Itatech Report 7 PFRCS BD - P PDF

ITAtech Guidance For Precast Fibre Reinforced
Concrete Segments - Vol. 1 : Design Aspects
ITAtech Activity Group

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N ISBN: 978-2-97010132-1 ITAtech Report n7 / APRIL 2016
21374-ITATECH-REPORT-7-PFRCS.indd 1 21/04/16 12:42

ITAtech Report n7 - ITAtech DESIGN GUIDANCE FOR PRECAST FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE SEGMENTS
NISBN: 978-2-97010132-1/ APRIL 2016
Layout : Longrine Avignon France www.longrine.fr
The International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association/Association Internationale des Tunnels et de lEspace Souterrain (ITA/AITES) publishes this report to, in accordance with its
statutes, facilitate the exchange of information, in order: to encourage planning of the subsurface for the benefit of the public, environment and sustainable development to promote advances
in planning, design, construction, maintenance and safety of tunnels and underground space, by bringing together information thereon and by studying questions related thereto. This report
has been prepared by professionals with expertise within the actual subjects. The opinions and statements are based on sources believed to be reliable and in good faith. However, ITA/AITES
accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever with regard to the material published in this report. This material is: information of a general nature only which is not intended to address the specific
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you should always consult a suitably qualified professional).

ITAtech Guidance For Precast Fibre Reinforced
Concrete Segments - Vol. 1 : Design Aspects
ITAtech Activity Group

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This document has been written to assist tunnel designers, contractors and owners in
understanding the benefits of and limitations in the use of fibre reinforcement for precast
concrete segments for tunnel linings, installed using tunnel boring machines. Guidance is also
provided on specifications and testing.
Fibres can be used as reinforcement in precast concrete segmental tunnel linings, either, most
commonly, as fibre only (as Primary reinforcement) or in combination with conventional (bar)
reinforcement - a combined solution (as Secondary reinforcement). The state of the art is
defined by a large number of reference projects, where fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) segments
have been used successfully. Projects using FRC segments report the following benefits of its
use:
Excellent durability;
Damage due to handling and installation is minimized;
Performance in the relevant Ultimate and Service Limit States (ULS and SLS) can be reliably
demonstrated;
Reduced damage of segments;
Overall manufacturing costs are lower than for conventionally reinforced concrete.
A lower carbon footprint
However, their application in this field has been stifled due to the limited, or even absent,
regulatory framework covering this type of product. With the publication of standards specifically
dealing with fibre properties, and international design guidelines such as the Model Code 2010,
edited by fib, this obstacle has been overcome.
Many research studies and full scale tests on the behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete have
been carried out in recent years in various countries. They have greatly contributed to a better
characterization of FRC, thereby providing a better understanding of the behaviour of this
material and allowing projects to set specific minimum performance requirements.
The aim of this document is to present the common understanding of designers, manufacturers
and users of fibre reinforced concrete segments of what constitutes good practice in this field
of engineering. This is the first edition of what is intended to be a live document. ITAtech
welcomes all feedback on this document and has plans to keep this
document up to date as well as publishing guidance on production aspects of FRC.

>> Author list
Main authors Company

Christoph EBERLE (chairman) Mott MacDonald
Sotiris PSOMAS UNPS Limited
Daniel RUCKSTUHL (past chairman) formerly BASF
Alun THOMAS (past chairman) Ramboll
Activity Group members

Charles ALLEN OTB
Trevor ATKINSON Propex
Stefan BERNARD TSE
Gustav BRACHER Sika
Nod CLARKE-HACKSTON VMT
Simon EVANS Propex
Simon JOLLEY Adfil
Martin KNIGHTS C2HM Hill
Garry MARTIN Bonar
Mario MANSER Brugg Contect AG
Mark MITCHELL Adfil
Sophie MINEC Bouygues
Andrew RIDOUT Elasto Plastic Concrete
Martin WILLIS Adfil
Ralf WINTERBERG Elasto Plastic Concrete
Volker WETZIG Hagerbach
Reviewers
ITAtech WG2
ITAtechPFRCS Sub AG wish to express their thanks to our past chairman, Benoit de Rivaz, BM Underground
4 ITAtech GUIDANCE FOR PRECAST FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE SEGMENTS VOLUME 1: DESIGN ASPECTS

>> Table of contents
GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................................................6
BACKGROUND and OBJECTIVE OF THE GUIDANCE DOCUMENT..................................................7
NOTATION................................................................................................................................................8
1. Design standards and material properties....................................................................1 0
1.1 DESIGN STANDARDS.........................................................................................................................1 0
1.2 FIBRES TYPES AND PROPERTIES........................................................................................................1 0

1.3 BEHAVIOUR OF FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE.................................................................................. 11
2. DESIGN OF FRC SEGMENTAL LININGS..........................................................................................1 4

2.1 GENERAL REMARKS. ........................................................................................................................1 4
2.2 ULS DESIGN CONCEPT. ....................................................................................................................1 4
2.3 SLS DESIGN CONCEPT......................................................................................................................1 6
2.4 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF FRC.......................................................................................................1 7
2.5 FIRE PROTECTION. ...........................................................................................................................18
3. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION OF FRC.....................................................................................1 9

3.1 GENERAL.........................................................................................................................................1 9
3.2 TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING. ...........................................................................................................1 9
3.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH TESTING. ........................................................................................................1 9
3.4 FIBRE SPECIFICATION. ......................................................................................................................23
4. SUSTAINABILITY...............................................................................................................................2 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................................2 5
APPENDIX A: DESIGN APPROACH BASED ON fib MC2010..............................................................2 8
APPENDIX B: FRC MATERIAL CHARACTERISation & DESIGN STRENGTHS...............................2 9
APPENDIX C: DESIGN assisted BY FULL SCALE TESTING............................................................3 1
APPENDIX D: CASE STUDIES..............................................................................................................3 3
APPENDIX E: CE MARKING.................................................................................................................4 2
APPENDIX F: FIRE PROTECTION........................................................................................................ 43
APPENDIX G: NOTES ON EN 14651 TESTING PROCEDURE.............................................................46
itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 5

