A Reassessment of the Extent and Structuring of the Empire of Techotlalatzin,

Fourteenth Century Ruler of Texcoco

Jerome A. Offner

Ethnohistory, Vol. 26, No. 3. (Summer, 1979), pp. 231-241.

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 A REASSESSMENT OF THE EXTENT AND STRUCTURING

OF THE EMPIRE OF TECHOTLALATZIN,

FOURTEENTH CENTURY RULER OF TEXCOCO

Jerome A. Offner

Yale University

ABSTRACT

The reign of Techotlalatzin, ruler of Texcoco in the 14th century and a central
figure in early Aztec history, is apparently well reported in such sources as
Ixtlilxochitl and Torquemada. However, these reports are often based on misinterpre-
tations of the CodexXolotl or a similar document. and have often been accepted by
contemporary writers. Consequently, these errors in interpretation will be identified
and discussed in order to come to a more accurate understanding of Techotlalatzin's
governmental policies and accomplishments.

Introduction

Techotlalatzin, who ruled the developing city-state of Texcoco from

A.D. 1357 to A.D. 1409, is a key figure in early Aztec history. He appears to
have constructed a small empire centered around Texcoco and to have instituted
a number of reforms within and restructuringsof the Texcocan political system.
Torquemada (1975), Ixtlilxochitl (1952), and Veytia (1944) all describe the
career of Techotlalatzin in some detail, but they disagree on many points and
commit a number of demonstrable errors in interpretation of indigenous pictorial
sources, notably the CodexXolotl (Dibble 1951 ) or a closely related document.
Since some of these errors in interpretation have been accepted as accurate with
little reservation by more than one contemporary writer of the Aztecs(e.g.,

ETHNOHISTORY 2613 (Summer 1979) 231

232 JEROME A. OFFNER

Carrasco 1961:10- 1 1 ; Corona Sanchez 1976:89), it is necessary that they be

pointed out in what follows in order to arrive at a more accurate portrayal of the
governmental strategies, successes, and failures of Techotlalatzin.

Techotlalatzin's Ethnic Policies

Techotlalatzin was the product of a multi-ethnic background; his father,

Quinatzin, saw to it that he was raised in Culhuacan by Papaloxochitl, a Toltec
noblewoman who taught him Nahuatl. Techotlalatzin was in fact the first
member of Xolotl's line to acquire fluency in this language (Ixtlilxochitl
1952:11:73;Chimalpahin cited in Leon-Portilla 1967:78),which was to become
the linguafranca of Mesoamerica by Conquest times. It is also reasonable to
assume that he received some education in political and legal matters in
Culhuacan.
There can be no doubt that Techotlalatzin was required to deal with a
variety of ethnic groups within his small realm. Leaving aside the various types
of Chichimeca within his political unit, there were also the technologically
more complex groups of Tlailotlaque and Chimalpaneca which had arrived,
probably from the Puebla-Mixteca area, early in the reign of his predecessor
Quinatzin. In addition, extensive political upheavals in the Valley of Mexico
led to immigration by still more ethnic groups either immediately before or
during Techotlalatzin's reign.
Towards the end of the 14th century, Tezozomoc, the skilled and ambi-
tious ruler of Azcapotzalco, engineered the fall of the great Otomi center of
Xaltocan which caused at least two influxes of Otomi refugees, from Xaltocan
itself and from Azcapotzalco and Quahuacan, into Techotlalatzin's sphere of
influence. The Xaltocan Otomi were settled (and probably deliberately isolated)
by the Texcocan ruler in the area of Otompan, and the other refugees were
assigned to live in Yahualiuhcan and Mazapan (Ixtlilxochitl 1952:11:77-78;
I: 138- 139).
A far more important ethnic influx occurred at the very beginning of
Techotlalatzin's reign, or perhaps even during the end of Quinatzin's reign.
Four groups arrived in Texcoco from the Toltec center of Culhuacan which had
been tom apart by a combination of internal factionalism and external pressures.
The arrival of these groups may be seen in both the CodexXolotl (page five) and
in the Mapa Quinatzin, leaf I ; Ixtlilxochitl (1952:11:74) reports that they fled
religious persecution by Coxcox, ruler of Culhuacan (and also of Coatlinchan).
According to the Codex Xolotl and Ixtlilxochitl (19523: 139, 295; cf. II:75),
these four groups arrived in 4 Calli, which may correspond with the Christian
year A.D. 1353. This indicates that they were either settled in Texcoco by
Techotlalatzin acting for the aged Quinatzin before his death, or that the date 4
Calli is from a calendrical tradition different from that providing the dates of
The Empire o f Techorlalarzin 233

