Questions 1.1-1.

5:
introduction

Q 1.1 Define the following terms:

rock mechanics;
engineering rock mechanics;
rock engineering;
structural geology;
engineering geology;
soil mechanics;
geotechnical engineering.

Ql .2 Explain the fundamental purposes of excavation in civil engineer

ing, mining engineering, and petroleum engineering.

Ql.3 The photograph below illustrates construction of the 61 m span,

25 to 50 m deep, underground Gj0vik Olympiske Fjellhall (Olympic
402 Questions 1. 1-1.5: introdudion

Mountain Hall) in Precambrian gneiss in Norway. This is the largest

roofspan public-access civil engineering cavern in the world. Describe
the engineering rock mechanics factors that would have to be considered
in the design and excavation of such a cavern.

Q 1 .4 Why do you think that the techniques used in rock mechanics for
site characterization, analysis and modelling are not the same as those
used in soil mechanics?

Q1.S How can the subject of 'engineering rock mechanics' be useful

to organizations outside the civil and mining engineering professions,
e.g. to the petroleum industry, to insurance companies, to environmental
engineers?
 Questions 2.1-2.1 0:
geological setting

Q2. l The picture in Fig. Q2.1 shows a limestone slope above a highway
in Spain. Comment briefly on the geological factors that could influence
rock slope stability at this location.

Q2.2 The picture in Fig. Q2.2 shows the surface of a fault in a hard rock
aggregate quarry on which a rock slide has occurred. Explain
(a) why the existence of this fault could indicate that other similar
features will be encountered as quarrying continues, and
(b) why encountering an adverse geological feature such as this is likely
to be less significant in a quarry than in a road cutting.

Q2.3 The picture in Fig. Q2.3 shows tooth marks from the bucket of a
mechanical excavator in the Carboniferous rocks of a near-surface slope

figure Q2.1
404 Questions 2. 1-2. 10: geological setting

Figure Q2.2

in an opencast coal mine. What evidence is there here of geological

disruption to the rock strata?

Q2.4 A site investigation was conducted in a granitic rock mass

(Fig. Q2.4). One side of fracture #300 in the core is shown to the
right. What does this fracture indicate about the rock mass history and
what significance does this have for rock mechanics design of slopes and
tunnels in the rock mass?

Q2.S In the first Glossop Lecture on geology for engineers, Fookes

(1997) quotes from Glossop's 1968 Rankine Lecture: "What you look for
should be suggested by the natural environment and by the nature of
the construction problem to be solved." Explain why this quotation is
critically important for rock mechanics and rock engineering.
Questions 2. 1-2.10: geological setting 405

Figure Q2.3

Figure Q2.4
406 Questions 2. 1-2. 10: geological setting

Q2.6 The quotation at the beginning of the Glossary of Geology is that:

"It is not really a mark of distinction for a geologist's writing to be so
obscure that a glossary is required for its comprehension." Discuss this
in the context of engineering rock mechanics.

Q2.7 When considering the geological setting for a rock engineering

project, would an engineer expect information relating to all potential
geological hazards to be available?

Q2.8 In an article on geological and geotechnical investigations for tun

nelling, Parker (1996) estimates that "even comprehensive exploration
programs recover a relatively miniscule drill core volume, less than
0.0005% of the excavated volume of the tunnel". Do you think that
sampling only this proportion of the rock mass is enough?

Q2.9 A cavern (165 m long, 22 m wide and 15 m high) is to be excavated

in chalk strata beneath the sea. The crown of the cavern will be 35 m
below the seabed. What is the main geological information you would
like to have before proceeding with the excavation?

Q2.10 The pre-existing stress state in a rock mass is caused by geological

processes and is often a critical factor for rock engineering. Why do you
think that quantifying the rock stress is important?
 Questions 3.1-3.10:
stress

Q3. 1 Show how the stress state in a solid can be described via the stress
components (normal and shear) on an elemental cube of rock. Also,
show how these components are listed in the stress matrix. What do the
components in a row of the stress matrix have in common? What do the
components in a column of the stress matrix have in common?

Q3.2 When is a matrix symmetrical? Why is the stress matrix symmet

rical?

Q3.3 Explain the differences between scalar, vector and tensor quantit
ies. Why is stress a tensor quantity?

Q3.4 How are normal and shear stress components plotted on Mohr's
circle?