>> Glossary
Aspect ratio:
The ratio of length to another dimension Strain hardening:
e.g. segment thickness or equivalent fibre In the context of tensile tests, hardening
diameter means that the post-cracking strength is
higher than the strength at first cracking
CMOD: see also strain softening.
Crack Mouth Opening Displacement which
is the linear displacement measured by a Strain softening:
transducer e.g. installed on a beam in a In the context of tensile tests, softening
test according to EN 14651 means that the post-cracking strength is
lower than the strength at first cracking.
Ductility:
This is a measure of a materials ability to Strength at first crack: see LOP
undergo appreciable plastic deformation
under tensile stresses before rupture. The Toughness:
ductility of a structure is defined in the This is the ability of a material to absorb
same way as a measure of the ability to energy and plastically deform without
undergo appreciable deformation under rupturing. This indicates the ability to resist
tensile forces before failure. internal crack propagation.
Energy absorption:
This is the area under a load-deflection,
moment-rotation, or stress-strain curve.
This is the ability of FRC to absorb energy
beyond the first crack in the matrix. This
is not a parameter that is used directly in
design of segmental linings, unlike sprayed
concrete linings for rock tunnels.
LOP:
Limit of Proportionality the stress which
is assumed to act in an uncracked mid
span section of flexural beam test (e.g.
see EN 14651). This is the point at which
the load-deflection curve departs from the
initial linear response.
Modulus of rupture: The maximum

flexural stress sustained prior to cracking
of the concrete based on ref. to e.g. ASTM
1609 eq. 1).
PFRCS: Precast Fibre Reinforced

Concrete Segments
Residual strength:
This is the flexural tensile strength
exhibited by a fibre reinforced concrete
after cracking. In tests, the residual
strength is usually defined at a certain
deflection or CMOD.

>> Background and objective of the guidance document
BACKGROUND
Traditionally, concrete segments for shield excavated tunnels have used conventional bar
reinforcement. There is a growing tendency to consider fibre reinforcement as structural
reinforcement, mainly in order to benefit from the significant cost and time savings which
can be achieved but sometimes also because of the enhanced durability that fibres offer.
A significant number of international reference projects have demonstrated that a high

quality tunnel lining can be achieved using fibre reinforced segments. However, the previous
lack of a common design standards or guidelines tended to discourage some clients from
accepting design proposals based on fibre reinforced concrete.
This first revision of the document is based mainly on experience gathered during the design
of steel fibre reinforced concrete segments using the Eurocodes and the international fib
Model Code. This merely reflects the engineering background of the authors. The principles
described here can be applied to other codes such as ACI318 and have been formulated as
performance requirements for a composite fibre reinforced concrete material, irrespective of
fibre material, as far as possible. Fibre reinforcement has been used successfully throughout
the world.
OBJECTIVE OF THE GUIDANCE DOCUMENT
The aim of this document is to provide comprehensive guidance on the relevant particular
aspects of fibre reinforcement when used in the design of tunnel lining segments. This
document assumes that the user has a fundamental understanding of segmental lining
design and does not intend to be a comprehensive design guideline..
The topics of segment production, quality control (tests and their frequencies), handling,
storage, transportation and installation will be presented in Volume 2 of this publication
which is currently in preparation.

>> Notation
b Breadth
CMOD Crack Mouth Opening Displacement
d Diameter of fibre
E Elastic modulus
Ecm FRC Secant Compression Modulus
Em Concrete (Matrix) Tangent Compression Modulus
Ef Fibre Elastic Modulus
Et FRC Secant Tension Modulus
fcm Concrete Mean Compressive Cylinder Strength
fck Concrete Characteristic Compressive Cylinder Strength
fctm Concrete Mean Tensile Strength
fctk Concrete Characteristic Tensile Strength
fcd Concrete Design Compressive Strength
fL Limit of Proportionality stress of FRC beam
flim Design tensile strength
fRi Residual flexural Strength of FRC beam
fRim Mean Residual strength of FRC beam
fRik Characteristic Residual Strength of FRC beam
fFts FRC Tensile Strength at SLS (Model Code 2010)
fFtu FRC Tensile Strength at ULS (Model Code 2010)
fy Tensile yield strength
FEA Finite Element Analysis
fib Federation International du Beton
FRC Fibre Reinforced Concrete

>> Notation
h Height
kw Coefficient - statistical
K Coefficient
l Fibre length
Lc Characteristic length
LE Linear Elastic
LOP Limit of Proportionality
MOR Modulus of Rupture
Mu Ultimate moment
P Pressure (load)
R Radius
RILEM Reunion Internationale des Laboratoire d Essais Materiaux
SFRC Steel fibre reinforced concrete
SLS Serviceability Limit State (limit of the service requirements)
Sn Standard Deviation
ULS Ultimate Limit State (limit associated with structural failure)
Vf fibre volume content
Vx Coefficient of variation
wk Characteristic crack width
Material factor
Deflection
Strain
Angle
Stress
Acknowledgements
ITAtech gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the members of the PFRCS group and others, notably: Figure 7 reprinted,
with permission, from C1609/C1609M-12 Standard Test Method for Flexural Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam
With Third-Point Loading), copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428, www.astm.org
Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by the British Standards institution (BSI). No other use of this material is
permitted. British Standards can be obtained in PDF or hard copy formats from the BSI online shop:
www.bsigroup.com/shop
ITAtech is grateful for the permission of fib to reproduce extracts of fib MC2010.

