link to
discover the components of a hard disk drive:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdmLvl1n82U
Can you briefly explain the components?
4.2.3 Optical Storage

An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light, rather than the magnetic principle of
storing data. The emission of a laser beam determines the data to be written or
read.
During the writing of data onto the surface of an optical device, a high powered
laser beam is used to form microscopic holes (pits) on the disc. Each pit
represents data 0 while part of the disc without a pit represents data 1.
During the reading of the optical disc, a low powered laser beam is directed on
the disc surface. A reflection of the laser beam depends on the holes on the
surface. If there are holes, the reflection of the beam disperses and cannot be
detected by the light detector. This portrays the 0 state. If there is no hole or if
the surface is flat (land), a reflection of the beam focuses and can be detected by
the light detector. This portrays the 1 state.

There are four optical disc technologies used by computers, as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Four Types of Optical Storage
Optical Storage Description

Compact Disc-Read Only It is similar to the music compact disc (CD) in the market.
Memory (CD-ROM) Read only means it cannot be written or erased by users. A
user can only access data that have been written by the
writer. CD-ROM is also used for distributing databases,
application software packages and huge references.
Compact Disc-Recordable It is called write once, read many (WORM). CD-R means a
(CD-R) compact disc that is recordable; a disc that enables us to
record data or information. We can only write once onto
the disc. It is appropriate for use as multimedia storage
and for archival. A special drive is required for recording
data onto CD-R.
Compact Disc-Rewriteable It is also known as erasable optical disc, as can be seen in
(CD-RW) Figure 4.6. This disc is similar to the other CD-R except
that its surface is altered whenever data is recorded. Since
it can be altered, CD-RW is normally used in building and
editing multimedia presentations.
Digital Video Disk (DVD) An all-digital disc with a type of storage which is almost
the same as the CD-ROM. It has the ability to store 135
minutes of video data in digital form. It can also be used as
storage for computers. The DVD drive can read a CD-
ROM but the CD-ROM drive cannot read a DVD. Each
DVD can store as much as 17 GB of data.
Figure 4.6: Compact Disc-Rewriteable

4.2.4 Flash Memory Storage

Flash Memory Storage is a type of solid state media which consists entirely of
electronic components, such as integrated circuits; and contain no moving parts.
Flash Memory Storage is more durable and shock resistant compared to other
types of media such as magnetic hard disks or optical disks, due to lack of
moving parts.
The examples of Flash Memory Storage are solid state drives, memory cards and
USB flash drive.
Figure 4.7: Flash Memory Storage
(a) Solid state drives are a storage device that uses flash memory to store data,
instructions and information. It is used in all types of computers and
portable devices.
Solid state drives are better than a magnetic hard disk in terms of:
(i) Access time is 80 times faster than a hard disk;
(ii) Transfer rates are faster;
(iii) Generate less heat and consume less power; and
(iv) Lasts three to five years longer than a hard disk lifespan.
(b) Memory cards allow users to easily transport the digital content of their
camera, audio or video player, and other devices to a computer or vice
versa. A memory card is a removable flash memory device that you
normally insert and remove from a slot in a computer, mobile device or
card reader/writer.
(c) USB flash drives are a flash memory storage device that plugs into a USB
port on a computer or mobile device. It is one of the popular portable
storage nowadays, due to its size and weight. It is small and light, with
storage capacities ranging from 512 Mb to 64 GB.

4.2.5 Cloud Storage

Cloud storage is an Internet service that provides hard disk storage to computer
users. The types of services offered by cloud storage providers vary.
Unlike other types of storage, cloud storage is preferred to:
(a) Access files from any device that has Internet access;
(b) Share files with other users; and
(c) Store offsite backups of data.
Some of the widely used cloud storage providers are as in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8: Cloud storage providers
4.2.6 Other Types of Storage

Besides the types of storage we have discussed, there are other options available
for storing data, instruction and information for a specific use. These include
magnetic stripe cards and smart cards, microfilm and microfiche.

(a) A magnetic stripe card is a card with a stripe that contains information
identifying you and the card. Information stored in the stripe normally
includes your name, account number, or cards expiration date. A magnetic
stripe card reader reads the information stored on the stripe. An example of
a magnetic stripe card is a membership card.
.
Figure 4.9: Magnetic stripe card and smart card
(b) A smart card, which is similar in size to an ATM or a credit card, stores data
on a thin microprocessor embedded in the card. A smart card contains a
processor and has input, process, output and storage capabilities. When a
smart card is inserted into a specialised card reader, the information on the
card is read, and if necessary, updated. An example of a smart card is
MyKad.
(c) Microfilm and microfiche store microscopic images of documents on roll or

sheet film. A computer output microfilm recorder is the device that records
the images in the film. Microfilm and microfiche are normally used in
libraries to store back issues of newspapers and magazines. The use of
microfilm and microfiche greatly reduce the number of papers. They are
inexpensive, and have the longest life of any storage media.
Figure 4.10: Microfilm and microfiche

ACTIVITY 4.3
What is the history of computer storage? Visit the following link:
http://www.zetta.net/history-of-computer-storage
Note down the main points and compare your notes with your
coursemates.
4.3 DATA ORGANISATION HIERARCHY

Data is stored in secondary storage on the basis of hierarchies. We can also see
how much capacity various storage types have, as illustrated in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Comparison of Storage Types
Types of Cost/Storage
Cost Per MB Lifespan Size
Storage Size
Diskette RM 1/1.44 MB RM 0.69/MB 35 years 1.44 MB
Hard Disc RM 400/8 GB RM0.05/MB 35 years 320500 GB
CD-R RM 5/650 MB RM0.0076/MB 100 years 650 MB
CD-RW RM 30/650 MB RM 0.046/MB 100 years 650 MB
Magnetic Tape 510 years 10 GB30 GB
DVD 100 years 17 GB
RAM RM 200/64MB RM 3.13/MB Volatile 64 MB1 GB
Zip RM 60/250 MB RM 0.24/MB 510 years 250750 MB
Data organisation hierarchy is divided into five levels, which are:
(a) Bit It is represented by 0 and 1 that is operated with hardware.
(b) Character/Byte A byte is formed by eight bits. A character is formed by a

group of bits and is not necessarily made up of eight bits; it depends on the
type of coding system, such as ASCII and EBCDIC. Examples are the
characters A, B, D, U and L.
(c) Field It is a unit of data that is made up of one or more characters. This is
the lowest logical level of the data unit. Examples of fields are:
(i) Name: It is usually fixed at 40 characters maximum. MOHD AKIL is
an example of data stored in such field; and

(ii) Identity Card (IC) Number: It is fixed at eight characters (old IC) and
10 digits/characters (new IC), such as 740820-03-1233.
(d) Record It is a collection of several related fields. It can also explain a

certain event, i.e. a number of related fields of a certain event is combined
together logically to form a record. An example of a student personal
record is made up of several fields of student personal information, such as:
(i) Registration number: 7192.
(ii) Name: Mohd Najmuddin bin Kamal.
(iii) Faculty: Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia

Communications.
(iv) IC number: 780402-11-1438.
(v) State/Place of birth: Johor.
(vi) Current address: First College, Open University Malaysia.
(e) File This is a collection of several related records. An example of this is the
student personal file, containing several students personal records.
4.4 UPGRADE PERFORMANCE

Three ways to upgrade the performance of hard disks are racking the
disk, Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID) and compressing/
de-compressing the files.
(a) Racking the Disk

This method upgrades the performance of a hard disk by predicting data
that are wanted. This is a combination of hardware and software. While the
processor is quiet, the data that is always used will be read from the hard
disk into the cache memory. When the data is required, they will be
accessed directly from this memory. The rate of transfer from memory is
faster than that of the hard disk. The result is that the system performance
normally goes up by 30%.
(b) Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks

This increases the performance by having more external storage. A
collection of cheap hard disks is arranged by using a special network and
software. This group of disks is considered like a large hard disk. However,
it performs better than a single disk of the same capacity.

Figure 4.11: RAID can make disk volumes more reliable and faster
(c) Compressing/Decompressing Files

This is required to remove excessive spaces from the computer files that
have reduced the total available storage space. This situation is important
because:
(i) It saves time while sending files through the network;
(ii) It reduces the size of file storage; and
(iii) It is for the purpose of archiving.
Data files that have been compressed need to be de-compressed before they can
be used as normal. This technique is called data decompression.
Normally data that has been compressed has a special suffix, such as .zip, .tgz, .Z,
.gz, .lha, .arc, .zoo, and .rar. Compression and decompression techniques are
called codec. Sometimes, this process is also called zip and unzip.

The two main techniques of data compression are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Two Main Techniques of Data Compression
Technique Details
Lossless Where data compression is done by preserving all input data. In
Technique other words, all input data will be used in the compression process.
This enables data that have been decompressed to be the same as the
input data.
This technique only re-packages the data for storage or transmission

purpose. Examples of software products that uses this technique are
WinZip, Stacker, Superstor and DriveSpace. Graphic images in gif
format is in the form of lossless compression.
Lossy Technique This is a compression technique that removes data permanently
during the compression process but users will not feel any loss. Data
lost is not important and can be re-generated by using special
functions. Examples are like removing some colours or small sounds
that are not perceived by users.
These colours and sounds are over-shadowed by a clearer colour or

sound. Data in the jpeg,.mp3, mpeg formats are in the lossy format.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Data organisation hierarchy is divided into five levels. State these

levels.
2. Name three types of flash memory storage.
3. Explain two data compression techniques.

Secondary storage is a storage device that has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form.
The secondary storage has five advantages which are size, reliability,
comfort, economic and lifetime.
There are two types of magnetic storage: magnetic tape and hard disk.
A magnetic tape is a secondary storage medium whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll.
The hard disk uses a thick and strong metallic plate. It can store and access
data faster and has a higher capacity.
An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of
data. This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle
of storing data.
There are four types of optical storage, which are CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW
and DVD.
The three ways to upgrade the performances of hard disks are racking the
disk, Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks and compressing/
decompressing the files.
Bit Lossless
Compressing/decompressing Lossy
Compact disc-read only memory Magnetic storage
(CD-ROM) Optical storage
Compact disc-recordable (CD-R) Racking the disc
Compact disc-rewriteable (CD-RW) Record
Digital video disk (DVD) Redundant arrays of independent disks
Field (RAID)
File Secondary storage
Hard disk Write once, read many (WORM)

Topic X Computer
5 Software
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the four roles of system software;
2. Identify four categories of system software;
3. Discuss the functions and features of an operating system;
4. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of operating systems;
5. Discuss four categories of advanced application software; and
6. Discuss four types of database.
X INTRODUCTION
From the earlier topic, you now know that a computer system is made up of
hardware and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the computer,
while software consists of the programs that command the hardware. Computer
software can be divided into system software and application software. Both
software can be divided further into a few categories, as illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Each of these categories will be explained in greater detail, later in this topic.
Figure 5.1: Division of computer software

80 X TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
5.1 SOFTWARE
For most people, when they think about computers, they normally think about
the hardware, such as keyboard, monitor and processor. They do not realise the
presence and importance of software. Computer software is actually a set of
planned instructions and step by step action that is required to convert data into
information, thus making the computer useful.
In general, software can be categorised into system software and application

software. The system software is rarely talked about but discussions on it
normally revolve around a subset of system software, known as operating
system (OS). The OS is the basic software found in all computers.
The system software is actually divided into OS, utility programs, device drivers
and language translators. The OS contains various functions and features like
multitasking, multi-user, multiprocessor, etc. There are many operating systems
in the market and each has its own strengths and weaknesses. Windows is a
personal computer (PC) OS that is the most popular and has been built by
Microsoft Corporation. UNIX is mostly used in the server system. Linux contains
various features of UNIX and is becoming more popular because it is a free and
reliable OS.
Computer software is developed by using a programming language. There are

many types of programming languages, such as the imperative language, object-
oriented language, logic-based language and function-based language. Each
language has its own strength in solving certain problems. There are several
generations of programming languages, beginning with the machine language
up to the natural language. Various popular programming languages such as C,
C++, and Java will be discussed here together with examples.
Application software is used by many people to solve specific problems like

providing documents, generating reports, making presentations, performing
calculations and others. Computers require instructions from humans to perform
certain tasks. Currently, there are various types of application software in the
market. The most often used are word processing, spreadsheet, databases and
graphic software. Figure 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the computer
hardware, OS and application software.

TOPIC 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE W 81
Figure 5.2: Relationship between computer hardware,

OS and application software

5.2 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Software consists of instructions that run inside the computer. System software
is used to start the computer and it is located on the back of the application
software. It also coordinates the hardware components and application software.
System software enables users to interact directly with the computer.
System software operates through the complexities of the computer hardware.

Among the main roles of a system software is to inform the computer how to
translate data and instructions, how to operate computer devices such as printers
and disc drives, and how to use computer hardware. System software is divided
into four categories, as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Categories of system software

Table 5.1 explains the roles of the system software categories shown in Figure 5.3.
Table 5.1: Four System Software Categories and Roles
System Software Roles

Operating System Program that operates microcomputers. It coordinates resources,
provides interfaces between users and the computer, and runs
the applications.
Utility Programs Perform special tasks related to the management of computer
resources and files. This includes programs that help users to
identify problems on the hardware, searching lost files and
making copies of data. In other words, a utility program
functions as a virus scanner, hard disk formatter, compression
software and copy-making software.
Device Driver Program that is specially designed to allow input and output
devices to communicate with other computer systems.
Language Translators Translate program instructions that have been written by a
programmer into a language that is understood and processed
by the computer. Language translators will be explained in
greater detail in the programming language section. Language
translators include compilers, translators and assemblers.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the main uses of a system software? Explain.

5.3 OPERATING SYSTEM

Every computer system, whether large or small, has an OS and every OS has
three basic functions, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Three basic functions of OS
The resources managed by an OS include mouse, printer, keyboard, storage

device and memory. User-interfaces are provided by the OS to enable users to
interact with the application programs and hardware. The OS loads and runs
applications such as word processing.
The OS manages and controls all processing activities in the computer. It

determines how the random access memory (RAM) is allocated to the programs,
determines the importance of the needed tasks and controls the flow of
information to and from the processor. An OS is a complex computer program
that is very important to the computer. For example, Windows 2000 OS is said to
have 30 million lines of program code, built by over 5,000 programmers within
more than three years with a cost of nearly RM3.8 billion. The Linux OS has
almost 2.5 million lines of program code, built by 150 programmers.
The OS enables a computer to perform various types of tasks.

The OS also enables a computer to perform more than one task simultaneously. It
enables the computer to identify the processor (central processing unit), main
memory (RAM), keyboard, video displays, disc drive and others. The OS also
provides facilities for users to communicate with the computer and acts as an
enabler for running the application software.
The OS normally contains a number of basic programs. An important program

inside the OS is called supervisor. This program is also known as monitor,
executive, kernel or command processor. For example, the supervisor program in
Windows 98 is win.32.dll and in Linux is vmlinux.
The OS is normally stored in the hard disk. When a computer is switched on, it
will first perform the power on self-test (POST). Then, the basic input-output
system (BIOS) inside the read only memory (ROM) will search for the OS to boot-
up the system. The BIOS will search for the OS on the master boot record
(MBR) sector in the floppy disc. If there is no OS on the floppy disk, the basic
input-output system will search for it on the master boot record sector of the
hard disk.
The MBR sector contains information on the OS of the computer. After reading
data from the MBR and meeting the supervisor program, the BIOS will load the
supervisor program into the main memory, which is the RAM. Then, the BIOS
will pass on the computer management job to the supervisor program. Now, the
computer is under the control of the OS and can accept commands from users.
Part of the OS will remain in the main memory for as long as the computer is on.
This portion will always be in the memory and is said to be resident (permanent)
and is made up of the supervisor program. The supervisor program will control
the overall OS and will load into the main memory of other OS programs from
the hard disk, when required. The OS program that is located in the hard disk is
non-resident.
The OS forms the core that enables the computer to function. It works behind the
scenes and becomes the middleman for requests from users and programs. It
manages and drives computer hardware, and reads and writes data from and
onto the disc drive. When a user works on an application program, the
supervisor program will load the software into the main memory, before the
program is executed.
When a user uses the computer, the main memory has the supervisor program,
the application software to be run and the data or information being processed.
Thus, a larger RAM size in a certain computer will enable it to function faster and
in a comfortable manner. If a computer does not contain enough RAM to run the
software, then, the computer will run slowly or it may hang.

