CH 17 Plastic 2013

Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit
Unchecked Draft
Dr. Ion Simulescu
2013
ii TABLE OF CONTAINTS
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Table of Containts
Table of Containts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
17 Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit 1
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
17.2 Real and Theoretical Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 2
17.2.1 Real Metallic Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 2
17.2.2 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
17.3 Phenomenological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
17.3.1 Monotonic Monoaxial Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
17.3.2 Cyclic Mono-Axial Tensile/Compressive Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
17.3.3 Combined Tensile -Torsion Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
17.3.4 General Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
17.4 Beam Deformation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
17.4.1 Uniform Axial-Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
17.4.2 Pure Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
17.4.2.1 Linear Elastic - Perfect Plastic Material . . . . . . . . . 24
17.4.2.1.1 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
17.4.2.1.2 Unloading. Remanent Normal Stresses . . . . . 31
17.4.2.2 Linear Elastic - Linear Hardening Material . . . . . . . . 43
17.5 Incremental Analysis of Simple Skeletal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
17.5.1 Uniform Axial-Deformed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
17.5.1.1 Statically Determinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
17.5.1.2 Statically Indeterminate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
17.5.1.3 Truss Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

TABLE OF CONTAINTS iii
17.5.2 Beam Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
17.5.2.1 Statically Determinate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
17.5.2.2 Longitudinal Extension of the Elasto-Plastic Zone . . . . 80
17.5.2.3 Vertical Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
17.5.2.4 Plastic Hinge. Collapse Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
17.5.3 Simple Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

iv TABLE OF CONTAINTS
Preface
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vi Preface
17
Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit
17.1 Introduction
In all previously presented lectures, the behavior of the material considered is restricted
to a linear-elastic constitutive law, mathematically represented by the Hookes Law [7].
Starting 1950, when The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity [] written by R. Hill was
published, and until today a large number of books concerned with the study of the
behavior of continuum media beyond the elastic limit were published [2,3,4,5,6]. Due to
the mathematical complexity of the partial dierential equations characterizing the plas-
ticity theory only a reduced number of practical cases could be solved. After 1960, the
development of the numerical methods, especially the Finite-Element Method, enlarged
the eld of the practical applications. Today, mane computer codes as: ANSYS, AD-
INA, LS-Dyna, etc, are developed and ready to approach the numerical solution of the
most complicated combination of structures and continua subjected to static or dynamic
loading. The stress and strain elds obtained are represented by a large numerical data
base which must be interpreted by the structural engineer. With all the graphics facilities
incorporated into the modern computer codes the correct interpretation of the results
requires from the structural engineer part a solid theoretical background.
In the beginning, the theory of plasticity was applied with preponderance to cases in-
volving metallic materials, which are ductile and exhibit the so-called plastic behavior.
Theoretically, the material was represented by a linear-elastic perfect-plastic stress-strain
diagram. The theoretical approach restricted only to this type of ideal material is known
in the technical literature as the Classic Theory of Plasticity. Over the years, due to
the increasead in the computing power, the complexity of the theoretical approach be-
come more sophisticated and the classical theory was extended to the study of more
complicated metallic material behavior, represented by more realistic non-linear stress-
strain diagrams. Concomitantly, the investigation of granular type materials, concrete,
soil, masonry and composite materials, was in-depth assessed and the Classic Theory of
2 17. Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit
Plasticity advanced into whatever is known today as the Modern Theory of Non-linear
Material Behavior.
Due to the general complexity of the problem and the limits imposed by the undergradu-
ate class syllabus, the theoretical frame of this lecture is restricted, as before, to the study
of the beam mathematical model made of an isotropic and homogeneous linear-elastic
perfect-plastic metallic material loaded beyond its elastic limit. Basically, the application
to the beam deformation models of the Classic Theory of Plasticity is presented. In some
sections the complexity of the material behavior is increased and the material is also
represented by a bi-linear stressstrain diagram. At the end of the lecture, to emphasize
the application of the theory described, few simple examples of plane structures statically
loaded are presented.
17.2 Real and Theoretical Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams
17.2.1 Real Metallic Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams
In the present section the characteristics of real metallic materials are described and
thier properties are presented using specic stress-strain diagrams. To investigate the
real behavior of metallic materials real tests are performed and the data obtained is
interpreted in order to identify the most important parameters which have a major impact
in the material behavior theoretical description. In Figures 17.6 the stress-strain diagram
obtained from mono-axial tensile tests performed on structural steel are pictured.
Figure 17.6 Structural Steel Stress-Strain Diagram
To enlarge the observation area the laboratory obtained results for low carbon steel, three
high-strength steel alloys and three aluminum alloys, all part of the metallic material
17.2 Real and Theoretical Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams 3
group, are presented in Figures 17.7.a and 17.7.b, respectively. The stress-strain diagrams
illustrated in Figure 17.7.a are characterized by a almost unsignicant plateau, while for
the aluminum alloys, shown in Figure 17.b, the plateau is absolutly absent. The material
ductility is observed in all these matallic materials.
Figure 17.7 Stress-Strain Diagrams (a) Low Carbon Steel, High-Strength Alloy Steels,
(b) Aluminum Alloys
Some metallic materials, as cupper the liniarity stress-strain characterizing the structural
steel diagram is not sio evident and the detection of the elastic limit 0y , the on-set yielding
point, is not a trivial experimental problem. To obtain an experimental objective measure,
the elastic limit is determined as the stress corresponding to a specied permanent strain
"x of 0:02%.
The elastic behavior during unloading from the plastic range can be experimentally ver-
ied. The experimental results obtained from repeated loading-unloading loops for an
aluminum specimen are presented in Figure 17.8. It can be observed a slight reduction of
the modulus of elasticity E value during each loading loop, but the change is unsigni-
ant and, consequently, an average value can be used without introducing errors in the
theoretical calculations.
Figure 17.8 Aluminum Specimen Loading-Unloading Loops
Usually the mono-axial tests are conducted slowly in order to limit the inuence of the
strain rate, the loading speed, and temperature change on the stress-strain diagrams.
The eect of the increase of the strain rate on structural steel specimen is schematically
illustrated in Figure 17.9.
Figure 17.9 Eect of Increase Strain Rate
Conclusion 1 The increase of the strain rate conducts to:
(a) increase of the value of the on-set yielding point;
(b) some decrease of the ductility of the specimen. This is an important observation for
the materials subjected to fatigue.
The temperature is an important factor conducting in some casesto change from ductile to
brittle behavior. In most common applications the materials used in structural engineering
are not subjected to extreme temperatures enough to adversely aect the ductile behavior.
For the special situations when the material is subjected to high or low temperature
corresponding stress-strain diagrams must be constructed. Figures 17.10.a and 17.10.b
illustrate the variation of the stress-strain diagrams with temperature for stainless steel.
Figure 17.10 Variation of the Stress-Strain Diagram with Temperature (a) Low
Temperature and (b) High Temperature
Conclusion 2 The increase of the temperature conduct to:
(a) changes the overall aspect of the stress-strain diagram;
(b) reduces the strength of the material;
(c) increases the strain corresponding to a given stress with increase in temperature and
vice versa.
In 1947 and 1952 Bridgman conducted a series of experiments with the intent to examine
the the inuence of high hydrostatic pressure on the material behavior. He obtained a
number of important ndings used in the theory of plasticity. They are enumerated below.
Conclusion 3 The presence of the hydrostatic pressure:
(a) does not permanently change the volume of the material and consequently, the material
can be considered as plastically incompressible;
(b) does not modify the stress-strain curve of the material, but its ductility is increased;
(c) the on-set yielding value remain unchanged.
The incompressibility condition existing during the plastic deformation is expressed as

zero change in the innitesimal volume. If an unit initial volume is considered, the in-
compressibility condition becomes:
(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )(1+ 3) 1 = 0 ! (17.1)

1+ 2+ 3 = 0
where 1, 2 and 3 are the innitesimal principal strains.
In general the metals indicate an isotropic behavior, fact conrmed by the mono-axial
tensile and compressive tests. As previously indicated the stress-strain diagrams obtained
in monotonic axial tension or compression testing are anti-symetric. This conclusion is
invalidate if a metal specimen is subjected rst to a cyclic mono-axial test. For this case
the Bauschinger Eect is present.
The civil-structural engineer works preponderently with structural steel, reason for this
material behavior to be the rst material to be investigated and more emphasised. A detail
description of the characteristics and the evolution of the stress-strain diagram pertinent
to a structural steel specimen subjected to mono-axial tensile/compressive loading was
given in Lecture 2 of the rst volume. Without repeating the details only a few important
ndigs regarding the behavior of the structural steel are important to be reproduced
herein.
Conclusion 4 (a) The elastic strain at the on-set of yielding stress 0y is a very small
quantity in comparison to the magnitude of the strain corresponding to the ultimate stress
"u
u magnitude. The ratio 0 >> 1 indicates the ductility of this material;
"y
(b) The existence of the yielding plateau located at the beginning of yielding process de-
veloped around the value 0y ;
(c) The magnitude of the hardening range is remarkable larger than the elastic range. It
is easy to observe that the energy consumed during yielding is substantially greater that
consumed during elastic deformation, emphasizing once again the ductility characteristic
of the structural steel.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASM E) publishes a handbook contain-

ing a large range of stress-strain diagrams presented in a tabular format for dierent metal
composition and temperatures. These stress-strain diagrams are used also in special cases
by the structural engineers.
17.2.2 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams
Due to the complexity of the real behavior of thye material, in the theoretical studies, a
number of idealized stress-strain diagrams are considered to replace and modeled the real
material behavior of the metals. As it resulted from the above investigation a metallic
material mono-axial tensile/compression stress-strain diagram contains a succesion of two
domains: the linear-elastic domain and the plastic domain. The linear-elastic domain is
characterized by two material constants: the modul of elasticity E and the magnitude of
the on-set yielding stress 0y : The plastic domain is deliniated by the yielding plateau and
the hardening curve, for the particular case of the structural steel or by only hardening
curve in the general case. This domain is charcterized by the hardening function f ("p )
and the point corresponding to the ultimate strain ( u ; u ) : Actually the computer codes
permit the usage of the obtained stress-strain diagrams in the structural investigations.
In the structural practice these stress-strain diagrams are replaced by simplied version,
which can provide for practical cases an acceptable level of safety and a faster speed in
obtaining practical results. The most encounter approximation is obtained by replacing
the hardening curve with a plateau or a linear variation. If the hardening is represented
by the horizontal line of the yielding plateau the model is called linear elastic-perfect
plastic. If the second alternative is employed and the hardening is represented by a line
the model is called linear elastic-linear hardening or bi-linear. Some of the most common
stress-strain diagrams used in the Classical Theory of Plasticity are summarized in Figure
17.11. For a linear elastic - linear hardening behavior the stress in the hardening domain,
shown in Figure 17.11.b, is mathematically expressed as:
0
x = y + Et "s (17.2)
where Et E is a material constant called tangent modulus. This model was proposed
by Ludwick in 1909. If the material has a linera elastic - perfect plastic behavior Et = 0
and the stress in the plastic domain is expressed as:
0
x = y (17.3)
Figure 17.11 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams
In some cases when the plastic strain is signicantly larger than the elastic strain, a typ-
ical case for body impact, neglecting the initial elastic deformation does not introduce
important errors in the calculation of the total strain.The theoretical stress-strain dia-
grams employed in this case are characterized by the existance of the hardening domain
only. These types of material is called rigid materials and are obtained as simplication
of the cases illustrated in Figure 17.11. Figure 17.12 pictures two cases of elastic-rigid
materials: rigid-perfect plastic and rigid-linear hardening.When the elastic strain is com-
parative in magnitude to the plastic atrain, the elastic range has to be present in the
stress-strain diagram.
Figure 17.12 Rigid Materials Stress-Strain Diagrams
As priviously shown by the real stress-strain diagrams in the plastic range the hardening
is in general represented by a nonlinear dependency between the stress and strain. This
type of behavior characterized stainless steel and dierent aluminun and cupur alloys.
Consequently, a number of non-linear empirical relations had also been propsed to model
the hardening behavior of the materials. The most important are those proposed by
Prager (1938), Swift (1947), Voce (1948) and Ramberg and Osgood (1943). From all the
proposed expressions that advanced by Prager has the following mathematical expression:
8
< E "x if 0 "x "0y
x ("x ) = "x (17.4)
: 0y 1 + tanh 0 1 if "0y < "x 0:03
"y
where the hardening curve f is a real function of the total strain "x :
"x
f ("x ) = tanh 1 (17.5)
"0y
In order to illustrate the Pragers theoretical stress-strain curve (17.4) the experimentally
obtained data for a number of four metals are tabulated below
0
0 y
Metal y (M P a) E(GP a) "0y =
E 3
Aluminum Alloy 410 70 5: 857 1 10
Structural Steel 210 200 0:001 05
3
Stainless Steel 520 195 2: 666 7 10
3
Titanium 830 115 7: 217 4 10
and the corresponding curves are ploted in Figure 17.13.
600
y
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
x
Fiigure 17.13 Prager Stress-Strain Diagram
The most used of all nonlinear hardening models is the Ramberg-Osgood [] model originally
expressed as:
n
x x
"x = +K (17.6)
E E
where: K and n are constants determined by identication from the laboratory hardening
tests. The original Ramberg-Osgood relation depends on three parameters (E, K and n).
As mention before, the identication of the onset yielding point for aluminum and stainless
steel is not a trivial activity the original Ramberg-Osgood model (17.6) was modied [10]
in order to include the theoretical onset yielding stress 0:2 corresponding to "0:2 = 0:2%
strain:
n
x x
"x = + 0:002 (17.7)
E 0:2
Relation (??) requires three material parameters (E, 0:2 and n) to be identied. It was
observed that the performance of (??) is maching the laboratory tests for stresses up to
0:2 indicating a large error after this stress value. Consequently, a more acurate formula
[] can be employed:
8 n
>
> x x
< + 0:002 if 0 x 0:2
E 0:2
"x = m (17.8)
>
> x 0:2 x 0:2
: 0:002 + + "u if 0:2 x u
E0:2 u 0:2
where E0:2 , "u and u are the tangent modulus calculate at "0:2 and the ultimat stress and
strain values. The values calculated with (17.8) obtained a good closeingness with the
experimental results, but the complexity of the curve is increased by the identication of
seven material parameters (E, 0:2 , E0:2 , "u ; u ; n and m): In reality only ve (E, 0:2 ,
E0:2 , "u and u ) are independents and the other two are calculated accordingl to:
d x 1
E0:2 = ( x = 0:002) = E (17.9)
d x E
1 + 0:002 n
0:2
0:2
m = 1 + 3:5
u
In order to illustrate the theoretical relations (17.7) and (17.8) the experimentally ob-
tained data for a number of two austenitic alloys (UNS30400 and UNS31603), stainless
steel (UNS31803) and cromium alloy (3Cr12) are tabulated below:
Alloy E (GP a) 0:2 (M P a) (M P A)

u u n E0:2 m 8
> y
UNS30400 196 297 638 0:61 7:87 17: 21 2:63 < x
196000
UNS31603 190 316 616 0:51 5:88 23: 54 2: 80 x 29
>
: x 0:002
UNS31803 215 635 820 0:22 7:68 34: 68 3: 71
17210
3Cr12 195 275 444 0:38 12:20 16: 40 3: 17
2:63
y y 7:87 y 297 y 297
0:002 = 0; x 0:002 0:61 = 0; x
196000 297 17210 638 297
y y 5:88 y y 7:68
0:002 = 0; x 0:002 = 0;
190000 316 215000 635
y y 12:2
x 0:002 =0
195000 275
y y 2:63
x 0:61 =0
17210 341
17.3 Phenomenological Aspects 11
600
y
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
x
1600
y
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
x
and the corresponding curves are ploted in Figure 17.14.
17.3 Phenomenological Aspects
Three simple tests: (1) the monotonic monoaxial tensile test, (2) the monoaxial cyclic
test and (3) the combined tensile-torsion test, are utilized to infer information regarding
the behavior of the metallic material when subjected to deformation beyond its elastic
limit.
17.3.1 Monotonic Monoaxial Tensile Test
The monotonic axial tensile test of a circular specimen made of an isotropic and homoge-
neous metallic material, the simplest and the most frequently used laboratory experiment,
is rst analyzed . Consequently, a theoretical metal specimen, is subjected to a tensile
force F until the fracture is reached. The theoretical x x stress-strain diagram re-
sulting from the test, where the Ox axis is located along the length of the specimen, is
plotted in Figure 17.1.
Figure 17.1 Monotonic Axial Tensile Test - Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagram
It can be observed that the loading branch of the diagram shown in Figure 17.1 is char-
acterized by two distinct segments: (a) a linear segment, comprised between point 0 and
1; and (b) a non-linear curved segment comprised between points 1and 7; respectively.
The two segments represent the linear-elastic and non-linear domains or ranges. In the
Classic Theory of Plasticity the non-linear segment is referred as the plastic or inelastic
domain.
Loading to and unloading from any point located on the line between points 0 and 1 of
the proposed theoretical stress-strain diagram indicates an elastic behavior characterized
by a linear stress-strain relation expressed as:
x =E "x (17.10)
where E is the elastic modulus of the material. The point 1 ("0y ; 0y ), marking the beginning
of the plastic range, is called the onset yielding point. If the loading process is continued
beyond the onset yielding point 1 and, for example, when point 2 "2x > "0y ; 2x > 0y is
reached, the linearity of the x x relation is not preserved. Clearly the previous linear
relation must be replaced by a x x non-linear relation expressed as:
s = f ("s ) (17.11)
where f ( ) is a real-valued function and:

0
s = x y (17.12)
"s = "x "0y (17.13)

Unloading from point 2 a dierent path than the one followed during the loading, the
path 1 2;is obtained. It is observed that the unloading path, the 2 3 segment, follows
a parallel line with the line characterizing the elastic behavior from 0 1. When the
unloading is completed and point 3 is reached the corresponding stress is null, x = 0;
but the specimen does not recover its original length and a permanent strain "3x is recorded.
Only part of the strain "2x ; pertinent to point 2, the elastic component "2e ; is recovered
after the unloading. Consequently, two important relations can be written:
"2x = "2e + "2p (17.14)
It can be observed that:
"2p 6= 0 (17.15)
2
x
"2e =
E
where "2e and "2p are the elastic and plastic strains of the point, respectively. The subsequent
loading branch, running from point 3 to point 2, follows a similar path with the preceding
unloading path from point 2 to point 3, and consequently, the behavior on this path also
indicates a linear-elastic behavior.
Remark 5 In reality, those two paths are not exactly similar with each other and the
dierence observed, illustrated in Figure 17.1, is called hysteretic loop. Because the dif-
ference is negligible, for theoretical purposes, the hysteretic loop is neglected and further
in the theoretical analysis the two paths are considered being identical.
The unloading and loading branches, 2 3 and 3 2, respectively, resembled the linear
relation exhibited during the loading and unloading from a point located in the elastic
range 0 to 1. The non-liner (plastic) character of the material behavior starts manifesting
again only when point 2 is once more attained. For this reason, point 2 is called subsequent
yielding point and is noted 2y . If the loading process continues beyond point 2, it can be
remarked that the behavior of the material is identical to that exhibited during the rst
plastic excursion, branch 0 2, with the exception that the new plastic limit 2y is larger
than the on-set stress 0y .
0 2
y y (17.16)
In order to conrm the behavior of the material just described, the loading process is
continued until a new point, point 4, is reached. The unloading from this point, the branch
4 5, and the subsequent loading, branch 5 4, conrm a similar material behavior with
that uncovered during the previous loading-unloading loops 2 3 2. The subsequent

yielding point 4x = 4y has a magnitude larger than all the points located to its left on
the stress-strain curve.
0 2 4
y y y (17.17)
The physical phenomenon characterized by a continuos increase of the subsequent yielding

point is called hardening. Repeating the loading-unloading loops, similar conclusions can
be drawn until the ultimate stress u is reached.
Conclusion 6 (a) Consequently a general relation concerning the subsequent yielding

point magnitude iy can be written:
0 i
y y u (17.18)
(b) The toatal strain in any point located on the nonlinear range has two components:
"ix = "ie + "ip (17.19)
The relation (17.19) is known as the addition propriety of the nonlinear strains;
(c) The elasto-plastic behavior is represented by a succesive elastic loading - plastic

loading-elastic unloading loops diering only by thier subsequent yielding point magni-
tude iy :
After that, the material stress-strain diagram follows a softening-necking path, until the
rupture is attained at point 7: In reality, if the real stress is calculated, the increase in
stress continues until the rupture. Due to the complexity of the mathematical descrip-
tion, the material behavior after reaching the ultimate stress u is not considered in the
theoretical description of this lecture.
Remark 7 If a similar theoretical monotonic compressive test is conducted on the metal-

lic material considered, it must be emphasized that an anti-symmetric stress-strain dia-
gram with that obtained from the tensile test is obtained. The asymmetry axis is "x "+x:
17.3.2 Cyclic Mono-Axial Tensile/Compressive Test
The second considered test is a cyclic mono-axial test, which is represented by a succesion
of two complete loops obtained by appling rst a tensile force F followed by a compressive
force F . The resulting x x stress-strain diagrams are plotted in Figure 17.2. It can
be observed that the loading segments: 0 1; the linear elastic behavior, is followed,
as establised before, by the curved segment 1 U indicating the plastic (nonlinear)
behavior of the material. If it supepposed that the loading starting at 0 reaches point
2 from where the complete unloading is obtained by attaining point 3 (F = 0). It can
be observed that complete tensile loop 0 1 2 3 is so far identical with the one
described during the previous monotonic test. The deformation process continues with
an increase again of the force F magnitude, but the force is of compressive nature this
time. As was concluded before it is expected that a compressive complete loop, identical
but anti-symmetric with the complete tensile loop, is obtained. The dierence from the
rst test presented is that the origine of the compressive branche moved from point 0 to
point 3; where the compressive process must start for continuity reasons. The rst part of
the linear elastic compressive loading must end in point 4 . As shown on the stress-strain
diagram, plotted in Figure 17.2 the location of point 4 is established by the following
geometrical relation:
2 4 2
= x x = 2 x ! point 4 (17.20)
The relation (17.20), proposed by Odqvist in1933, is known in the technical literature as
the isotropic hardening criterion.
Remark 8 It can be ovserved that the relation is dependent on the parameter ; creat-
ing a family of loading hardening curves of type 4 U ; but starting in dierent position 4
function of value 2x ; the magnitude of the subsequent point 2. The two loops preserved
the original shapes of the individual monotonic mono-axial tests. The anti-ssynetry axis
"x "+ x remanin enchanged for any loop.
The experimental work published indicates that the isotropic hardening criterion is not a
realistic criterion and a more realistic criteria were proposed. The most often hardening
criterion employed in the technical literature is the kinematic hardening criterion where
the compressive elastic loading ends, marking the begining of the compressive hardening,
in point 4. Geometrically the criterion is represented by:
2 4 0
= x x = 2 y ! point 4 (17.21)
0
where y is the on-set yielding stress of the material.
Remark 9 The realtion (17.21) indicates that only one hardening curve exists but the
anti-symetry axis "x "+
x moves. It can be observed a substantial reduction of the stresses
magnitude in the compressive loops. This phenomenon is called the Bauschinger Eect.
Figure 17.2 Cyclic Axial Test
To further understand the metallic behavior under cyclic loads a new cyclic mono-axial
test, similar with that presented in Figure 17.2, is considered. This time, after the com-
plete unloading of the compressive loop, an elastic loading in tension follows and point 7
is reached. It must be observed that the cyclic test 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 indicates
a kinematic hardening process. A second cyclic mono-axial test, starting in compression
rst, is conducted on the undeformed specimen and the resulting stress-strain diagram
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 is overimposed on the rst as shown in Figure 17.3.
Conclusion 10 The points 7 (c7 < 0, C7 > 0) and 7* (c7 > 0, C7 < 0) indicate similar
magnitudes of the X X X X stress and strain but theier sign is opposite. If the point 7
(c7 < 0, C7 > 0) and 7** (c7** > c7, C7 > 0) X X X X X are analized is observed
that for the same stress magnitude the strains are opposite in signs. These facts indicate
a dependens of the stress and strain on the loading history. The points 7 ("7x < 0; 7x
> 0) and 7 ("7x > 0; 7x < 0) indicate similar magnitudes of the stress and strain but
theier sign is opposite. If the point 7 ("7x < 0; 7x > 0) and 7 ("7 x > "7x; 7x > 0) are
analized is observed that for the same stress magnitude the strains are opposite in signs.
These facts indicate a dependens of the stress and strain on the loading history.
17.3.3 Combined Tensile -Torsion Test
In reality, the metallic material is subjected to more complicated stress conditions than
those imposed by a monotonic tensile or compressive axial test. Consequently, the same
theoretical specimen subjected to a combined action of an axial load F and torque T is
analyzed. The experiment is shown in Figure 17.4.
Figure 17.4 Combined Tensile -Torsion Test
The stress tensor representing the above combined action is characterized by two stress
components x and expressed as:
F
x = (17.22)
A
T
xr = r
Ip
R4
where 0 r R, A = R2 and Ip = are the radius, area and polar moment of
2
inertia of the circular cross-section, respectively.
The critical stage, the plastic range, is attained when the critical curve equation of the
plane condition pertinent to any methallic material Failure Theory, explained in Lecture
16 of the Volume II [8], is veried by any pair of stresses ( x ; ): The critical curve,
derived from the application of the Von Mises or Trescas Criteria, is plotted in Figure
17.5. For clarity, all the points, labeled 0 through 7, placed on the combined diagram
have the corresponding points also drawn on the two monotonic stress-strain diagrams,
(a) and(b), obtained as result of the independent application of the two loads F and
T , respectively.. They are plotted on the right side of Figure 17.5. The points 1 and 6
represent the on-set yielding points, 0y and 0xr ; corresponding to the monotonic axial
tests. As explained in Lecture 16, the area of the diagram located under the critical curve
indicates an elastic behavior.
At rst, in loop I, the specimen is loaded only by the axial force F until the level of stress
reaches the magnitude corresponding to point 3 ( 3x < 0y ; 3xr = 0). It is evident that
the material behaves elastically and if a complete unloading from point 3 is conducted
the original conguration of the specimen is regained. If the loading continues and point
2 ( 2x > 0y ; 2xr = 0) is reached, according to the mono-axial test, the material is in the
plastic range and a subsequent unloading is characterized by the existence of a plastic
strain "2p 6= 0: If the unloading is conducted from point 2 and stops at a magnitude
corresponding to point 3 and then it is followed by an application of a torque T untill
point 4 is reached, the stress tensor is now characterized by two components 4x < 0y and
4 0
xr < xr . From the strain point of view, according to stress-strain diagrams (a) and (b)
the strain tensor at point 4 has also two components "4x = "3e + "2p and 4xy = 5e :
Figure 17.5 Combined Axial - Torsion Test Diagrams
If the experiment is conducted in a dierent manner, loop II, by loading rst the specimen
with the torque T until point 5 is reached, the corresponding stress level of point is 5x = 0
and 5xr < 0y . The material behaves elastically because the on-set level of the shear stress
0
y is not reached. If the unloading is conducted from point 5 the specimen regains its
original conguration. Consider now that the torque T magnitude continues to be increase
until the on-set limit 0y is overpassed and the stress intensity corresponding to point 7
( 7x = 0; 7xr > 0y ) is atteined. The strain tensor is characterized at this moment by only
one non-zero component 7xy = 7e + 7p : If the unloading is initiated from this point,
obviously a permanent shear strain 7p remains. If the unloading is not total and the
stress level is decreased until a stress level corresponding to point 5 is reached and then
an axial load F; inducing a normal stress of intensity corresponding to point 3; is applied
the stress conditions at point 4 is again obtained ( 4x < 0y ; 5xr < 0xr ) The strain tensor
has now two components "4x = "3e and 4xy = 5e + 7p :
Conclusion 11 It is obvious that conducting the experiment in two dierent manners,

loop I and II, for the same stress tensor ( 4x ; 5xr ) dierent strain tensors, "4x = "3e + "2p ; 4xy = 5
e
in loop I and "4x = "3e ; 4xy = 5e + 7p in loop II, are obtained.
17.3.4 General Conclusions
From the theoretical tests described above few important conclusions regarding the be-
havior of the metallic materials loaded beyond the elastic limit can be drawn .
Conclusion 12 (a) During a monotonic loading tensile or compressive axial test the sub-
sequent loading-unloading branches resemble the original loading curve with the exception
that the any subsequent yielding point iy , the new yield stress limit, has a value superior
to the on-set value 0y : The continually increased of the magnitude of the subsequent yield-
ing point iy is called hardening and represents a characteristic of the metallic material
behavior. The increased in stress is limited by the ultimate stress u :
0 i
y y u (17.23)
(b) The hardening is expressed:

0
x = y + f ("p ) (17.24)
where f () is a real function;
(c) The aditivity propriety of the total strain "ix :
"ix = "ie + "ip (17.25)
where "ie and "ie are the elastic and plastic strain components in the generic point i:
0 ! elastic range
"ip = (17.26)
6 0 ! plastic range
=
i
x
"ie =
E
(d) Under cyclic loading the metallic material the Baushinger Eect is present and dic-
tates the material behavior. The most realistic behavior is represented by the kinematic
hardenig condition detailed above;
(e) The stress level is not su cient to correctly determine the strain level and conse-
quently, the loading path history has to be considered. The deforemation history is intro-
duced in the calculation by an incremental calculation of the stress and strain. Determin-
ing the plastic strain increments "ip of the strain occurring at each step of the loading
increment. An incremental relation is written as:

nsteps nsteps
X 0
y
X
"ip = "0y + "ip = + "ip = "pi 1
+ "ip (17.27)
1
E 1
where "0p is the strain corresponding to the on-set yielding stress 0

y:
(f) The time variable t does not appears as an explicit variable in the history of deforma-
tion, but if the loading is regarded as a continues process the equation (17.27) is re-written
as:
ZT ZT
"p = "0y + d"p (t) = "0p + "p dt (17.28)
0 0
where T is the limit of the variable s, which can be regarded as a time variable.
17.4 Beam Deformation Models
In the previous sections three theoretical stress-strain models of the material behavior
beyond the elastic limit are presented. The mathematical relations describing these three
stress-strain models are valid in any point of the material body. In the rst and second
volumes of the Lectures in Mechanics of Materials the theoretical attention was focused
on the deformation types one-dimensional element called beam, but the material behavior
was limited to the elastic domain. The deformation models of the beam described are:
the uniform axial-deformation, pure bending and torsion. This section is dedicated to
the evaluation of the beam when subjected to the same deformation types but the ma-
terial is allowed to overpass the the elastic limit into plastic (nonlinear) domain. Struc-
tural analysis of structures simple plane structures assembled from plane linear elements
(beams), called skeletal structures, are also emphasized. The loading action considered is
a monotonic type loading followed unloading. The cyclic type loads are not analyzed in
this textbook.
17.4.1 Uniform Axial-Deformation
In Lecture 5 of the rst volume, the theoretical description of the linear member (beam)
subjected to an uniform axial-deformation is treated in detail. The conditions for this
type of deformation to be realized are expressed by the Denition 5.2 recounted below:
Denition 13 The uniform axial-deformation of a linear member is characterized by the

following requirments:
(a) a constant area A0 along its entier lenght;