1 >> Design standards and material properties
1.1 Design standards 2010: Guideline on the use of fibre reinforced in the respective ULS and SLS, and
concrete, sterreichsche Vereinigung fr restrictions arising from design standards or
At the time of writing, the design of fibre Beton- und Bautechnik (2010) specifications. It is the responsibility of the
reinforced concrete (FRC) is not covered designer to ensure the selected product is
V- C
NR-DT 204/2006 (2006), Guide for
by international structural codes like the appropriate for use considering the project
the Design and Construction of Fiber-
Eurocode 2 or ACI 318. Therefore, the specific performance requirements.
Reinforced Concrete Structures, design
design rules applied in projects are taken
recommendation. Advisory Committee Over the past decades, steel fibres
from a number of sources. From an
on Technical Recommendations for have developed as a replacement of the
European perspective, it is expected that
Construction, Rome reinforcing steel bars in precast segments.
FRC will be introduced in the Eurocode
VI- BTS Specification for Tunnelling, 3rd Macro synthetic fibres have been developed
suite of standards and that the fib Model
Edition, 2010 too as structural reinforcement for
Code (fib MC2010) will be used as a basis
segments. A significant number of research
for this Eurocode. The parameters for VII- R
ecommendations for the design,
projects have accompanied this shift of
the fibre reinforced concrete are defined production and installation of segmental
fibres into more structural applications
by associated test standards, such as EN rings 07.2013 Published by the DAUB
(e.g. see Concrete Society TR 63 and TR
14651. (German Tunnelling Committee) working
65 for an overview, as well as ITA WG2s
Due to the publication of a number of group Lining Segment Design
forthcoming report (www.ita-aites.org)).
guidelines and reports and the significant VIII- A
FTES (2013) Design, dimensioning
In ACI 544.5R-10, Report on the
amount of testing over the last decades, and execution of precast steel fibre
Physical Properties and Durability of
the general behaviour of FRC is sufficiently reinforced concrete arch segments,
Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, there is a
well understood to allow production of recommendations of AFTES No.
comprehensive resume of the mechanical
designs to an acceptable reliability level, in GT38R1A1, Tunnels et espaces
properties of the fibres used for concrete
Eurocode terminology. In combination with souterrain, No. 238 July/ August 2013
reinforcement. It is important to assess the
the appropriate testing, the reliability level IX- C
oncrete Society Report TR 63 effect of a fibre on the performance of the
prescribed by concrete design standards Guidance for the Design of steel fibre final FRC and not just the properties of the
can be achieved, even though FRC reinforced concrete fibres in isolation.
design itself is not standardised in national
X- C
oncrete Society Report TR 65, The following general observations can be
design codes yet. Full scale tests could
Guidance on Macro-synthetic fibre made:
assist the design process in these cases.
reinforced concrete
We recommend them to be conducted T
he materials should satisfy the following
according to standardized protocols. Below CI 544.5R-10 (2010) Report on the
XI- A requirements
is a selection of applicable design codes Physical Properties and Durability of
- The fibre material must be suitably
and references which are commonly used fiber Reinforced Concrete, ACI, March
resistant to the alkaline environment of the
and accepted. A list of testing standards concrete.
can be found in section 3. 1.2 Fibres Types and Properties - The material properties of the concrete
References relevant to FRC design: should not suffer significant negative
Fibres are used to improve concrete
I- RILEM TC 162-TDF, Test and design effects from the fibres used. This
properties. As the applications have
methods for SFRC. Materials and requirement applies for the properties of
diversified so have the materials used
Structures, Vol. 36, 2003 both the fresh concrete (workability, air
for fibres and their shapes. Fibres have
content, etc.) and hardened concrete.
II- FIB (2013) - International Federation for become a standard reinforcement method
With respect to the properties of the
Structural Concrete. fib Model Code for for industrial floors, pavements, housing
hardened concrete, there should be no
Concrete Structures 2010. Berlin: Verlag applications, sprayed concrete linings and a
negative change to the compressive
Ernst & Sohn, 2013 variety of precast applications.
strength and splitting tensile strength,
III- Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Limitations regarding the applicability of static modulus of elasticity, the creep
DAfStB Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton, steel fibres and/or synthetic fibres for and shrinkage behaviour, the bond of a
2012 certain design situations can arise out of reinforcement as well as the durability
IV- VBB Richtlinie Faserbeton, Ausgabe Juli the different performance of fibre materials (resistance to carbonation, frost

resistance, water penetration depth, etc.). conventional steel bar reinforcement. Fibres Usually, the composite material exhibits
- The fibre material must not deteriorate work in tension across cracks in concrete strain-softening behaviour in direct
under normal storage conditions. and thus provide residual flexural capacity tension, although strain-hardening
- The fibre material must be suitable for for cracked concrete. At typical dosages, can also be achieved using increased
the intended temperature range in use the enhancement in flexural capacity is dosages of high performance fibres. The
and for the required fire resistance. modest but this is often adequate. fibres in FRC promote crack-bridging,
The fibres must satisfy the existing Fibres may be used for other reasons too, transferring stress across the cracks to
requirements for environmental such as: the concrete matrix. This explains the
compatibility and being harmless in improved post crack stress-strain curve,
to enhance the performance of the
physiological terms. compared to plain concrete.
segment during handling and installation;
The anchor system should be optimised Fibres contribute to controlling concrete
or to enhance the performance of
(e.g. hooks at the end, embossing, cracking.
segments reinforced with conventional
crimpled shapes or other systems reinforcing bars in response to certain The presence of fibres does not
to ensure the fibre is anchored in the transient or accidental load cases; influence the mechanical performance of
concrete matrix) uncracked concrete1 (prior to the first
or to reduce average crack widths in
Concrete mixing must: crack in testing).
bending.
- use an automatic dosing system for the The anchorage depends on:
In comparison to bar reinforcement, the
fibres and the shape of the anchorage
characteristics of fibre reinforcement are
- mix the fibres in the concrete to obtain a
that: the friction between the fibre and
uniform distribution
the fibres are distributed throughout a concrete (quality of fibre/crack interface
The performance of fibre reinforcement and orientation),
cross-section, whereas reinforcement
in concrete relies on ensuring both an
bars are placed in specific locations and the density of the concrete matrix
adequate dosage of fibres and an even
require concrete cover to the faces of the the tensile strength of the fibre
distribution. Trials to check the distribution
segment;
and orientation of the fibres should be
the fibres are small, relatively short 1.3.1 Behaviour in compression
made during the mix design phase. This
is particularly important, if the aspect ratio and closely spaced, whereas the
Compared to a reference (unreinforced)
for steel fibres (l/D) is greater than 65. reinforcement bars are larger, continuous
concrete, FRC (at moderate dosages of
and not as closely placed;
fibre, i.e. less than 0,6% per volume -
it is not generally possible to achieve which equates to 45kg/m3 of steel fibres
1.3 Behaviour of Fibre
the same weight per cubic metre or 6 kg/m3 of macro synthetic fibres) tends
Reinforced Concrete
of reinforcement with fibres as with not to exhibit any particularly different
To assess whether or not FRC is suitable reinforcing bars. behaviour in compression. Therefore, the
for a project, it is important to understand Regarding the mechanical performance of stress-strain ratios given in the respective
its general mechanical performance and its FRC, the following key effects are: concrete design codes can be used without
limitations compared to conventional bar Fibre reinforcement provides resistance modifications.
reinforced concrete. The main components by being pulled out of the cracked
that need to be examined are: 1.3.2 Behaviour in tension
concrete. The anchorage (including
The concrete matrix strength bond in shear and/or adhesion to the The direct tensile capacity of reinforced
The concrete matrix durability class concrete matrix at the fibre interface) is of concrete is characterised by an almost
significant importance to the post-crack linear elastic behaviour up to the point of
The type and the quantity of fibres
behaviour. This is a quite different concept tensile failure (cracking) of the concrete
(including the fibre properties)
when compared to conventional bar matrix. This failure occurs at relatively low
The fibre-matrix interface properties, like reinforcement. strains, so that fibre reinforcement typically
post crack residual strength
A post cracking performance of FRC is does not enhance the tensile resistance
Fibres can be used as reinforcement provided by the presence of fibres. up to this point. In consequence, the
on their own or in combination with peak characteristic tensile strength of fibre
1
At dosages < 45 kg/m3 for steel fibres or 6 kg/m3 of macro synthetic fibres