5.4 FUNCTIONS OF OS
In general, the functions of an OS are to:
(a) Provide Interface for Users

There are two types of interfaces: command-line interface and graphical
user interface. By using the command-line interface, users need to type a
command like the one shown in Figure 5.5. An example of an OS using a
command-line is the MS-DOS which was very popular in the 1980s.
Figure 5.5: Command-line interface

For example, look at the following command-line:
C:\> copy c:\myfile a:\yourfile
This command-line directs the computer to copy a file from the hard disc
(C:) to the floppy disc (A:). You will need to use a clear command when
using the command-line. This command-line also shows that you need to
inform the computer where to find MYFILE and where to copy YOURFILE
to. If you forget important information or use a wrong format, an error
message will be displayed on the screen.
In general, the command-line interface is more suitable for skilled users

who have been using computers for a long time and can remember the
required commands. The UNIX and Linux operating systems also use the
command-line. This interface is also called the character user interface
(CUI). Normally, the OS based on the character user interface has one other
layer that acts as a translator of the commands to the supervisor program.
This layer is called shell. Examples of shell for Linux is C shell (csh) and
born again shell (bash).
Currently, the number of computers using the command-line interface has

reduced. It is still used in the mainframe system and server system that
uses UNIX platform. The OS trend is moving towards a user-friendly
environment and becoming graphic-oriented, known as graphical user
interface (GUI). GUI depends on software based graphics, which enable
texts to be integrated with graphic images.
Among the components inside it are icons, dialogue box and menu.
Examples of software that uses graphical user interfaces are Windows,
Macintosh and BeOS. GUI users interact with the OS and other software
packages by using pointing devices like the mouse and keyboard to enter
instructions.
Now, users do not have to type every line of command; users only need to
select from the screen display. Users use the mouse to manipulate icons,
dialogue box and menu. In a GUI, an icon is a graphic image that represents
a processing activity. For example, a user may select the Recycle Bin icon
to delete a file from storage. The GUI was first introduced in 1983 in
Macintosh computers. GUI simplifies a lot of things for users, where they
now do not have to memorise and enter difficult instructions (see Figure
5.6).

Figure 5.6: Graphical user interface
(b) Manage Hardware

This includes input components (mouse, keyboard, scanner), output
components (printer, screen, audio, video), secondary storage (hard disc)
and main memory. The OS coordinates and performs according to the
program, using the hardware needed.
(c) Manage Hard Disk File System

The OS manages the movement of data from input component (keyboard)
to output component (monitor) and from secondary storage to main
memory, apart from the main memory to secondary storage.
(d) Manage the Processing or Running of Other Software

Assume the execution of one program as one process. If a user uses three
programs simultaneously (e.g. producing graphs using CorelDraw, surfing
the Internet using Internet Explorer and listening to the music on the
Internet using RealAudio) hence, there are three different processes being
executed in the computer.
The OS is responsible for ensuring that the three processes execute well and
do not cause the computer to hang. This ability in using the three programs
simultaneously is known as multitasking. An important characteristic of
the OS in managing multitasking is robustness; if one program fails, it does
not cause the computer or other processes to hang. OSes that have the
robust characteristic are UNIX, Linux and BeOS.

The other main functions of the OS are to:

(a) Help the interaction between computers and users;
(b) Help communication between computer components;
(c) Reduce time for executing users instructions;
(d) Optimise the use of computer system resources;
(e) Reach all files in the disk storage;
(f) Ensure safety of the computer system; and
(g) Examine all system activities and give warnings to users on all matters.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. State the advantages of the graphical user interface over the
command-line interface.
2. State two methods of opening files using a graphical user
interface.
3. Explain at least three main functions of the operating system.
5.5 FEATURES OF OS
Every OS has its own features. Even the ability of every system is different.
Among the main features of an OS are multitasking, multi-user, multi-
processing, batch processing and virtual memory, as shown in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Features of OS

5.5.1 Multitasking
Multitasking is the ability of a computer system to perform more than one

task at one time (simultaneously).
If an OS allows only one task to be performed at one time, such a system is called
single tasking. Multitasking enables a user to perform a new task without having
to exit from the task currently being performed and can even use the result of the
second task inside the first task. For example, a user can produce a chart inside a
spreadsheet software, while using a word processing software and later, insert
the chart into the document being typed. Multitasking is divided into two types,
as shown in Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8: Two types of multitasking
Users normally do not see the tangible differences between these two types
of multitasking. Tangible differences may be seen in real-time applications.
Preemptive multitasking is more robust and stable than cooperative
multitasking.

5.5.2 Multi-User
If an operating system is capable of accepting more than one user to access the
computer at one time, it is called a multi-user system.
Sometimes, multitasking is also referred to as time-sharing. Normally, a multi-

user OS allows multitasking as well. Every user gets an equal slice of time.
Examples of OS that have multi-user capability are UNIX, Windows 8 and Linux.
5.5.3 Multi-Processing
Multi-processing refers to an operating system that is capable of handling

more than one processor simultaneously.
The use of more than one processor is suitable for scientific computers because
computers of this type perform a lot of calculations and processing. As such,
scientific computers require an OS that can manage more than one processor.
Examples of multi-processor type of OS are UNIX (Solaris), Linux, BeOS and
Windows 8. Table 5.2 illustrates four OSes and their maximum processors.
Table 5.2: Four OSes and Maximum Processors
Operating System Maximum Number of Processors
BeOS 8
Solaris 64
Linux 16
IRIX 128

5.5.4 Batch Processing
Batch processing refers to the processing mode of an operating system.
During the early computer era, data processing was done using the batch mode.
This means that data and programs are prepared on batch mode for processing.
Users cannot enter data during the running of program. Data and programs are
collected and prepared first, then later, entered one by one for processing by the
computer. Batch processing is still being used now in the mainframe system
environment. Nowadays, the interactive processing type of OS is very popular,
where users can enter data while programs are executed.
5.5.5 Virtual Memory

Usually the OS will load the application software into the main memory (RAM)
to run the application software. If the RAM size is small or if the software size is
large, the software may not fit in and cannot be run. To overcome this problem,
the OS uses the concept of virtual memory. With this method, the OS will use the
secondary storage (hard disk) as part of the main memory.
In this method, OS loads a portion of application software into main memory

and another portion into virtual memory. When this happens, the running of
computers will slow down because access to secondary storage is slower than the
main memory.
For example, users often find computers running slowly when two or three
software run simultaneously. This is because the OS needs to transfer data from
the main memory (RAM) to the secondary storage (hard disk) and vice versa.
This process of data transfer is slow and often involves some noise signifying
that the computer is accessing the hard disk.
The process of transferring data from virtual memory to the main memory
and from the main memory to the virtual memory is called swap.
Swap space (page) on the hard disk is the storage size that is used as virtual
memory, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9: Page swapping
5.6 TYPES OF OS
We have discussed the functions and features of an OS in the previous sections.
However, we also need to realise that there is no single OS that fits for all kinds
of computers. As we know, nowadays, computers exist in different forms
ranging from as small as mobile phones up to huge servers. So, different OSes
are required to make all these computers work.
In general, OSes can be divided into four categories (see Table 5.3).
Table 5.3: Four Categories of OS
Operating System Description

Personal It is also called desktop operating system and is installed in
a single computer.
Server It is commonly referred to as a network operating system
and designed for network servers that allow multiple user
access to a network, as well as resources.
Mobile It is designed for mobile devices, such as mobile phones,
smartphones and tablets.
Embedded It is installed in other kinds of computers, such as cash
registers, kiosks and most consumer electronics.

We will now take a more detailed look into each category of OS in the following
sections.
5.6.1 Personal and Server OS

There are various kinds of personal and server OS which are available today. The
most widely used are described in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Personal and Server OS

Disk Operating Dominant OS during the 1980s and early 1990s. Initially, disk
System (DOS) OS only supported command-line interface and later, newer
versions of disk OS allow a menu-driven interface. There are
two forms of disk OS: PC-DOS created for IBM personal
computers and MS-DOS created for IBM-compatible personal
computers.
Windows Windows is developed by Microsoft and for many years, this
OS held nearly 90% market share. There are many versions of
Windows OS:
Windows 1.0 to Windows 3.1.1 It was not really a full-
fledged OS but rather considered as an operating
environment for disk OS graphical shells to make disk OS
easier to use;
Windows 95 to Windows 98 Both versions incorporated
graphical user interface, easier to use than previous
Windows 3.x and supported multitasking, Internet
integration, customisations, long file names, DVD drives,
larger hard disk drives as well as USB drives;
Windows NT (New Technology) It was designed as
32-bit version of Windows that support high-end
workstations and servers;
Windows ME (Millennium Edition) It was introduced
as the improvement to Windows 98 with additional
features: improved home networking and shared Internet
connection; improved multimedia capabilities, better
system protection, faster boot process, and more Internet-
ready activities and games;
Windows 2000 It was introduced as a replacement for
Windows NT and incorporated enhanced capabilities
for wireless devices and other types of new hardware for
high-end servers and workstations;

Windows (contd) Windows XP (eXPerience) As the successor to Windows

2000 and Windows ME, it was considered as the most
accepted version of Windows with improved photo, video,
music editing and sharing, improved networking
capabilities, and support for handwriting and voice input;
Windows Vista It replaced Windows XP and incorporated
a new user interface concept called Aero interface that uses
glass-like transparency, vibrant colours and dynamic
elements like Live Thumbnails of taskbar buttons, and a
Flip 3D feature to view all open windows in 3D. However,
this OS requires higher level of hardware requirements,
which made it less acceptable by end-users;
Windows 7 It was introduced to replace Windows Vista
with better performance and better compatibility with
various range of personal computers, especially netbook;
Windows Server This OS is designed specifically for
server use. It incorporates Internet Information Services
(IIS) as the default web server to run web-based application
and web services, as well as supports virtualisation
technologies, security tools and better management; and
Windows 8 It is the latest Windows OS to cater for use on
personal computers, including home and business
desktops, laptops, tablets and home theatre personal
computers. It offers major changes in user experiences in
using OS, especially tablets, via the introduction of Metro
design concept in its user interface.
Mac OS It is developed by Apple Corporation and is a proprietary OS
for Apple computers, which is based on UNIX. This OS places
heavy emphasis on new digital lifestyle applications, such as
the iLife suite, enhanced business applications via iWork and
integrated home entertainment through FrontRow media
centre. The latest version of Mac OS is OS X Mountain Lion.
UNIX It was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s to
cater for mid-range servers. As a multitasking and multi-user
OS, computers ranging from microcomputers to mainframe
can run it. However, UNIX is harder to install, maintain and
upgrade, than most other commonly used OS. Thus, it is more
expensive and requires a higher level of technical knowledge.
Hewlett-Packard UNIX (HP-UX) is one of the examples of
UNIX OS.

Linux Linus Torvalds developed Linux in 1991 which is based on

UNIX. Linux is an open source OS that allows the public to
modify and improve the codes. Linux is preferred by
individuals and organisations due to lower cost. Among the
popular Linux OS are Ubuntu, Fedora and Elementary.
5.6.2 Mobile and Embedded OS

Mobile and embedded OS are different from the OS used for personal and server
as this type of OS is specifically and specially designed for particular mobile
devices depending on its specific usage. This is because the OS for mobile or
embedded systems need to consider several aspects such as capabilities of the
mobile device in accepting touch input or whether its display can rotate
automatically as the device is moved from portrait to landscape orientation, the
interface used, and the applications that can run on that device.
Table 5.5 describe nine popular OSes used for mobile and embedded computer
systems.
Table 5.5: Nine Mobile and Embedded OSes

Windows Embedded Designed by Microsoft for consumer and industrial devices,
such as digital photo frame, cash register, automated teller
machine (ATM) and global positioning system (GPS) device.
Windows Mobile As it is also developed by Microsoft, the elements of Windows
are also incorporated in it but with more emphasis to mobile
devices functionalities. Its standard features include Internet
Explorer Mobile as default web browser, Windows Media
Player as default media player (used for playing digital media)
and Microsoft Office Mobile (mobile versions of Microsoft
Office) as default office suite.
Windows Phone It is the successor of Windows Mobile that incorporates a new
user-interface, featuring its Modern design language. The
software is integrated with third party and Microsoft services.
Current version is Windows Phone 8.

Android A Linux-based OS developed by Google and it is an open

platform OS. It supports multitasking and capable of allowing
mobile applications to take full advantage of the mobile device
features has to offer. It can be installed in both smartphones
and tablets. Current version of Android is Android Jelly Bean
4.3.
iOS The OS developed by Apple to run on its proprietary mobile
devices, namely iPod, iPhone and iPad. iOS is derived from OS
X and the current version is iOS 6.
Blackberry Operating It is designed specifically for Blackberry devices. Like other
System OSes, it also supports multitasking, e-mail communication,
web browsing, music management, video recording and
calendar tools.
Palm Operating It was originally designed for Palm devices. In 2009, the Palm
System and Palm web OS was released, which is based on Linux as well. This
Web Operating version was targeted for new Palm devices and incorporated
System contact and calendar synchronisation, as well as web
browsing.
Symbian Widely used in Nokia phones and offers various
functionalities: multithreading and multitasking, web
browsing, e-mail, handwriting recognition, synchronisation
and a range of other mobile applications. Developers can
customise user-interfaces to meet the needs of end-users via its
flexible user interface framework.
Embedded Linux An alternative OS that is used for other kinds of mobile
devices, such as global positioning system and portable digital
media players. It is available in various flavours from different
companies.
5.7 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software contains programs developed to fulfil the need of certain
users. Application software is divided into two sections, i.e. basic application
software and advanced application software. The basic consists of software used
to increase productivity of users, while the advanced consists of software for
specific objectives and requires a little expertise to operate. With the help of
computers, various operations that were previously done only by people with
expertise and training, can now be performed by users. Application software
consists of programs that have been developed to fulfil the specific needs of
users.

If the system software is considered as behind the scene programs, the

application software is considered as programs for performing beneficial work
like typing, calculations and drawings. Basic application software is also called
general purpose application program. Its objective is to increase productivity
of users by helping them to perform normal tasks. They can be referred to as
productivity packages, e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, database management,
batch software, groupware software, communications and desktop accessories.
Application software can exist in a variety of forms, depending on the needs and
requirements of individuals, groups or organisations. The following Table 5.6
describes the forms of seven application software:
Table 5.6: Seven Application Software
Application Explanation
Software
Packaged Software developed and sold for profit. As it is mass produced and
software or copyrighted, this means it caters for a wide variety of users. Examples may
commercial include Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop and Norton Antivirus.
software
Custom Software that performs specific functions for any business or industry. This
software software is required when there is no packaged software that can meet
such specific requirements. As a result, the company needs to find or hire
developers to develop the tailor-made software to fulfil the business needs.
Some examples are e-procurement system and e-recruitment system.
Shareware Software distributed and available to try for free. Although it requires no
cost during the trial period, it is still copyrighted. Users need to pay certain
fees to the developer in order to use this software for a longer period of
time. Popular examples of shareware are WinZip and WinRAR.
Freeware Software distributed to be used for free. As it is also copyrighted, users still
do not have access to source codes to make any modifications. QuickTime
Player and Yahoo! Messenger are examples of freeware.
Public Free software and can be used, copied, modified and distributed to others
domain without any restrictions. The public owns the ownership; therefore, the
software software is not copyrighted. Pine and Lynx are examples of public domain
software.
Web Software hosted on a server allowing users to access and interact from any
application computer, via an Internet connection.
Open Software that has no copyright restrictions. Thus, it can be used, modified
source and redistributed freely. It can also be downloaded from the Internet
software without any cost. Examples are Blender and Moodle.

Advanced application software consists of specific purpose programs and

requires some expertise to operate. These four categories of software are specific
in nature and can be further categorised, as shown in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10: Four categories of advanced application software
(a) Business software Deals with assisting people to ensure their day-to-day
business can run effectively and efficiently. It comprises of programs like
word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, personal information
manager, business software suites, project management and accounting.
Examples are Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Oracle Database, Apple
Keynote and Oracle Primavera.
(b) Graphic and multimedia software Offers the capabilities of handling and
working with complex graphic and multimedia. It covers computer-aided
design, desktop publishing, paint/image editing, photo editing, video and
audio editing, multimedia authoring, and web page authoring. Examples
may include Autodesk AutoCAD, Adobe Illustrator and Adobe
Dreamweaver.
(c) Home, personal and educational software Offers functionalities for

personal use, as well as for education purpose. Personal finance, photo
editing, reference, home design, self-learning and video editing are among
the usage of personal and educational software. Examples are Microsoft
Windows Movie Maker, Broderbund Instant Architect and Intuit Quicken.