17.4 Beam Deformation Models 21
(b) is made of a linear elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material;
(c) is subjected to an constant axial force F0 ;
In Lecture 5 the material behavior is dicteated by requirment (b) to be linear elastic,

isotropic and homogeneous, with other words, to follow the Hooks Law. In this chapter
the material behavior is represented by one of the two theoretical mono-axial stress-strain
models previously described:.(1) Linear Elastic - Perfect Plastic Model .or (2) Linear
Elastic-Linear- Kinematic Hardening Model. Other stress-strain models can be used, but
the complexity of the calculation overpass the scope of this chapter.
In the case of the uniform axial-deformation member, illustrated in Figure 17.15, the
axial force F0 acting in the centroid C of the cross-section and the total elongation of the
member e are the two relevant variables used in the practical applications. The magnitude
and direction of the axial force F0 is calculated from the general equations of equilibrium
characterizing the entier structure.
Figure 17.25 Uniform Axial-Deformation Member
0
In the elastic range x (x) y two important relations were established in Lecture 5.
First referers to the stress - internal resultant relation:
F0
x (x) = ! x = constant (17.29)
A0
Consequently, the magnitude of the force F0 ; existing in the member, is obtained as:
F0 = x A0 Fy0 (17.30)
where
Fy0 = 0
y A0 (17.31)
is the limiting force deliniating the elastic range. The normal strain x (x) is expreesed by
denion as:
l l l0 e
x = = = (17.32)
l0 l0 l0
where l0 and l are the length of the member at the begining and during the loading,
respectively. The total elongation e is obtained:
e= x l0 (17.33)
The usage of the Hooks Law, requirment (b), induce a direct relation between x (x) and
x (x):
x
x (x) = ! x = constant (17.34)
E
where E is the elastic modulus. Substituting equation (17.34) into equation (17.33), the
elongation e is calculated:
x l0
e= l0 = F0 = f F0 (17.35)
E E A0
l0
where f = is the exibility coe cient. If the magnitude of the force F0 surpassed
E A0
the limit Fy0 the hardening domain starts.
Remark 14 The relations (17.29) and (17.32) retain thier validity: the former because
is no motivation for the normal stress not to remain constant over the cross-section of the
beam, and the last being obtained from a denition not implying any material description.
Two theoretical hardening models are considered: (a) the perfect plastic model and (b)
the linear kinematic hardening model. For the case (a); the perfect plastic hardening, was
previously estblished that x = 0y and consequently:
F0 = Fy0 (17.36)
and
l0
e= Fy0 = e0y (17.37)
E A0
The force - elongation relation is undeterminated.
????????????????????If the case (b), the linear kinematic hardening model, is considered
for the hardening domain?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Due to the diculty induced by the unexistance of a stress - strain relation this case is
treated as a particular case of the linear kinematic hardening model, case (b),
Remark 15 It can be observed that the expressions (17.29) through (17.35) retain thier
validity due to the fact that the equations are derived without any material considerations.
As shown before, if the material is subjected to a normal stress above the onset yielding
0
point, j x (x)j y ; the proportionality between the instanteneous value of no he last to
remain constant and trmal stress x and normal strain x looses its validity and the
incremental formulae proper to the material model used must be emploied. The problem
complicates because in the absence of one-to-one relation between and the loading-
unloading conditions must be used to determine if at stress magnitude changes a plastic
loading, plastic unloading or an elastic loading/ unloading takes place. The for each type
of
An uniform axial-deformation beam characterized by a material behavior modeled as a

linear elastic - perfect plastic material is reered in the thechnical literature as Plastic
Bar. For the case of the plastic bar the normal stress x = 0y is constant beyond the
onset yielding point and accordingly to equation (??) the axial force F0 is also constant:
F0 = Fy0 = A0 0
y (17.38)
The model of the plastic bar was intensively used in the structural analysis of the skele-
tal structures. In the following sections an incremental investigation of simple skeletel
structures subjected to static applied loads is presented.
??????????????????????????????????????
Example 16 The statically determinate system represented by a single linear member,

depicted in Figure 17.26, of length l0 and constant area A0 . The left end, point A, is xed,
while at the other free end, at point B, a concentrated force P is applied. The beam is
made from a material charcaterized by a (1) linear elastic -perfect plastic behavior and
(2) linear elastic - linear hardening behavior.
Figure 17.26. Uniform Axially Deformed Member
(1) - the sress-strain diagram, illustrated in Figure 17.17, is characterized by two material
constants: the elastic modulus E; the on-set yielding stress 0y . It is supposed that the
member is subjected to a tensile force with magnitude P . If the magnitude of the exterior
force P Fy0 = A0 0
y the material behaves elastically and the incremental relation
applies. It is clear that the stress is proportional to the stress.
17.4.2 Pure Bending
The theoretical details regarding the deformation of a beam subjected to pure bending
are in extenso presented in Lecture 7 of the rst volume. The general denition of Pure
Bending, enunciated in Lecture 7, denition 7.1, is maintained and employed in the
theoretical description developed in this section.The formulae obtained in Lecture 7 are
limited by the material constitutive law considered, the Hooks Law, to a linear elastic
homogeneous and isotrop material denition. In this section a material represented by the
theoretical: (a) linear elastic -perfect plastic or (b) linear elastic - linear hardening stress-
strain diagrams is considered. The material behavior is the only part of the denition 7.1
modied to implement. the two types of material behavior mensioned above. The modied
denition for the pure bending when the material is subjected to stresses beyond its elastic
limit is: are
Denition 17 The segment of a plane linear beam is in pure bending if:
(a) the cross-section is constant and symmetrical about a longitudinal plane Cxyc ;
(b) the material properties are described by: (a) linear elastic -perfect plastic or (b) linear
elastic - linear hardening stress-strain diagrams;
(c) it is subjected only to a constant bending moment Mzc (x) = Mzc =constant;
(d) after the load application cross-sections remain plane and perpendicular to the deec-
tion curve (the Bernoulli-Euler hypothesis).
As mensioned in Lecture 7, the requirment (d) is the most important of all four re-
quirments beeing esential in the denition of the pure deformation deformation beam
model. The homogeneous material, requirment (b), is represented by the same theoretical
stress-strain model, in every point of the cross-section. The exterior action is represented
by the bending moment Mzc , accting on the cross-section athe its centroid C:
17.4.2.1 Linear Elastic - Perfect Plastic Material
The stress-strain diagrams characterizing the material is illustrated in Figure 17.18 and
is described by two material constants: the elastic modulus E and onset yielding stress
0
y.
17.4.2.1.1 Loading The magnitude of the bending moment Mzc (x); pertinent to cross-
section located at distance x from the origine of the local coordinates system, is monoton-
icaly increased from zero to a positive value corresponding to an elastic behavior in every
point of the cross-section x (x; y) < 0y . The following important theoretical ndings are
extracted from Lecture 7, where the material behavior in elastic range was analyzed:
(a) - the strain x (x; y) varies linearly on the cross section and is expressed
1 0
x (x; y) = y< y (17.39)
(x)
(b) - the stress varies also linearly on the cross-section and is calculated using the Naviers
formula:
Mzc (x) 0
x (x; y) = y< y (17.40)
Izc
where (x), Izc and y are the radio us of curvature, the centroidal moment of inerial
against Czc axis and the distance measured on Cyc axis from the EN A to a current
point of the cross-section, respectively.
(c) - the elastic neutral axis (EN A) coincides with the centroidal axis Czc .
The stress tensor T (x; y) comprises only one stress component, the normal stress x (x; y),
while the strain tensor T (x; y) is characterized by three components, all dependent on
normal strain x (x; y): The above described ndings are depicted in Figure 17.15.a.
Figure 17.15 Pure Benging - Elastic Behavior
For the case consideed, the elastic neutral axis, EP A, divides the cross-section into two
distinct areas: the the tensile stress area, located below the EP A, and the compresion
stress area, located above the EP A, respectively Due to the linearity of the stress and
strain variations the maximum values for each zone are obtained in points S (y = yc )
and T (y = yt ), respectively, located at the extremities of the cross-section. It is, then,
expected that the onset yielding condition to be rst meat in one of those two points,
precisely where:
ymax = max (jyt j ; jyc j) (17.41)

In general, a composed cross-section made of rectangular shapes containes more than one
point at y = ymax location. Consequently, the onset yielding stress 0y is reached at those
points located at distance ymax from the EP A:
0
x (x; y = ymax ) = y (17.42)
This condition, illustrated in Figure 17.15.b, is called the elastic range limit. The magni-
el_lim
tude of the bending moment Mzc (x), the elastic limit bending moment, is calculated,
following the Naviers formula (17.40), as:
Izc
Mzel_lim
c
(x) = 0
y = 0
y Wzelc (17.43)
ymax
Continuing to increase the magnitude of the bending moment Mzc (x) over the elastic-
el_lim el_lim
limite the bending moment Mzc ; Mzc (x) > Mzc ; the onset yielding stress is reached
in mane other points of the periferic areas located in the vecinity of the extrem points T
and S. Consequently, two plastic areas, tensile and compressive, are developed and the
cross-section is now characterized by an elasto-plastic behavior.
Remark 18 It has to be emphasized that the linearity of the strain on the cross-section,
the most segnicativ assumption, continues to be valid in the elasto-plastic range.
The cross-section characterized by an elasto-plastic behavior is divided by the elasto-

plastic neutral axis (EP N A) into four distinct stress areas: the compresion plastic area
Acp , the compresive elastic area Ace , the tensile elastic area Ate and the tensile plastic area
Atp , respectively, as depicted in Figure 17.16.a.
Fig17.16 Elasto-Plastic Behavior
The position of the elasto-plastic neutral axis (EP N A) and the magnitude of the elasto-
plastic bending moment Mzelc pl (x) are unknown quantities and must to be calculated.
They are obtained using the integral relations between the stress and internal resul-
tants. Because the stess tensor is characterized by only one component, the normal stress
x (x; y), only two integral relations are possible to be used:
F (x) = 0 ! (17.44)
Z
x (x; y) dA = 0
A
and
Z
Mzelc pl (x) = x (x; y) y dA (17.45)
A
Considering the stress distribution illstrated in Figure 17.18 and the existance of the four
stress zones, the equations (17.44) and (17.45) are recast as:
Z Z Z Z
x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA = 0 (17.46)
Acp Ace Ate Atp
and
Z
Mzelc pl (x) = x (x; y) dA = (17.47)
A
0 Z Z 1
x (x; y) y dA + x (x; y) y dA+
B AZcp
C
= B Zce
A C
@ A
+ x (x; y) y dA + x (x; y) y dA
Ate Atp
The variation of the normal stress x (x; y) is dened, acording to Figure 17.16.a, function
of point location onto one of the four elastic or plastic zones:
8
0
< y ! in the plastic zones
0 (17.48)
x (x; y) = y
: y ! in the elastic zones
c
where c is the hight of the elastic zones. Substituting (17.48) into (17.46) and (17.47):
Z Z 0 Z 0
0 y y
y dA + y dA + y dA+
Acp Ace Z c Ate c
0
+ y dA = 0 !
Atp
Z 0 Z 0 Z Z
0 y y 0
y dA y dA ( y) dA + y dA = 0 !
Acp c Ace c Ate Atp (17.49)
0 0
0 y Ac y At
y Acp SEPe N A SEPe N A + 0
y Atp = 0 !
c 0
c
0 y Ac At
y Acp t
Ap SEPe N A + SEPe N A = 0 !
c
1 Ac At
Acp Atp SEPe N A + SEPe N A = 0
c
and
2 Z Z 0
3
0 y
6 y y dA + y y dA+ 7
6 Acp Ace c 7
Mzelc pl (x; c) = 6 Z 0 Z 7= (17.50)
4 y 0 5
+ y ( y) dA + y y dA
Ate c Atp
0 Z 0 Z 0 Z 1
0 y y
B y y dA y 2 dA y 2 dA C
B Acp c Z Ace c Ate C
= B C=
@ 0 A
y ( y) dA
Atp
0 0
0 Ac y Ac y At 0 At
= y SEPp N A + IEPe N A + IEPe N A y SEPp N A =
c c
0 Acp Atp 1 Ac At
= y SEP N A SEP N A + IEPe N A + IEPe N A
c
Ac At Ac At
where SEPe N A , SEPe N A , IEPe N A and IEPe N A are the static moments and moments of inertia
pertinent to the four elastic and plastic zones of the cross-section, respectively, calculated
relative to the location of the EP N A.
For practical applications the above derived formulae can be presented in a more mean-
ingfull manner if it is observed that the static moments of the elastic zones are calculated
as:
Ac
SEPe N A = Ace yec > 0 (17.51)
At
SEPe N A = Ate yet < 0 (17.52)
where yec > 0 and yet < 0 are the centroids location of the elastic zones measured to
the EP N A location. Substituting (17.51) and (17.52) into (17.49), equation used for the
calculation of the EP N A location, becomes:
0
0 y
y Acp Atp Ace yec + Ate yet = 0! (17.53)
c
0 yec yet
y Acp + 0
y Atp 0
y Ace 0
y Ate = 0!
c c
Cp + Tp + Ce + Te = 0
where the notation stands for:
0
Cp = y Acp < 0 (17.54)
0
Tp = y Atp >0
0 yec
Ce = y Ace <0
c
0 yet
Te = y Ate >0
c
and are representing the axial forces acting into the centroids of of the four zones.
Remark 19 (a) The equation (17.53) represents the projection of all forces acting in the
centroids of all four zones on the normal axis of the cross section;
(b) If the cross-section is composed from rectangular shapes, the usual case of the steel
composed cross-sections employed in the structural design, and the elastic zones are lo-
cated in the same rectangular shape with thickness tw the forces of the two elastic zones,
conpresion and tension, Ce and Te , are equal in magnitude, but have opposing signs:
Ace = Ate = tw c ! yec = yet ! (17.55)

Ce = Te
and the equation (17.53) simplies to:
Cp + Tp = 0 ! (17.56)
0
y Acp + 0y Atp = 0 !
Acp = Atp
Calculation of the elasto-plastic bending moment Mzelc pl

(x; c) magnitude is reevaluated
in a similar manner:
1 Ac At
Mzelc pl
(x; c) = 0
y Acp ypc Atp ypt + IEPe N A + IEPe N A =
c
0 0
0 y Ac y At
= y Acp ypc 0
y Atp ypt + IEPe N A + IEPe N A =
0
c c
= y Acp ypc 0
y Atp ypt
Ac At (17.57)
0 yec IEPe N A yet IEPe N A
y Ace Ac
0
y Ate At
=
c SEPe N A c SEPe N A
Ac At
IEPe N A IEPe N A
= Cp ypc Tp ypt Ce Ac
Tp At
SEPe N A SEPe N A
Ac At Ac At
where SEPe N A , SEPe N A , IEPe N A and IEPe N A are the static moments and moments of inertia
pertinent to the four elastic and plastic zones of the cross-section, respectively, calculated
relative to the location of the EP N A. The relation (17.57) can also be simplied if the
composed cross-section has its elastic zones in the same rectangular part of thickness tw :
Ac At
IEPe N A IEPe N A
Ac
= At
(17.58)
SEPe N A SEPe N A
and consequenty, the magnitude of the bending moment is:

Ac
IEPe N A
Mzelc pl (x; c) = Cp ypc + Tp ypt + 2 Ce Ac
(17.59)
SEPe N A
Conclusion 20 (a) The unknown location of the EP N A can be calculated using equation
(17.49) or (17.49);
(b) The magnitude of the elasto-plastic bending moment Mzelc pl

(x; c) is obtained employing
the relation (17.50) or (17.57);
If the height of the elastic zones tends zero, c ! 0; the Fully-Plastic Limit is reached
and the position of the corresponding neutral axis, generically called F P N A, is obtained
particularizing the equation (17.49):
Acp Atp = 0 ! (17.60)

Acp = Atp
Consequently, the equation (17.53) becomes:
Cp = Tp (17.61)
The relation (17.50) expressing the magnitude of the fully-plastic bending moment is
obtained as:
h i
f l pl 0 Acp Atp
Mzc (x) = y SEP N A SEP N A = 0y Acp ypc Atp ypt = (17.62)
0
= y Acp (ypc ypt ) = Cp (ypc ypt ) = Tp (ypc ypt )
For the particular case of the double symmetric cross-section from (17.61) results that
the F P N A coincides with the EN A and the magnitude of the fully-plastic moment is
calcualted:
Ac
Mzfcl pl
(x) = 0
y 2 SEPp N A (17.63)
The normal stress distribution corresponding to Fully-Plastic Limit is pictured in Figure