Techotlalatzin's reign. The latter possibility is weakened somewhat by Pomar's

( 1891 :13) assertion that Quinatzin received at least one of the four immigrant
groups - the Huitznahuaque. Indeed, both the causes for and the dates of the
arrival (or separate arrivals) of these four groups in Texcoco are quite obscure.
In any event, Techotlalatzin settled a major part of the four groups in Texcoco
and apparently dispersed the rest throughout his realm (Ixtlilxochitl 1952:I:139,
295; II:74-75).
The ethnic characteristics of the Culhuan immigrant groups are in part
discoverable. They bore the names Mexitin, Tepaneca, Culhuaque, and
Huitznahuaque. The Tepaneca were of course related ethnically to the Tepaneca
of Azcapotzalco, and the Culhuaque were obviously from Culhuacan. The
Huitznahuaque were a widely scattered ethnic group in the Valley of Mexico
and were devoted to the god Tezcatlipoca (as were the Tlailotlaque). Pomar
( 1891 : 12-14) mentions that the Huitznahuaque of Texcoco came from Culhuacan
and that the temple of Tezcatlipoca was allowed to remain in their barrio by
Nezahualcoyotl during his reorganization of Texcoco. Similarly, Pomar states
that the "mexica" worshipped Huitzilopochtli in Texcoco and brought their
cult from Culhuacan. Thus, they were quite likely ethnically related to the
Mexica of Tenochtitlan.
It is well known that Techotlalatzin ordered that Nahuatl be spoken
throughout his realm, especially by governmental officeholders (Ixtlilxochitl
1952:11:73). This policy seems to have been promulgated in order to make
administration of his realm more efficient and organized. Techotlalatzin does
not, however, appear to have interfered with other aspects of the cultures of the
ethnic groups within his political unit; certainly they enjoyed some measure of
"religious freedom." In time, Tezcatlipoca became the principal god of
Texcoco, while Huitzilopochtli, a variant of Tezcatlipoca, and Tlaloc, a rain,
earth, and water deity worshipped by the Culhuans (Pomar 1891:14), developed
into important deities at Texcoco.
It is unlikely that the various ethnic groups in Texcoco would have had
the same political interests; consequently, Techotlalatzin must have had to
secure the allegiance of and balance political power between these groups.
Torquemada (1975:1:88-89) reports how Techotlalatzin might have
accomplished this through the institution of four major governmental councils.
According to Torquemada, "Tehlato" was made Captain General (of the
army) and was given the Aculhuan lords as companions; "Yolqui" was
installed as Chief Ambassador and was given the Culhuan lords to accompany
him. "Tlami" became Chief Steward and the lords of the "Metzotecas,
Otomies, o [or] Chichimecas" were assigned to him. Finally, "Amechichi"
was assigned the task of Chamberlain and was accompanied by the Tepaneca.
Unfortunately, only Torquemada among the major older sources mentions
this arrangement of councils and his report seems to be based on the misreading
of the Codex Xolotl or a related source. On page five of the Codex Xolotl,
234 JEROME A. OFFNER