(d) Communication software Allows users to share information and

communicate with each other effectively via various media. It offers
capabilities such as web browsing, e-mail, instant messaging, chatting,
blogging and video/audio conferencing. Examples may include Mozilla
Firefox, Skype, Yahoo! Messenger, and Microsoft Outlook.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
What is the difference between basic application software and
advanced application software? Explain.
5.8 WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE

Those who are involved in business make use of the word processor to prepare
information in the form of documents like memos, reports, letters, minutes of
meetings and whatever is required to be typed. Users in a house environment
type assignments, letters, journals, a log of cinema titles and many others.
A word processing software enables you to create, edit, format, store and
print texts and graphics in one document.
Since you can save memos or documents that you have typed into the disc, you
can access them at other times to modify them, reprint or do whatever you want
with them. Parts of existing documents that do not change do not need to be
re-typed; the entire document that has been checked can be reprinted as new. An
assignment often done by computer users is to prepare information in the form
of documents. Word processing software is the software mostly used by users.
Five important activities of word processing are as illustrated in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: Five activities of word processing
The concept of word processing in personal computers is based on the concept of

What You See is What You Get (WYSIWYG) and it is pronounced wihzeewig.
What is seen on the screen is how a certain document will be produced by
printers font, graphic and others. Font refers to the type, size and shape of
characters. Most word processors contain additional features to upgrade their
capabilities. These features are tools like spelling-checker, grammar-checker,
thesaurus, macro, sorting and underlining of ideas.
Activities that can be done during word processing are editing of document,
search and replace, merging of e-mails, document footing and heading,
footnotes, mathematical functions, index generator, content generator, and
document import and export. You can search any word quickly inside a
document by using the search command inside a word processor. A replace
command can replace one word with another. Besides that, spellings can be
verified by the spelling-checker program. The grammar checker will identify the
use of inaccurate sentences, incorrect grammar or sentences that are too long. The
earliest word processing software was Wordstar. Examples of currently and
widely used word processing software are WordPerfect, Ami Pro and Microsoft
Word.
With the addition of more features into word processing packages, word
processing has crossed the boundary into desktop publishing. Desktop
publishing packages are normally better than word processing packages in

fulfilling the needs of high-level publishing, specifically on the choice of

characters and reproduction of colours. Many magazines and newspapers today
depend on desktop publishing software. Businesses use them to produce
newspapers that look professional, reports and leaflets that can improve
communications, and to give a better picture to the outside world.
When a document is being edited by a user, the word processing software will
load a copy of the document from the secondary storage (hard disk) into main
memory (RAM). All editing activities will be done on this copy inside the main
memory. This is because data access from the main memory is faster than data
access from the secondary memory. When the user completes editing, he/she can
save the document again into the secondary storage to replace the older copy.
Documents produced by commercial word processing software like WordPerfect

and Microsoft Word are in a certain format and not in the form of texts or
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). For example,
Microsoft Word uses its own format to store documents. Therefore, a Microsoft
Word document is not portable because the document cannot be used on
platforms other than Windows.
Portable document format (PDF) is a document format that is portable.
This can cause problems in a mixed environment where OSes like UNIX, OS/2,
BeOS, Windows and Linux exist in one place. A number of methods can be used
to produce a form of document that is portable. Among the methods are
producing document in PDF, postscript (ps) format or in markup languages like
standard generalised markup language (SGML), extensible markup language
(XML) or TeX.
Users can use this format to produce portable documents between different OSes.
All forms of documents like those from spreadsheet, power point presentation,
word processing and graphics, can be converted into PDF format by using Adobe
Distiller software. The PDF documents produced have the hypertext capability,
can be printed and displayed on the computer but cannot be edited. The PDF
format was introduced by Adobe (a company). Most articles that are freely
available on the Internet are in postscript or PDF format.
Documents with postscript or PDF format can be displayed with Ghostview

software which can be obtained freely at http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~gost. Adobe
gives out for free the PDF display software, i.e. Adobe Acrobat at
http://www.adobe.com. Users can also use the postscript format. Actually,

postscript is a page description language and is mostly used in laser printers to

produce high quality printing.
An example of a document in postscript format is shown in Figure 5.12. This

document will produce another document stating Selamat datang ke OUM if
printed by a printer with postscript capability.
/TeXtDict 300 dict def TeXDict begin /Ndefdef /Bbind defN

/FMat[1 0 0 -1 0 0]N /FBB[0 0 0]N /nn 0 N /IE 0 N /ctr 0 N
4 MB /w0 rmovetoB /Ip -4 wB /mp -3 wB /np -2 wB /op
p 1 wB /rp 2 wB /sp 3 /tp 4 wB /x0 S rmovetoB /y
aB /bos/SS save NB /eosSS restoreB end
TeXDict begin 39158280 55380996 1000 600 600(hello.dvi)

@start
/Fa 14 117 dfl116 D E
1 0 bop 639 523 a Fa(Selamat)28 b(datang)e(k)n(e)h(OUM)1926
5255 y(q)p eop
end
userdict /end-hook known end-hook if
Figure 5.12: Example of postscript format
Users can also produce portable documents in a markup language like hypertext
markup language (HTML), SGML and XML. The main objective of producing
documents in a markup language is to separate information from the document
format. This concept is the same as the concept of separating a program from
data in databases. This way, the document format can be modified easily without
involving the information that is present in the document.
SGML is an international standard for producing electronic documents that are

platform-free and hardware-free. This means that documents in SGML can be
used in UNIX, Windows, Linux and other platforms, without being changed.
Documents in Standardised Markup Language form can also be changed into
various types of format like PDF, CD-ROM, postscript, databases, information
system, hypertext or whatever format that is required. It was initially introduced
in the 1960s. HTML is a subset of SGML for use over the Internet. XML was
introduced to overcome the weakness of HTML; XML is the superset of HTML
and a subset of SGML.
Users can also use TeX software to produce portable documents from documents
in the form of TeX markup language. Document based on TeX can be processed
to produce another document in the form of PDF, postscript and device

independent. TeX is mostly used in producing mathematical and scientific

documents.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. What do you understand by the concept of WYSIWYG?
2. List a number of additional features of a word processor that you

know.
5.9 SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

A spreadsheet which consists of rows and columns has been used as a business
tool for several centuries. Spreadsheets produced manually are difficult to
prepare and when there is a change, a lot of calculations need to be redone. A
spreadsheet software can perform the calculations automatically whenever a
number changes. For example, a function of a spreadsheet is to calculate distance
based on speed and time changes in speed will cause another round of
automatic calculation which will alter the distance. This ability enables
businesspersons to try out a set of different numbers and obtain the results
quickly. The ability to ask What if? and later, see the results on the computer
before committing to buy resources, enables businesspersons to make decisions
faster and better. In short, spreadsheet software is a software for undertaking
analysis, calculation, planning and mathematical modelling on the computer.
What about spreadsheet software for users at home? It provides them the ability
to enter a set of numbers in meaningful ways, such as a set of deposit and interest
rates for buying a house and offer financial ideas to users who cannot do it
themselves (manually). Home users can use a spreadsheet to perform various
tasks from budget preparation to considering whether to accept a new job or not.
It can be used to create a model based on mathematics and other business

activities. Currently, this software has replaced paper spreadsheets, calculators
and pencils.
Among the traditional functions supported by spreadsheet software are:
(a) Storing data automatically;
(b) Accepting summarised raw data and producing information; and
(c) Performing analysis and improving planning.

The strength of spreadsheet is the ability to calculate automatically, speedily and

accurately. As such, it can be used to perform what if analysis, sensitivity
analysis, expense requirement, profit forecasting, graphic creation and
simulation. Any problem involving data that can be entered into rows and
columns are suitable for spreadsheets. Examples of this type of software are
Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3.
A spreadsheet is divided into rows and columns. Each row is numbered, while
each column is given a name. The intersection between each row and column is
called cell. Each cell contains reference address and fixed address. In each cell,
a user can type in a number, text or mathematical formula. Basically, the solution
to a problem using spreadsheet can be divided into four steps:
(a) Problem definition stage Covers objective of spreadsheet, type of required

output, type of input variables, assumption in calculation and type of
formula to be used.
(b) Planning for presentation stage Covers how to arrange labels, data,
formula and other instructions to achieve maximum efficiency, clarity and
flexibility.
(c) Data entry stage Involves required type of commands for input, edit and
store values, label, formula and functions in the required presentation.
(d) Testing and using stage Stage that tests whether spreadsheet produces the
results accurately when data is entered.

Other features that are available in an electronic spreadsheet are macro (short
program which can be used to repeat specific steps), mathematical functions, plot
3D, active function and integration with other applications. Figure 5.13 illustrates
an Excel electronic spreadsheet.
Figure 5.13: Excel electronic spreadsheet
SELF-CHECK 5.5
State the uses of an electronic spreadsheet in business.

5.10 DATABASE SOFTWARE

This software can store, update, manipulate, access and report in various views,
and print data in various forms.
When data is available as a report, i.e. a form that is useful to users, data has
become information.
Concert organisers, for example, can store and change data of the date of the next
concert, seat number, ticket cost and sales. When this has been done, organisers
can use the software to access information, such as the number of tickets sold in
every price range or percentage of tickets sold on the day before the concert.
Database software is useful for someone who needs to reach out to a large
number of people. For example, a volunteer who is looking for blood donors for
the National Blood Bank can store a file of all donors in his area, so that he can
access their names and telephone numbers to enquire on the type of blood
donated, postcode or the last date he/she donated blood.
The database management system (DBMS) software is also known as a database

manager. The database management system is a computer-based system for
defining, manipulating, controlling, managing, maintaining and using a
database.
Database can be defined as:
(a) Collection of data or information and relationship among them; or
(b) Collection of data with related set of entities.
Data can be in the form of text, video, graphics, audio and others. Databases are
stored in secondary storage. To fulfil the need of organisations, data needs to be
collected, stored and accessed effectively. Databases can help with these three
processes. They also enable data to be processed and shared by various parties.
Data can also be edited, added and erased easily. Users can perform queries over
the database to solve problems. A number of important terms in databases are
entities, attributes, field, record and relationship.
(a) Entities are things, people, places or events whereby the data and
information stored are about them. Examples of entities are universities,
students, employees, cars and doctors.

(b) Attributes or fields, are data or information that explains the characteristics
or features of a certain entity. For a student entity, examples of attributes
are name, address, date of birth, identity card number, matrix number and
gender.
(c) Record is a collection of related attributes for a certain entity. It also can
explain a certain event, which is a number of related fields about a certain
event grouped together logically to form a record. An example of a record
which groups together number of attributes for a student entity is
presented as follows:
Name : Abdullah Adam
Matrix number : 789
Address : No. 7, Jalan Sephia 2, Taman Sephia Permai, 43600
Bangi, Selangor
Date of birth : 1 January 1977
(d) Files are various collections of records containing the same attributes. An
example is a file of First Year Student containing all records
of Year 1 students in the Faculty of Information Technology and
Multimedia Communications.
(e) Database is a collection of several files that are related to one another. The
main source of data for a computer-based information system is the
database. Another objective of the database is to reduce data duplication.
For example, a student database may comprise a combination of students
personal file, file of courses offered at Open University Malaysia, co-
curriculum activities file and student finance file, as shown in Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.15 illustrates the different stages of data inside a database.

Figure 5.14: Database
Figure 5.15: Stages of data in database

5.10.1 Types of Databases

There are four types of database, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: Four types of databases
A relational database type is the most widely used today. In this type of
database, data is arranged in a table with rows and columns. Each column
constitutes of one attribute and each row constitutes of one record.
The table of data also has the following three features:

(a) Each column describes one attribute only;
(b) Sequential arrangement of columns and rows are not important; and
(c) Every row is unique.
5.10.2 Database Management System Organisation

A database management system has the function of managing data and
information stored in the database. It can be regarded as an interface between
users and the database, whereby it acts as a facilitator to allow users to access
and manipulate data elements embedded in the database. Examples of
avdatabase management system for personal computers are Microsoft Access,
dBase V, FileMaker Pro, FoxPro, Visual Fox Pro and Paradox.
A database management system is different from traditional file management.

The traditional file management is a system containing files which are separated
from each other. For example, student file and file of courses offered every
semester are different and not related to each other. This makes processing
difficult if information from several files are required.

For example, we have a record and attributes as follows:

(a) Student file Name, matrix, identification card, department;
(b) Course TZ1443 registration file Matrix, name, department;
(c) Course TU2983 registration file Matrix, name, department; and
(d) Lecturer's room file Lecturer name, room no.
With the traditional file system, we may face problems in getting a list of
students' names based on department or list of courses taken by a student,
because the information is present inside three different files.
A traditional file processing system has the following weaknesses:
(a) Data redundancy Same data attributes are repeatedly present in different
files;
(b) Data integrity problem Data needs to be updated in all files to ensure that
they are consistent throughout; and
(c) Program and data independence problem Program and data are closely
related as data is created to feed into a program.
A database management system is created as a means for solving problems. It

has the following objectives:
(a) Integration of data from various file sources or databases;
(b) Avoids data redundancy;
(c) Sharing of data among different applications;
(d) Data integrity can be retained in terms of security and reliability; and
(e) Data in the database can be changed as required.
In the database, each file has a relationship with other files. Relationships among
files are made through key fields. In a database, data dictionary stores
information in data and the database structure. In building a database
application, the following seven steps are required, as illustrated in Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17: Seven steps in building database applications
These steps are usually discussed in greater detail in the System Analysis and
Design course. Database management system is required to free data and
application programs to make them independent of each other. This will simplify
data access and editing, minimise data redundancy, define data, manage data
security and maintain data integrity. It can be regarded as a software layer
surrounding the database. The software includes query language, report
generator and utilities, and graphics.
A database management system has a number of weaknesses. Firstly, the

software is expensive. For a personal computer, the database management
system software costs between RM1,000 to RM2,500 each. This software is meant
for single users and has a limited number of files that can be created.
For a mainframe computer such as the database software used in student

registration at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), car registration at Road
Transport Department (JPJ) or patient registration at UKM Medical Centre, the
cost of the database management system software is high. Examples of a
database management system with high capacity are Integrated Database
Management System (IDMS), DB2, Oracle, Sybase and Informix. The use of a
database management system requires large secondary storage and high
powered central processing unit. There is also a need for skilled personnel to
manage the database management system software. The person who manages a
database management system is known as the database administrator (DBA).
Development of information systems based on database management system is
more complex, time consuming and costly.

However, database management system is the core software for any

organisation, whether big or small, in managing information. Almost all large
organisations in various industries use a database management system software
to manage information. Some people say that organisations cannot function
without a good database management system.
There are three types of relationships that can exist in databases one-to-one,
one-to-many and many-to-many, as shown in Figure 5.18.
Figure 5.18: Examples of three types of relationships in databases
For example, let us take the database of a business containing their customer
files, sales file, inventory files and supplier files, as follows:
(a) One-to-one relationship One data can only have a relationship with one
other data, e.g. relationship between customer file and sales file;
(b) One-to-many relationship One data can have a relationship with more
than one other data, e.g. customer file with sales file, if a customer makes
many purchases; and
(c) Many-to-many relationship One or more data can have a relationship
with one or more other data, e.g. many suppliers can supply many items.

There are several types of database organisations. These are hierarchical,

networked and relational and they will be discussed here.
In the hierarchical database, records are arranged or combined in related groups

that resemble a family tree, i.e. the concept of parent and child. This database
functions well if it has a one-to-many relationship. The structure has to be
defined from the beginning. Every child can only have one parent and there is no
relationship among the children. The many-to-many relationship cannot be
established here. This type of database was introduced in the 1960s. Figure 5.19
shows an example of the hierarchical database.
Figure 5.19: Example of a hierarchical database
In a networked database, every child can have more than one parent. This
arrangement can be bent easily as compared to hierarchical database but there is
a limit on the bent and it needs definitions prior to its use. This type of database
can have all types of relationships. It was first introduced in the 1970s. Today,
both hierarchical and networked types are not widely used. Figure 5.20 shows an
example of a networked database.

Figure 5.20: Example of a networked database
Relational database is the most stable and flexible database. Its model was first
introduced by E. F. Codd. It does not require the database structure to be initially
defined. Data is arranged in the form of a table with rows and columns. A name
is given to each table and column. Every table is given a unique column, known
as the main key. This main key is used to link different tables. Relational
databases are widely used today. Figure 5.21 shows an example of a relational
database.
Figure 5.21: Example of a relational database

In a hierarchical, networked or relational database, data is stored in the database.

The programs to process the data are stored separately outside the database.
However, there is a new approach in which data and programs are stored in the
database simultaneously. This is known as object-oriented database. This new
type of database is not yet widely used. Now, there is also an object-oriented
relational database. Figure 5.22 shows four types of database management
system organisations.
Figure 5.22: Four types of database management system organisation
5.10.3 Client-Server
Most database management systems are stored in the server. Database
management system software will store and manage data in the server computer.
The client computer will be used by users to access and process the data
contained in the database of the server computer. This method is known as
client-server system. The client-server system enables a database to be shared by
many users. Examples of a server-based DBMS are Oracle, Informix and Sybase.
An example of software that can build user-interface software is PowerBuilder.
Examples of client-server systems are student registration system in OUM and
foreign worker registration in Malaysia Department of Immigration.