17.16.b.
Remark 21 (a) The normal stress distribution illustrated in Figure 17.16.b indicates
that at the F P N A location can coexist two stresses with same magnitude but opposite
sign. This is a phisical imposibility, and consequently the diagram must be regarded as
an idealized theoretical condition. It must be concluded that a small elastic zones must
always exist. In general the existence of the bending moment requires the existance of
a shear force, which is inducing shear stresse on the cross-section. The existance of the
elastic zones is necessary for the development of the shear stress.
(b) If c ! 0 the corresponding rotation of the cross-section, as indicated in Figure 17.16,

tends to ! 1. mimiching the behavior of a mechanical hinge. This theoretical hinge,
called plastic hinge, behaves like a mechanical hinge, but has two opposite constant bending
moments of Mzfcl pl (x): The moments are opposing the rotation of the cross-section. The
existance of the plastic hinge when the cross-section becomes fully-plastic is an importan
concept in the Classical Theory of Plasticity.
The ratio of the two important values characterizing the bending moment capacity of the
cross-section, Mzelc pl (x; c) and Mzfcl pl (x), both dependinng only on the geometry of the
cross-section and the material onset yielding stress 0y , is called the plastic shape factor
and indicates the plastic reserve of the cross-section:
Mzfcl pl
psf = >1 (17.64)
Mzelc pl
17.4.2.1.2 Unloading. Remanent Normal Stresses The unloading of the cross-section

from a magnitude Mzelc pl (x; c) or Mzfcl pl (x) to a zero value of the bending moment mag-
nitude, a complete unloading, is obtained by theoretically superimposing on the loading
pertinent stress distributions of a linear stress diagram, which follows the Naviers for-
mula. The unloading stress distribution is mathematically expressed as:
el pl Mzelc pl (x)
x (x; y)unload = y (17.65)
Izc
or
f l pl Mzfcl pl (x)
x (x; y)unload = y (17.66)
Izc
where y is measured from the elastic neutral axis EP A. The superimposition of the stress
distributions obtained during loading and unloading, x (x; y)load and x (x; y)unload , it
results in a non-zero normal stress diagram called remanent normal stress x (x; y)rem :
x (x; y)rem = x (x; y)load + x (x; y)unload (17.67)
To clarify the theoretical derivations related with the normal stress distribution during
the loading and unloading of a cross-section subjected to pure bending three examples of
particular cross-sections are considered below.
Example 22 Rectangular Cross-Section
The rectangular cross-section, shown in Figure 17.32, made from a linear elastic - perfect
plastic material is considered. The strain and stress linear distributions are illustrated in
Figure 13.2. The EN A is coincident with the CZc axis passing through the centroid C.
Figure 17.32 Rectangular Cross-Section Elastic Behavior
At the onset yielding point, the elastic limit bending moment is computed using the
Naviers formula:
b h2
0
y Izc 12 = b h2
el
Mzc lim
= = 0
y WZelc lim
= 0
y
0
y
ymax h 6
2
el lim
where Wzc is the elastic section modulus. The corresponding strain distribution "x is
also linear.
If the bending moment is monotonically increased the cross-section behavior, as explained

above, becomes elasto-plastic. The position of the EP N A and the magnitude of the elasto-
el pl
plastic bending moment Mzc (c) are calcualted using both sets of equations: (a) (17.49)
and 17.50), and (b) (17.53) and (17.57), respectively.
(a) Considering that the unknown position of the EP N A is located at a distance y from
the bottom of the cross-section and observing that the elastic zones are equal, the position
of the EP N A is calculated using the equation (17.49) as:
1 Ac At
Acp Atp SEPe N A + SEPe N A = 0!
c
1 c c
b (h y c) b (y c) b c b c = 0!
c 2 2
h 2y = 0 !
h
y =
2
Figure 17.33 Rectangular Cross-Section Plastic Behavior

Consequently, the EP N A is coincident with the EN A. The elasto - plastic bending mo-
el pl
ment Mzc is calculated acording to formula (17.50):
el pl 0 Ac At 1 Ac At
Mzc (c) = y SEPp N A SEPp N A + IEPe N A + IEPe N A =
c
0 b h2 c2 1 1
= y 2 1 4 + 2 b c3 =
8 h2 c 3
0 b h2 c2 2
= y 1 4 2
+ b c2 =
4 h 3
2 2
0 b h c 2
= y 1 4 2
+ b c2 =
4 h 3
2
0 b h 4 c 2
= y 1
4 3 h
where
Ac h 1 h b h2 c2
SEPp N A = b c c +c = 1 4
2 2 2 8 h2
At h 1 h b h2 c2
SEPp N A = b c c +c = 1 4
2 2 2 8 h2
Ac 1
IEPe N A = b c3
3
At 1
IEPe N A = b c3
3
(b) The calculations explained above are conducted again use the set of relations (17.53)
and (17.57). The axial forces acting in the four areas of the cross-section are calculated
using fornulae (17.54) or directly from the stress diagram as:
0
Cp = y Acp = 0
y b (h c y) < 0
0
Tp = y Atp = 0
y b (y c) > 0
1
yec c 1
Ce = 0
Ace = 0
b c 2 = 0
b c<0
y y y
c c 2
1
yet c 1
Te = 0
Ate = 0
b c 2 = 0
b c>0
y y y
c c 2
It can be observed that:
Ce = Te
and consequently the position of the EP N A is obtained substituting the above values in
the projection equation (17.53):
Cp + Tp + Ce + Te = 0 !
0
y b (h c y) + 0y b (y c) = 0 !
h 2y = 0 !
h
y =
2
After establishing the real position of the EP N A the magnitude of the four axial compo-
nents components are re-evaluated:
0 h
Cp = y Acp = 0
y b ( c) < 0
2
0 h
Tp = y Atp = 0
y b ( c) > 0
2
0 yec 1
Ce = y Ace = 0
y b c<0
c 2
0 yet 1
Te = y Ate = 0
y b c>0
c 2
el pl
The magnitude of the elasto-plastic bending moment Mzc (c) is calculated summing the
moments produced by the four components against the EP N A axis:
el pl 1
h 1 h 2 2
Mzc (c) = Cp (
c) + c + Tp ( c) + c + Ce c + Te c=
2
2 2 2 3 3
0 h 1 h 1 2
= y b ( c) ( c) + c 2+ b c c 2 =
2 2 2 2 3
2
0 b h 4 c 2
= y 1
4 3 h
If the elastic zone c tends to zero, c ! 0, the fully plastic limit is reached. The EP N A
being independent of c the location of the F P N A is located at the same location, coincident
to the axis CZc :Consequently, the ENA, EPNA and PNA coincide with Cyc axis. The fully
plastic bending moment Mzfcl pl is calculated using the above formula of the Mzc el pl
(c) when
c ! 0:
h2
Mzfcl pl
= 0
y Wzf l pl
= 0
y b
4
el pl
Using the above formula the elasto-plastic moment Mzc (c) is expressed as:
el pl 4 c 2
Mzc (c) = Mzfcl pl
1
3 h
The plastic shape factor for the rectangular cross-section is:
0 h2
Mzfcl pl y b
psf = = 4 = 1:5
Mzelc pl 0
b h2
y
6
If the unloading from the fully plastic limit Mzfcl pl is atempt an equivalent negative bending
moment with the magnitude of the fully plastic moment, Mzfcl pl is applied: As previously
explain the unloading is an elastic behavior and according to Naviers formula:
b h2
Mzfcl pl
= max
x
6
max
The value of the x , a theoretical value, is obtained:
0 h2 b h2
y b = max
x !
4 6
max 0
x = 1:5 y
The nal stress distribution is obtained, as shown in Figure 17.34, by superimposing the
unloading stress diagram over the fully plastic limit stress distribution.
Figure 17.34 Rectangular Cross-Section Unloading fron Fully Plastic Limit
Example 23 I-type Cross-Section
The I-type cross-section, illustrated in Figure 17.36, constructed from a linear elastic
linear - perfect plastic material, is considere. At the onset yielding point, the elastic limit
el_ lim
bending moment Mzc is calculated using Naviers formula:
el_ lim 0 Izc 0 363: 14t4

Mzc = y = y Wzel lim
= 0
y = 0
y 52: 500t3
ymax 6:917t
where:
7t t 5:5t 3t t 5:5t 22t3
yC = = = 0:917t
7t t + 10t t + 7t t 24t2
7t t3 (10t)3 t
Izc = + 7t t (5:5t 0:917t)2 + + 10t t (0:917t)2 +
12 12
3t t3
+ + 3t t (5:5t + 0:917t)2 = 363: 14t4
12
6t 0:917t = 5: 083t
ymax = max = 6:917t
6t + 0:917t = 6:917t
As known the location of the EN A coincide with the axis CZC : The pertinent diagrams
of the elastic range are illustrated in Figure 17.35.
Figure 17.35 I-type Cross-Section Elastic Behavior
The unknown location of the EP N A is identied by the distance y measured, as shown

in Figure 17.36, from the bottom of the cross-section.
Figure 17.36 I-type Cross-Section Plastic Behavior

Supposing that the location of EP N A and the elastic zones are located in the cross-section
web, assumption which has to be chected at the end of the calculation, the four axial forces
are calculated directly from the normal stress distribution diagram:
Cp = Cpf l + Cpw = 0
y (7t t) 0
y (11t y c)t = 0
y (18t y c) t < 0
Tp = Tpf l + Tpw = 0y (3t t) + 0
y (y c)t = 0
y (3t c + y) t > 0
1 0
Ce = y t c<0
2
1 0
Te = y t c>0
2
From the above calculation it can be rematked that the plastic zones are each spanning
over two dierent areas (ange and part of web). Observing that:
Ce = Te
the projection equation is:
Cp + Tp 0!=
0 0
y (18t y c) t + y(3t c + y) t 0!=
18t + y + c + 3t c + y 0!=
15t 2y 0!=
15t
y = = 7:5t
2
The magnitude of the four axial forces are re-valuated as:
Cpf l = 0
y (7t t)
Cpw = 0
y (3:5t c)t
Tpf l = 0
y (3t t)
Tpw = 0
y (7:5t c)t
1 0
Ce = y t c
2
1 0
Te = y t c
2
el_pl
The elasto - plastic bending moment Mzc is calculated as:
el_pl 3:5t + c 6:5t + c

Mzc (c) = Cpf l (4t) + Cpw + Tpf l ( 7t) + Tpw +
2 2
2 2
+Ce c + Te c =
2 3 3
3:5t + c 6:5t + c
6 (7t t) (4t) (3:5t c)t (3t t) ( 7t) + 0y (7:5t c)t +
0 6 2 2
= y 4 1 2 1 2
+ t c c t c c
2 3 2 3
0
= y (0:666 67c2 t + 0:5ct2 + 67: 25t3 )
Considering that the elastic zones nullify, c ! 0, it results that the P N A is coincidental
with EP N A as long the elastic zones remain in the web:
c 3:5t
The fully plastic bending moment Mzfcl pl

is computed particularizing the expression of the
el_pl
Mzc obtained above:
Mzfcl pl
= 0
y (29 t3 0:5 e2 t + 47 t3 0:5 e2 t) = 0
y (76 t3 e2 t)
Because the elastic zone e in the fully plastic range tends to zero, the fully plastic bending
moment becomes
f ully_plastic
Mzc = 67: 25t3 0
y
The plastic shape factor is:
Mzfcl pl 67: 25t3 0

y
psf = = = 1: 281
Mzelc pl 52: 500t3 0
y
Mzfcl pl
= max
x 52: 500t3
max
0
y 67: 25t3 0
y = max
x 52: 500t3 !
max 0
x = 1: 281 y
It must be emphasized that the neutral axis during unloading is the EN A. The nal
stress distribution is obtained, as shown in Figure 17.37, (poza nala gresita????) by
superimposing the unloading stress diagram over the fully plastic limit stress distribution.
f ully_plastic
If from the fully plastic range is applied a negative bending ( Mzc ) to unload,
then the fully plastic loading diagram is added to the unloading elastic diagram and the
remanent stress on the cross-section is obtained.
Figure 17.37 I-type Cross-Section Elastic Behavior
Example 24 T-type Cross-Section
The T-type cross-section, illustrated in Figure 17.38, constructed from a linear elastic
linear - perfect plastic material, is considere herein.
Figure 17.38 T-type Cross-Section Elastic Behavior
el_ lim
At the onset yielding point, the elastic limit bending moment Mzc is calculated using
Naviers formula:
el_ lim 0 Izc 0 184: 58t4

Mzc = y = y Wzel lim
= 0
y = 0
y 27: 013t3
ymax 6: 833t
where:
5t t 5:5t 27: 5t3
yC = = = 1: 833 t
5t t + 10t t 15t2
5t t3 (10t)3 t
Izc = + 5t t (5:5t 1: 833 t)2 + + 10t t (1: 833t)2 = 184: 58t4
12 12
6t 1: 833t = 4: 167t
ymax = max = 6: 833t
5t + 1: 833t = 6: 833t
The location of the EN A coincide with the axis CZC : The pertinent diagrams character-
istic for the elastic range are illustrated in Figure 17.38.
Figure 17.39 T-type Cross-Section Elasto-Plastic Behavior
The unknown location of the EP N A is identied by the distance y measured, as shown in

Figure 17.39, from the bottom of the cross-section. Supposing that the location of EP N A
and the elastic zones are located in the cross-section web, assumption which has to be
chected at the end of the calculation, the four axial forces are calculated directly from the
normal stress distribution diagram:
Cp = Cpf l + Cpw = 0
y (5t t) 0
y (10t y c) t = 0
y (15t y c) t < 0
Tp = Tpw = 0
y (y c) t > 0
1 0
Ce = y t c<0
2
1 0
Te = y t c>0
2
From the above calculation it can be rematked that the compressive plastic zone is spanning
over two dierent areas (ange and part of web). Observing that:
Ce = Te
the projection equation is:
Cp + Tp = 0 !
0 0
y (15t y c) t + y (y c) t = 0 !
2y 15t = 0 !
15t
y = = 7:5t
2
The magnitude of the four axial forces are re-valuated as:
Cpf l = 0
y (5t t)
Cpw = 0
y (2; 5t c) t
Tpf l = 0
y (7:5t c) t
1 0
Ce = y t c
2
1 0
Te = y t c
2
el_pl
: t (c 2: 5t)The elasto - plastic bending moment Mzc is calculated as:
el_pl 2:5t + c 7:5t + c

Mzc (c) = Cpf l (3t) + Cpw + Tpw +
2 2
2 2
c + Te c =
+Ce
2 3 3 3
2:5t + c 7:5t + c
6 (5t t) (3t) + (2:5t c)t + 0y (7:5t c)t + 7
0 6 2 2 7=
= y 4 5
1 2 1 2
+ t c c + t c c
2 3 2 3
0
= y (46: 25t3 0:333 c2 t)
Considering that the elastic zones nullify, c ! 0, it results that the P N A is coincidental
with EP N A as long the elastic zones remain in the web:
c 2:5t
The fully plastic bending moment Mzfcl pl

is computed particularizing the expression of the
el_pl
Mzc obtained above:
Mzfcl pl
= 0
y 46: 25t3
The plastic shape factor is:
Mzfcl pl 46: 25t3 0

y
psf = = = 1: 712 1
Mzelc pl 27: 013t3 0
y
Mzfcl pl
= max
x 27: 013t3
max
0
y 46: 25t3 0
y = max
x 27: 013t3 !
max 0
x = 1: 712 1 y
It must be emphasized that the neutral axis during unloading is the EN A. The nal
stress distribution is obtained, as shown in Figure 17.40, (poza nala gresita????) by
superimposing the unloading stress diagram over the fully plastic limit stress distribution.
f ully_plastic
If from the fully plastic range is applied a negative bending ( Mzc ) to unload,
then the fully plastic loading diagram is added to the unloading elastic diagram and the
remanent stress on the cross-section is obtained.
Figure 17.40 T-type Cross-Section Unloading fron Fully Plastic Limit
17.4.2.2 Linear Elastic - Linear Hardening Material
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Continuing to increase the magnitude of the bending moment Mzc over the elastic-limit
el_lim
bending moment Mzc the onset yielding stress is met in points located in the vIcinity of
the point T and S locations and, consequently, two plastic areas, tensile and compressive,
are developed and the cross-section is characterized by an elasto-plastic behavior. This
condition is depicted in Figure 17.16.
Figure 17.16 Pure Bending - Elasto-Plastic Behavior
It has to be emphasized that all the original four requirEments, (a) through (d), describ-
ing the elastic range are considered also valid for the elasto-plastic range. As mentioned
above the linearity of the strain on the cross-section is the most signicant assumption.
When the cross-section is characterized by an elasto-plastic behavior, it is divided by the
elasto-plastic neutral axis (EP N A) into four distinct areas: the compression plastic area
Acp , the compressive elastic area Ace , the tensile elastic area Ate and the tensile plastic area
Atp , respectively. The position of the elasto-plastic neutral axis (EP N A) and the mag-
nitude of the elasto-plastic bending moment Mzelc pl are unknown quantities and have to
be calculated. They are obtained using integral relations between the stress and internal
resultants acting on the cross-section. Because the stress tensor is characterized by only
one component, the normal stress x (x; y), only two integral relations are possible to be
used:
Z
F (x) = x (x; y) dA = 0 (17.68)
A
and
Z
Mzelc pl (x) = x (x; y) y dA (17.69)
A
Considering valid the stress distribution illustrated in Figure 17.15, the equations (17.68)
and (17.69) are expressed as:
Z Z Z Z
x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA + x (x; y) dA = 0 (17.70)
Acp Ace Atp Ate
Z Z Z Z
Mzelc pl (x) = x (x; y) y dA x (x; y) y dA x (x; y) y dA x (x; y) y dA
Acp Ace Atp Ate
(17.71)
where the variation of the normal stress x (x; y) is dened function of point location
onto one of the four elastic or plastic zones.
According to the linear elastic - linear hardening stress-strain model the normal stress
0
x (x; y) in the plastic areas has magnitudes greater than the onset yielding stress y.
The magnitude of the tangent modulus Et < E conducts to a bi-linear distribution of
the normal stress on the cross-section. The expression of the normal stress x (x; y) is
obtained using the notation indicated in Figure 17.16 as:
a. - in the plastic compression area Acp

h i h i
0 c0 0 c0
x (x; y) = y + s (x; y) = y + Et s (x) = (17.72)
h i
0 c0
= y + E s (x; y)
where
c0
c
s (x)
"0y
s (x; y) = (y e) = (y e) (17.73)
ypc e e
and
Et
= (17.74)
E
Substituting equation (17.72) into (17.71)
0
"0y 0
0
y
x (x; y) = y + E (y e) = y + (y e) (17.75)
=
e e
h yi 0
= (1 )+ y
e
where e y ypc is measured from the elasto-plastic neutral axis and e is the
height of the elastic zone.
b. - in the elastic compressive area Ace