reinforced concrete can be taken to be at process as opposed to elasto-plastic 1.3.5 Long-term properties of FRC
least equal to the direct tensile strength of deformation observed in bar reinforced When considering creep, it is helpful to
plain concrete. concrete and the reinforcement material distinguish between the potential effects
The behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete itself. Compared to plain concrete, fibre on the concrete matrix and the effect on
may be classified as strain softening or reinforced concrete retains flexural residual the fibre reinforcement. As the mechanical
strain-hardening (i.e. a post cracking capacity in the post-crack region, thereby properties of the concrete matrix are
strength which is larger than the strength at avoiding brittle failure. Flexural crack widths not modified by the presence of fibres
first cracking). For strain softening materials, have been found to be reduced through in compression, it appears reasonable
localized individual cracks form causing the the inclusion of fibres in combination with to assume that creep behaviour in
stress which it can carry to decrease with conventional reinforcement or when used compression is comparable to conventional
increasing deformation. Strain-hardening at sufficient dosages to produce a strain- concrete. Like all reinforced concrete,
FRC is sometimes called high performance hardening behaviour in flexure. FRC does creep in tension as well as
fibre reinforced cement composite The fibres act in a bridging mechanism in compression. The creep behaviour
(HPFRCC) (Lofgren 2005). It is possible to across cracks, resulting in the mobilisation depends on the long-term stress level and
distinguish three different stages: of post-cracking tensile bridging stress the properties of the fibre. For concrete in
Linear elastic stage and energy dissipation. The load sharing flexure, the long-term cracked behaviour
contribution from fibre bridging appears depends on the mechanical properties
Micro-cracking stage
gradually, beginning after the crack opening of the fibre, the material of the fibre and
Macro-cracking stage widths exceed approximately 0.05 mm. the concrete. The performance of a given
Certain high performance fibres used for It is important to note that this ductility is fibre material with regard to flexural creep
HPFRC allow to reduce average crack affected by inter alia the volume of fibres, can not be generalised. In the absence of
width in tension. Such effects can typically the number of fibres (fibre count), the standardised testing the assessment of
only be achieved when using strain aspect ratio (for steel fibres), the anchorage this effect could be undertaken considering
hardening FRC. mechanism and by the relative strength data relevant to the particular selected fibre,
In the absence of more detailed information of the fibre and its bond the concrete and/or the results of appropriate research
derived from testing, it can be assumed matrix (which must be at least one order of programs.
that at moderate fibre dosages, FRC is magnitude higher for steel fibres). The fibre As mentioned above, fibres provide ductile
likely to exhibit strain-softening behaviour in volume needs to exceed a critical value flexural resistance by being gradually pulled
tension. in order to achieve deflection hardening. out of the concrete. This effect is highly
This critical value is different for each fibre dependent on the strength and hardness
and concrete and it can be confirmed of the bond between the cement matrix
by testing. Hence, the design for flexure and the individual fibre. Some concretes
of FRC requires careful consideration of exhibit significant long term strength gain.
stresses and the associated strain states as Due to this hardening of the concrete over
well as validation by appropriate testing. months and years, this bond could increase
during the design life of the segment. It is
1.3.4 Elastic modulus possible that the bond strength could reach
a value which prevents this pulling out
Compared to a similar unreinforced concrete,
effect, instead leading to high strains in the
FRC tends not to exhibit any particularly
Figure 1: Classification of tensile behaviour of cement- individual fibres. This can cause them to
different behaviour in compression and
based materials (by Psomas after Lofgren 2005) snap, resulting in failure below the values
tension up to the Modulus of Rupture, MOR,
required for ductility, even though they
or the limit of proportionality, LOP. Therefore,
passed these required values at tests at 28
1.3.3 Behaviour in flexure the equations for the elastic modulus, E,
days.
given in the normal design standards can be
The typical purpose of fibre reinforcement used without further modification. Similarly, This effect can be relevant to segmental
is to impart flexural capacity and therefore the Poissons ratio and shear modulus of lining designs which experience cyclic
ductility into cracked concrete. The failure the concrete matrix are not changed by the loading or in other special applications
mode in flexure is a plastic fibre pull out addition of fibres. where additional flexural strength has to be