The client-server system has the following advantages:
(a) Server has the main function as storage and processing is done by clients;
(b) Data security at the server is more assured; and
(c) Hardware requirement can be added easily to the server.
Databases can be arranged in three ways centralised, distributed and client-

server. Figure 5.23 shows three categories of databases. In a centralised database,
all organisational databases are present in one computer only, usually in a
mainframe computer. This technique simplifies management but has risks if the
computer breaks down. For example, in OUM, all databases on students, staff,
finance, etc. are stored in one computer. This technique is known as a centralised
database.
Figure 5.23: Three categories of databases
In a distributed database, all databases are stored in several computers located in

different places (buildings, rooms, areas). For example in OUM, information on
Language Faculty students are stored in the Language Faculty database and the
information on Science Faculty students are stored in the Science Faculty
database. This approach is known as a distributed database. This approach is
more difficult to maintain.
In a client-server database, clients do the database applications while the server

does part or all of the actual database management system. An example of this
type of database is the student registration in OUM.

There are two ways on how to access data in a database, i.e. through query
language and application programs as shown in Figure 5.24.
Figure 5.24: Two ways to access data
Query language is a language used by users to capture data from the

database.
With this language, users can add, edit, delete and access the database. An example
of the query language is Structured Query Language (SQL) which can be used to
access relational type of databases. An example of SQL instructions are presented in
Figure 5.25.
SELECT OWNERID, is in Orders & Antiques

FROM ORDERS, ANTIQUES
WHERE OWNERID = BUYERID
UNION
SELECT BUYERID, is in Antiques Only
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID NOT IN
(SELECT OWNERID FROM ORDERS);
Figure 5.25: Example of SQL instructions

Users can also access databases through programs that are written in
programming languages like COBOL or C which contain SQL statements that are
embedded inside the programs. This technique is known as embedded SQL, as
/* example of embedded SQL using C */

#include
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;

Int BUYERID;
char FirstName[100], LastName[100], Item[100];
main()
{
EXEC SQL CONNECT UserID/Password;
EXEC SQL DECLARE Itemcursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT ITEM, BUYERID
FROM ANTIQUES
ORDER BY ITEMS;
EXEC SQL OPEN ItemCursor;
EXEC SQL FETCH ItemCursor INTO :Item :BUYERID;

While(!sqlca.sqlcode) {
EXEC SQL SELECT OWNERFIRSTNAME, OWNERLASTNAME
INTO :FirstName :LastName
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID = :BuyerID;
Printf(%s %s %s, FirstNamre, LastName, Item);
}
exit ();
}
Figure 5.26: Example of embedded SQL
A concept that is widely used today is a data warehouse, i.e. a combination of

several large databases inside an organisation in a form that is suitable for use by
users. A data warehouse may contain a very large amount of data and this may
cause difficulty for users to analyse the data.
This leads to the technique of data mining, i.e. a technique of analysing

voluminous amount of data by using statistical techniques, machine learning,
artificial intelligence, etc.
SELF-CHECK 5.6
1. What is the advantage of having a database?
2. What is meant by database management?

5.11 DOCUMENT PROCESSING SOFTWARE

TeX is a document processing system for producing documents of high quality. It
is mostly used in the publication of academic journals or magazines. This system
is suitable for use mainly in documents that involve many mathematical
formulas. TeX documents are in the form of ASCII, which contains markups such
as an HTML document. This document will later be processed to produce a form
of portable document like postscript or PDF. Figure 5.27 shows the Gostview
software which can be used to display .ps and .pdf documents.
Figure 5.27: Gostview software that display postscript document
5.12 GRAPHICS SOFTWARE

Displaying graphics to businessmen may look non-beneficial at first because
there is number printing that is normally done by the computer. However,
graphs, maps and charts can help people to compare data, identify pathways
with ease and make decisions more quickly. Research has shown that human
beings learn more from information presented visually. Furthermore, visual
information is normally more meaningful than a page of numbers. Besides
representing numbers and facts, graphs are often used together with messages by
businessperson or whoever, as part of their presentation.

Graphic software combines various visual objects to produce presentations

that are attractive and joyful.
The use of graphic software is very satisfactory if the work is done by a graphic
artist who has the ability in both artistic aspect, as well as the ability to use
sophisticated graphic software to translate ideas. An artist uses the software as a
tool for producing fantastic computer-based arts. Graphic software is software
that converts numerical data into a graphic display form, such as the bar chart,
pie chart, etc. It enables users to produce various types of graphical forms. Five
types of graphics software are shown in Figure 5.28.
Figure 5.28: Five types of graphics software
(a) Decorative graphics It is used to improve document production and not

for delivering information. They are normally embedded inside word
processors like clip drawing. Examples of decorative graphics software are
Paint (given out free inside Windows OS as shown in
Figure 5.29), Paint Shop Pro and Adobe Photoshop.

Figure 5.29: Microsoft Paint
(b) Business/analytical graphics Simplify numerical data so that they are

easily understood. Examples of such graphics are bar chart, pie chart,
dotted area chart, line graph, pictogram, etc. These are normally obtained
by using spreadsheet or statistical software.
(c) Presentation graphics It is used to present data/ideas to customers. This

presentation may consist of text, table, clip drawing, picture or business
graphics. Examples of such graphics are Microsoft PowerPoint (see
Figure 5.30), Freelance and Harvard Graphic.

Figure 5.30: Microsoft PowerPoint
(d) Illustration graphics is a type of presentation graphic that is used

professionally. Three types of illustration software are drawing, painting
and image editing. An example of this software is Adobe Illustrator as
Figure 5.31: Adobe Illustrator

(e) Animation graphics Add movements over the image and drawing.
Examples of graphics software used for animation are Maya (for 3D
animation) and Adobe Flash Professional CS6. These types of software were
used to produce Toy Story and Toy Story 2.
5.13 SOFTWARE SUITE

Suite refers to a set of software or a collection of software units sold as a group at
a price that is lower than the total cost of buying each of them separately.
Examples of such software are Microsoft Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Novell
PerfectOffice and Sun StarOffice. Microsoft Office suite normally includes
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft Access.
5.14 GROUPWARE SOFTWARE

Groupware is software used in a network of a group of users working on one
project. It normally consists of four different types, such as the basic groupware
software like Lotus Notes, workflow software like Action Workflow, meeting
software like Vetanas Group and scheduling software like MS-Project.
5.15 DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE

Desktop publishing software is software used for printing or publishing and is
more advanced than word processing software. The features of this software are
the ability to mix and match texts and graphics, various types of styles and
presentation, importing elements in different format and page description
language. Examples of desktop publishing software are Microsoft Publisher,
PageMaker, FrameMaker, QuarkXPress and Scribus. Figure 5.32 shows an
example of an interface of Scribus, which is an open source software for desktop
publishing.

Figure 5.32: Scribus
5.16 MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE

Multimedia presentation software or multimedia composition enables users to
combine text, graphic, animation, video, music, voice and sound in their
presentation. This software simplifies multimedia-based software development.
Examples of multimedia software are Multimedia ToolBook, Authorware, Flash
and Director. Figure 5.33 shows an example of the Flash software.
Figure 5.33: Adobe Flash

Although system software is rarely talked about, its importance cannot be

denied.
There are four categories of system software: OS, utility programs, device
drives and language translators.
Application software consists of word processing, electronic spreadsheet,

databases, presentation software and others.
OS manages resources, provides the user-interface and executes applications.
Windows, Mac OS, UNIX and Linux are commonly used operating systems.
The five features of OS are multitasking, multi-user, multi-processing, batch

processing and virtual memory.
Besides that, we have also seen application software that is often used to
increase productivity of organisations and individuals such as word
processing, spreadsheet, databases, groupware software, etc.
Advanced application software is divided into four categories: business

software; graphics and multimedia software; home, personal and educational
software; and communication software.
Batch processing Multi-processing

Compiler Operating system (OS)
Database Spreadsheet
Data mining User-interface
Device drivers Utility program
Multitasking Virtual memory

Topic X Programming
6 Language
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the concept of programming languages;
2. State five generations of computer languages;
3. Identify six characteristics of programming language; and
4. Recognise different types of programming languages.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall know more about programming language. Computer
programs are developed using programming languages. A program is a set of
instructions followed by the computer, so that data can be processed. The process
of producing a program is called programming. Programming is a part of the
larger software development process which consists of problem specification,
program design, programming, program testing and program maintenance.
6.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

In general, the computer itself is deaf, dumb and cannot think on its own. It
requires instructions from humans to perform certain tasks, ranging from a
simple task (such as performing simple arithmetic operations) to a very complex
task (such as launching a spacecraft to Mars). Therefore, we use a programming
language to communicate with and instruct the computer to perform certain
tasks. Instructions in a program are arranged logically through the process of
programming. There are many types of programming languages that can be used
by programmers to communicate with the computer.

128 X TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
A programming language is similar to a natural language like English, in several

aspects. For example, it resembles words, symbols and syntax. To write a
program, a programmer needs to know the words, symbols and syntax of the
programming language used. There are many programming languages such as
APL, Pascal, Java, Perl, Eiffel, C, C++, Basic, Fortran, Lisp, Scheme, BETA, Lua,
Visual Basic, Prolog, Haskell, Hugs and COBOL.
Programming languages have evolved through time, as shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Programming Language Evolution
Years Programming Language

1950s Lisp, Fortran
1960s1970s Basic, C, SmallTalk, Pascal, Scheme
1990s C, C++, BETA, Java, Prolog
There are programming languages for specific purposes as well, such as

Concurrent C, Orca and Leda for parallel programming and Android for mobile
programming. Figure 6.1 shows the relationship model between users,
programming language and computer.
Figure 6.1: Relationship model among users, programming language and computer

TOPIC 6 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE W 129
6.2 WHY DO WE NEED TO KNOW

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES?
Users can use whatever programming language they know to solve problems.
However, if the user knows only one programming language, the solution
provided may not be optimal and efficient. Therefore, a user needs to understand
the capabilities of certain programming languages, so that he/she can evaluate
the strengths and weaknesses of the language when solving the problem faced.
After evaluation, the user can adopt the most effective method from a list of
possible methods to solve the problem. There are five benefits of understanding
programming languages that are elaborated in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Benefits of Understanding Programming Languages
Benefit Elaboration
Knowing superiority of the For example, if development involves a rapid prototype,
programming languages then, it is more efficient to use scripting language like
and where it is suitable to Python, rather than using C or C++.
be used
Understanding weaknesses Each language is suitable for one field. For example, to
of the programming develop a graphical user interface (GUI), it is more
languages efficient to use C++ or Java rather than C. To do a lot of
calculations, Fortran is more suitable than Java or C.
Producing more efficient If a user understands a few programming languages,
solutions he/she can use the most efficient language for solving
problems. For example, if the solution requires access to
databases, it is better to use a scripting language like
Python for linking, rather than C or C++.
Programming languages For example, an object-oriented language will make the
will influence users user think of a solution based on the object concept,
thinking in solving while a logic-based language will make the user think of
problems the solution, based on logic.
Programming languages Most problems are more efficiently solved by experts in
are tools for solving the respective fields. Therefore, experts in certain fields
problems using the can learn appropriate programming languages in order
computer to solve their problems.

It is common for a programmer to know more than one programming language.

Normally, each programming language has similar characteristics. After
mastering one programming language, it is easy to master another programming
language because the programming concept is the same only the language
syntax changes. There are many types of programming languages and their fields
of applications are based on current needs and trends. Examples of the languages
discussed above and their fields of application are shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Examples of Programming Languages and Their Fields of Application
Programming
Fields Year
Language
Fortran Scientific calculations 1956

Lisp Symbol calculation, artificial intelligence 1957
C System development 1974

COBOL Business-oriented system development 1960
Visual Basic System development, graphical user interface 1990
C++ Large and complex system development 1984
Java Internet applications, graphical user interface, enterprise 1995
system development
Perl Internet, common getaway interface (CGI), text processing 1990
6.3 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

GENERATIONS AND EXAMPLES
In general, programming languages can be categorised into five generations. The
first generation is known as the machine language. When computers were first
invented, the language adopted was the machine language, using binary digits of
0 and 1 to represent instructions and data. Programs that were written in the
machine language needed no translation into the object code before computer
execution because the machine language format already adhered to the computer
architecture.

Computer language generation is said to have begun from low-level up to

high-level. A programming language is said to be a low-level one when it
resembles the language that is actually used by the computer. A high-level
programming language, on the other hand, closely resembles the language used
by human beings like the Malay Language. Table 6.4 shows five programming
language generations and how the programming language is represented in each
of the generations.
Table 6.4: Five Generations of Programming Language
Generation Language Representation of the Programming Language

1st Machine 10010001
2nd Assembly ADD 210(8,13), 02B(4,7)
3rd Algorithmic Over_time := 0
4th Query FIND Name = MAZLAN
5th Natural IF patient is sick THEN examine body temperature
(a) First generation Programming language for this generation is the machine
language. With the machine language, a programmer can write an optimal
program. However, this method is quite difficult because the programmer
needs to remember binary code and numbers. Therefore, the machine
language is rarely used today. The machine language is also dependent on
the computer brand and this adds to more difficulties in using it.
An example of the machine language being used to represent instructions

and data is:
01011010 00010000 01111100 11101001
(b) Second generation Consists of assembly language. The invention of the

assembly language is the first step in the development of software, which is
easier and more effective. An assembly language is easier to remember
because of its short forms. It also depends on the type of computer.

It uses symbols and words to represent instructions and data, and does not
use binary digits like the machine language. An example of a program in
the assembly language is given below:
V86_signal_return :
Call SYMBOL_NAME (save_v86_state)
movl
xorl
call SYMBOL_NAME (do_signal)
jmp restore_all
ALIGN
Since a program in the assembly language is not in the machine language

understood by the computer, it needs to be converted into the machine
language first, before it can be processed by the computer. A software
called assembler is used to convert programs from assembly language
into machine language.
(c) Third generation Programming languages consist of languages produced

in the 1950s, i.e. high-level languages. They are still used today, e.g. C,
COBOL and Fortran. They resemble the human natural language. This
simplifies the programmers in writing their programs. This generation of
languages is also known as high-level languages and is designed for use in
various machines, with little change. With the third generation languages,
users no longer need to write many instructions like those in the machine or
assembly language. Instead, users need to type only one instruction to
perform something that requires many instructions in the machine
language.
Among the reasons for the invention of the high-level languages are to:
(i) Simplify writing, unlike machine and assembly languages;
(ii) Enable a program to run on more than one machine, as it only needs
to be re-compiled before being run on a different machine; and
(iii) Enable a programmer to concentrate more on fulfilling users needs.
Examples of programming languages produced in this generation are Algol

68, Fortran, C, Ada, COBOL, Simula, APL, BCPL, Basic, PL/1, Pascal, Logo
and Modula.

Most high-level languages are based on algorithms or procedures. With

procedure-based language, a programmer needs to use programming logic
to solve problems. In other words, a programmer needs to write
instructions in a certain order to be implemented for solving the problem.
Source codes are programs that are written in high level languages.
They need to be converted into machine language, which is called object

code, to enable programs to be executed by the computer. This conversion
process is done by language processors.
There are three types of language processors, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Three language processors
(d) Fourth generation Known as problem-oriented language. Languages of

this generation, also known as fourth generation language (4GL), require
even less instructions when performing tasks, as compared to the third
generation languages. The definition of this generation is different,
depending on vendors. This language is typically combined with a software
package like the database management system (DBMS). Normally, fourth
generation is used to access information from files and databases.
Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data. Languages of this generation
are easy to use. This enables professional and non-professional users to
develop software easily. Some people do not consider fourth generation
language as a procedure-oriented language because it places emphasis on
what needs to be done and not on how it should be done (method). Fourth
generation language will not replace the third generation language because
it focuses more on one task.

Most fourth generation language procedures are automatically generated

by computers and users only need to state what needs to be done and not
how to do them.
A few examples of the fourth generation languages are:
(i) Query languages like Structured Query Language (SQL), Query by

Example (QBE) and Intellect. These languages are used to change,
edit, create and access information from databases;
(ii) Report generators are languages used to generate queries and reports
from databases; and
(iii) Application generators perform more than query languages and

report generators. They are tools that generate software according to
users needs, with regards to data requirements required to be
processed and reported.
(e) Fifth generation Natural languages of programming languages, i.e.

languages that are the same as the query languages, except that users are
not required to learn dictionary, grammar and syntax. They use natural
languages like English. The use of natural languages touches on artificial
intelligence field of study, i.e. a field that studies how to make computers
think like humans.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What makes low-level programming language different from

high-level programming?
2. Give two benefits that can be obtained, if you understand

programming language.