0
y
x (x; y) = y (17.76)
e
where 0 y e:
c. - in the elastic tensile area Ate

0
y
x (x; y) = y (17.77)
e
where e y 0:
d. - in the plastic tensile area Atp
0 t0 0 t0
x (x; y) = y + s (x; y) = y + Et s (x) = (17.78)
0 t0
= y + E s (x; y)
where
t0
t
s (x)
"0y
s (x; y) = (y + e) = (y + e) (17.79)
ypt + e e
Substituting equation (17.79) into (17.78)
0
"0y 0
0
y
x (x; y) = y E (y + e) = y (y + e) = (17.80)
h e e
yi 0
= (1 ) y
e
and ypt y e: Substituting (17.75), (17.76), (17.77) and (17.80) into equations
(17.70) and (17.71) and after algebraic manipulations:
Z h Z Z
yi 0
0
y
0
y
(1 )+ y dA y dA y dA+
Acp Ze h
Ace e Ate e
yi 0
+ (1 ) dA = 0 !
Z Z Atp Z e Z y Z Z
1 1
(1 ) dA y dA y dA y dA + (1 ) dA y dA =
Acp e Acp e Ace e Ate Atp e Atp
1 1
(1 ) Acp SAepna
c SAepna
c SAepna
t + (1 ) Atp SAepna
t =0!
e p e e e e e p
1
(1 ) Atp Acp SAepna
c + SAepna
t SAepna
c + SAepna
t =0
e p p e e e
(17.81)
Z h Z
yi 0
y
Mzelc pl (x; e)
= (1 )+ 0
y y dA y y dA
c
Ap e Aec e
Z Z h
0
y yi 0
y y dA (1 ) y y dA
t e t e
8 Z he A A Z Z 9
yi
p
> 1 1
>
< (1 )+ y dA + y y dA + y y dA > >
=
0 Apc e Z Ae c e Aet e
= y h y i
>
> (1 ) y dA >
>
: ;
Z A t
Z e Z
8 p 9
> 1
>
< (1 ) y dA + y y dA + y y dA+ > >
=
0 Z Apc e c
Ap Z e AZ c
= y 1
e
>
> y y dA > >
: + y y dA (1 ) y dA + ;
e Ate Atp e Atp
1 1
= 0y (1 ) SAepna c + IA
epna
c + I A
epna
c + I epna
t (1 ) SAepna t + IAepna
t
p e p e e e Ae p e p
1
= 0y (1 ) SAepna
c SAepna
t + IAepna
c + IAepna
t + IAepna
c + IAepna
t
p p e p p e e e
(17.82)
Conclusion 25 (a) equation (17.81) is utilized to calculate the position of the elasto-
plastic neutral axis (EP N A)
(b) equation (17.82) permits the calculation of the elasto-plastic bending moment Mzelc pl
(x; e)
(c) the parameter e indicates the spread of the elastic zone on the cross-section;
(d) the maximum value of the elasto-plastic bending moment is limited by the value of the
ultimate strain u . When ultimate strain u is attained at any extreme bers correspoding
to ypc or ypt the material is considered reaching its strength limit the ultimate stress u .
This fact always guarantees the existance of an elastic zone emin calculated as:
t
max( x ; j cx j) = u ! (17.83)
0
y
max(jypc j ; jypt j) = u !
emin
0
y 0
max(jypc j ; jypt j) = y !
emin
max(jypc j ; jypt j)
emin =
The bending moment elasto-plastic limit Mzelc pl lim

is then evaluated by substituting emin
into relation (17.82).
Conclusion 26 Few important conclusions are observed from the formulae derived above:
el_lim
(a) the values of Mzc and Mzfcully pl are dependent only on the shape of the cross-
section, while Mzelc pl is additionally dependent on the magnitude of the elastic zone e.
(b) the fully plastication of the cross-section is just a theoretical assumption and in
reality always an elastic zone of depth 2 e is present around the elasto-plastic neutral
axis (EP N A);
(c) if the material linear elastic - perfect plastic is considered the ratio between the fully
el_lim
plastic bending moment Mzfcully pl and the elastic limit bending moment Mzc indicates
the capacity increase of the cross-section and is called plastic shape factor:
Mzfcully pl
psf = el_lim
(17.84)
Mzc
(d) it has to be emphasized that although the above derived formulae contain the variable
x indicating the position of the cross-section, accordingly to assuption (c) this variable
is a dummy variable. Consequently, the stress and strain distributions and the bending
moment are independent of variable x and are constant along the length of the beam. This
implies that all cross-sections reach an identical stress and strain distribution in the same
time;
(e) for double symmetric cross-sections the elastic (EN A), elasto-plastic (EP N A) and
plastic neutral axis (P N A) are all coincident with the Czc axis;
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
17.5 Incremental Analysis of Simple Skeletal Systems
17.5.1 Uniform Axial-Deformed Systems
Three examples of simple structures comprising uniform axial-deformation members are

presented: a statically determinate system, a statically indeterminate system and a truss.
17.5.1.1 Statically Determinate System
The statically determinate system considered is represented by a single hanger, depicted

in Figure 17.19.a, of length l and constant area A. The left end, point A, is xed, while
at the other free end, at point B, a concentrated force P is applied. The beam is made
from a material characterized by linear elastic-linear hardening behavior.
17.5 Incremental Analysis of Simple Skeletal Systems 49
Figure 17.19.a Statically Determinate System
The stress-strain diagram is characterized by three important variables: the elastic mod-
ulus E; the onset yielding stress 0y and the plastic modulus Et : A fourth variable, de-
pendent on the rst two, the strain "0y corresponding to the onset yielding stress 0y is
calculated:
0
y
"0y = (17.85)
E
For simplicity, an identical stress-strain curve for tension and compression is considered.
At the beginning of the numerical experiment the beam is considered free of stress or
strain. A cycle of loading-unloading, obtained by incresing and decreasing the magnitude
of the concentrated force P ; is applied. Accordingly with the above ndings, the numerical
investigation is conducted considering small increments P of the force P . Two pairs
of values, the stress-strain ("x ; x ) and force-displacement (v; P ) corresponding to each
incremental step are calculated. The history of the the strain-stress "x x diagram is
plotted in Figure 17.20.b.
From the equilibrium equation results that the axial force F (x) acting on any cross-
section x of the bar is equal to the magnitude of the exterior force P . Consequently the
normal stress x is constant in any point (x; y; z) of the beam:
F (x) P
x = = (17.86)
A A
It is easy to be concluded that beam is an uniform axially deformed member.
The free stress-strain condition, represented by two null pairs ("0x = 0; 0x = 0) and
(v 0 = 0; P 0 = 0); is denoted on the diagrams as point 0. The incrementation of the
loading is conducted in both behavior ranges, elastic and plastic, for the uniformity of
the derivation. In reality the incrementation is absolutely required only for the plastic
0
A y
deformation. An articial load increment P = is used in this calculation. In the
4
numerical applications involving plastic behaviour the load step, a much smaller value,
is established from convergence criteria required by the numerical solver.
1. Monotonical Loading in Tension of the Cable
a. Loading from Point 0 (Free Stress) to Point 1 (Elastic Range)
Consider that the magnitude of the force P increases from P 0 = 0 to P 1 with a load step
increment P 0 = 3 P > 0. The beam is subjected to tension P 1 > 0 and as long as
the magnitude of the corresponding normal stress 1x remains under the on-set yielding
stress 0y ; the material behavior is linear elastic. In this behaviour range the following
relations are valid:
P = P1 = P0 + P0 = 3 P = 0:75 A 0
y = 0:75 P0 > 0 (17.87)
0
1 0 0 0 P 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 0 + 0:75 y = 0:75 y y
A
1 0
0:75
x y
"x = "1x = = = 0:75 "0y "0y
E E
1
x
"1e = = 0:75 "0y "1p = 0
E
l
v = v1 = P 1 = "1x l = 0:75 "0y l = 0:75 v0
E A
where
0
P0 = A y (17.88)
and
v0 = "0y l (17.89)
Point 1 on the diagrams represents the values obtained in equations (17.87).
b. Loading from Point 1 (Elastic Range) to Point 2
Applying a new positive increment P; the tensile force P continues to increase from
P 1 to P 2 = P 1 + P 1 . This condition corresponds to the limit of equations (17.87) and
consequently, they correspond with the reaching of the onset yielding stress 0y . The new
condition is expressed as:
P = P2 = P1 + P1 = 3 P+ P = 0:75 A 0
y =A 0
y
lim
= P0 = P(17.90)
e >0
2 1 1 1 P1 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 0:75 y + 0:25 y = y
A
2 0
x y
"x = "2x = = = "0y
E E
2
x
"2e = = "0y "2p = 0
E
v = v 2 = velim = "2x l = "0y l = v0
This is the elastic range limit and is marked as Point 2 on the diagrams. To emphasize
the reaching of the elastic limit the corresponding axial force and displacement are noted
as Pelim and velim ; respectively.
c. Loading from Point 2 (Elastic Limit Stage) to Point 3
After the onset yielding stress 0y is reached, accordingly with the material behavior
described above, any increase of the magnitude of the force P represents a plastic de-
formation and consequently, the plastic behavior rules have to be enforced. The loading
process continues and the magnitude of force P suers a new increase P 2 = P from
P 2 to P 3 = P 2 + P 2 > 0: In order to determine if a plastic loading or an unload-
ing is enforced the sign of the product 2x 2
x is required to be checked. In this case
2 2
x x > 0 and consequently a plastic loading takes place. In this case the new point
has to be located on the hardening line. This experimental condition, noted as point 3
on the diagrams, is determined by the following relations:
P = P3 = P2 + P2 = A 0
y + 0:25 A 0
y = 1:25 A 0
y = 1:25 P0(17.91)
>0
3 2 2 2 P2 0 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = y + 0:25 y = 1:25 y > y
A
2 0
x
0:25 y 0:25
"x = "3x = "2x + "2x = "0y + = "0y + = (1 + ) "0y
Et Et k
3
x 0:25
"3e = = 1:25 "0y "3p = ( 0:25) "0y
E k
3 3 0:25 0:25
v = v = "x l = (1 + ) "0y l = (1 + ) v0
k k
Et
where k = : During the plastic loading all possible subsequent yielding stresses must
E
be recorded. In this step the subsequent yielding stress y_sub_1 is:
3 0 0
y_sub_1 = x = 1:25 y > y (17.92)
d. Loading from Point 3 (Plastic Range) to Point 4
If the increase of the force P continues with a new increase P; then the magnitude of
the tensile load is P 4 = P 3 + P 3 > 0 and a new experimental condition, point 4 ; is
obtained:
P = P4 = P3 + P 3 = 1:25 A 0
y + 0:25 A 0
y = 1:5 A 0
y = 1:5 (17.93)
P0 > 0
3
4 3 P 3 0 3 0 0
x = x = x + = 1:25
x = y + 0:25
x + y = 1:5 y > y_sub_1
A
0:25 0:25 0:5
"x = "4x = "3x + "3x = (1 + ) "0y + "0y = (1 + ) "0y
k k k
4
x 0:5
"4e = = 1:5 "0y "4p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
0:5 0:5
v = v 4 = "4x l = (1 + ) "0y l = (1 + ) v0
k k
Note that in this step 3x 3

x > 0 indicating that the plastic loading continues on this
step. The subsequent yielding stress y_sub_2 obtained until now is:
4 0 0
y_sub_2 = x = 1:5 y > y (17.94)
e. Unloading from Point 4 (Plastic Range) to Point 5
If after the experimental condition corresponding to Point 4 , mathematically described

by equations (17.93), the unloading process starts, the material behavior during the un-
loading step is again elastic. Considering an unloading step characterized by a decrease
with P 4 = P of the magnitude of the previous step load P 5 = P 4 P > 0: The
applied load remains a tensile load. The unloading condition checks because the prod-
uct 4x 4
x < 0: The new experimental condition, point 5 on the diagrams, is located
outside the hardening line:
P = P5 = P4 P 4 = 1:5 A 0
y 0:25 A 0
y = 1:25 A 0
y = 1:25 (17.95)
P0 > 0
4
5 4 P 4 0 4 0 0
x = x = x = 1:5
x = y 0:25
x y = 1:25 y < y_sub_2
A
4 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:5
"x = "5x = "4x = (1 + ) "0y = (0:75 + ) "0y
E k E k
5
5 x 0:5
"e = = 1:25 "0y "5p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
5 5 0:5 0:5
v = v = "x l = (0:75 + ) "0y l = (0:75 + ) v0
k k
f. Unloading from Point 5 (Plastic Range) to Point 6 and Point 7