Techotlalatzin is shown above Oztoticpac conversing with the leaders of the

four groups recently arrived from Culhuacan (see Fig. 1). They are, from top to
bottom: Tenahualcatl, with the glyph of the Mexitin behind him; Nauhyotl,
with the glyph of the Culhuaque; Tlamina, with the glyph of the Huitznahuaque;
and Achitometl, with the glyph of the Tepaneca behind him. Their weeping and
the trail of footprints leading back to Culhuacan indicate that they seek refuge
from Culhuacan. The glyphs associated with Techotlalatzin's speech scrolls
indicate that he reminds them of a similar reception in Texcoco of the immigrant
Tlailotlaque ("coming and going" footprints) and Chimalpaneca (war shield),
and their settlement in two wards of Texcoco (as indicated by the two calli or
house symbols). Underneath the glyph for Oztoticpac are shown four more calli
(house) glyphs (along with a date of 4 Calli, 1353?);these are the four wards of
which Texcoco was composed after the reception of the Culhuan groups:
Culhuacan, Mexicapan, Tlailotlacan, and Chamalpan (cf. Dibble 1951 :79-80;
Ixtlilxochitl 1952:1:235).If attention is called to the similarities between this
scene in the Codex Xolotl and Torquemada's report of the four councils of
Techotlalatzin (see Table l), it may be seen that Torquemada's description is

Fig. 1 Techotlalatzin greets the four Culhuan immigrant groups and settles them in
Texcoco along with the Tlailotlaque and Chimalpaneca. Torquemada appears to
have interpreted this scene as the establishment of four governmental councils by
Techotlalatzin.(Codex Xolotl, page 5 , detail).
The Empire of Techotlalariin

Table 1
Dibble's ( I951 :79) interpretation, based on Ixtlilxochitl
Name of Group Name of Leader
Metzitin Tenahualcatl
Culhuaque Nauhyotl
Huitznahuaque Tlamina
Tepaneca Achitometl
Torquemada's interpretation
Ethnic Affiliation of Name of
Council Head's Assistants Council Head
Aculhuas Tehtlato
Culhuas Yolqui
Metzotecas, Otomies, Chichimecas Tlami
Tepanecas Amechichi

based on misinterpretations of numerous iconographic details, while

Ixtlilxochitl's interpretation of this scene is quite sound. Torquemada interpreted
the calli symbols as tecpan (palace, council hall) glyphs as is apparent from his
misinterpretation of other calli symbols as judicial and political councils on
page seven of the Codex Xolotl (see Conclusion). It should also be noted that
Torquemada makes no mention of the four immigrant groups from Culhuacan,
most likely since he misinterpreted them as the "four councils of
Techotlalatzin. "
Similarly, Techotlalatzin's famous redistribution of ethnic groups within
his realm as reported by Torquemada (1975:1:89) most likely never took place.
Torquemada states that Techotlalatzin systematically redistributed the various
ethnic groups from town to town in his small empire, so that in each town there
were several ethnic groups. He comments that this geographic redistribution
discouraged the formation of organized opposition to the Texcocan government
on the basis of combined geographical proximity and ethnic allegiance. The
four groups which he maintains were redistributed by Techotlalatzin were the
"Culhua," "Chicimeca, Metzoteca," "Aculhua," and "Tepaneca," or the
same four groups associated with the four councils he describes. Indeed,
representatives of the four groups of emigrants from the shattered city of
Culhuacan may be seen in various locations throughout the eastern Valley of
Mexico on page five of the CodexXolotl. They bear the glyphs of the Mexitin,
Culhuaque, Huitznahuaque, and Tepaneca which, as was pointed out above,
seem to have been interpreted by Torquemada as the glyphs for the Aculhuan,
Culhuan, Otomi or Metzoteca, and Tepanecan ethnic groups. Dibble ( 1951:80)
traces the routes of the groups from Culhuacan by following clearly drawn
footprints emanating from that city. For example, all four groups are found in
236 J E R O M E A. O F F N E R