6.4 APPROACH: CLASSIFICATION OF

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Programming languages can be classified based on six characteristics of the
language, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Six characteristics of programming language
Each characteristic has its own strengths and weaknesses. The following sections
will discuss strengths and weaknesses of each characteristic.
Besides the above mentioned characteristics, there are also other characteristics of
programming languages like:
(a) Constraint programming;
(b) Accessed-oriented programming;
(c) Single data structure programming, e.g. APL language treats all data in the
form of matrix or sequential order; Icon language treats all data in the form
of expressions; and
(d) Database language, e.g. SQL.

6.4.1 Imperative Language
Imperative means instruction order or command.
Therefore, imperative language is a language where every instruction for solving

a problem needs to be stated clearly. Each instruction for solving a problem will
be executed step by step. An imperative language can be likened to a recipe for
cooking. In this language, the technique used is Do A, then, do B. Thirteen
examples of imperative languages are shown in Figure 6.4. There are times when
it is known as procedural language. The basic idea in imperative language is that
users need to state every step required in solving the problem.
Figure 6.4: Thirteen examples of imperative language
6.4.2 Object-oriented Language
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
The need for an object-oriented language arose when existing languages could no
longer fulfil the need of systems that are becoming more complex. The
advantages of object-orientation are ease of system management, ability to
change system properly and reusability of components in a new system. The
structure of an object-oriented language makes a program easier to design and
understand. Object-oriented languages handle images, audio, video and sound
much easier than procedural languages (third generation). The basic idea is to
focus on objects in a system, not on functions that occur inside the system.

There are four concepts in an object-oriented language, as indicated in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Four Concepts of Object-Oriented Language
Concept Description
Class Blueprint that defines the variables (or attributes) and the methods
common to all objects of a certain kind.
Object Each object is an instance of a particular class. Many unique objects
can be created from the same class.
Encapsulation Term given to the process of hiding all details of an object that do not
contribute to its essential characteristics. Encapsulation hides the
implementation details of the object and the only thing that remains
externally visible is the interface of the object (i.e. set of all messages
the object can respond to).
Inheritance Capability of a class to use the properties and methods of another
class while adding its own functionality.
An advantage of the object-oriented language is reusability. Any object that has

been declared as reusable can be used in another program. This simplifies and
speeds up application development. Object-oriented language was first
introduced in 1970 in Simula language, followed by Smalltalk and C++.
Examples of object-oriented languages are C++, Smalltalk, Java and Objective-C,
Pascal, Delphi, BETA, HyperTalk, Limbo, Python and Eiffel.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is meant by object-oriented programming?
6.4.3 Logic-based Language

Logic-based language focuses more on problem statement, not on how to solve
problem. The software system is responsible for solving the stated problem. This
language is based on logic, i.e. facts and rules. Facts and rules are stated in the
form of IF-THEN statements. For example, users can state facts and rules as
follows:
IF X is-father-of Y AND Y is-father-of Z, THEN X is-grand-father-of Z.

In writing a logic-based program, users make use of Horn Logic, i.e. statement
that uses IF-THEN. All facts and rules will be stated in Horn Logic form.
Subsequently, the user will state a problem to be solved. The system will try to
solve the problem based on facts and rules that have been given. For example, we
can produce the following information based on Horn Logic:
happy (x) < rich (x), famous (x)

happy (x) < young (x), in-love (x)
happy (x) < old (x), wise (x)
famous (x) < actor (x)
famous (x) < singer (x)
Subsequently, we can state the following fact:
actor {ali}
rich {ali}
Finally, we can ask the system the following question which means, is ali
happy?:
? happy (ali)
The system will answer yes or no based on the information given before. An
example of the logic language is Prolog.
6.4.4 Function-based Language

A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not how
to calculate. The program is in the form of functions, i.e. function that is almost
the same as mathematical function. The codes written in function language are
normally short and concise. For example, to get all odd numbers between 1 and
20, a function-based program is given:
[x|x < [1..20]; x mod 2 = 1]
Examples of function languages are Lisp, FP, Scheme, Common Lisp, Hope,
Standard ML, Miranda, Haskell, Hugs and Lucid.

6.4.5 Script
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objectives. They can be used for developing prototypes rapidly. This type
of language is portable between various types of computer platforms. Systems
that have been developed in scripting languages run slower. Examples of
scripting languages are awk, sed, Perl, Python, REXX, rebol and ruby.
HTML and XML are Internet-based scripting languages used to develop

applications for the Internet.
6.4.6 Visual Language

Programming using a visual language replaces instructions based on text, with
icon symbols. Each icon represents an object or general programming function
like copy, delete, open file, etc. An example of visual language is Visual Basic and
it is the most popular used among normal and professional users. Other visual
languages in the market are Visual FoxPro and Visual C++.
6.5 COMMON PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Now, let us learn a few common programming languages in this subtopic.
6.5.1 C
It is a small language with attractive features. The C language is mostly used in
the development of system software and application software.
Programs in C are portable, where users only need to re-compile programs of

a new operating system in order to produce suitable object codes.
For example, Linux and UNIX operating systems were developed in C language.
The C programming course is a core subject in computer science programs for
most universities. The C language is quite difficult to learn for new users but it is
a language that has various capabilities and is very powerful.

6.5.2 C++
C++ adds on object features to the C language based on ideas from Simula
language. Initially, it was known as C with Classes language. This language is
mostly used in large and complex systems development, such as telephone
switching, graphic user interface system, traffic control on road, etc.
6.5.3 Java
Java is an object-based language invented in 1995 by James Gosling. It has the
features of C++ and Simula.
Java converts Java programs into byte code, not to object code, where the byte
code can run in any OS by using Java virtual machine without any changes. This
technique enables any Java program to be portable among many computer
systems. Initially, Java was mostly used in producing graphics and animation on
websites. It is known as one of the most widely used programming language in
the world. Java has been popular with the slogan Write once, runs everywhere.
6.5.4 Perl
Perl is a scripting language that can be used in processing of text, common
gateway interface, database communication, etc. PERL has portability feature.
In addition, PERL can be used for the following purposes:
(a) Develop web application;
(b) Administer system; and
(c) Process textual or numerical data.
6.5.5 Python
Python is a scripting language based on objects which can be used to develop

a prototype, process data based on text, communicate with databases, etc.
Among applications that have been built using Python are web applications,
address book, computer network management and astronomical software.
Python is an alternative to Perl.

6.6 COMPILER, ASSEMBLER, INTERPRETER

Programs that have been written in a programming language are called source
codes. Source codes are in the form of text or ASCII. It can be written using the
general purpose editor, such as notepad or integrated development environment
(IDE) editor. Examples of IDE mostly used are Borland C++ and Visual Studio.
Now, let us observe an example of a source code written in C programming
language as shown below. The program will display the output hello world
when it is executed.
main ( )
{
printf (hello world \ n);
}
This source code needs to be compiled or converted into object code before it can
run in any computer. The compilation process is done by a compiler. If this
program is compiled in Linux, it can only run in Linux; if compiled in Windows,
it can only run in Windows.
This problem is said to be non-portable, i.e. any software that is compiled in OS

type A cannot run in OS type B. The problem of non-portable arises because the
object code produced from the compilation process is different for different
operating systems. This object code is specific for one type of OS only.
While the source code is compiled, it will be linked to a library, i.e. set of existing
instructions inside an OS. In a Windows OS, the library is given as extended
dynamic loading library (.dll). Examples of libraries in Windows OS are vb200.dll
and vb3000.dll. The software (or object code) that is produced requires this
library to run. Since the library is present in the specific OS (e.g. Windows) only,
the object code that is produced can run in a Windows system only.
Every processor (central processing unit) is built using different architecture.

Each architecture contains a set of instructions, which are different from one type
to another. Since the set of instructions is different, the machine language of each
processor is also different. The object code that is generated from the compilation
process is in the form of machine language. Since the machine language is
different, the object code produced is also different. Therefore, the object code
can run in the processor that produces it only.
For example, two types of architecture for the processor are reduced instruction
set computing (RISC) and complex instruction set computing (CISC). Examples

of CISC processors are Intel, AMD and Cyrix while examples of RISC processors
are Alpha, Motorola 6800 and PowerPC. Any program that is compiled for an
Intel processor cannot run on an Alpha processor because both contain different
object codes.
To convert assembly language programs into object code, we need to use an

assembler. The object code produced is not portable. We can use assembly
language to write programs. The assembly language is mostly used in
development of OSes and it is used specifically in certain OSes.
An interpreter is a computer program that translates high-level instructions line

by line into an intermediate form, which is then executed. In contrast, a compiler
translates high-level instructions directly into machine language. Compiled
programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. The advantage of an
interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage
during which, machine instructions are generated. This process can be time
consuming if the program is long. An interpreter does not convert programs into
object code. Programs in the interpreter are portable, i.e. it can run using any
OSes. Programs inside an interpreter are far slower than programs that are
compiled and run in the form of object code. Basic and Lisp are examples of
programming languages that use an interpreter.
Programming language is an artificial language to communicate with

computers.
A program is a set of instructions followed by the computer, so that data can

be processed.
The importance of understanding certain programming languages is to

evaluate its strengths and weaknesses of the language in solving problems
efficiently.
Programming languages can be divided into stages or five generations

(machine, assembly, algorithmic, query and natural), beginning from lowest
to highest.

The higher the language is, the nearer it is to the human form.
Most high-level languages are languages based on algorithms or procedures.
Fourth generation language instructions resemble English language

instructions for accessing and formatting data.
Programming languages can be classified based on six characteristics:

imperative, object-oriented, functional, logic, parallel, scripting and visual.
The imperative language is a language where every instruction for solving

problems needs to be stated clearly.
Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
Three important concepts in an object-oriented language are class, object and

inheritance.
Logic-based language is based on logic represented by facts and rules in a

form of IF-THEN statement.
A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not

how to calculate.
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for
certain objectives.
Programming using visual language replaces instructions based on text with

icon symbols.
There are two types of Internet scripting language HTML and XML.
Assembler is used to convert programs from the assembly language into the
machine language.
Compiler is used to convert high-level language (e.g. Basic, C, Pascal) into

machine codes.
Interpreter is used to interpret and execute instructions one by one in a

high-level language.

Assembler Logic
Compiler Machine language
Encapsulation Object-oriented language
Function-based language Program
Imperative language Visual language
Inheritance
Interpreter

Topic X The Internet
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term Internet;
2. Discuss the history (five phases of generation), development, issues
and evolution of the Internet;
3. Identify the contents of the Internet and how to manage them; and
4. Discuss the current and future trend of the Internet.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall focus on the Internet itself. You may be familiar with
browsing the Internet, but do you know what the real capability of the Internet
is? Do you know the definition, history, development, issues and evolution of the
Internet? In this topic, we shall discuss all these. We are also going to identify the
client and server node in the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the
effective process of searching and managing information over the Internet.
Finally, we will explore the current and future trends of the Internet. Let us start!
7.1 DEFINITION OF INTERNET

In any organisation such as a government office, private company or university,
computers are usually linked to a computer network called local area network
(LAN). This enables users to share resources like printers, communicate via
electronic mails (e-mails), share databases, etc. When two or more local area
networks (and other networks) are combined into one big network, it is called
inter-network or the Internet. Figure 7.1 shows the Internet structure.

146 X TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET
Figure 7.1: The Internet structure
The Internet is the short form of international networking that refers to the
largest type of global network. Now, imagine that all computer networks in the
world are linked to form one big network of a global nature. This network
formed is called the Internet, i.e. a network formed by a combination of computer
networks in the entire world. With the Internet, a computer in Kuala Lumpur can
access a computer in China, India, US, Japan, Saudi Arabia and anywhere else in
the world.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).
There were various proprietary networks linking several countries before the
Internet era, such as the corporate networks of multinationals that link up their
respective offices worldwide. However, these were not the Internet because the
computers use proprietary systems and not TCP/IP to communicate. The
Internet has adopted the TCP/IP in order to enable various types of computers to
work together. The Internet has been successful in creating a global village where
a community can communicate with another community easily, without physical
and time boundaries.
The term intranet refers to a portion of the Internet that is located inside one
organisation. Intra means inside.

TOPIC 7 THE INTERNET W 147
For example, the private portion of the Internet located in all the faculties in the
Open University Malaysia (OUM) constitute as an intranet. The portion must be
guarded by special firewalls to ensure that outsiders are unable to access its
confidential files. So, the intranet is really a subset of the Internet one at the
organisation level, while the other, at the global level.
As many intranets were built, companies discovered more competitive

advantages if they link them together. Thus, an extranet is formed by linking two
or more intranets.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. In your own words, define the following terms:
(a) Internet;
(b) Intranet; and
(c) Extranet.
2. Based on the answers above, explain how they differ from one
another.
7.2 HISTORY
The Internet has an interesting history. By looking at the history, we are able to
evaluate the advantages, disadvantages, weaknesses, past development and
future of the Internet. The Internet was born in the US, in 1969 when the
Department of Defence formed the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)
which started the network. This organisation was responsible for upgrading the
activities of research and development in the field of technology to compete with
the USSR, the predecessor of todays Russia. ARPA was a response to the success
of the USSR in launching the Sputnik communication satellite. In the 1970s, the
US and the USSR were in the Cold War period. Many people thought that the
success of the USSR had awakened the US from sleep.

7.2.1 How Did the Internet Begin?

Two main researches in ARPA were intellectual sharing and computer resource
sharing. The research on intellectual sharing touched on how researchers could
share opinions among themselves no matter where they were. On the other hand,
the research on computer resource sharing described how a researcher could
easily use computer resources at other places. It needs to be noted that in that
period of time, computers were very expensive, limited and large. A computer
often cost millions of dollars and occupied one big room. Only organisations like
the US Defence Department and large companies could afford to own a
computer. Personal computers were not yet available.
As a result of that research, a computer network called ARPANET was

established in 1969. It connected four computers that were available at different
locations University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), University of
California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), University of Utah and Stanford Research
Institute (SRI). In 1971, a total of 23 computers joined ARPANET, mostly
universities and research centres. In 1973, the numbers increased several fold. In
1971, e-mail facilities were introduced into ARPANET.
In the 1970s, initiatives were taken to create a standard data sharing among
various types of computer networks. At that time, every computer company
introduced network systems that were different from one another. This initiative
enabled all computers of different brands in various types of networks to share
data or to communicate among themselves easily. In 1974, a data sharing
technique called TCP was introduced. Later, in 1978, this technique was
expanded to what was called TCP/IP.
ACTIVITY 7.1
As we know, the Internet dominates almost every aspect of human life

today. Draw a mind map on how it all started. Present it during your
tutorial.

7.2.2 The Internet as a Phenomenon

In 1982, ARPANET network used TCP/IP fully as a standard in data sharing.
This enabled various types of computers in ARPANET to share data among
themselves. The terms internet and Internet were used from this year
onwards. The term internet refers to the computer network that uses TCP/IP,
while Internet refers to the grouping of computer networks that uses TCP/IP.
The success of ARPANET in using TCP/IP resulted in many universities and
other organisations joining ARPANET. In 1984, about 1,000 computers were in
ARPANET.
In 1986, the National Science Foundation Network (NFSNET), a high-speed

network, was formed. This network became the backbone network that
connected universities, research centres and government agencies with the
supercomputer centre. In 1990, the ARPANET network was terminated and its
functions were taken over by the National Science Foundation Network. In 1997,
the NFSNET was taken over by a private party.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Internet usage was still confined to universities,
research centres and government organisations. Its main applications were e-
mail, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Usenet. In 1989, a major development
occurred in an amparticle physics laboratory of the European Organisation for
Nuclear Research (CERN), a large research centre in Switzerland that was
destined to change the Internet forever. Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN,
proposed an information sharing technique based on hypertext for the Internet
environment.
In 1990, Berners-Lee introduced a protocol or technique called Hypertext

Transfer Protocol (HTTP), i.e. a technique that can be used to develop
distributed multimedia systems based on networking.