In the following two steps, due to the elastic behavior during the plastic unloading, the
decrease of the magnitude of the applied force with negative increments P continues.
Again the products 5x 5
x > 0 and x
6 6
x > 0 are indicating the continuation of
the unloading process. The dierence in between the two cases consists on the fact that
the process starting from Point 5 it is a plastic unloading, while that starting from Point
6 is an elastic unloading. The physical characteristics of the proposed steps 6 and 7 are:
P = P6 = P5 P 5 = 1:25 A 0
y 0:25 A 0
y =A 0
y = P0 > 0 (17.96)
5
6 5 5 5 P 0 0 0
x = x = x x = x = 1:25 y 0:25 y = y < y_sub_2
A
5 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:5
"x = "6x = "5x = (0:75 + ) "0y = (0:5 + ) "0y
E k E k
6
x 0:5
"6e = = "0y "6p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
0:5 0:5
v = v 6 = "6x l = (0:5 + ) "0y l = (0:5 + ) v0
k k
and
P = P7 = P6 P6 = A 0
y 0:25 A 0
y = 0:75 A 0
y = 0:75 P0(17.97)
>0
6
7 6 6 P6
x = x = x x = x = 0y 0:25 0
y = 0:75
0
y < y_sub_2
A
6 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:5
"x = "7x = "6x = (0:5 + ) "0y = (0:25 + ) "0y
E k E k
7
x 0:5
"7e = = 0:75 "0y "7p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
7 7 0:5 0:5
v = v = "x l = (0:25 + ) "0y l = (0:25 + ) v0
k k
g. Unloading from point 7 (Elastic Range) ! Point 8
The plastic unloading from point 7 to point 8 results in a free stress condition 8x = 0;
obtained by applying a decrease of the magnitude of the load P = P 7 with P 7 =
3 P: Note that this substantial increment is possible to be applied only because of
the linearity of the stress-strain relation in this type of behavior. Then, the following
relations are obtained:
P = P8 = P7 P 7 = 0:75 A 0
y 3 0:25 A 0
y =0 (17.98)
7
8 7 7 7 3 P 0 0
x = x = x 3 x = x = 0:75 y 0:75 y =0
A
7 0
x 0:5 0:75 y 0:5
"x = "8x = "7x = (0:25 + ) "0y =( 0:5) "0y
E k E k
8
x 0:5
"8e = =0 "8p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
0:5 0:5
v = v 8 = "8x l = ( 0:5) "0y l=( 0:5) v0
k k
For the free stress condition analyzed above, the elastic strain is zero and the plastic
strain represents the remanent strain.
Conclusion 27 (a) all the stresses located on the unloading branch 4 8 are characterized
by stress values lower than the last subsequent yielding stress recorded and corresponding
to the last point located on the plastic loading line;
(b) the plastic strains pertinent to all points located on the plastic unloading line 4 8
is constant and equal to the remanent strain obtained in the free stress condition of the
Point 8.
At this point, a subsequent plastic loading or unloading can start. Both cases are analyzed.
h. Loading from Point 8 (Elastic Range) to Point 9
Point 8 being a free stress point a loading in compression of the bar is possible. The
compressive loading is mathematically described as a negative value of the axial force P .
The compression loading step is marked by P 8 = P and consequently, the magnitude
of the axial force P in the subsequent Point 9, P , is calculated P 9 = P 8
9
P: The
decrease of the force magnitude can be regarded as a continuation of the plastic unloading
process started at Point 4 or as a new elasto-plastic process which starts from the stress
free Point 8 , instead of the original Point 0 . Both points of view are valid and have
merits. For clarity in this text the second approach is used.
Conclusion 28 (a) An elasto-plastic process starts from a stress free point and ends at
a free stress point;
(b) Any stress free point is considered as a new origin from where a new elasto-plastic
loading starts. In this case the compression is regarded as a loading only if the signs of
the load and stress are negative and express compression;
(c) When a new loading elasto-plastic process start a new onset yielding stress has to be
determined. If the Bauschingers eect is neglected the new onset yielding stress is equal
0
to y : If the Bauschinger eect is considered, then the new onset yielding stress, in fact
a new subsequent yielding stress y_sub_3 , is calculated considering the last subsequent
yielding stress as:
0 0 0 0
y_sub_3 = 2 y + y_sub_2 = 2 y + 1:5 y = 0:5 y (17.99)
In this text the Bauschingers eect is considered.
The new point, Point 9, is characterized on the diagrams by the following values:
P = P9 = P8 + P8 = 0 0:25 A 0
y = 0:25 A 0
y = 0:25 P0(17.100)
<0
8
9 8 8 8 P 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + =0 0:25 y = 0:25 y > y_sub_3
A
8 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:5
"x = "9x = "8x + =( 0:5) "0y =( 0:75) "0y
E k E k
9
x 0:5
"9e = = 0:25 "0y "9p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
0:5 0:5
v = v 9 = "9x l = ( 0:75) "0y l=( 0:75) v0
k k
Note the sign (+) is used in the above equation to indicate loading, even a compressive
loading is considered.
i. Loading from Point 9 (Elastic Range) to Point 10
A new compressive increase P 9 = P is applied to the magnitude P 9 of the axial force.

Following the calculations expressed by equation (17.100) the new values characterizing
the Point 10 on the diagrams are obtained:
P = P 10 = P 9 + P9 = 0:25 A 0
y 0:25 A 0
y = 0:5 A 0
y = 0:5 (17.101)
P0 < 0
10 9 9 9 P9 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 0:25 y 0:25 y = 0:5 y = y_sub_3
A
9 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:5
"x = "10 9
x = "x + =( 0:75) "0y =( 1) "0y
E k E k
10
x 0:5
"10
e = = 0:5 "0y "10
p = ( 0:5) "0y
E k
0:5 0:5
v = v 10 = "10
x l=( 1) "0y l=( 1) v0
k k
The normal stress 10 x reached in this loading step is the value of the onset compressive
yielding stress y_sub_3 : This marks the beginning of a new plastic deformation range
or an elastic unloading towards Point 8. Because the elastic unloading will follow an
identical path with the elastic loading from Point 8 to Point 10 explained above, the
plastic loading is followed.
j. Loading from Point 10 (Plastic Range) to Point 11
If the compressive increase continues with the same loading step P 10 = P the
characteristic values for Point 11 are obtained in a similar manner as those of Point 3:
P = P 11 = P 10 + P 10 = 0:5 A 0
y 0:25 A 0
y = 0:75 A 0
y = 0:75 (17.102)
P0 < 0
11 10 10 P 1010 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x +
= 0:5 y 0:25 y = 0:75 y < y_sub_3
A
2 0
x 0:5 0:25 y 0:25
"x = "11
x = " 10
x + " 10
x = " 10
x + = ( 1) " 0
y =( 1) "0y
Et k Et k
11
x 0:25
"11
e = = 0:75 "0y "11
p = ( 0:25) "0y
E k
0:25
v = v 11 = "11x l=( 1) "0y l
k
Because a new plastic loading is in progress the value of the new subsequent yielding
stress, a value necessary in case of plastic unloading, is collected:
11 0
y_sub_4 = x = 0:75 y (17.103)
10 10
The plastic loading verication, the product x x > 0; checks.
k. Loading from Point 11 (Plastic Range) to point 12
A similar loading step P 11 = 2 P is used and the product 11 x

11
x > 0 indicates
the continuation of the plastic loading. The characteristic values for Point 12 are:
P = P 12 = P 11 + P 11 = 0:75 A 0
y 2 0:25 A 0
y = 1:25 A 0
y = 1:25 (17.104)
P0 < 0
12 11 11 11 P 11 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 0:75 y 0:5 y = 1:25 y < y_sub_4
A
11 0
0:25 x
0:5 y 0:25
"x = "12
=
x + "11
x= + "11
x =("11
x 1) "0y = ( + 1) "0y
Et k Et k
12
x 0:25
"12
e = = 1:25 "0y "12
p = ( 0:25) "0y
E k
12 12 0:25 0 0:25
v = v = "x l = ( + 1) "y l = ( + 1) v0
k k
The new subsequent yielding stress, is collected as:

12 0
y_sub_5 = x = 1:25 y (17.105)
l. Unloading from Point 12 to Point 13 (Plastic Range)

The following step is marked by a reduction of the magnitude of the axial step with
P 12 = 2 P from P 12 to P 13 : The sign of the product 12x
12
x < 0 indicates that
an unloading takes place. The behavior is elastic in this step and the characteristics of
the new point on the diagrams are calculated as:
P = P 13 = P 12 + P 12 = 1:25 A 0
y + 2 0:25 A 0
y = 0:75 A 0
y = 0:75 (17.106)
P0 < 0
12
13 12 12 12 P 0 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 1:25 y + 0:5 y = 0:75 y > y_sub_5
A
12
x 0:25 0:25
"x = "13 12
x = "x + "12 12
x = "x + = ( + 1) "0y + 0:5 "0y = ( + 0:5) "0y
E k k
13
x 0:25
"13
e = = 0:75 "0y "13
p = ( 0:25) "0y
E k
0:25 0:25
v = v 13 = "13
x l= ( + 0:5) "0y l= ( + 0:5) v0
k k
m. Unloading from Point 13 (Plastic Range) to Point 14
The nal unloading is enforced and a new point of free stress is obtained by bringing the
axial force to zero. Using a positive increment P 13 = 3 P the characteristic values
for Point 14 location on the diagrams are calculated as:
P = P 14 = P 13 + P 13 = 0:75 A 0
y + 3 0:25 A 0
y =0 (17.107)
13
14 13 13 13 P 0 0
x = x = x + x = x + = 0:75 y + 0:75 y =0> y_sub_5
A
13
x 0:25 0:25
"x = "14 13
x = "x + "13 13
x = "x + = ( + 0:5) "0y + 0:75 "0y = ( 0:25) "0y
E k k
14
x 0:25
"14
e = =0 "14
p = ( 0:25) "0y
E k
0:25 0:25
v = v 14 = "14
x l= ( 0:25) "0y l = ( 0:25) v0
k k
0:25
The remanent deformation of the hanger is ( 0:25) "0y l: The results obtained
k
above are summarized in Table 17.1.
Table 17.1 - Summary of Results

0
Point Number x= y "x ="0y Position "e ="0y "p ="0y
0 0 0 Free-Stress Point 0 0
1 0:75 0:75 Elastic Range 0:75 0
2 1 1 Elastic Limit-Tension 1 0
0:25 0:25
3 1:25 1+ Plastic Range 1:25 0:2
k k
0:5 0:5
4 1:5 1+ Plastic Range 1:5 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
5 1:25 0:75 + Elastic Range 1:25 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
6 1 0:5 + Elastic Range 1 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
7 0:75 0:25 + Elastic Range 0:75 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
8 0 0:5 Free-StressPoint 0 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
9 0:25 0:75 Elastic Range 0:25 0:5
k k
0:5 0:5
10 0:5 1 Elastic Range 0:5 0:5
k k
0:25 0:25
11 0:75 1 Plastic Range 0:75 0:2
k k
0:25 0:25
12 1:25 1 Plastic Range 1:25 + 0:
k k
0:25 0:25
13 0:75 0:5 Elastic Range 0:75 + 0:
k k
0:25 0:25
14 0 + 0:25 Free-Stress Point 0 + 0:
k k
Substituting k = 0:25 into Table 17.1, rst the characteristic values of the points 0
through 14 are summarized in Table 17.2 and later plotted in Figure 17.20.
Table 17.2- Summary of Results for k = 0:25
0
Point Number x= y "x ="0y Position "e ="0y "p ="0y 0
x= y
0 0 0 Free-Stress Point 0 0 0:75
1 0:75 0:75 Elastic Range 0:75 0 0:25
2 1 1 Elastic Limit-Tension 1 0 0:25
3 1:25 2 Plastic Range 1:25 0:75 0:25
4 1:5 3 Plastic Range 1:5 1:5 0:25
5 1:25 2:75 Elastic Range 1:25 1:5 0:25
6 1 2:5 Elastic Range 1 1:5 0:25
7 0:75 2:25 Elastic Range 0:75 1:5 0:75
8 0 1:5 Free-StressPoint 0 1:5 0:25
9 0:25 1:25 Elastic Range 0:25 1:5 0:25
10 0:5 1 Elastic Range 0:5 1:5 0:25
11 0:75 0 Plastic Range 0:75 0:75 0:5
12 1:25 2 Plastic Range 1:25 0:75 0:5
13 0:75 1:5 Elastic Range 0:75 0:75 0:75
14 0 0:75 Free-Stress Point 0 0:75 0
Three graphs are plotted in Figure 17.20: (a) the normalized strain-stress diagram, (b)
the normalized plastic strain-stress path and (c) elastic-strain-stress path.
stress 1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-0.2 strain
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
gure 17.20 Strain-Stress Paths
17.5.1.2 Statically Indeterminate System
The system illustrated in Figure 17.21.a is considered. The two vertical cables are made
of structural steel characterized by a linear elastic - linear hardening material model and
have the same cross-section area A. The horizontal member is considered as rigid member
(E I = 1): The system is loaded at point D by a vertical force P . Two theoretical
experiments are performed: the magnitude of this force is monotonically increased until
the ultimate stress is reached in both cables and a theoretical unloading is also performed
from a condition when both cables are on the linear hardening curve until both cables
are free of stress.
Figure 17.21.a Statically Indeterminate System
The free body diagram of the system is depicted in Figure 17.21.b. is obtained by "cut-
ting" the cables and replacing them by their corresponding axial forces T1 and T2 , re-
spectively. The two cables t the denition of the axially uniform-deformation member
and, consequently all the pertinent relations 17.41 through 17.44 can be utilized.
Figure 17.21.b Free-Body Diagram
Using the free-body diagram shown in Figure 17.21.b two static equilibrium equations,
on the vertical axis y and moment around the point A, can be written:
X
= 0 ! VA + T 1 + T 2 P =0 (17.108)
y
and
a T1 2 a T2 + 3 a P = 0 (17.109)
Those two equations have a general character, being independent of the material behavior
of the composing members. They contain three (3) unknowns: the vertical reaction force
VA in the hinge and the cable forces T1 and T2 , respectively. It can be concluded that the
system is an indeterminate system.
From (17.109) it results:

1
P = (T1 + 2 T2 ) (17.110)
3
The normal stresses in the cables, x_1 and x_2 , are expressed in accordance to (??) as:
T1
x_1 = (17.111)
A
and
T2
x_1 = (17.112)
A
The additional required equation is obtained from the geometrical relation induced by the
assumption of the innite rigidity (E I = 1) of the member in bending. Considering the
possible deformed position shown in Figure 17.21.b the following geometrical relations
are obtained:
e1 e2 e
= = (17.113)
a 2 a 3 a
From (17.109) it results that:
1
e1 = e (17.114)
3
and
2
e2 = e (17.115)
3
In accordance to (??) the normal strain "x_1 and "x_2 in the cables are:
e1
"x_1 = (17.116)
2l
and
e2
"x_2 = (17.117)
l
Monotonically Loading of the System
x =E "x (17.118)
Then
E A E A 1 E A
T1 = e1 = e= e (17.119)
2 l 2 l 3 6 l
E A E A 2 2 E A
T2 = e2 = e= e (17.120)
l l 3 3 l
Consequently,
T2 = 4 T1 (17.121)
and
T1
x_1 = (17.122)
A
T2
x_2 = =4 x_1 (17.123)
A
Conclusion 29 Cable 2 has a larger stress and will arrive at yielding rst.
Note by:
Ty0 = 0
y A (17.124)
e0y = "0y l (17.125)

The upper indice represents the point number on the diagrams, while the lower indice is
the cable number.
(1) Point 0
This situation represents the unloaded system, when P 0 = 0 and consequently, e0 = 0:
(a) Cable 1
0
x_1 = 0 (17.126)
T10 = 1
x_1 A=0
"0x_1 = 0
e01 = "1x_2 2 l = 0
(b) Cable 2
0
x_2 = 0 (17.127)
T20 = 1
x_1 A=0
"0x_2 = 0
e02 = "0x_2 2 l = 0
The total load P 0 and displacement e0 are:
1 0
P0 = (T1 + 2 T20 ) = 0 (17.128)
3
3 0
e0 = 3 e01 = e
2 2
(2) Point 1
Both cables are behaving in elastic range, but the stress in cable 2 reaches the rst yielding
stress 0y .(the limit of the elastic behavior)
(a) Cable 2
1 0
x_2 = y (17.129)
T21 = 1
x_2 A= 0
y A= Ty0
"1x_2 = "y0
e12 = "1x_2 l = "0y l = e0y
consequently, the displacement e1 at the concentrated force is:

3 3 3
e1 = e12 = "0y l= e0y (17.130)
2 2 2
(b) Cable 1
From equation (17.114)

1 1 3 1 1
e11 = e1 = e0y = e0y = "0y l (17.131)
3 3 2 2 2
then:
1
e11 2
"0y l 1
"1x_1 = = = "0y (17.132)
2 l 2 l 4
1 1 1 1
x_1 = E "1x_1 = E e0y = E "0y l= 0
y
4l 4l 4
1 1
T11 = 1
x_1 A= 0
y A= Ty0
4 4
The total load P 1 is:
1 1 1 3
P 1 = (T11 + 2 T21 ) = ( Ty0 + 2 Ty0 ) = Ty0 (17.133)
3 3 4 4
The increase in the vertical load P 0 and displacement e0 is calculated as:
3 3
P0 = P1 P0 = Ty0 0= Ty0 (17.134)
4 4
3 3
e0 = e2 e0 = e0y 0= e0y
2 2
(3) Point 2
The increase of the concentrated load P will increase the stress in both cables. It is
supposed that the increase P 1 corresponds to the situation when the stress in cable 1
reaches the yielding stress 0y . Cable 1 is in elastic loading, while cable 2 is subjected to
plastic loading.
(a) Cable 1
2 0
x_1 = y (17.135)
T12 = 2
x_1 A= 0
y A= Ty0
2 0
x_1 y
"2x_1 = = = "0y
E E
e21 = "2x_1 2 l = "0y 2 l = 2 e0y
then,
e2 = 3 e21 = 3 2 e0y = 6 e0y (17.136)
(a) Cable 2

2 2
e22 = e2 = 6 e0y = 4 e0y (17.137)
3 3
consequently,
e22 4 e0y 4 "0y l

"2x_2 = = = = 4 "0y "0y ! plastic loading (17.138)
l l l
"2s_2 2 0
= "x_2 "y = 3 "y 0
0
2 y
s_2 = Et "2s_2 = Et 3 "0y = Et 3 =3 k 0
y
E
2 0 2 0 0
x_2 = y + s_2 = (1 + 3 k) y y
T22 = 2
x_2 A = (1 + 3 k) 0
y A = (1 + 3 k) Ty0