Q3.5 What is a principal stress plane? What is a principal stress?

Q3.6 What are the following stress states: uniaxial stress, biaxial stress,
triaxial stress, polyaxial stress, pure shear stress, hydrostatic stress?

Q3.7 Show how to add two tensors and hence how to calculate the
mean of n stress states. How would you calculate the mean of n different
stress states which were specified by their principal stresses and the
associated principal stress directions?

Q3.8 What are the first, second and third stress invariants?

Q3.9 By considering the rates of change of the stress components in

the answer to Q3.l, establish force equilibrium in the x, y and z direc
tions and hence write down in differential form the three equilibrium
equations for an elemental cube.

Q3. 10 Given an elemental cube with a normal stress component and

two shear stress components acting on all its faces, it is always possible
408 Questions 3. 1-3. 10: stress

to find a cube orientation such that the shear stresses disappear on all
faces and only normal stresses (the principal normal stresses) remain.
Is it possible to find a complementary orientation such that the normal
stresses disappear on all faces and only shear stresses (i.e. principal shear
stresses) remain? Explain the reason for your answer.
 Questions 4.1-4.10:
in situ rock stress

Q4.1 There is no internationally agreed terminology for words describ

ing the state of stress in a rock mass. However, describe in one sentence
what you think is meant by each of the following terms.
Natural stress Thermal stress
Induced stress Palaeostress
Gravitational stress Near-field stress
Tectonic stress Far-field stress
Residual stress Local stress

o 30v0,
Q4.2 Add the following 2-D rock stress states, and find the principal
stresses and directions of the resultant stress state.
30 I
15MPa

f,
/ SMPa 20MPa
/\
\\

2MPa

10MPa 20MPa

Q4.3 How many experimental set-ups are required to determine the

3-D state of stress in a rock mass, using each of the standard stress
measurement methods of flatjack, hydraulic fracturing, USBM gauge
and CSIRO gauge? (Assume that the stress field is constant in the
vicinity of the test site.)
Q4.4 Three flatjack tests have been
made close to each other in the wall
of a long, straight tunnel, the axis
of which dips at 7". The measure - - - -y
4(i -- - - - ('-_ .
ment position is approximately 250 m
below the ground surface and it is
assumed that the flatjacks are in the
same stress field. The slots for the flat-
410 Questions 4. 1-4. 10: in situ rock stress

jacks were cut normal to the wall of the tunnel, and were oriented
relative to the tunnel axis as shown.
The cancellation pressure for each of the flatjacks A, B and C was
7.56 MPa, 6.72 MPa and 7.50 MPa, respectively. Compute the principal
stresses and their directions, and ascertain whether they accord with
worldwide trends.

Q4.5 Two further flatjack measurements have been made in the wall of
the tunnel considered in Q4.4. These dip at 20 and 90 relative to the
tunnel axis, and produced cancellation pressures of 7.38 MPa and 7.86
MPa, respectively. Compute the best estimate of the principal stresses.

Q4.6 The stress in a granitic rock mass has been measured by the
hydraulic fracturing technique. Two tests were conducted in a vertical
borehole: one test at a depth of 500 m, and the other test at a depth of
1000 m. The results were as follows:
Depth Breakdown pressure, P8 Shut-in pressure, r
(rn) (MPa) (MPa)
500 14.0 8.0
1000 24.5 16.0

Given that the tensile strength, a1, of the rock is 10 MPa, estimate and list
the values of a1, a2 and a3 at the two depths.
State all of the assumptions you have to make in order to produce
these estimates. Are any of them doubtful? State whether the two sets
of results are consistent with each other, and justify your reasons for the
statement. Are the results in agreement with trends exhibited by collated
worldwide data?

Q4.7 How are three-dimensional tensors transformed so that the stress

components on any plane can be calculated?

Q4.8 Suppose that we have measured the pre-existing stress state in the
ground by some means and that the results are as follows:
a1, magnitude 15 MPa, plunges 35 towards 085;
a2, magnitude 10 MPa, plunges 43 towards 217";
os. magnitude 8 MPa, plunges 27" towards 335.
Find the 3-D stress tensor in the right-handed x y z
Right-
co-ordinate system with
handed
x, horizontal to the east, co-ordinate
y, horizontal to the north, system
z, vertically upwards.