the Cuitlahuac area, while the Mexitin and Huitznahuaque may be seen near
Coatlinchan conversing with Coxcox. Underneath Coatlinchan in the Huexotla
area are two groups of Culhuaque and a group of Tepaneca; underneath this
triple grouping are depicted all four groups together, speaking to the ruler of
Huexotla and seated near the symbol for a cultivated field. Consequently,
Torquemada appears to have misread the Culhuacan diaspora throughout the
eastern Valley of Mexico as an ordered redistribution of ethnic groups by
Techotlalatzin.
This is not to say that Torquemada's description of the governmental
policies of Techotlalatzin are valueless. It is unlikely that Nezahualcoyotl's
four councils were invented by him overnight while he was reconstructing
Texcoco in the early 1430's; Nezahualcoyotl undoubtedly adapted and reformed
the structures and practices of his predecessors, including those of
Techotlalatzin. Furthermore, not all of what Torquemada reports about the
councils and redistribution of Techotlalatzin can be attributed to misinterpreta-
tion of iconographic details in the Codex Xolotl or to (largely erroneous)
information in the Anonimo Mexicano (1903, 1958); he seems to have tapped
another indigenous source, perhaps a living informant (or informants) who
interpreted the Codex Xolotl along with him. This source might well have
connected fragmentary correct information with incorrect iconographic details,
thereby producing a portrait of Techotlalatzin's government which was approx-
imately correct in certain details, but incorrect in other details, both major and
minor.
In summary, the ethnic policies of Techotlalatzin are only partially
discoverable. He mandated linguistic unity for his empire but seems to have
interfered little in other aspects of the cultures of the various ethnic groups
subordinate to him. Reports that he balanced governmental responsibilities
among the various ethnic groups and that he redistributed these groups through-
out his realm are largely unsubstantiated but may have some limited truth in
them. It is likely that four governmental councils existed in Texcoco at sometime
prior to the 1430s, and it is known that Texcocan rulers did have the power to
assign immigrant ethnic groups to certain broadly scattered locations within
their realm (as Quinatzin did with the Tlailotlaque and Chimalpaneca
[Ixtlilxochitl 1952:I: 123-124, 289-290; II:69-701). However, there is little firm
evidence to indicate what Techotlalatzin might have accomplished with regard
to these matters.

The Extent of Techotlalatzin's Empire

Texcoco's position in the politics of the Valley of Mexico and its

environs was more seriously misinterpreted by Torquemada (1975:1:86,88-89)
The Empire of Techotlalatr-in 237

and also by Ixtlilxochitl (1952:I: 135- 136, 141- 143; cf. 478). Torquemada
claims that Techotlalatzin was the emperor of an enormous empire with at first
twenty-six and later an additional thirty-nine provinces. All sixty-five of these
provinces allegedly recognized Techotlalatzin as their emperor. Ixtlilxochitl
(1952:I: 135-136) claims that twenty-seven rulers were "vasallos, arnigos y
deudos" ("vassals, friends, and relatives") of the great Techotlalatzin. The
first four entries in his list of these rulers are closely comparable with
Torquemada's statements regarding the ethnic composition of Texcoco itself;
Ixtlilxochitl lists: I. Tezozomoc, King of Azcaputzalco Tepanecapan, King
"

and Lord of the Tepanecas, 2. Payntzin of Xaltocan, King and Lord of the
Otomi nation, 3. Mocomatzin of Cohuatlychan, of the Aculhuas, 4. Acarnapixtli
of Mexico Tenochtitlan, King of the Culhuas." This suggests that Ixtlilxochitl
and Torquemada had access to the same informant or source which promoted
the view that Techotlalatzin was the emperor of an enormous empire and was
assisted by four subordinate rulers who were closely associated with the four
principal ethnic groups of the empire. While it is true that the four principal
ruling lines in the Valley of Mexico in the time of Techotlalatzin were those of
Tezozomoc, Paintzin, Mococomatzin, and Acamapichtli, and that these ruling
lines had Tepanec, Otomi, Acolhuan, and Culhuan ethnic affiliations, there can
be no doubt that Techotlalatzin was unable to force them to live in his palace.
This source or informant had misinterpreted the seething and rivalrous political
situation in the time of Techotlalatzin as a calm and well-ordered empire;
however, Xaltocan, Azcapotzalco, and Culhuacan (Tenochtitlan) were all
independent of Techotlalatzin, while Coatlinchan was only allied to him.
Techotlalatzin did have an empire, but it was quite small and was concentrated
in the eastern Valley of Mexico (see below).
In addition, Ixtlilxochitl claims that Techotlalatzin later created forty-six
new rulers of provinces and he lists them all with the comment that they all
recognized Techotlalatzin as their emperor, and that they all, with the sole
exception of his relatives, paid tribute. Here he specifically excludes
Azcapotzalco, Mexico, Huexotla, Coatlinchan, and interestingly, Coatepec,
from those units which paid tribute to Techotlalatzin. He thus excludes three of
the four kings which Torquemada appears to claim were forced to live in the
palace of Techotlalatzin.
In summary then, Ixtlilxochitl agrees with Torquemada's position that
Techotlalatzin was the head of an empire which encompassed all of the Valley
of Mexico and its environs, but he is willing to concede a greater degree of
political autonomy to the units within the empire than does Torquemada. The
truth of the matter is quite different, however. Dibble (1951:78-79, 81, 84-85)
indirectly shows how the lists of Ixtlilxochitl coincide with the figures of rulers
located on pages five and six of the CodexXolotl and concludes that there is no
evidence in the Codex Xolotl which indicates that these rulers were subservient
238 JEROME A. OFFNER