1 1 1
P2 = (T12 +2 T22 ) = [Ty0 +2 (1+3 k) Ty0 )] = [3+6 k] Ty0 = (1+2 k) Ty0 (17.139)
3 3 3
The increase in the vertical load P 1 and displacement e1 is calculated as:
3 1
P1 = P2 P 1 = (1 + 2 k) Ty0 Ty0 = ( + 2 k) Ty0 (17.140)
4 4
3 9
e1 = e2 e1 = 6 e0y e0y = e0y
2 2
(4) Points 3 through 6
The increase of the concentrated load P will continue to increase the stress in both cables.
It is supposed that the increase P 2 corresponds to the situation when the stress in cable
2 0
1 increases by an additional yielding stress x_1 = y > 0, where 0 < < 1. Now,
both cables, cable 1 and cable 2, are subjected to plastic loading.
(a) Cable 1
2 2
x_1 x_1 > 0 ! plastic loading (17.141)
3 2 2 0 0 0 0
x_1 = x_1 + x_1 = y + y = (1 + ) y y
3 3 0 0 0 0
s_1 = x_1 y = (1 + ) y y = y
3 0
s_1 y
"3s_1 = = = "0y
Et k E k
"3x_1 = "0y + "3s_1 = "0y + "0y = (1 + ) "0y
k k
T13 = 3
x_1 A = (1 + ) 0
y A = (1 + ) Ty0
e31 = "3x_1 2 l = (1 + ) "0y 2 l = 2 (1 + ) e0y
k k
then,
e3 = 3 e21 = 3 2 (1 + ) e0y = 6 (1 + ) e0y (17.142)

k k
(a) Cable 2

2 2
e32 = e3 = 6 (1 + ) e0y = 4 (1 + ) e0y (17.143)
3 3 k k
consequently,
e32 4 (1 + k ) e0y 4 (1 + k ) "0y l

"3x_2 = = = = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y (17.144)
l l l k
"3s_2 = "3x_2 "0y = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y = (3 + 4 ) "0y
k k
0
3 y
s_2 = Et "3s_2 = Et (3 + 4 ) "0y =k E (3 + 4 ) = (4 + 3 k) 0
y
k k E
3 0 3 0 0 0
x_2 = y + s_2 = y + (4 + 3 k) y = (1 + 4 + 3 k) y
T23 = 3
x_2 A = (1 + 4 + 3 k) 0
y A = (1 + 4 + 3 k) Ty0

1 1 1
P3 = (T13 +2 T23 ) = [(1+ ) Ty0 +2 (1+4 +3 k) Ty0 ] = [3+9 +6 k] Ty0 = (1+3 +2 k) Ty0
3 3 3
(17.145)
The increase in the vertical load P 2 and displacement e2 are calculated as:
P2 = P3 P 2 = (1 + 3 + 2 k) Ty0 (1 + 2 k) Ty0 = 3 Ty0(17.146)

e2 = e3 e2 = 6 (1 + ) e0y 6 e0y = e0y
k k
Using the above derived formulae the representative values for each individual cable and
the entire system are calculated considering that the parameter takes four distinct
values:
- at Point 3 corresponds = 0:25
(a) for Cable 1 :
0:25
"3x_1 = (1 + ) "0y (17.147)
k
3 0
x_1 = 1:25 y
0:25
e31 = 2 (1 + ) e0y
k
T13 = 1:25 Ty0
for Cable 2 :
0:25
"3x_2 = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y (17.148)
k
3 0
x_2 = (2 + 3 k) y
0:25
e32 = 4 (1 + ) e0y
k
T23 = (2 + 3 k) Ty0
or the System:
0:25
e3 = 6 (1 + ) e0y (17.149)
k
P3 = (1:75 + 2 k) Ty0

for Cable 1 :
0:5
"4x_1 = (1 + ) "0y (17.150)
k
4 0
x_1 = 1:5 y
0:5
e41 = 2 (1 + ) e0y
k
T14 = 1:5 Ty0
for Cable 2 :
0:5
"4x_2 = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y (17.151)
k
4 0
x_2 = 3 (1 + k) y
0:5
e42 = 4 (1 + ) e0y
k
T24 = 3 (1 + k) Ty0
for the System:
0:5
e4 = 6 (1 + ) e0y (17.152)
k
P4 = (2:5 + 2 k) Ty0
- at Point 5 corresponds t = 0:75
for Cable 1 :
0:75
"5x_1 = (1 + ) "0y (17.153)
k
5 0
x_1 = 1:75 y
0:75
e51 = 2 (1 + ) e0y
k
T15 = 1:75 Ty0
for Cable 2 :
0:75
"6x_2 = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y (17.154)
k
5 0
x_2 = (4 + 3 k) y
0:75
e52 = 4 (1 + ) e0y
k
T25 = (4 + 3 k) Ty0
for the System:
0:75
e5 = 6 (1 + ) e0y (17.155)
k
P5 = (3:25 + 2 k) Ty0
for Cable 1 :
1
"6x_1 = (1 + ) "0y (17.156)
k
6 0
x_1 = 2 y
1
e61 = 2 (1 + ) e0y
k
6 0
T1 = 2 Ty
for Cable 2 :
1
"6s_2 = 4 (1 + ) "0y "0y (17.157)
k
6 0
x_2 = (5 + 3 k) y
1
e62 = 4 (1 + ) e0y
k
T2 = (5 + 3 k) Ty0
6
for the System:

1
e6 = 6 (1 + ) e0y (17.158)
k
P = 2 (2 + k) Ty0
6
(5) Points 7 through.9
6 0
Unloading of the Cable 1 with x_1 = y
(a) Cable 1
6 6 s 6
x_1 x_1 < 0 ! plastic unloading ! y_1 = x_1 (1
7 6 6 0 0 0
x_1 = x_1 + x_1 =2 y y = (2 ) y
6 0
x_1 1 (2 ) y 1 1
"7x_1 = "6x_1 = (1 + ) "0y = (1 + ) "0y (2 ) "0y = ( 1+
E k E k k
T17 = 7
x_1 A = (2 ) Ty0
1
e71 = "7x_1 2 l=2 ( 1 + ) e0y
k
then,
1
e7 = 3 e71 = 6 ( 1 + ) e0y (17.160)
k
(b) Cable 2
2 1
e72 = e7 = 4 ( 1 + ) e0y (17.161)
3 k
consequently,
e72 4 ( k1 1 + ) e0y 1
"7x_2 = = =4 ( 1 + ) "0y < "6x_1 "0y ! plastic unloading
(17.162)
l l k
1 1
"6x_2 = "6x_2 "7x_2 = 4 (1 + ) "0y 4 ( 1 + ) "0y = 4 (2 ) "0y
k k
7 6
x_2 = x_2 E "6x_2 = (5 + 3 k) 0
y 4 (2 ) 0
y = (3 k 3+4 ) 0
y
T27 = 7
x_2 A = (3 k 3+4 ) Ty0
1 1 1
P7 = (T17 +2 T27 ) = [(2 ) Ty0 +2 (3 k 3+4 ) Ty0 ] = (6 k 4+7 ) Ty0
3 3 3
(17.163)
The increase in the vertical load P 7 and displacement e7 are calculated as:
1 1
P7 = P6 P 7 = 2 (2 + k) Ty0 (6 k 4+7 ) Ty0 = (16 ) Ty0
7 (17.164)
3 3
1 1
e7 = e6 e7 = 6 (1 + ) e0y 6 ( 1 + ) e0y = 6 (2 ) e0y
k k
Conclusion 30 Comparing the total force in Cable 1 and 2 it is observed that:
(a) the force in Cable 1 (T1 = 0) becomes zero for = T1 = 2;
3 3
(b) the force in Cable 2 (T2 = 0) becomes zero for = T2 = 4 4
k;
4 6
(c) the total force (P = 0) acting on the system is zero when = P = 7 7
k;
(d) Because k value takes values between 0 and 1; 0 k 1; T2 < P < T1 ; and
consequently, the unloading order is: (1) cable
Conclusion 31 The force in Cable 2 (T2 = 0) becomes zero before the total load in the
system(P = 0) is zero if 34 43 k 47 67 k. This requires that k 1 and
consequently the unloading order is: rst the load T2 = 0; then P = 0 and last, T1 = 0
2.0

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
k
Variation of
3 3
- at Point 7 corresponds to T2 = 0 and = 4 4
k
for Cable 1 :
1 1 3 1
"7x_1 = ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( + k + ) "0y (17.165)
k k 4 4
7 0 5 3 0
x_1 = (2 ) y = ( + k) y
4 4
1 2 3 1
e71 = 2 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( k ) e0y
k k 2 2
5 3
T17 = (2 0
) Ty = ( + k) Ty 0
4 4
for Cable 2 :
1 4
"7x_2 = 4 ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( 3k 1) "0y (17.166)
k k
7 0
x_2 = ( 3+3 k+4 ) y = 0
1 4
e72 = 4 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( 3k 1) e0y
k k
T27 = (3 k 3 + 4 ) Ty0 = 0
for the System:

1 6 9 3
e7 = 6 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( k ) e0y (17.167)
k k 2 2
4 7 5 1
P7 = ( +2 k+ ) Ty0 = ( + k) Ty0
3 3 12 4
4 6
- at Point 8 corresponds to P = 0 and = 7 7
k
for Cable 1 :
1 1 6 3
"8x_1 = ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( k ) "0y (17.168)
k k 7 7
8 0 10 6 0
x_1 = (2 ) y = ( + k) y
7 7
1 2 12 6
e81 = 2 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( k ) e0y
k k 7 7
10 6
T18 = (2 ) Ty0 = ( + k) Ty0
7 7
for Cable 2 :
1 4
24 12
"8x_2 = 4 ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( k ) "0y (17.169)
k k
7 7
8 0 3 5 0
x_2 = ( 3+3 k+4 ) y = ( k ) y
7 7
1 4 24 12
e82 = 4 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( k ) e0y
k k 7 7
3 5
T28 = ( 3+3 k+4 ) Ty0 = ( k ) Ty0
7 7
for the System:
1 6
e8 = 6 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( 4k 2) e0y (17.170)
k k
4 7
P8 = ( +2 k+ ) Ty0 = 0
3 3
- at Point 9 corresponds to T1 = 0 and =2

for Cable 1 :
1 1
"9x_1 = ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( + 1) "0y (17.171)
k k
9 0
x_1 = (2 ) y = 0
1 2
e91 = 2 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( + 2) e0y
k k
T19 = (2 ) Ty0 = 0
for Cable 2 :
1 4
"9x_2 = 4 ( 1 + + ) "0y = ( + 4) "0y (17.172)
k k
9 0 0
x_2 = ( 3+3 k+4 ) y = (3k + 5) y
1 4
e92 = 4 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( + 4) e0y
k k
T29 = ( 3+3 k+4 ) Ty = (3k + 5) Ty0
0
for the System:
1 6
e9 = 6 ( 1 + + ) e0y = ( + 6) e0y (17.173)
k k
4 7 10
P9 = ( +2 k+ ) Ty0 = (2k + ) Ty0
3 3 3
(a) Stress-Strain Diagrams in Cables
Stress-Strain Matrix Cable 1 Stress-Strain Matrix Cable 2

2 3 2 3
Step_i "ix_1 i
x_1 Step_i "ix_2 i
x_2
6 0 0 0 7 6 0 0 0 7
6 7 6 7
6 1 1
" 0 1 0 7 6 1 " 0 0 7
6 4 y 4 y 7 6 y y 7
6 2 " 0 0 7 6 2 4 "0y (1 + 3 k) 07
6 y y 7 6 y7
6 3 (1 + 0:25
) " 0
1:25 0 7 6 3 4 (1 + 0:25 ) "0y (2 + 3 k) 07
6 k y y 7 6 k y7
6 4 (1 + 0:5
) " 0
1:5 0 7 6 4 4 (1 + k ) "0y0:5
3 (1 + k) 07
6 k y y 7 6 y7
6 5 (1 + 0:75
) " 0
1:75 0 7 6 5 4 (1 + 0:75 ) "0y (4 + 3 k) 07
6 k y y 7 6 k y7
6 6 (1 + 1
) " 0
2 0 7 6 6 4 (1 + k1 ) "0y (5 + 3 k) 07
6 k y y 7 6 y7
6 7 ( k1 + 34 k + 14 ) "0y ( 45 + 34 k) 07 6 7 ( k4 3k 1) "0y 0 7
6 y7 6 7
4 8 ( k1 67 k 37 ) "0y ( 10 + 67 k) 05 4 8 ( k4 24 k 12 ) "0y 3
( 7 k 57 ) 05
7 y 7 7 y
9 ( k1 + 1) "0y 0 9 ( k4 + 4) "0y (3k + 5) 0
y
Application
k = 0:25
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
6 1
"0y 1 0 7 6 1 1 7 6 "0y 0 7
6 4 4 y 7 6 4 4 7 6 y 7
6 " 0 0 7 6 1 1 7 6 4 "0y (1 + 3 k) 07
6 y y 7 6 7 6 y7
6 (1 + 0:25 ) "0y 1:25 0 7 6 2:0 1:25 7 6 4 (1 + 0:25 ) "0y (2 + 3 k) 07
6 k y 7 6 7 6 k y7
6 (1 + 0:5 ) "0y 1:5 0 7 6 3:0 1:5 7 6 4 (1 + 0:5 ) "0y 3 (1 + k) 07
6 k y 7=6 7 6 k y7
6 (1 + 0:75 ) "0y 1:75 0 7 6 4:0 1:75 7 6 4 (1 + 0:75 ) "0y (4 + 3 k) 07
6 k y 7 6 7 6 k y7
6 (1 + 1 ) "0 2 0 7 6 5:0 2 7 6 4 (1 + 1 ) "0 (5 + 3 k) 07
6 1 3 k 1 y y 7 6 7 6 4 k y y7
6( + k + ) "0 ( 5 + 3 k) 07 64:4375 1:43757 6 ( 3k 1) " 0
0 7
6 k 4 4 y 4 4 y7 6 23:5 7 6 k y 7
4( 1 6 k 3 ) "0 ( 10 + 6 k) 05 4 11:5 5 4( 4 24
k 12
) " 0
( 73 k 57 ) 05
k 7 7 y 7 7 y 7 7 k 7 7 y y
( k1 + 1) "0y 0 5:0 0 ( k4 + 4) "0y (3k + 5) 0
2 3 y
0 0
6 1 1 7
6 7
6 4 1:75 7
6 7
6 8:0 2:75 7
6 7
6 12:0 3:75 7
6
:6 7
16:0 4:75 7
6 7
6 20:0 5:75 7
6 7
614:25 0 7
6 7
4 14:0 0:25 5
12:0 2: 25
y
5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
x
-1
-2
Stain-Stress Diagrams in Cables
(b) Displacement-Force in Cables and Total
Stress-Strain Matrix Cable 1 Stress-Strain Matrix Cable 2 3*Load-