This multimedia system contains graphics, text, audio and video which can be
indexed and accessed easily by users in the entire world. This system has been
given various names like the web, World Wide Web, W3 or WWW. Hence, the
Internet was born! The web can be defined as a network of various types of
information like graphics, audio, video and its text is based on hypertext. The
original term for hypertext was introduced by Ted Nelson in 1967. Originally,
hypertext only involved document texts but now, it involves documents based
on graphics, audio, video and others.
Ted Nelson worked to develop a hypertext system that was named Xanadu. The
basic idea of the hypertext was once presented by Vannevar Bush in an article As
We May Think in 1947. According to Nelson, hypertext means a collection of
documents or nodes that have links or references among them. Users can read a
document and access other documents via interactive links. The basic concepts in
hypertext are link, accessibility and interactivity. With hypertext, the information
provided is linked among themselves like a cobweb.
The technique of HTTP was introduced to the Internet in 1991.
In 1992, there were 70 sites that offered HTTP and the web services on the entire
Internet. The HTTP was still not widely used enough because there was no
Internet browser that was good and attractive for users. Most Internet browsers
at that time were based on text.
In 1993, a browser based on graphics was developed by Marc Andreessen and

Eric Bina at the National Centre for Supercomputing Application (NCSA) in the
US. This browser, called Mosaic, was given out for free to users. It contained
interface features that were attractive and user-friendly. A combination of ideas
from Berners-Lees hypertext and Mosaic browser was finally successful in
popularising the HTTP on the Internet.
Mosaic software is considered the main invention, i.e. a great application that has
successfully popularised the Internet to general users instantly. At the end of
1993, within two years of the HTTP introduction, there were 700 websites. The
Internet began to attract media and general public. A lot of news concerning the
Internet was found in magazines, newspapers and television.

On the commercial aspect, the Internet began attracting the attention of giant
commercial organisations. Many people think that the Internet is the key to their
future success in business. Many Internet-based companies have been formed in
big numbers. Marc Andreessen and a few friends set up an Internet technology
company and produced an Internet browser called Netscape. This browser was
given free to all users. The giant Microsoft Corporation was quite late in entering
the Internet. This company produced the Internet Explorer browser as a means of
dominating the Internet. Competition between these two Internet browser
software brands in attracting the Internet users market is very interesting. Many
people thought that whoever dominates the browser software would dominate
the Internet. With regards to this, the box below presents an interesting story
about a rivalry between Netscape and Microsoft.
From 1996 to 1999, there was a war on Internet browser software the software
that is used to surf the Internet between software giant Microsoft and
Netscape. Why? Many people thought that whoever managed to control the
market in the Internet browser software, would ultimately control the Internet
because the Internet browser is the vehicle for accessing the Internet.
In 1996, Netscape (company) produced the Netscape Navigator software and it

was given out for free to users. The result was that Netscape controlled 80% of
the Internet browser software. At that time, the Internet was becoming popular.
Many companies began to realise the Internet as an attractive business
opportunity. Many websites were developed, goods began to be sold and
various services were offered. The question was how to access the Internet?
Users began to use the Internet browser software. So, whoever was in control of
the Internet browser market would also control the Internet.
Microsoft Corporation entered the Internet quite late. After realising the
importance of the Internet, Microsoft began to set out a strategy for controlling
the Internet. Remember that Microsoft was controlling 90% of the personal
computer operating systems market (nine out of 10 personal computers sold
were using Windows 95/98/ME/XP system). As a first step, Microsoft
produced the Internet Explorer and it was given out for free to customers. As a
result, in 1998, almost 90% of the browser market was controlled by Internet
Explorer.

SELF-CHECK 7.2
What is the role of ARPANET in the history of Internet?
7.2.3 Development of the Internet

It is estimated that the number of Internet users will double every 18 months. The
period from 1997 to 1999 was the period of the Internet explosion where the
Internet became a hot topic for talks and discussions. Internet fever began to
reach every user who wanted to set up his/her own private website and his/her
own e-mail account. Various benefits and specialties of the Internet have been
proposed by the media and other parties. Among the benefits the Internet could
give were that it could create a global village, remove boundaries of nations,
provide information quickly, close the gap between developed and developing
nations, open online education and create borderless economies. However, most
of the statements have not been achieved fully or they can still be debated upon.
Although the popularity of the Internet has increased and many dotcom
companies emerged rapidly, 2000 was a difficult year for the Internet.
Weaknesses on the Internet were felt by users. Among problems that arose were
difficulties in searching for relevant information, network congestion, unfiltered
news, various rumours, spread of viruses through e-mails, low security level
when credit cards were used in transactions, computer invasion and widespread
pornographic materials online. Many dotcom companies suffered from losses
and closed down. Based on research, companies that made profits on the Internet
were those that operated websites selling pornographic materials.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Surf the web for articles on the Internet between 1997 and 1999. In
their thirst to popularise the Internet, some of the statements made
could have been exaggerated. Based on current facts, which
statements are true and which statements are false?
2. In your opinion, what will be the changes to the Internet in the

next seven years to come?
3. Obtain a list of dotcom companies in Malaysia. What are the

problems of setting up dotcom companies in Malaysia?

7.3 INTERNET EVOLUTION

Some people think that the Internet opened up a new era in economy. In this new
economic era, a company does not need a building or a physical site. Instead, it
needs only a website for dealing with customers. All transactions can be done via
the Internet. Many Internet-based companies, also called dotcom companies, are
formed all over the world. Many of these companies are listed on the stock
exchange and receive extraordinary responses from investors. The Internet will
continue to develop. Table 7.1 shows the history of the Internet (five phases) and
how it has changed throughout the course of history.
Table 7.1: Five Phases of Change of the Internet
Evolution Year Explanation

1st Phase Before 1969 Birth of ARPANET for the purposes of research and
computer resource sharing in the US only. Most users
were scientists, students and academicians. The Internet
was used as a tool for sharing computer resources.
2nd Phase 19701990 Communication like e-mail, File Transfer Protocol and
Usenet were used widely. Usage was still confined to
universities and government agencies. Internet usage
concentrated in the US, Europe and Japan. The Internet
was used as a tool of communication.
3rd Phase 19901997 Hypertext technique was used widely in network
information. The Internet began to attract public
attention because the Internet browser had attractive
and user-friendly interfaces.
4th Phase 19972000 The Internet explosion. The number of users expanded
rapidly. The Internet was used for business transactions.
It became the subject of conversations and many articles
regarding the Internet were written in various
magazines.
5th Phase 2001onwards The Internet reality. Many dotcom companies closed
down. Realities of Internet advantages and disadvantages
were felt. Some initiatives to improve the Internet
continued.
7.3.1 Internet Timeline

Expanding on the previous table, we will now focus on the Internet timeline, as
shown in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2: Internet Timeline and Events
Year Event
1969 Four computers were connected on the ARPANET network in US. The
computers were from University of California, Los Angeles; University of
California, Santa Barbara; Stanford Research Institute and University of Utah.
1971 The number of computers in the ARPANET was up to 21. A technique of e-mail
communication was introduced.
1973 The University College of London was connected to ARPANET, the first
connection of ARPANET outside the US.
1978 TCP/IP data sharing technique was introduced.
1979 Usenet was introduced. It involved two computers in ARPANET.
1982 ARPANET used TCP/IP completely. Definitions of Internet and intranet were
introduced. Internet refers to the (worldwide) grouping of computer
networks that uses TCP/IP while intranet refers to a computer network
within an organisation that uses IP technology.
1984 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1,000 units.
1988 The Internet was massively attacked by the Internet worms which were
computer softwares that spread on their own. This incident shows the low level
of safety on the Internet. Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) was set
up to monitor security on the Internet.
1989 The number of computers exceeded 100,000 units. A book entitled Cuckoo Nest
was published. This book explained on how a group of invaders from Germany
were successful in entering some of the US military computers without
permission, via the Internet.
1990 ARPANET was terminated and replaced by the National Science Foundation
Network.
1991 HTTP was created by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. This became the basis for the
development of the web on the Internet.
1992 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded a million units. Malaysia
also joined the Internet. The Internet network in Malaysia is managed by
Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS). This network is
known as JARING and is participated by several local universities like OUM.
1996 Browser war between Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer. At that
time, almost 80% of users were using Netscape.
1997 The backbone function of National Science Foundation Network for the
provision of Internet passage was taken over by a commercial company. A
computer programming language based on objects Java, was launched by Sun
Microsystem in 23 May 1997. This language received extraordinary response.
Java enables websites to have various attractive animations. Search engines

were also introduced. There were already 17,618 discussion forums based on e-
mails.
1998 The Internet was estimated to have millions of websites. Electronic commerce
(e-commerce) and portal technology began to attract attention.
1999 The number of computers on the Internet was estimated at 76 million units. The
number of web servers was estimated at seven million units.
2000 An estimated about one billion websites were on the Internet.
In the Internet history and timeline, we have found rapid development of the
Internet just within a period of 30 years. The Internet began as a research network.
Then, it became a communication and data sharing network (this later evolved into
the Internet becoming a platform for social media and social network) and a
network for e-commerce. The Internet has removed the physical boundaries that
divided the world and created a global village that transcends time and space.
A computer needs an Internet Protocol (IP) address to communicate with other

computers on the Internet. Without the IP address, a computer cannot reach the
Internet. Do you know that IP addresses for the entire Internet is coordinated by a
body with its centre at http://www.internic.net while for computers in Asia is
coordinated by the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), with its
centre in Japan. The distribution of IP numbers in Malaysia is managed by the
Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems.
ACTIVITY 7.3
The Internet greatly affects human life today. Imagine the impact of the
Internet on society whether in Malaysia or the rest of the world. Also,
imagine if the Internet does not exist today. What are the activities that
users cannot do without the Internet? Discuss.

7.4 COMPUTERS ON THE INTERNET

There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and server
computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an
IP address. An IP address is made up of four sequential numbers a.b.c.d.
Examples of IP addresses are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and 192.228.128.18.
Each sequence a,b,c,d consists of numbers between 0 and 255. For example, the IP
address for a host at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia consists of numbers between
202.187.40.X and 202.187.46.Y. A good analogy for an IP address is the identity
card number. It is unique to a certain host. There are no two hosts on the Internet
that have the same IP address. A computer needs to have an IP address to access
the Internet.
As a simple rule, if the computer is a personal computer and has an IP address,

then the computer is a host computer. If a user accesses the Internet using
services provided by the Internet service provider like tm.net.my, jaring.my or
maxis.my via a home computer, the user does not need an IP address. The users
computer will be given an IP address dynamically by the Internet service
provider (ISP).
Computers can also function as servers, i.e. computers that can be accessed by
users on the Internet. A server is a high-powered computer that is used as a
platform for websites, e-mails, electronic discussions, archives, file server, etc.
Normally, a server would use UNIX, Linux, Solaris or Windows 2000 Server as
its operating system.
A server has two forms of identification i.e. an IP address and a fully qualified
domain name (FQDN). Examples of a fully qualified domain name for a server
are www.jaring.my (192.228.128.18) or www.oum.edu.my (202.187.48.7). The
analogy here is that a person has an identity card number and name, so a server
too has an IP address and a fully qualified domain name. As a simple rule, if the
computer is high powered, has an IP address and a fully qualified domain name,
then, the computer is a server.
Fully qualified domain names are used to assist Internet users, because it is easier
to remember a fully qualified domain name such as www.jaring.my, rather than
an IP address such as 192.228.128.18. Therefore, every server on the Internet has
an IP number and name for identification. A fully qualified domain name gives a
lot of information regarding a certain server. For example, the server name
lms.oum.edu.my gives the following meaning lms is the computer, oum is the
organisation name and my is the country name. Therefore, in general, the name
lms.oum.edu.my refers to a server located in OUM.

The end part of the server name normally shows the location or type of
organisation in which the server resides. For example:
.edu refers to an educational institution;
.gov refers to a government organisation;
.org refers to a non-commercial organisation;
.com refers to a company;
.my refers to Malaysia; and
.uk refers to the UK.
Because the Internet originates from the US, the domain name for computers in
the US does not have a country name. For example,
www.facebook.com
We can see an example of an Internet address in part of an e-mail address in

Figure 7.2, while the explanation of some domains is shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.2: E-mail address

Figure 7.3: Internet domains
Did you know that most server names are in the form of a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) that has been the basis of HTTP? An example of a URL name is
http://www.oum.edu.my:
http refers to the http protocol;
www refers to website;
oum refers to OUM;
edu refers to educational institution; and
my refers to country, Malaysia.
Based on the above example, the term web, refers to the combination of a hosting
server on the Internet that offers information based on HTTP. As previously
described, HTTP is the protocol for sending and receiving information based on
hypertext. The information in the form of hypertext can be linked with other
information to create a link or web with wider/broader information. A HTTP
server has a prefix of www like www.oum.edu.my, www.jaring.my and
www.um.edu.my. A HTTP server is also known as a web server.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
What do you understand by a server computer? Explain.

7.5 WHAT IS THE INTERNET CONTENT?

The Internet is a network initially meant for research. It was mostly used by
universities, research centres and government agencies. That is the reason why
there are many documents of an academic nature on it. They include books,
technical reports, research output, translations, data, articles, discussions,
program source codes, research software, lecture notes, software guides, pictures
and sound. Normally, the information is free and can be accessed via websites.
Based on this scenario, the Internet can be likened to a huge virtual library, which
contains numerous types of information.
The Internet also offers various forms of communication like e-mail,

online discussion, Usenet and e-mail based discussion. These communication
techniques have successfully created a global village.
With e-mail, users can communicate with anyone, anywhere. E-mail is a type of
communication that is cheap and fast. An e-mail sent from OUM takes only
seven seconds to reach the UK. By using e-mail, users can send attachments like
Microsoft Word documents, software, zipped files, graphics or audio.
The Internet also offers various online discussion topics via Usenet. There are
over 7,000 topics discussed on Usenet and users can choose from various topics
that interest them. In a Usenet discussion, anyone from any part of the world can
give opinions or ideas freely. One of the ways to access is by accessing the Usenet
server, such as http://dotsrc.org/usenet.
The Internet also offers discussions based on e-mails. Discussions normally focus
on a specific topic. Users need to have e-mail accounts to participate in the
discussions. There are several locations that offer discussions based on e-mail for
free, such as http://www.groups.yahoo.com.
The Internet has become a platform or host to various social media and social
networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube and many more.
All these sites have the features of Web 2.0, which is a term referred to sites that
allow users to connect, interact, contribute and collaborate with each other, rather
than being websites with static pages or just for retrieving information. Web 2.0
provides users with the opportunity to effectively present their ideas, lead online
discussions, share educational content and document files and collaborate with
each other mostly in real-time. Some of Web 2.0 applications are Google Docs,
Prezi, Pinterest and various others.

On the Internet, you can also search and get various types of information for
references and reading. There are various types of information available on the
Internet. A user can get the entire literary works of William Shakespeare,
translations of Quran, sayings of Prophet Muhammad, classical Malay literary
works, recipes for cake making, lecture notes, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
reports on Malaysia, etc. Many foreign and local universities have placed their
lecture sources like notes, sample examination paper and online software onto
the Internet to be accessed and these benefits the students. An example of a
lecture website is http://www.vlib.org.
The Internet is also a large archive of computer software. It contains various

types of software like graphics, word processing, databases, games, etc. A type of
software that is getting wide attention on the Internet today is open source
software. Open source software consists of high quality software and can be
obtained together with program codes.
The Internet also offers various news sources which are up to date and fast via
newspaper and television websites.
Examples of news websites are:
(a) http://www.cnn.com
(b) http://www.thestar.com.my
(c) http://www.bharian.com.my
Users can also buy various things via the Internet. For example, users can buy
reference books from companies in Germany via the Internet. Purchases via the
Internet normally require credit cards. It is estimated that total sales via the
Internet, also called e-commerce, could reach up to a billion in the near future.
Examples of popular e-commerce websites are:
(a) http://www.amazon.com
(b) http://www.ebay.com
(c) http://www.lelong.com.my

The Internet also offers a variety of entertainment such as chat, music, videos,
movies, blogs and games. On the Internet, you can also find various websites that
have been built by people for the purpose of promotion, advertising, etc. Users
can visit websites of a museum, a university, a company or of an individual
person and see various types of information being displayed. These websites
contain a variety of information in the form of text, audio, video, graphics,
cinema, software, etc. In other words, there are numerous materials on hundreds
of websites that can be accessed by the Internet.
Based on the discussions, we can think of the Internet as a very large virtual
environment, without boundaries, without a clear map and without anyone in
control, and which covers the entire world. It can be said to contain a reservoir of
knowledge about the world. It also offers ways of communication to human
beings efficiently and quickly.
We can see the summary of things available on the Internet as shown in

Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Things available on the Internet

ACTIVITY 7.4
In your opinion, what is really available on the Internet that can be of

benefit to users? What can we do on the Internet? What process can be
improved on the Internet? Post your opinion in the online forum.
Compare your opinion with your coursemates.
7.6 MANAGING INTERNET INFORMATION

The Internet is a big source of information. How do we manage information on
the Internet efficiently? Users need to understand this approach because it will
help users to search and use information efficiently.
Searching for information involves the process of searching the place where the
required information is present. This is an important process. Many users spend
a lot of time exploring the Internet searching for information but to no avail. The
user obtains information that is not relevant and out-of-date.
Two main ways of searching for information over the Internet are through search
engines and portals. Other minor approaches that can also be used are the
Usenet, FAQ, e-mail discussion forums and archive sites. Examples of
components used to search the information on the Internet can be seen in
Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Components in searching for information on the Internet
Manipulation of information involves the process of transforming the

information and using the information acquired wisely. Often, users spend their
time obtaining information that ultimately cannot be used because they do not
know how to manipulate the information. This indirectly will waste time and
energy.
The Internet security level has improved a lot. This can be seen on sites such as
online banking. For example cimbclicks.com and maybank2u.com. Even so, there
are still successful hackers that access the host computer without permission. If
successfully hacked, they will steal data such as credit card numbers, change
sites, and perform other transactions.