to Texcoco: the most that can be said of them is that they might have had
friendly relations with Texcoco. Instead, Azcapotzalco under Tezozomoc was
clearly the predominant power in the Valley of Mexico.
Indeed, it is possible to discern some of the structure of the Texcocan
and Azcapotzalcan empires by a careful reexamination of the fifth and sixth
pages of the Codex Xolotl. Certain figures on these pages carry in their hands a
coa or digging stick (Nahuatl: huidli) which, as Dibble (1951:81) has shown, is
a symbol of political subordination. In the immediate areaof Azcapotzalco it is
possible to detect figures of this type located in Culhuacan, Chapultepec,
Iztapalapa, Mexicaltzinco, Huitzilopochco, Iztacalco, Tenayucan, Ecatepec,
and one unidentified town. After Azcapotzalco's defeat of Xaltocan, three
more subjects were added: Coatitlan, Cuauhtitlan, and Xaltocan itself; these
may be seen on page six. Thus Azcapotzalco controlled the northwestern part of
the Valley of Mexico and had easy access to the southern and eastern regions
through the towns of the Iztapalapa peninsula and through the Xaltocan area.
The major holdings of Texcoco are rather more limited and are highly
visible on page five since as Ixtlilxochitl reports, Techotlalatzin assigned them
at birth to his son, Ixtlilxochitl Ome Tochtli, to provide him with support.
Tepetlaoztoc led eleven other towns in providing this service: Cuextecat-
lichocoyan, Tepepolco, Tlalaxapan (or Actopan), Tizayocan, Ahuatepec,
Axapochco, Quauhtlatzinco, Teotihuacan, Tezoyucan, Tepexpan, and
Chiconautla (Dibble 1951:77, following Ixtlilxochitl 1952:11:75): together,
they appear to have formed two typically Texcocan sets of six political units.
This small empire is apparently shown in the Codex Xolotl at its maximum
extent, since by the time of Techotlalatzin's death in A.D. 1409, Texcoco's
position in the Valley of Mexico had seriously eroded. Tezozomoc controlled
not only the west, but also substantial portions of the southern Valley of Mexico
and also the town of Acolman, quite near to Texcoco. In contrast, Texcoco's
position had eroded to such an extent that only a few people appeared for
Techotlalatzin's funeral. Thus, the descriptions of Techotlalatzin's empire in
the sources are again substantially false, but again Ixtlilxochitl's version is
closer to the truth than is Torquemada's.

On the Two General Courts of Techotlalatzin

Ixtlilxochitl also relates that Techotlalatzin held two general courts

which were attended by numerous rulers and lords from all around the general
area of the Valley of Mexico; in the second court, it is reported that he
"constituted certain legal rules" (Ixtlilxochitl 1952:I:143, 294, 478). It is
possible that Ixtlilxochitl's statements are based on the same sorts of misinter-
pretations of the Codex Xolotl which he made concerning the extent of
The Empire of Techoflalatiin 239