mobilised late in the design life. Therefore A large number of FRC segmental lining behaviour in bending and quite resilient
a suitable dosage of a fibre, which is tunnels have been built with strain softening behaviour under dynamic loading.
appropriate for the long term strength of FRC and rely on the compression of
the concrete, must be selected to ensure the ring in the quasi permanent SLS to
ductile behaviour of the composite material. provide crack limitation compliant with the
Alternatively, the strength gain of the requirements of the works.
concrete should be restricted to a value
1.3.7 Behaviour under dynamic loads
which is compatible with the selected
fibre. This ensures that the fibres fail in the It is well established that fibre reinforcement
intended manner by pulling out. Similar improves the energy absorption capacity
to performance of the fibres in creep of concrete by enhancing its post-peak
this aspect of fibre behaviour can not be load transfer capability. This corresponds
generalised. In the absence of standardised to increased toughness and therefore it
testing the assessment of this effect could provides an effective way of improving
be undertaken considering data relevant the resistance of concrete to impact. The
to the particular selected fibre, and/or the degree of this improvement is dependent
results of appropriate research programs. upon the fibre type (material, length, shape,
It is recommend to address any limitations aspect ratio, etc) and thus a comprehensive
arising from long term performance criteria review of the FRC performance must be
by the specification of appropriate material carried out prior to its selection for any
performance requirements. Durability application that experiences dynamic
effects (section or fibre loss) have to be loading.
considered in such assessments. It should be noted that FRC is successfully
There do not appear to be any reports of used in a number of non-tunnel applications
the long term effects outlined above on any under dynamic loads, e.g. railway / tram
FRC segmental lining tunnel or shaft built track bed (Ridout 2009). However, the
so far, despite rarely being addressed in suitability depends on the strain level as
the associated designs. Further research well as on the material. This document
should be undertaken in this area which will cannot give any hard and fast rules on the
allow an improved appreciation of these applicability of FRC for dynamic loads.
issues and their relevance in segment Fibres are known to provide confinement
design, to concrete in the event of cracking due to
seismic loading. The degree of confinement
1.3.6 Effects of fibres on crack widths
is believed to depend on the dosage rate
Flexural crack widths have been found and characteristics of the fibres used. This
to be reduced through the inclusion of effect has been found to be particularly
fibres in combination with conventional advantageous when FRC is used together
reinforcement or when used at sufficient with conventional reinforcing bars. No
dosage rates to produce a strain-hardening guidelines are available at present to
behaviour in flexural tension. In a deflection- quantify this effect and thus additional
softening FRC the first crack to occur in testing may be required for a project to
a segment is likely to become enlarged exploit this property of FRC.
as a result of strain localization and this The behaviour of FRC under dynamic loads
will therefore become the dominant is subject of ongoing research with very
crack, if deformation continues. In this encouraging results. For example, High
circumstance, fibres have no effect on Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
average crack width. (HPFRC) appears to exhibit strain hardening

2 >> Design of frc segmental linings
2.1 General remarks approach (e.g. Model Code 2010, ACI318 mean developed segment length
or Eurocode 2). Obviously the requirement =
A common approach is to use design segment thickness
for a minimum ductility still applies.
parameters based on characteristic
The design checks required for fibre
material parameters for plain concrete
reinforced concrete are the same as those
in the first iteration of the design and
required for a conventionally reinforced
allow for reinforced concrete factors of
segmental lining. The design checks must
safety in order to obtain design material
address the following particular issues as a
parameters. This is a conservative
minimum :
approach and assumes that a minimum
ductility level must be demonstrated in I- Capacity of the segments for bending
Figure 2 : An example of a segment aspect ratio
structural testing. For example, the Model and compression
Code 2010 (fib MC2010) suggests the II- Detailed checks pertaining to the radial
2.2 ULS design concept
following minimum requirements related to joints
concrete flexural strength: III- Detailed checks of the segments for 2.2.1 General
The flexural resistance of the FRC at the stresses resulting from ram forces An appropriately specified quality and
strain level used for SLS design IV- Transportation and handling load cases quantity of fibres will result in sufficient
(at CMOD = 0.5 mm, f R 1 k ) must be ductility to prevent brittle behaviour in
V- F
urther detailed checks, e.g. gasket
greater than 0.4 times the flexural failure modes relevant to segment design.
groove
resistance at the limit of proportionality Consequently fibre reinforced concrete
(first crack, f l k ) f R 1 k /f l k > 0.4 Issues ii and iii in the list above govern the
segments can be designed to a similar level
design in the majority of cases since, as
and of safety as a conventional (bar reinforced)
noted earlier, designers aim to limit the
T
he flexural resistance of the FRC at the segment, using the same partial material
bending in the segments due to the limited
strain level used for ULS design (at CMOD factors as for reinforced concrete. Although
enhancement in flexural capacity typically
= 2.5 mm, f R 3 k ) must be greater than 0.5 this is discussed in more depth in Appendix
provided by fibres. Bending can be limited
times the flexural resistance at the strain B, in simple terms, the partial material
by controlling the aspect ratio, which is
level used for SLS design factor of 1.5 in Eurocode terminology (or
defined below with an example in Figure
(at CMOD = 0.5mm, f R 1 k ) a strength reduction factor of 0.70 in ACI
2. The experience from numerous projects
f R 3 k / f R 1 k >0.5 terminology) can be used for determining
suggests that an aspect ratio of less than
FRC design strengths.
If these requirements are both met, fibres 10 is in most cases suitable for segments
can be used to replace bar reinforcement. made of FRC alone. This empirical This approach assumes implicitly that
Please refer to Appendix A for additional parameter can be used to inform the the characteristic material parameters
detail. initial design of the segments but requires used in the design have been specified
verification in the further design process. and tested to the same level of reliability
A better approach is to use design
as conventionally reinforced concrete
parameters based on characteristic Higher aspect ratios may be possible
under comparable conditions. Material
material parameters for FRC (e.g. see depending on the methods of handling,
characterisation through testing is required
Appendix B). When using a Limit State transportation, installation, TBM driving and
as part of the verification of the design. It is
design approach, the characteristic flexural ground loads. In particular quasi hydrostatic
the designers responsibility to ensure this
strength is reduced by an appropriate loading in the long term ULS will allow
level of confidence is achieved by specifying
material performance reduction factor higher aspect ratios up to a point where the
an appropriate level of material testing (see
(which is known as a partial safety factor segment design is governed by the checks
section 3). The design method should be
or strength reduction factor) and then the as per ii. to v. above alone.
consistent with the test method.
segment capacity in bending is calculated.
This will then be compared to a factored The required checks for permanent
load action. The following sections will and transient design situations can be
focus on design using this approach since generalised into
most concrete design codes use a similar I- Design for flexure