ACTIVITY 7.5
Discuss the strategy for handling the following issue:

The level of data security over the Internet for e-commerce transactions
is still being questioned by users. What is the guarantee provided by
companies that credit card numbers used in e-commerce transactions
are safe? There have been many stories where thousands of users' credit
card numbers were stolen by intruders of company servers.
7.6.1 Search Engine

The first step in searching for information is to use a search engine. Users will use
one or more key words to search for the desired information. Then, the search
engine will search for websites based on the key words. Can you name some
examples of popular search engines? Figure 7.6 shows an example of the popular
search engine Google.
Figure 7.6: Google search engine

Source: http://www.google.com.my

Search engines are not intelligent but they are also not dumb either. They
function based on robot and index.
A robot is a kind of software that is sent by the search engine to wander

around the Internet.
How does this robot work? A search engine will send many robots to wander
around the Internet. These robots will bring back data on the web servers visited.
Based on the data brought back by the robots, an index will be built. This index
basically contains key words and in which servers the key words are present.
Every search engine has different techniques in building the index. Therefore,
two different search engines will give different answers for the same key words.
Since the size of the Internet is so large, not all Internet servers are accessed by
robots. When users make a request based on key words in a search engine site,
the search engine will refer to the index to get relevant servers. The search engine
will always do the updating process over the index.
7.6.2 Portals
The second best way to access information is to use portals. A portal is a server
that contains a directory of several servers on the Internet based on categories of
information available on the servers. Users can find information by accessing the
servers in related categories.
Examples of popular portals are:
(a) http://www.google.org
(b) http://www.yahoo.com
(c) http://www.wikipedia.org

Portals require human beings to arrange and classify servers into certain
categories. This method produces a list of servers that are more orderly and can
be used easily. For example, if a user wants to know more about the Java
programming language, he can access servers that are available in the category of
computer programming language. This method often produces information that
is suitable and relevant. The portal (site) at http://www.dmoz.org is an initiative
of Internet volunteers in building a portal. Commercial portals are those like
http:// www.yahoo.com and http://netscape.aol.com. An example of a portal
(website) for BlueHyppo is shown in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7: Portal for BlueHyppo

Source: http://www.bluehyppo.com

7.6.3 Other Methods

In addition to search engines and portals, users can also find information
through forums and frequently asked questions (FAQ), as shown in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Archive website frequently asked questions

Source: http://www.faqs.org
Meanwhile, Usenet is like an on-line discussion corner. There are various

discussion corners inside Usenet. In one discussion corner, new users may be
asking very trivial questions in the eyes of experienced users. Often, whenever
trivial questions are asked in the discussion corners, experienced users would
say RTFM or the FAQ. Do you know the meanings of these abbreviations?
The acronym RTFM means Read the Fine Manual, i.e. the new user should
have read the manual first before asking trivial questions. The FAQ is a list
document in the form of questions and answers. Questions in FAQ are those that
are often asked inside Usenet discussion corners. More details about Usenet and
FAQ will be deliberated in the upcoming topic in this module.
Besides FAQ and RTFM, users can also search for information on the archive
server, i.e. a server that contains a lot of information on certain specific topics.
The address of the archive normally can be obtained from FAQ portals or
documents. Many hosts on the Internet serve as archives or centres of
information gathering in certain fields.
Examples of websites that serve as archives or centres of information gathering in

certain fields are:
(a) http://lib.stat.cmu.edu Archive in the field of statistics;
(b) http://www.ibiblio.org (former website is http://www.metalab.unc.edu)

Archive for open source software; and
(c) http://www.filehippo.com Archive for Windows software.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. How can users find useful information on the Internet within a

short period of time?
2. Explain the advantages of communication through:
(a) E-mail; and
(b) Usenet.
7.7 INTERNET LAWS

The Internet does not have any laws and it is not owned by anyone. Since every
country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control legally.
For example, the distribution of immoral or politically controversial materials is
allowed on websites in the US because such distribution is based on the concept
of freedom of speech being practised over there. However, such websites can be
accessed anywhere on the Internet, including in Malaysia, most of which may be
wrong from the legal perspective. Consequently, even though such materials
may be legally wrong, users in Malaysia can still access them.

In summary, Cyber Laws in Malaysia may not be used to stop broadcasting of

illegal materials outside of Malaysia. The act has power on websites operating in
Malaysia only. In line with the progress of the Internet, the Malaysian
government has gazetted the Computer Crime Act 1999 to deal with unhealthy
activities over the Internet.
Nowadays, there are many crimes committed through the Internet. There are
also individuals who abuse the Internet as a source of reference for criminal
activities. For example the misuse of chat or social networking sites to lure
women or teenagers.
7.8 THE INTERNET TODAY AND THE FUTURE

Originally, the Internet was a network for research and academic purposes.
Therefore, most of the original information on the Internet is of the academic
type. When the Internet was first built, there was trust among all the Internet
users. Security issues on the Internet were not that important. The Internet also
provided an infrastructure for communication and intellectual sharing via e-
mails, Usenet and discussion corners.
Today, activities of the Internet include e-commerce, news, multimedia material,

hypertext, websites, entertainment, etc. This situation gives rise to issues that
were not previously important such as access, information filters, users privacy,
Internet passage congestion and data security. These began to get more attention.
It is predicted that the Internet will become a basic need for every household, like
the telephone or television in the near future.
Businesses too will increase via the Internet. Various steps are being taken to
make the Internet more widespread and easily used by users, e.g. Internet access
via TV, third generation (3G) approach to mobile phones, the use of optical fibres
and high powered lines to houses. Based on our earlier discussion, we find the
Internet too has problems. By understanding these problems, users will be aware
of the limitations, future of the Internet and will not easily believe everything
that is found on the Internet. The Internet is a virtual space and has a very wide
coverage.

There are five major trends related to the future of Internet, as shown in Table
7.3.
Table 7.3: Five Key Trends Related to the Future of Internet
Trend Description
We always A simple example is that we access our e-mail in the office or at
communicate using a home using a laptop. If we are mobile, i.e. at the airport, for
variety of devices in example, we still can be connected to the e-mail using other
various places devices, such as smartphone or tablet.
We use a variety of For example, online banking, online games, Internet TV, digital
online services movies, video on demand, magazine subscription or online
everyday newspapers, online purchases, online distance learning and
social networking.
The Internet has Users will be powered by equipment and low cost devices
evolved rapidly from which allow them to create their own content and make the
sharing information product and services to be more personal. To make the content
to collaborative and products more attractive, a collaborative concept was
publication practised for production and better service. This sparked a
phenomenon that changed work ethics, commercial and social
activities among Internet users.
The number of smart These smart products are used to collect and process data. The
products increase information could then be used in the subsequent preparation
everyday for decision-making.
Personal information In future, different devices and users can be used to collect
spread in various information about other users (such as location, time and
system and network behaviour). Data accumulated will be used as a set of system to
indicate the particular user. If there is demand, this can be
disbursed quickly to other parties.
Source: De Brito Carvalho et al. (2010)
Infographics from the following websites may also provide you an overview of
future developments on the Internet:
(a) http://buildtheresidual.com/27/the-internet-in-2015-
infographic/2013/02/
(b) http://dailyinfographic.com/2016-the-year-of-the-zettabyte-infographic
(c) http://www.smashingapps.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/The-
Internet-in-2020.jpg

Arguably, if you want to keep abreast of the Internet in many aspects, you can
get it from the Internet as well. Agree?
ACTIVITY 7.6
In your opinion, is the Internet today capable of satisfying Internet

users of the future? Can Internet congestion exist later? Discuss with
your partner.
Beginning in 1969 until today, computers and the Internet have undergone
five phases of change (before 1969, 19701990, 19901997, 19972000 and
2001onwards) and have become a major part of our life.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large and covers
the whole world. It operates using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP).
The term Intranet refers to a grouping of some local area networks inside
an organisation only (intra means inside).
The Internet began in the US with the birth of ARPANET for research and
sharing academic resources. ARPANET grew and was later replaced with
National Science Foundation Network.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol and the World Wide Web speed up the rapid
development of the Internet.
There are two types of computers on the Internet, i.e. host computers and
server computers.
A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which has an Internet

Protocol or IP number.
An IP number or also known as address contains four sequential numbers

a.b.c.d. Examples of IP addresses are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and
192.228.128.18.
Computers can also function as a server, which is the computer that can be
accessed by users on the Internet.

Server has two forms of identification, i.e. IP address and fully qualified
domain name. A fully qualified domain name is much easier to remember
compared to IP address.
There is a lot of information on the Internet about various things. This can be
searched via search engines and portals.
Cyber Law in Malaysia cannot be used to stop the broadcast of the illegal
materials outside Malaysia. Action can only be taken on the websites
operating in Malaysia.
There are several major trends associated with the future of the Internet such
as existence of online services, the burgeoning number of smart products and
so forth.
ARPANET Intranet
Cyber Law Internet
Domain Internet Protocol (IP)
E-mail National Science Foundation Network
(NFSNET)
Extranet
Search engine
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Security
Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN)
Transmission Control
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Hypertext
Usenet
Information
World Wide Web (WWW)
De Brito Carvalho, T. C. M., Miers, C. C., Dominicini, C. K., & Redigolo, F. F.

(2010). Key issues on future Internet. In New network architectures: The
path to the future Internet. Studies in Computational Intelligence, 297,
221-236.

Topic X Software on
8 the Internet
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain seven types of software that are available on the Internet;
2. Distinguish between shareware and freeware;
3. Describe the concept and advantages of open source software;
4. Explain the term File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and telnet;
5. Practise ethics and the use of smiley icons, acronyms and signature
to write e-mails effectively;
6. Discuss Usenet and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ); and
7. Analyse and discuss the Internet phenomenon.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we shall learn about software that are available on the Internet.
Software can be obtained free of charge but some have to be bought. This topic
will also discuss a popular Internet communication technique, i.e. e-mail. In the
beginning, e-mails were text-based but now, you can even send several types of
data together with e-mails, such as text documents, graphics, audios, PowerPoint
presentations and many more. We will also discuss some of the things related to
e-mail such as ethics, smiley icons and many others. Finally we will discuss the
Usenet and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ). Are you ready?

174 X TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET
8.1 INTERNET SOFTWARE

There are seven types of software on the Internet. This is shown in
Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Seven types of software on the Internet
We will look at the types of software in more detail in the next subtopic.
8.2 SHAREWARE AND FREEWARE

Based on Figure 8.1, one of the software is known as shareware. Do you know
what the purpose of this software is?
Shareware is a type of software that can be used by users for free within a
certain period of time.
After that period, if the user continues to use the software, he/she needs to send
payment to the programmer of the software. This allows the consumer to make a
choice whether to continue using it or switch to another application.

TOPIC 8 SOFTWARE ON THE INTERNET W 175
Do you know some of the examples of this software? Examples of shareware are
Winzip (see Figure 8.2) and McAfee (antivirus).
Figure 8.2: Winzip
Besides shareware, there is also freeware. It is available free of charge from the
Internet. Often, this software has a specific charge to users who want to add
functionality or upgrade the software. If not, the user will remain with the basic
functions or normal functions of the software.

An example of freeware is AVG antivirus software (refer to Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.3: AVG antivirus software
8.3 OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

The other type of software that we are going to learn is open source software. Do
you know why this software gets a lot of attention on the Internet now? What
does it mean?
Open source software is software that can be obtained without any cost,
together with its source code that is licensed to be studied, changed and
redistributed freely to others.

Distribution of the software together with its source codes has the following
advantages:
(a) Users can modify the software and are not tied/bound to any company;
(b) Users have the opportunity to remove errors that may be present in the
source codes; and
(c) Users can also learn how the software is built based on the source codes.
The open source software began with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX), i.e. a
project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was to
produce a system based on UNIX for free. This project has been successful in
producing software of high quality, such as GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
compiler, Lisp program compiler, Emacs editor and others. All GNU software
uses the copyright called GNU Public Licence (GPL) which states that anyone
can modify the program source code but the modification must be shared with
other users. Basically, GNU encourages software and source code sharing among
users so that high quality software can be produced.
The GNU Public Licence concept is the opposite of the commercial software
concept. Commercial software would tie users to the software company. If the
software contains errors, users will have to wait for the newer version to be
produced and this will take a long time. If the software company raises the price,
users will have to accept that and pay more for the latest version of the software.
Users can make any modification to the source code of the open software but
users are requested to share the modification with other users via the Internet.
With this intellectual sharing, it is hoped that the software will be continuously
modified, so that it will become high quality software.

Examples of open source software widely used today are Linux (operating
system), Apache (web server), GNU Compiler Collection (C language compiler),
Perl and R (statistical software). We can see the definition of GNU Public Licence
software, as shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Six GNU Public Licence Software
GNU Public
Definition
Licence Software
Linux Operating system for a computer. It is an alternative to commercial
software like Windows 95/98/ME/NT, Mac OS and Sun Solaris. It
is widely used in universities, research centres, private companies
and public. It contains lasting characteristics (Linux can operate for
years without stopping), multiprocessing, multi-user and other
sophisticated characteristics. Today, a Linux system has a desktop
environment similar to Windows 98/ME/NT in terms of user-
friendliness. It can be installed together with Windows 98/ME in
one computer.
TeX A document processing system. It is used to produce various
types of documents and books, especially those that involve
many mathematical expressions. Detailed information can be
obtained on the website http://www.tug.org. TeX is produced
by Donald Knuth, a famous mathematician and computer
scientist. One of his writings is The Art of Computer
Programming in three volumes.
LibreOffice High quality office software which contains word processing,
spreadsheet, database and presentation software for free. This is
an alternative to the Microsoft Office or Open Office. All types of
documents inside Microsoft Office can be read by LibreOffice.
Many government organisations today have changed to
LibreOffice. Users need a minimum memory of 64MB and at least
a Pentium processor to use the LibreOffice with comfort.
GNU A project started by Richard Stallman at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1981 to produce a free UNIX system. Among
the software products of this project are GNU Compiler
Collection C compiler, Emacs editor, R statistical software, Perl
language, Awk processor and Fortran g77 compiler. All GNU
software use a GNU Public Licence.

Python An object-oriented programming language. It can be used for

building a prototype, Internet (programs), data processing,
scientific calculations, etc. Among organisations that use this
language are National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), Disney, Boeing and Google. Detailed information at
www.python.org.
R Software for data analysis. It can be obtained for Windows
98/ME and UNIX systems. It contains various facilities for
statistical analysis like regression analysis, time series and
hypothesis testing. The R website is at http://www.r-project.org.
It is an alternative to Statistical Product and Service Solutions
(SPSS) and Statistical Analysis System (SAS) commercial
software.
There are thousands of high quality open source software pieces available over
the Internet for users.
You can visit the following website for detailed information on open source
software:
(a) http://www.opensource.org
(b) http://www.gnu.org
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What do you understand by the term GNU Public Licence?

Explain.
2. Give examples of two shareware that is available on the Internet.

8.4 FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a technique of downloading data from any File
Transfer Protocol server on the Internet onto the users computer.
We can see an example of the website as shown in Figure 8.4:
Figure 8.4: File Transfer Protocol using Firefox as host

Source: ftp://ftp.jaring.my
Many servers offer anonymous FTP services, i.e. the server allows anyone,
anywhere, to download data from it. Example of a server that offers anonymous
FTP is ftp://ftp.jaring.my.

Users can use a variety of software to manage the files on the server. Among the
commonly used software is CuteFTP (see Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: CuteFTP display

Source: www.bol.ucla.edu/software/win/cuteftp/img/cuteftp87.png
8.5 TELNET
Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and to use facilities

available on the computer.
To use telnet, a user needs to have a user account on the server to be accessed.
The telnet technique can be used to access servers at foreign university libraries,
Usenet server, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server, MUD server or database server.
An example of the use of telnet is, suppose a user wants to perform complex
calculations that require high performance computers (super), what should
he/she do? Users can proceed to the supercomputer centre in Malaysia, i.e. at
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Jalan Semarak, Kuala Lumpur to perform
these tasks.