Displacement Curve
2 3 2 3 2
Step_i eix_1 =e0y i
Tx_1 =Ty0 Step_i eix_2 =e0y i
Tx_2 =Ty0 Step_i ei
6 0 0 0 7 6 0 0 0 7 6 0
6 7 6 7 6
6 1 1 1 7 6 1 1 1 7 6 1
6 2 4 7 6 7 6
6 2 2 1 7 6 2 4 (1 + 3 k)7 6 2
6 7 6 7 6
6 3 2 (1 + k ) 0:25
1:25 7 6 3 4 (1 + 0:25 ) (2 + 3 k)7 6 3 6 (1
6 7 6 k 7 6
6 4 2 (1 + 0:5
) 1:5 7 6 4 4 (1 + k ) 0:5
3 (1 + k)7 6 4 6 (1
6 k 7 6 7 6
6 5 2 (1 + 0:75
) 1:75 7 6 5 4 (1 + 0:75 ) (4 + 3 k)7 6 5 6 (1
6 k 7 6 k 7 6
6 6 2 (1 + k ) 1
2 7 6 6 4 (1 + 1
) (5 + 3 k)7 6 6 6 (
6 7 6 k 7 6
6 7 2 3
k 1 3 3 7
k 6 7 4
3k 1 0 7 6 7 6 9
6 k 2 2 4 4 7 6 k 7 6 k 2
4 8 2 4
k 2 2 2 5
k 4 8 4 8
k 43 1
k 1 5 4 8 6
4
k 3 3 3 3 k 3 3 3 k
2 4 6
9 k
2 0 9 k
4 3k 3 9 k
k = 0:25
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 1 1 7 6 1 1 7 6 1 1 7 6 1 7
6 2 4 7 6 2 4 7 6 7 6 1 7
6 2 1 7 6 2 1 7 6 4 (1 + 3 k)7 6 1: 75 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 4 7
62 (1 + 0:25 ) 1:25 7 6 4:0 1: 25 7 64 (1 + 0:25 ) 7
(2 + 3 k)7 6 2: 75 7
6 k 7 6 7 6 k 6 8:0 7
62 (1 + k ) 0:5
1:5 7 6 6:0 1: 5 7 64 (1 + 0:5 ) 3 (1 + k)7 6 3: 75 7
6 7:6 7 6 k 7 : 6 12:0 7
62 0:75
(1 + k ) 1:75 7 6 8:0 7 6 1: 75 7 64 (1 + 0:75 ) 7
(4 + 3 k)7 6 4: 75 7
6 7 6 k 6 16:0 7
6 2 (1 + k1 ) 2 7 6 10:0 2 7 6 4 1
(1 + k ) 7
(5 + 3 k)7 6 5: 75 7
6 2 7 6 7 6 4 6 20:0 7
6 3 1 3 3 7 6
k 2 4 4 k 7 67: 125 0:562 57 6 3k 1 0 7 614: 25 0 7
6 k2 2 7 6 4k 7 6 7
4 4
k 2 2 2 5 4
k 7:0 0:5 5 4 8
k 43 1
k 1 5 4
14:0 0:25 5
k 3 3 3 3 k 3 3 3
2 4
k
2 0 6:0 0 k
4 3k 3 12:0 2: 25
2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0
6 3
3 34 7 6 3 9 7
6 2 7 6 2 4 7
6 6 3 (1 + 2 7 6
k) 7 6 6 4:5 7
6 7
66 0:25
(1 + k ) 3 (1:75 + 2 k)7 6 12:0 6:75 7
6 7 6 7
66 (1 + 0:5 ) 3 (2:5 + 2 7 6
k) 7 6 18:0 9:0 7
6 k =6 7
66 0:75
(1 + k ) 3 (3:25 + 2 k)7 24:0 11:25 7
6 7 6 7
6 6 (1 + k1 ) 3 (4 + 2 k) 7 6 13:5 7
6 6 7 6 30:0 7
6 9
k 2 3 1 1
k 7 621:375 0:18757
6 k6 2 4 4 7 6 7
4 4k 2 0 5 4 21:0 0 5
k
6
k
6 2k 2 18:0 1:5
y
12
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
x
-2
y
12
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
x
-2
17.5.1.3 Truss Analysis
???????????????????????????
17.5.2 Beam Analysis
17.5.2.1 Statically Determinate Beam
To clarify the elasto-plastic behavior of the statically determinate beam subjected to

nonuniform bending the simple case of a simple supported beam, illustrated in Figure
17.22, loaded by a concentrated force P acting at half-span is considered. The material
is characterized by a linear elastic - perfect plastic behavior.
Figure 17.22 Simple Supported Beam - Evolution of Elasto-Plastic Zones
The elastic diagram of the bending moment Mzc (x) is calculated and plotted. The mag-
nitude of the bending moment in a current cross-section x is:
P
Mzc (x) = x (17.174)
2
where x is measured from the end A of the beam. The maximum bending moment Mzmax
c
l
is obtained in point C located at mid-span x = and has a magnitude:
2
l
Mzmax
c
= P (17.175)
4
It is obvious that if the magnitude of the loading force P is allowed to monotonically
increase to some value Pel lim the maximum bending moment, located in cross-section
C, reaches the magnitude of the Mzelc lim

:
Mzmax
c
= Mzelc lim
! (17.176)
l
Pel lim = Mzelc lim
4
The magnitude of the concentrated force inducing the elastic-limit stage in the beam is
obtained as:
4
Pel lim = Mzelc lim
(17.177)
l
Remark 32 As long as the magnitude of the concentrated force varies between 0 < P <
Pel lim the material pertinent to the entire beam is in elastic range (Figure 17.22.a) When
P = Pel lim the elastic-limit stage is reached (Figure 17.22.b).
17.5.2.2 Longitudinal Extension of the Elasto-Plastic Zone
An interesting discussion can be made relatively to the longitudinal extension of the

elasto-plastic zone. If the magnitude of the concentrated force P continues to increase,
Pel lim < P < Pf ully pl ; elasto-plastic zones start to develop in the cross-sections located
around the cross-section C. The extension of the elasto-plastic zone is dependent of
the hight e of the elastic zone characterizing the cross-section C. The beam, as shown
in Figure 17.22.c, is characterized by two end located zones and a central zone, where
the material has elastic and elasto-plastic behaviors, respectively. In this situation the
maximum bending moment is:
Mzmax
c
= Mzelc pl
(e) (17.178)
and the corresponding magnitude of the concentrated force is obtained as:

4
Pel pl (e) = Mzelc pl
(e) (17.179)
l
The left limit of the elasto-plastic zone xel is obtained:
Mzc (x) = Mzelc lim

! (17.180)
Pel pl (e)
xel = Mzelc lim
!
2
Mzelc lim
xel (e) = 2
Pel pl (e)
For the case of the linear elastic - linear plastic material behavior the maximum value
which can be reached is the Mzelc pl lim and then:
Mzmax
c
= Mzelc pl lim
(17.181)
l
Pel pl lim = Mzelc pl lim
4
and consequently the Pel pl lim load is calculated as:
4
Pel pl lim = Mzelc pl lim
(17.182)
l
The length of the elasto-plastic zone is calculated substituting emin in equation (17.180).
If the case of the linear elastic - perfect plastic material behavior is considered, when
the maximum bending moment Mzmax c
equalizes the value of the elasto-plastic bending
moment of the cross-section Mzfcully pl , then the magnitude of the force P reaches the
value Pf ully pl :
Mzmax
c
= Mzfcully pl
(17.183)
l
Pf ully pl = Mzfcully pl
4
From equation (17.183) the magnitude of the concentrated force Pf ully pl is calculated:
4
Pf ully pl = Mzfcully pl
(17.184)
l
The left limit of the elasto-plastic zone xel is obtained:
Mzc (x) = Mzelc lim

! (17.185)
Pf ully pl
xel = Mzelc lim
!
2
Mzelc lim l Mzelc lim
l
xel = 2 = =
Pf ully pl 2 Mzfcully pl 2 psf
Conclusion 33 (a) The function describing the longitudinal variation of the elastic zone
height e(x) depends on the expression of the elasto-plastic bending Mzelc pl (e) and the
variation of bending moment Mzc (x);
(b) The maximum extension length of the elasto-plastic zone is obtained when the maxi-
mum bending moment Mzmax
c
is equal to the fully-plastic bending moment Mzfcully pl of the
cross-section;
(c) The above described rational can be used to obtain the evolution of the monotonic
increase of the loading and longitudinal length of the elasto-plastic zone for any beam
conguration and loading.
17.5.2.3 Vertical Deection
The vertical deection v(x) of the beam subjected to nonuniform bending, under the
elastic behavior constraint of the material, is obtained in Lecture 8 of the rst volume
and is only reproduced below:
d2 v Mz (x)
2
= (17.186)
dx E Izc
where Mz (x) and E Izc are the bending moment and the exural rigidity.
The second order dierential equation (17.186) is obtained following the Bernoulli-Euler
assumption and considering the validity of the small deformation assumption:
d2 v 1 x (x; y)
2
= = (17.187)
dx (x) y
where (x) is the radius of curvature pertinent to cross-section x.
In accordance to the notation of Figure 15.14m, where the distribution of the normal
strain x (x; y) in a cross-section subjected to an elasto-plastic bending moment is illus-
trated, the strain distribution is described by the following relation:
0
x (x; y) y
= (17.188)
y e(x)
and consequently,
0
d2 v 1 y
2
= = (17.189)
dx (x) e(x)
where e(x) is the height of the elastic zone pertinent to cross-section x.
Conclusion 34 Practically, a number of elastic and elasto-plastic zones are covering

the length of the beam in successive order. The vertical displacement v(x) along the entire
length of the beam is calculated:
(a) in the continuity intervals describing the elastic zones equation (17.186) is used;
(b) in the continuity intervals describing the elasto-plastic zones equation (17.189) is used.
The function is obtained from:
Mzc (x) = Mzelc pl

(e) (17.190)
(c) continuity conditions relatively to rotation (x) and vertical deection v(x) are en-
forced at the common ends of the elastic and elasto-plastic zones.
17.5.2.4 Plastic Hinge. Collapse Load
The curvature K(x) of the beam in current cross-section x is:

0
1 y
K(x) = = (17.191)
(x) e(x)
It is observed that if the depth e(x) of the elastic zone tends towards zero the curvature
K(x) tends to a large value:
e(x) ! 0 then K(x) ! 1 (17.192)
For illustration of the phenomenon the simple supported beam depicted in Figure 17.22 is
considered. When the elasto-plastic limit Mzelc pl or the fully-plastic Mzfcully pl bending mo-
ment at the midspan of the beam is reached, the curvature K(x) at this cross-section can
theoretically increase to innity and the deection is dominated, accordingly to (17.189),
by a small zone of high curvature, theoretical resembling the behavior of a "rusty" me-
chanical hinge rotating under a constant moment. Alltrue this zone characterized by high
curvature values has a length and for theoretical purposes the behavior of this area located
around the cross-section of the maximum bending moment can be replaced by a plastic
hinge located at the cross-section of the maximum bending moment. The concept of the
plastic hinge is central to the methodology used to determine the colapse load for skeletal
systems made of linear elastic - perfect plastic material. The plastic hinge is represented
by a mechanical hinge and a pair of concentrated moments with the magnitude of the
Mzfcully pl value pertinent to the cross-section and rotating in the sense of the bending
moment existing in the cross-section before the creation of the plastic hinge. The value of
the load corresponding to the formation of the plastic hinge is called collapse load. The
formation of the plastic hinge for the simple supported beam subjected to the action of
a concentrated force P located at the midspan position is illustrated in Figure 17.23.
Figure 17.23 Formation of Plastic Hinge
The collapse load Pc is identical with the Pf ully pl load calculated accordingly to formula
(17.184):
Mzfcully pl
Pc = Pf ully pl =4 (17.193)
l
However, the collapse load Pc magnitude can be calculated implying the virtual work
method. Considering the situation depicted in Figure 17.23.c, the theoretical condition
at the creation of the plastic hinge at the midspan cross-section, the total virtual work
done on the system is zero:
l
Pc c 2 Mzfcully pl
c = 0! (17.194)
2
Mzfcully pl
Pc = 4
l
From the rational followed above general conclusions can be developed:
Conclusion 35 (a) in a statically determinate skeletal system ( single beam or frame) a

single plastic hinge forms at the location where the maximum elastic bending moment is
positioned. As a direct result of the plastic hinge formation, the skeletal system becomes a
mechanism. Consequently the value of the collapse load is obtained using the virtual work
method;
(b) in a statically indeterminate skeletal system the number of plastic hinges needed to
form the collapse mechanism is greater with one than the indeterminancy degree of the
system. The locations of the plastic hinges are not always obvious. A method to calculate
the collapse load and the collapse mechanism is presented in the section "Collapse Analysis
of Skeletal Systems".
Example 36 Consider a simply supported beam with a rectangular cross-section loaded

with a concentrated force P as shown in the gure below.
The magnitude of the bending moment Mzc (x) in a current cross-section x in the elastic
range is
P
Mzc (x) = x
3
where x is measured from the end A of the beam.
max
The maximum bending moment Mzc is obtained in point C at x = 2a and has the
magnitude
P
Mzmax
c
(x) = 2 a
3
At the elastic limit, the elastic limit force Pel_ lim is calculated using Naviers formula and
the above equation
el_ lim b h2 0
3 Mzc 3 6 y b h2 0
Pel_ lim = = = y
2 a 2 a 4 a
The elasto - plastic force Pel_pl is calculated as follows

el_pl b h2 e2
3 Mzc 3 4
(1 34 h2
) 0
y 3 b h2 4 e2 0
Pe~l_pl = = = (1 ) y
2 a 2 a 8 a 3 h2
and the longitudinal extension of the elasto-plastic zone xel is
el_ lim b h2 0
Mzc 6 y 4 a
xel = 3 =3 3 b h2 4 e2
= e2
Pel_pl 8 a
(1 3 h2
) 0
y 3 (1 34 h2
)
The fully plastic force Pf ully_plastic is calculated as follows

f ully_plastic b h2 0
3 Mzc 3 4 y 3 b h2 0
Pf ully_plastic = = = y
2 a 2 a 8 a
and the longitudinal extension of the elasto-plastic zone xel is
el_ lim b h2 0
Mzc 6 y 4
xel = 3 =3 3 b h2
= a
Pf ully_plastic 8 a
0
y
3
17.5.3 Simple Frame
[1] R. Hill, The Mathematical theory of Plasticity

CH 17 Plastic 2013

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Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit

Dr. Ion Simulescu

ABSTRACT This document uses the Springer-Verlag Single-authored Style. Replace

17 Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit 1

17.2 Real and Theoretical Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 2

17.2.1 Real Metallic Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . 2

17.2.2 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

17.3 Phenomenological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

17.3.1 Monotonic Monoaxial Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

17.3.2 Cyclic Mono-Axial Tensile/Compressive Test . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

17.3.3 Combined Tensile -Torsion Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

17.3.4 General Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

17.4 Beam Deformation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

17.4.1 Uniform Axial-Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

17.4.2 Pure Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

17.4.2.1 Linear Elastic - Perfect Plastic Material . . . . . . . . . 24

17.4.2.1.2 Unloading. Remanent Normal Stresses . . . . . 31

17.4.2.2 Linear Elastic - Linear Hardening Material . . . . . . . . 43

17.5 Incremental Analysis of Simple Skeletal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

17.5.1 Uniform Axial-Deformed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

17.5.1.1 Statically Determinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

17.5.1.2 Statically Indeterminate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

17.5.1.3 Truss Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

17.5.2 Beam Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

17.5.2.1 Statically Determinate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

17.5.2.2 Longitudinal Extension of the Elasto-Plastic Zone . . . . 80

17.5.2.3 Vertical Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

17.5.2.4 Plastic Hinge. Collapse Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

17.5.3 Simple Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Material Behavior Beyond The Elastic Limit

17.2 Real and Theoretical Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams

17.2.1 Real Metallic Mono-Axial Stress-Strain Diagrams

Figure 17.6 Structural Steel Stress-Strain Diagram

Figure 17.8 Aluminum Specimen Loading-Unloading Loops

Figure 17.9 Eect of Increase Strain Rate

Conclusion 1 The increase of the strain rate conducts to:

(a) increase of the value of the on-set yielding point;

Conclusion 2 The increase of the temperature conduct to:

(a) changes the overall aspect of the stress-strain diagram;

(b) reduces the strength of the material;

Conclusion 3 The presence of the hydrostatic pressure:

(c) the on-set yielding value remain unchanged.

The incompressibility condition existing during the plastic deformation is expressed as

compressibility condition becomes:

(1 + 1 )(1 + 2 )(1+ 3) 1 = 0 ! (17.1)

where 1, 2 and 3 are the innitesimal principal strains.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASM E) publishes a handbook contain-

17.2.2 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams

Figure 17.11 Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagrams

Figure 17.12 Rigid Materials Stress-Strain Diagrams

and the corresponding curves are ploted in Figure 17.13.

Alloy E (GP a) 0:2 (M P a) (M P A)

and the corresponding curves are ploted in Figure 17.14.

17.3 Phenomenological Aspects

17.3.1 Monotonic Monoaxial Tensile Test

Figure 17.1 Monotonic Axial Tensile Test - Theoretical Stress-Strain Diagram

where f ( ) is a real-valued function and:

"s = "x "0y (17.13)

"2x = "2e + "2p (17.14)

It can be observed that:

that uncovered during the previous loading-unloading loops 2 3 2. The subsequent

The physical phenomenon characterized by a continuos increase of the subsequent yielding

Conclusion 6 (a) Consequently a general relation concerning the subsequent yielding