II- Design for shear Model Code 2010. Test results can typically become relevant in segment design. In such
III- Design for tension not be used directly as design parameters. cases a FRC only design approach might not
The resistance of a FRC cross-section to a be economically or technically feasible.
IV- Design for compression
combined axial force and bending moment Figure 3 below illustrates the effect of various
Since the characterisation of the material can be considered in a Moment Axial reinforcement concepts on the basis of
is based on testing (rather than on thrust interaction diagram2 The equilibrium of characteristic material parameters.
prescription), there is a need to relate the forces and bending moments is determined
load-displacement or load-crack opening in the same way as for conventional bar 2.2.3 Design for shear
information to a stress strain curve, which reinforcement. Figure 3 shows an illustration
The main action for shear transfer across
is used in the design. This process is of the contribution of fibre reinforcement in
a crack in plain concrete is attributed to
described in different ways in a number of comparison to bar reinforcement, following the
aggregate interlock and friction at the crack
guidance publications. There are two basic fib Model Code approach. Similar results can
face. For fibre-reinforced concrete, at normal
approaches for the design of FRC members be obtained using other design methods such
fibre dosages, as soon as the matrix cracks,
Approach A: The - (stress-strain) as ACI 544.FR (Bakhshi & Nasri 2014). The
the fibres are activated and start to be pulled
method, where the loaddeflection or figure shows that fibres provide a significant
out, providing additional resistance and
loadCMOD (crack mouth opening improvement in bending capacity in the most
contributing to the control of shear cracking.
displacement) relationship is deduced critical area.
Various design guidelines permit the
from testing. The strength is linked to the In general, segments are designed to work
enhancement of the shear capacity due to
load at predefined CMODs (or deflections), mainly in compression, with low bending
the fibres in the case where conventional bar
or to the area beneath the curve up to a moments. For such design scenarios FRC
reinforcement exists. However, in the ideal
predefined deflection; this in turn is used can be a good alternative to conventional bar
case, fibres would replace all of the bars in
to derive the residual or equivalent flexural reinforcement. Also it should be remembered
a segmental lining. Little guidance exists on
strengths. The CMODs are transformed into that tunnel linings embedded in the ground are
how to calculate the shear capacity of FRC
strains and the residual (or equivalent) flexural highly redundant structures which tend not to
in this case. Coccia et al (2015) have rightly
strengths are translated into direct tensile suffer high, local loads in the long term.
pointed out that fib MC2010 offers guidance
strengths (see di Prisco et al 2013). Where particular soft ground conditions, high based on limiting the principal tensile stress to
A
pproach B: The -w (stress-crack width) unbalanced loads, large ram forces, or large less than the design tensile strength and that
method, where tensile testing yields a load tunnel diameters, or a combination of the this is difficult to evaluate when bending and
crack width relationship which is mainly above are encountered, bending moments will
used directly in formulations based on
fracture mechanics The principles behind this
approach are summarised in section 2.4.2.
The Approach A is more common in designing
FRC members. Approach B requires a more
comprehensive characterisation of the material
based on direct tensile testing.
2.2.2 Design for flexure

The design of FRC in flexure is covered in a
number of detailed publications (see section
1.1). Most, if not all, references recommend
using a stress block to model the effect of
fibres in flexure (e.g. see Appendix A). The
parameters of the stress block are obtained by
conversion of associated material tests, e.g.
the beam test as per EN 14651 for design to Figure 3 : Moment Axial thrust interaction diagram showing various forms of reinforcement (for 250 mm of
C40/50 5c concrete with 8/8 mm 150/150 mm c/c mesh)3
2
urrently there is no established method of dealing with concurrent tension and bending for FRC, although in principle this is possible through closed-form solutions following
C
conventional stress block section analysis.
3
This figure is based on Eurocode 2 and the Model Code 2010 with a rectangular stress block in the tension zone.

axial force are present. The authors propose Should the tensile capacity of the more detailed assessments of crack width
the use of a reduced design value for the concrete prove insufficient to demonstrate and site specific deterioration mechanisms,
residual flexural strength to take this limitation compliance with the design code degradation values up to 30mm might
into account. This value can then be used requirements in the respective ULS, be considered, depending on the
to create a modified Moment Axial thrust appropriate resistance must be provided aggressiveness of the exposure conditions
interaction diagram. They go further, to by additional reinforcment. Also, the effects Experience has shown that fibres control
propose a simplified check, wherein a chart of fibres could be assessed by appropriate early age shrinkage cracking well. However,
can be used to determine whether or not the full scale testing. Full scale testing can allow drying shrinkage cracking does not usually
moment capacity is reduced by more than an improved utilization of the material. This occur in segment manufacture.
10% - see Figure 4. If the capacity is affected approach can be used to complement
In flexure, generally, crack widths can
by less than 10%, they propose that the effect the classic design approach. The
only be reduced by achieving deflection
of shear can be ignored. standardization of such testing is ongoing.
hardening material behaviour in the FRC. In
For tunnel linings that are designed for this case, the crack spacing for the fibre
direct tension design situations, deflection only (Primary) case, and from that the
hardening in direct tension is required. resulting crack width, can be estimated
based on the strains occurring in the
2.2.5 Design for compression
particular design situation with empirical
For practical dosages, the effect of fibre relations given, for example, in the DAfStB
reinforcement on the performance of Richtlinie, or be determined experimentally
concrete in compression can be ignored. from large scale testing.
Generally, the presence of fibres improves Alternatively, it is also possible to use
the ductility of high strength concrete and nonlinear Finite Element Analysis to assess
Figure 4 : Simplified shear check after Coccia et al (2015). leads therefore to a more benign behaviour the anticipated crack widths (see section 2.4).
Where V is the shear force, N is the axial force, b is
near the compressive limit. It is anticipated For combined reinforcement (the
breadth, h is depth and flim is the design tensile strength.
that this effect will reduce the spalling Secondary case), a methodology for
tendency of FRC and generally improve crack width calculation is given by RILEM
2.2.4 Design for tension behaviour at the joints. (2002), based on fracture mechanics
The tensile capacity of FRC is considered principles using the curve method
in areas such as those subject to peak 2.3 SLS design concept for strain-softening FRC. Design standards
stresses from bursting caused by ram such as the DAfStB Richtlinie Faserbeton
forces or close to radial joints. The 2.3.1 Crack width control (2012), RILEM (2003) and Model Code
associated failure modes occur at very While FRC normally performs better 2010 contain similar approaches.
small strains, hence generally the effect of than bar reinforced concrete in terms
fibres in this design case is not explicitly of durability, target crack widths are still 2.3.2 Durability of fibre reinforced
considered, unless substantiated by selected to prevent fibre corrosion, to concrete segments
appropriate behaviour models (e.g., comply with water tightness criteria, to Precast concrete segments are usually
nonlinear numerical models) or by ensure concrete matrix durability, or simply specified as high density concrete with a
appropriate full scale testing which could to achieve the surface finish specified strength greater than 40 N/mm2. Therefore
assist the design process. In the absence by the client. For corrosion protection of they are likely to exhibit good durability.
of such elements, the associated design steel fibres, a crack width limit of 0.15mm FRC segments have been demonstrated
checks should be based on the design to 0.20mm can be considered as best to be durable and, when fibres are used
tensile capacity of the concrete. As practice, depending on the aggressivity with bar reinforcement, the fibres reduce
mentioned in section 1.3.2, the tensile of the environment (AFTES 2013). the risk of corrosion of the bars. The
strength is not altered by the fibres so the Alternatively, it may be more convenient longevity of the lining is primarily dependent
established relationships for estimating the to allow for steel fibre degradation in the on its susceptibility to degradation due to
tensile strength of plain concrete should be outermost FRC layer and to ignore this layer physicochemical effects such as sulphate
used. in the design checks. In the absence of attack, alkali-silica reaction carbonation and