A supercomputer is a kind of computer with high capability and cost. It can

be used to perform simulations, car modelling, complex calculations, weather
forecasting and others.
Besides that, users can access to the supercomputer via the Internet. Users can
telnet to the supercomputer and perform computations on the computer
remotely. Therefore, the telnet technique enables the sharing of supercomputer
resources for all users wherever they may be in Malaysia.
8.6 E-MAIL
An e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet. In the
early days, e-mails were only text-based. Today, users can send various types of
data together with e-mails, such as Microsoft Word documents, PowerPoint
presentations, Excel spreadsheets, graphic .jpg, audio .mp3 and others. The
computer server that manages an e-mail is called the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) server.
To use e-mails, users need to have an e-mail account on the e-mail server. Most
organisations like universities and private companies give out free e-mail
accounts to their staff. If users use the services of tm.net.my or jaring.my, they
too are given free e-mail accounts.
There are websites that offer free e-mail accounts such as Gmail at
mail.google.com and Yahoo! Mail at mail.yahoo.com. Users can access the
websites and register for the e-mail accounts. These free e-mail websites are
popular among students and other individuals.
An e-mail account contains two parts account name and the name of the Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol server (domain name). For example, a user with the name
Anis Shafiqah has an account name of anis_shafiqah on the host server Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol oum.edu.my. If the user registers at www.oum.edu.my
with that account name, the users e-mail account is anis_shafiqah@oum.edu.my.
The account name has a minimum of eight characters and a maximum of
32 characters, on condition that it does not contain special characters or space.
The following e-mail account names are not valid: anis shafiqah, a shafiqah;
while the following account names are valid: anis_shafiqah and a_shafiqah.
Select a good account name that is suitable and can be easily remembered
by other users. Names such as brutal99, lanunlaut, amy89810 and
mahakaya are certainly not suitable. Imagine the feelings of the receiver when
he receives an e-mail from someone with the name mat_brutal@hotmail.com.

To read an e-mail on the user account on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server, users can use two techniques and they are:
(a) Users can use the server software and access the said Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol server; and
(b) Users can download e-mail from the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
server onto a personal computer using the Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3)
technique.
If the user is an Internet subscriber with www.jaring.my, the

POP3 technique/protocol is used to download e-mails from pop.jaring.my onto
their personal computer. The e-mail client software that can be used is Eudora,
Pegasus and Microsoft Outlook. We can see an example of an e-mail
communication website, i.e. Gmail as shown in Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Gmail website

Source: http://www.gmail.com
8.6.1 E-mail Discussion

With e-mails, users can participate in various e-mail discussion corners. There are
thousands of discussion corners that cover various interesting topics such as
economics, science, computers and religion. These corners can be participated by

writing an e-mail to the server that manages the discussion corners. Normally,
e-mail discussions are managed automatically by computer without human
intervention. Do remember that users communicate with the computer via
e-mails. Therefore, they follow the instructions to participate or to exit from the
discussion corner correctly. A list of e-mail discussion corners can be obtained at
the websites http://www.groups.yahoo.com and http://www.tile.net.
Advantages and disadvantages of participating in discussion corners are briefly

listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Participating in E-Mail Discussion Corners
Advantages Disadvantages
Can discuss with and pose questions The number of e-mails received may be a
to many Internet users who are lot. Certain active discussion corners will
knowledgeable in certain fields. see more than 200 e-mails a day.
Answers to questions may be obtained Users need to spend a lot of time reading
very quickly. e-mails.
Can share opinions and information with Most e-mail contents are rubbish and not
people who have the same interest. beneficial.
Low cost.
8.6.2 Ethics of E-mail Discussion

Several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail discussions are:
(a) Observing the traditional customs during discussions. Always respect other
users opinions even if they disagree. Agree to disagree;
(b) Remembering that it is a virtual discussion corner. Users do not know other
users or their background. Other users may be older or may have more
experience. They may be a professor, researcher, program expert, chief
executive officer, campusmate, neighbour, etc.;
(c) Showing good conduct. This demonstrates your personality to other users.
If a user is noisy and obnoxious during discussions, most likely his
questions will not be entertained by other users;
(d) Sharing your expertise and asking questions, if you need the expertise of
other users. By sharing, a user can establish communication with other users;
(e) Respecting the privacy of other users and not discussing private issues;

(f) Willing to forgive other users mistakes and ready to help in solving
problems. Do not entertain people who like to quarrel;
(g) Discussion forums are archived. Maybe in 10 years time, if users search the
Internet, they may find their old e-mails again. Therefore, be careful when
writing them; and
(h) Not posting users private e-mails onto the discussion forums without
permission of the concerned users (very important). This violates the
privacy act of certain countries.
8.6.3 Smiley
An e-mail content in the form of text makes it difficult for users to express
emotions like anger, happiness, sleepiness, hatred, tears and laughter. Therefore,
the smiley icon technique is used. A smiley contains text-based symbols used in
e-mails to represent a certain emotion like anger, hatred and laughter. To view a
smiley, users need to tilt their heads 90 degrees leftwards. Now, most e-mails
have options for smiley icons (see Figure 8.7):
Figure 8.7: Usage of smiley icon in e-mail

Now, the following e-mail note has no smiley:
What to do. It is luck. Maybe you can help.
The e-mail is emotionless and has no effect or impact on its reader. Let us change
it into a more effective e-mail by using the smiley icons:
What to do. It is luck. :-( Maybe you can help. :-)
Smiley symbols are :-) and :-(. The second e-mail shows that the writer feels sad
and jokingly asks if the receiver can help. There are hundreds of smiley symbols
and the three most common ones are shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Three Smiley Symbols
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

:-) Smile ;-) Smile, wink
:-( Sad, do not agree :-p Taunting
8-) Wearing glasses :-O Eye surprised
Do you know how the smiley started? You can visit the following website to
learn the history of smiley icons :
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm
ACTIVITY 8.1
You can visit the Yahoo! Messenger website at

http://messenger.yahoo.com/features/emoticons/ to see another
variety of interesting smiley icons.
In your opinion, what are other icons that can be added? Try to find
other icons on other websites. Compare ways and means that they are
written.

8.6.4 Acronyms
What is ASAP, ROTFL, RTFM, YMMV, BTW? These characters are acronyms or
short forms that are used to represent phrases that are normally used on the
Internet. In Table 8.4, nine popular acronyms are shown. Acronyms are used to
facilitate users to write quickly without the need to type full sentences in the e-
mail, discussion and chat. This can save time and reduce the errors in spelling. In
fact, space can also be saved!
Table 8.4: Nine Popular Acronyms
Acronym Expression Meaning

ROTFL rolling on the floor Laughing while rolling on the floor.
laughing A cynical expression.
BTW by the way By the way.
RTFM read the fine manual Advised to read the manual before
asking.
AFAIK as far as I know As far as I am concerned.
ASAP as soon as possible An advice to speed up.
FYI for your information For your information.
IMHO in my humble opinion My view point.
OTOH on the other hand On the contrary.
YMMV your mileage may vary It may be different with you.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Explain your opinion on the following statement:

If users receive the following e-mail, what do you understand?
Please send the program ASAP. Your proposal makes me ROTFL.

Regarding the TeX program, please RTFM. I experience power upgrade
of 20 times after adding more RAM, YMMV. BTW, I am going to Ipoh
tomorrow. IMHO, Sarahs proposal is better than Anis proposal.

8.6.5 E-mail Signature

An e-mail signature is a message at the end of an e-mail. It may contain the
address of the user, web address, words of wisdom, graphics, text, etc. to give a
unique personality to the e-mail. An example of an e-mail signature is displayed
in Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.8: Example of an e-mail signature

8.6.6 Smart E-mail

Eight guidelines for the intelligent use of e-mails are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5: Eight Guidelines on the Use of E-mails Effectively
Guideline Explanation
Ensure that your e-mail This makes it easier for the receiver to read your e-mail. It
content is short and is not proper to send a long-winded e-mail, hoping the
precise. receiver will read it. Remember, the receiver is also busy
with other work and may receive hundreds of e-mails a
day.
Ensure that an exact title is This will help the receiver to determine the importance of
used. the e-mail received.
Do not enclose a large This would cause problems to the SMTP. Limit the size of
sized attachment. your attachment to less than 1MB. There are cases when
users send e-mail attachments of 50MB in size.
Ensure that the e-mail sent Use the virus scanner to examine the e-mail received.
and received does not
contain a virus.
Process your e-mail in a For example, before going out for lunch, solve all your
batch. e-mail communication directly. Do not postpone.
Archive all important e- For reference or evidence in the future.
mails.
Do not subscribe to many For example, if you subscribe to five discussion corners,
e-mail discussion corners. each discussion has 100 e-mails a day. So, you will receive
an average of 500 e-mails a day. Your day will be used to
read e-mails only.
Do not reply to e-mails E-mail enables you to reply directly even to those who
while you are angry. you are not comfortable with. You may regret sending
the reply. Once replied, an e-mail cannot be retracted.

8.7 USENET
Usenet is an Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free.
A Usenet discussion does not involve e-mails. Users do not have to register with
any server to enter Usenet. For example, if users access the Internet via jaring.my,
they can use the Usenet server news.jaring.my to participate in and read Usenet.
Usenet discussion is divided into a number of major topics. These topics are later
broken down into more specific subtopics. Therefore, users can easily search for
discussion corners that are of interest, as shown in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9: Usenet discussions

For example, a user wants to read an article in the C programming language

discussion corner. The user can access the discussion corner at comp.lang.c. If the
user wants to read about Malaysia, he can access soc.culture.malaysia.
An example of an article in comp.lang.c is shown in Figure 8.10.
rom: holism (nolsen@nospam.myrealbox.com)

Message 18 in thread
Subject: Re: Learning C
Newsgroups: comp.lang.c
Date: 2001-04-11 21:43:55 PST
>> Anyone have any suggestions for a good introductory book on C?

>
The C Programming Language by Kernighan and Richie is a pretty

awesome book. Lots of short and sweet examples from the guys who
created the language. Its just the C language minus most of the fat
you find in beginner books, so if you already know basic programming
concepts it should be a good book to get you into C.
Nick
Figure 8.10: Example of an article in comp.lang.c
In the Usenet discussion forums, users can share opinions, request for help,
argue, spread rumours, sell items, criticise someone, get to know each other, etc.
There is no filtering of the Usenet contents. Therefore, the Usenet contents may
be true or false. Users are reminded not to readily believe in stories such as get-
rich-quick-schemes or pills for preventing old age that are available in Usenet.
In Usenet discussion corners, the same questions are occasionally asked by a new
user. To avoid this, veteran users of discussion forums have taken the initiative to
produce a document called frequently asked questions (FAQ).
FAQ is a document containing questions that are frequently asked by users

and their answers to these questions.

Therefore, frequently asked questions originate from various Usenet discussion

corners. For example, if there is a new user involved in comp.text.tex discussing
TeX document processing software, the user may want to know the background
of TeX, its history, how to use TeX and others. The new user can ask these
questions in comp.text.tex. A better way is for the user to read the frequently
asked questions for the comp.text.tex discussion corner. Normally, each
discussion corner has a frequently asked questions sent to the corner every
month.
Users are suggested to browse the website http://groups.google.com and read

several Usenet discussion pages like soc.religion.islam, soc.culture.malaysia,
comp.lang.c, sci.math and others to see how Usenet discussions operate. After a
while, you can participate in a discussion forum that is suitable for you.
It is wise to read the FAQ first before posing questions because it contains useful
information for new users to refer to and to know. An FAQ document is available
at the website http://www.faqs.org and has been discussed in Topic 7.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Usenet. How do you

evaluate the validity of its contents? Explain.
8.8 THE INTERNET PHENOMENON

The growth of the Internet with the advancement of hardware and software
development in various computing devices such as personal computers, smart
phones, cloud computing and wearable devices has created a phenomenon in
various ways.
One of the phenomenons of the Internet nowadays is the addictive uses of social
network websites and applications such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LINE,
Google+ and many more. So, what do you know about social network websites?

Boyd and Ellison (2013) in their article titled Social Network Sites: Definition,
History and Scholarship have defined the social network websites as web-based
services that allow individuals to:
(a) Construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system;
(b) Articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection; and
(c) View and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system.
Facebook is the most popular social network site that allows users who are part
of the same network to view others profiles, unless a profile owner has
decided to deny permission to those in their network. Figure 8.11 shows the
interface of Facebook website for Open University Malaysia.
Figure 8.11: Facebook of OUM site

Source: www.facebook.com/openunimalaysia

Google+ is another alternative for Facebook. It is used by Googles fans who

would like to have a single sign-on using Google Account. Google+ comes with
different style of interface compared to Facebook. Figure 8.12 shows an example
of Google+ site.
Figure 8.12: Google+ site

Source: http://plus.google.com
Other popular social network sites, geolocation applications and trending

applications that are based on the Internet and cloud storages are Twitter,
YouTube, Foursquare, Instagram and many more. These software or applications
have created their unique approach and phenomenon for their users.
The other trending phenomenon on the Internet that currently attracts many
users are the growth usage of smart phones, that leads to active development of
mobile applications in accessing data over the Internet; cloud computing that
allow accessibility, storage and online communication, such as through Google
ChromeOS or Chromebook, Box, Dropbox, Google Drive and etc.; wearable
computing such as Google Glass, smart watches and etc. all technologies that
have been developing to cater the growth of the Internet all around the world.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Discuss some phenomenon of the Internet and predict the future of the
software and applications used for the Internet.

There are various types of software on the Internet. Some of them are
shareware, freeware, open source software, protocols, file transfer, telnet,
e-mail and Usenet.
Shareware is a software that can be used by users for free within a specific
period.
Freeware is also available for free of charge from the Internet.
The open source software begins with the GNU project (GNU is not UNIX),
i.e. a project founded by Richard Stallman from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in the beginning of the 1980s. The original aim of this project was
to produce a system based on UNIX for free.
Among the advantages of open source software is that the user can change or
modify the software and it is not tied to any company.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a technique of downloading data from any FTP
server on the Internet onto the users computer.
Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and to use facilities

available on the computer.
The e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet.
There are several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail
discussions.
A smiley contains text-based symbols used in e-mails to represent a certain

emotion like anger, hatred, laughter, etc.
Acronym or brief phrases are used to represent the commonly used phrase
on the Internet.
Usenet is an Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free.
Usenet contains frequently asked questions. It is a document that contains the

questions with the answer for the most frequently asked questions by
consumers.

The Internet has grown to be a phenomenon in various aspects of our daily

life including the way we communicate, share, work and so on. There are
many software applications or websites available for social networking,
communication, cloud computing, wearable computing and many more
technologies that can be utilised to fulfil our needs.
E-mail Open source software

Freeware Shareware
Frequently asked questions (FAQ) Smiley
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Telnet
GNU Project Usenet
Boyd, D., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history and
scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(2): 210230.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myVLE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi)
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

CDCT2203 Information Technology and Environment

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Marini Abu Bakar

Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad

Translator: Mohd Zahari Awang

Moderators: Nurhizam Safie Mohd Satar

Christine Ling Bee Fong

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, November 2008

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Information Technology 1

Topic 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 20

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Topic 3 Input and Output 40

Topic 4 Secondary Storage 63

Topic 5 Computer Software 79

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Topic 6 Programming Language 127

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Topic 7 The Internet 145

Topic 8 Software on the Internet 173

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain the meanings of information technology (IT) and information era;

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Topic 6 discusses programming language. Computer programs are developed

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Figure 1.1: Smartphone (Samsung Galaxy S4) and tablet (iPad3)

1.1 INFORMATION ERA

Table 1.1: Descriptions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras

Industrial Work processes are simplified through mechanisation and automation,

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Figure 1.2: The environment during agricultural era

Figure 1.3: The environment during industrial era

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Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Era

Evolution Agricultural Era Industrial Era Information Era

Source: Adapted from Senn (1998)

(a) Emergence of an Information-Based Society

(b) Success of Business and Management Jobs Depends on IT

(c) Work Processes are Changed and Transformed to Upgrade Productivity

(d) IT Provides Basis for Optimisation

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(e) Success in IT Depends on the Effectiveness of Using it

(f) IT is Embedded or Integrated into Many Products and Services

1.2 WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

Table 1.3: Definitions of Data, Information and Knowledge

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Table 1.4: Definitions of Information Technology

As mentioned in Table 1.4, we can define IT as a broad-based technology