Techotlalatzin's empire; nevertheless, Veytia provides more detailed informa-

tion on what took place in the second council allegedly held by Techotlalatzin.
He maintains (1944:1:369,cf. 380) that two matters were given special attention:
(1) the equitable distribution of tribute burdens on towns within his realm, and
(2) the ranking of noblemen and the order which should be established among
them in regard to matters of succession, government, and legal procedure.
Although Veytia goes on to say that he is uncertain of the exact content of the
legal rules passed in this second council, it appears -unless he was exercising
his formally trained legal imagination - that he had access to essentially
accurate information which is no longer available today.
Indeed, it is interesting to note that when Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina
(A.D. 1440-1469) instituted sweeping reforms in his new empire of
Tenochtitlan, he was greatly concerned with matters of noble privilege. power,
and ranking (e.g ., DurAn 1967:II:2 1 1 -2 14). Curiously, Nezahualcoyotl, when
he reinstituted rule in Texcoco in the 1430s, did not emphasize such things in
his code of law; this may be due to the fact that such affairs had been regulated
in Texcoco from the time of Techotlalatzin.
Veytia may also have drawn on lost sources for his description of the
events of the first court of Techotlalatzin's reign (1944:1:347, cf. 380). He
asserts that Techotlalatzin was on that occasion principally concerned with the
establishment of various tribunals of justice. Among these was a "council of
state" which had to reside in his court and which was composed of a set number
of experienced and judicious men who were to council him on all important
matters. Techotlalatzin appointed himself president of this council.
Veytia mentions this council in a discussion of the several councils which
Techotlalatzin allegedly created; Veytia's description of these seems to have
been drawn largely from Torquemada's highly suspect account of the councils
of Techotlalatzin, but it is worth noting that Torquemada mentions nothing
about a legal council, and so the description of the legal council in Veytia may
be based on another source which is now lost.
In summary, the two general courts attributed to Techotlalatzin might
have taken place, but it is highly unlikely that all of the rulers of the Valley of
Mexico and its environs attended them. Instead, these courts - if they took
place - appear to have been concerned with the internal organization of the
rather small Texcocan empire.

Conclusions

The events of the reign of Techotlalatzin, although apparently well

reported in the major sources, are actually quite obscure. Building on a
substantial base created by his predecessor Quinatzin, Techotlalatzin put to-
240 JEROME A. OFFNER

gether a small empire. He might have elaborated the Texcocan governmental

structure to some extent and might even have created four governmental
councils, but the structure o f these councils was most probably totally unlike
the description given them by Torquemada. Techotlalatzin was clearly not a
match in political expertise for Tezozomoc and seems to have lost most o f his
small empire sometime before his death, perhaps because - as Jimenez
Moreno ( 1967:1 12- 1 13) suggests -he had failed to maintain the loyalty o f the
subordinate rulers within his loosely organized realm.
Culhuan influence at Texcoco during Techotlalatzin's reign was quite
strong - due both to Techotlalatzin's upbringing and the immigration o f a
number o f Culhuan ethnic groups. Culhuan influence was no doubt enhanced
by Techotlalatzin's dictum that Nahuatl be made the language o f his realm.
Techotlalatzin must have had some success at controlling ethnic political
struggles within Texcoco at least in the early parts o f his reign, but it is
extremely doubtful that he mandated any orderly redistributiono f ethnic groups
within his realm as reported by Torquemada. Overall, Texcoco underwent a
decline in political and military influence and power under Techotlalatzin, who
seems not to have been a great innovator and reformer, but instead only a
mediocre politician who was badly outdone by Tezozomoc o f Azcapotzalco.
In closing, it must be pointed out that Torquemada's interpretation o f the
Codex Xolotl (or a closely related document) is seriously defective;he appears
to have followed the Anonimo Mexicano (or a closely related document) much
too closely and to have made additional mistakes based on his initial misinter-
pretations. For example, he maintains that the doomed ruler o f Texcoco,
Ixtlilxochitl Ome Tochtli ( A . D . 1409-1418) established "audiences" and
"councils" in the towns o f his realm which until then had not had such
institutions (1975:I:109), but this again appears to be a misreading o f the flight
o f various groups from Texcoco after its conquest by Azcapotzalco, as depicted
on page seven o f the CodexXolotl. In contrast, Ixtlilxochitl's interpretations are
far more accurate; this valuable source is more criticized than it is understood.
Finally, the basic importance o f the Aztec pictorial manuscripts must be
emphasized; the Codex Xolotl and Mupu Quinutzin are excellent (although not
flawless) historical sources which should always be consulted before accepting
the interpretations o f these documents offered by both colonial and modem
writers.

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Carrasco, Pedro
1961 El banio y le regulacion del matrimonio en un pueblo del Valle de Mexico en el siglo
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Submitted: October 29, 1979

Accepted: February 2 1 , 1980