corrosion of the embedded steel reinforcing 2.3.2.1 The fibres do not cross a crack after 18 months of exposure (in indoor,
bars or steel fibres. Macro synthetic fibres outdoor, in demineralized water + CO2 and
themselves are not affected by corrosion. As long as the matrix retains its inherent in salt water + CO2) if the crack width is
alkalinity and it does not contain large smaller than 0.2 mm (Nemegeer et al 2000).
These degradation mechanisms are directly
cracks, deterioration of SFRC is not likely Others have found the limiting crack width
related to concrete permeability and
to occur. It has been found that, when to prevent corrosion to be lower, around
especially the crack widths. In practice,
exposed to conditions conducive to 0.1 mm (Granju & Ullah Balouch 2005 and
the design crack widths should be limited
reduced alkalinity, good quality SFRC will Kaufmann 2014). Zinc coated fibres show
depending on the application and the
only carbonate to a depth of a couple of benefits for corrosion resistance (Nemegeer
groundwater conditions. The appropriate
millimetres over a period of many years et al 2000). Macro synthetic fibres have
crack width limits can be taken from the
(Nemegeer et al 2000). Due to the large been shown to perform well in cracked
applicable concrete design standard. As
surface area to volume ratio, steel fibres are concrete (Kaufmann 2014).
noted above, for corrosion protection of
more effectively screened by the lime rich
steel fibres, a crack width limit of 0.15mm
layer than the large diameter bars used in
to 0.20mm can be considered as best 2.4 Numerical Modelling of FRC
conventional reinforced concrete.
practice, depending on the aggressivity of
the environment (AFTES 2013). A review of Unlike structural reinforced concrete, SFRC 2.4.1 General
research can be found in ACI 544.5R-10 will not support the galvanic corrosion
cells. The fibres do not touch each other Numerical modelling using commercially
(2010).
and so they do not provide a mechanism available software (such as Finite Element
For combined reinforcement (the
for propagation of corrosion activity.
Secondary case), the bar reinforcement
Furthermore, since the individual fibres are
must be protected. The maximum crack
so small, corrosion will not result in any
width at SLS has a direct impact on the
spalling. For example, where the fibres are
water tightness of the lining and ingress
exposed on the surface of the segments,
of chloride ions and other deleterious
corrosion will simply result in some minor
materials promoting steel corrosion. It
rust-coloured staining on the surface. If this
should be noted that, with conventional
cosmetic effect is undesirable, galvanised Figure 5 : Finite Element modelling of ring joints under jack
reinforcement, damage at edges and thrust with differential bedding contact, showing crack
fibre can be used. development: a) results from the model b) schematic of the
corners often occurs. Due to the minimum
out-of-planarity case
cover required for protection against 2.3.2.2 The fibres do cross a crack
corrosion, and the shape of the edges, Analysis) is becoming increasingly popular
the concrete is unreinforced over a certain Considering the second scenario of
in tunnel segment design, although the
thickness, making it vulnerable to damage. cracked concrete, fibres exposed in a crack
design engineer needs to have thorough
Any steel bars exposed to the atmosphere will be subjected to corrosion. How long
training and experience in this field. A
will start to corrode and initiate further the fibres remain capable of load transfer
general policy used in numerical analysis
spalling, unless this damage is repaired. across the crack and restricting crack
is that an approximate hand calculation
Because the fibres are uniformly distributed widening depends on crack width and
is needed to check the results of the
throughout the concrete, FRC segments depth, type and diameter of fibre used and
numerical modelling to prevent major errors.
are much less often damaged in this way the aggressivity of the environment. If the
Once the potential for major errors has
and this saves money in repairs as well as crack widths are small enough, corrosion
been eliminated, a numerical model can be
reducing the corrosion risks to any bars in may not occur and the cracks themselves
useful to generate more accurate estimates
the segments. may autogeneously heal. For example,
of stress actions and deformations than
Considering steel fibres specifically, two tests conducted on SFRC samples, in a
hand calculations, especially for complex
different scenarios need to be taken cracked condition, have shown that after
geometries.
into account when analysing the risk of 650 cycles of alternating exposure to sea
water, there is no loss of bending strength There are varying levels of sophistication
corrosion of fibres and its consequences: available in numerical modelling. The most
if the crack width is smaller than 0.25mm
Firstly, if the fibres do not cross a crack basic analysis can be undertaken using
(Hannant & Edgington (1975) and Mangat
Secondly, if the fibres do cross a crack. & Gurusamy (1987). In another study, no linear-elastic models. These will produce
decrease in post-crack strength occurred good results at a low level of stress (i.e.