Q4.9 A fault is present in the same rock (continuing from Q4.8) with
an orientation of 295/50. Determine the stress components in a local
co-ordinate system aligned with the fault. Assume for this question that
the presence of the fault does not affect the stress field.
 Questions 4. 1-4. 10: in situ rock stress 411

Q4.10 The plan below shows a horizontal section through a rock mass.
Stress measurements were made from the gallery along the borehole
line Ox using the Japanese CCBO technique. The measured principal
stresses in the horizontal plane are plotted on the plan. What are the
main conclusions that you can draw from the stress variations?
Fault Ill

20 MPa

Stress scale

O 10 m
 Questions 5.1-5.10:
strain and the theory of
elasticity

QS.1 What is the meaning of the first stress invariant and the first strain
invariant?

QS.2 The differential equations of force equilibrium were the subject of

Q3.9. The equivalent equations for displacement and strain are the com
patibility equations; these equations ensure that the normal and shear
strains are compatible, so that no holes, tears or other discontinuities
appear during straining. Show that the following compatibility equation
is valid:

QS.3 Draw a Mohr circle for strain, indicating what quantities are on
the two axes, how to plot a 2-D strain state, and the location of the
principal strains, c1 and c2

QS.4 Show why the shear modulus, Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio are related as G = E /2(1 + v) for an isotropic material. This
equation holds for an isotropic material but not for an anisotropic
material - why? Hence explain why five elastic constants are required
for a transversely isotropic material rather than six.

QS.5 (a) How can the strain in a particular direction be found from the
strain matrix components and hence how can a strain gauge rosette be
used to estimate the state of strain at a point, and hence the state of stress
at a point?
(b) Assume that strains measured by a strain gauge rosette are
cp = 43.0 x 10-6, CQ = 7.8 x 10-6 and CR = 17.0 x 10-6, and that the
gauges make the following angles to the x-direction: f)p = 20, f)Q = 80
and f)R = 140. Determine the principal strains and their orientations and
then, using values for the elastic constants of E = 150 GPa and v = 0.30,
determine the principal stresses and their orientations.
414 Questions 5. 1-5. 10: strain and the theory of elasticity

QS.6 Explain clearly why an isotropic rock has two independent elastic
constants, a transversely isotropic rock has five independent constants
and an orthotropic rock has nine independent constants (compared to
the general anisotropic case where there are twenty-one independent
elastic constants).

QS.7 Each of the following four rock masses is to be modelled using

elasticity theory. State whether you think that an isotropic rock assump
tion is justified, or whether one of the anisotropic assumptions would be
more appropriate. Assume that the fractures have a significant effect on
the rock deformability.
(a) A limestone with effectively three fracture sets, i.e. the bedding with
mean strata thicknesses of 1 m, plus fracture set 1 (perpendicular to
the bedding) with two fractures/m, and fracture set 2 (perpendicular
to both the bedding and fracture set 1) with five fractures/m.
(b) A welded volcanic tuff with five fracture sets.
Fracture set 1: dip direction 089; dip 50; frequency 2.9/m.
Fracture set 2: dip direction 278; dip 88; frequency 1.3/m.
Fracture set 3: dip direction 224; dip 08; frequency 0.9/m.
Fracture set 4: dip direction 169; dip 23; frequency 2.1/m.
Fracture set 5: dip direction 113; dip 70; frequency 0.7/m.
(c) A strong sandstone with almost no fractures present.
(d) A granodiorite with three fracture sets.
Fracture set 1: dip direction 314; dip 35; frequency 1.2/m.
Fracture set 2: dip direction 048"; dip 43; frequency 1.3/m.
Fracture set 3: dip direction 089; dip 79; frequency 0.9/m.

QS.8 (a) At the time of writing this book, most elastic analyses that have
been conducted for rock engineering design purposes have assumed that
the rock is perfectly isotropic with two elastic constants. Why do you
suppose that is, given that most rock masses are clearly not isotropic?
(b) Conversely, no elastic analysis for rock mechanics has been con
ducted assuming that the rock mass is fully anisotropic with 21 elastic
constants? Why is that?
(c) In this context, what do you think will happen in future analyses?

QS.9 (a) How do you know if a material is elastic?

(b) How is time taken into account in the theory of elasticity?

QS.10 When a rock specimen fails in a compressive test in the laborat

ory or when an in situ rock mass fails due to natural compression (see
Fig. Q5.l), is 'stress' or 'strain' the cause of failure?