where plasticity is unlikely to occur). As the and select a value that is appropriate to the tunnel linings (see Appendix F). These fibres
level of stress imposed increases, more FRC used for a design (see Figure 6). The reduce explosive spalling by facilitating the
sophisticated material models are required energy that is associated with the inclusion of release of steam vapour pressure.
to simulate the non-linear post-cracking fibres in the concrete, Gff, can be measured Fibrillated PP fibres provide a limited degree
behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete. by different material tests, e.g. 3 point of protection, whilst macro synthetic and steel
Inclusion of time-dependent properties such notched beam test with load-CMOD and fibres alone have been found to have little or
as creep of the concrete or fibres requires a load-deflection results. The stress-crack width no influence on the prevention of explosive
level of sophistication that is presently usually relation required in a numerical modelling can spalling.
only found in the sphere of research. be determined by a back analysis of these test
Large scale fire tests are really the only way to
results. Methods of doing this can be found
2.4.2 Modelling of post crack behaviour determine the correct dosage. This is a costly
in the literature (e.g. di Prisco et al 2013 and
exercise and an expense that many projects
Juhasz 2013).
Concrete exhibits quite different behaviour would like to avoid. Section 6.2 of EN 1992-
in compression and in tension: on the One possible approach for the use of post- 1-2:2004 makes reference to the use of 2 kg/
compression side it exhibits a strain hardening crack fracture energy in numerical modelling is m3 of monofilament polypropylene micro-fibres
behaviour (up to the ultimate compressive based on the crack band theory developed to control explosive spalling in high strength
strain) with a relatively high compressive by Bazant (Bazant & Oh, 1984). Generally, this concrete. Unfortunately no fibre specification
strength compared to tensile strength (~10 method converts the stress-crack diagram to (i.e. diameter or length) is given. This does not
times larger), while on the tension side it a stress-strain diagram using the characteristic preclude the usage of lower or higher dosages,
exhibits a quasi-brittle material behaviour. length (lcs). In the numerical model, the however it does highlight the need for careful
Furthermore, concrete exhibits creep in characteristic length is a mesh-dependent consideration and the necessity to carry out
response to persistent loading, and because variable: its length changes according to fire testing on large concrete samples that
of brittle behaviour does not respond well to the size of the element and the angle of the completely replicate the materials to be used
dynamic effects. crack direction. According to the crack band on an actual project. Where this has been
theory, the appropriate size for the element done, dosage rates of, for example, 1.0 kg/
should be the same as the width of the m3 and 1.5 kg/m3 have been used in actual
fracture process zone which is approximately tunnel projects. Appendix G contains more
2.5-3 times the maximum aggregate size. information on this subject.
If the numerical modelling software cannot
When considering the effect of the fire,
model this phenomenon, substantial errors
EN 1992-1-2:2004 provides methods
may result when a post-cracking analysis is
of calculating the reduction of concrete
attempted.
strength due to high-temperature damage
In summary, the material model used for within the concrete and, where applicable,
modelling FRC must include the following: steel reinforcement. The heat from a fire
Figure 6 : Definitions of fracture energy of concrete (Gf), A combined failure surface for modelling of could reduce the strength of steel fibres and
fibre-reinforced concrete (GfFRC) and the added fracture
energy of fibre (Gff)- (Juhasz 2013)
peak strength, destroy macro synthetic fibres. On the other
Inclusion of the fracture energy (Gf) hand, fibres may not be needed for the long
When the induced stresses exceed the tensile parameter for modelling of post-cracking term design loads if the lining is designed
strength of the concrete it will crack. There will performance, to work in compression. Ingason (2006)
be a residual stress at the crack surface that made recommendations regarding the most
The fracture energy can be determined from
depends on the crack width opening distance. appropriate fire temperature curve for a range
the back analysis of test results.
This stress is associated with an energy, called of fire risks, based on the UPTUN experiments.
fracture energy (Gf). This energy is influenced A stress-strain model that incorporates
The designer is encouraged to assess the
by the aggregate type (round or crushed), crack band theory to resolve the mesh
consequences of the design fire (i.e. required
size, and its bond to cement mortar. Fibres dependency issue.
repairs post the fire event) together with
increase this fracture energy (Gff), thereby his structural assessment of the fire design
making the concrete a more ductile material 2.5 Fire protection situation. If substantial flexural resistance is
(Juhasz 2013). required in the permanent operational ULS
Adding monofilament polypropylene (PP)
The most important criterion for the selection the depth of failure of the fibre reinforcement
micro-fibres is widely accepted as the best
of the FRC material model is the ability to due to fire might influence the selection of
means of passive fire protection for concrete
model this increased fracture energy (GfFRC) reinforcement.

3 >> Performance specification of frc
3.1 General type of tensile test often quoted in technical 3.3 Flexural strength testing
literature is described in RILEM (2001)
Most of the engineering properties of and is performed on cylinders 150mm. A 3.3.1 Introduction
FRC are primarily related to its concrete number of different variations of uniaxial
matrix properties and thus test methods Material classification is an important
tensile tests are briefly presented in BRE
developed for concrete in both fresh and requirement for verification of the design.
Digest 451 (2000) publication Tension tests
hardened states can be used in case When referring to ordinary concrete,
for concrete.
of FRC. These include the conventional designers choose its strength, workability
The second type of tests is the most or exposure classes which then have to
concrete tests at early-age to characterise
common type. These tests involve beams be provided by the concrete producer.
workability, plastic shrinkage, fibre
tested in bending. The beam bending The compressive strength of FRC is not
content and, at later ages, (hardened
tests include three-point or four-point (or particularly influenced by the presence
state) mechanical strength tests such as
third point) tests at beam aspect ratio of fibres (up to a volume fraction of
compression, indirect tensile (splitting) and
(length : depth) greater than 3:1. The main 1% - Lofgren 2005). Hence the normal
modulus of elasticity. The pre-construction
advantage of these types of test is that they classification for plain structural concrete
and production quality control tests
are well established, relatively easy to carry can be adopted.
required are summarised in AFTES (2013).
out and there is an extensive database (on
It should be noted that the tests apply both Plain concrete is characterized by a brittle
some of them) for comparative studies. The
to the constituent materials of the concrete, behaviour in tension. The reason for
most appropriate and common tests will be
and to fresh and hardened concrete. adding fibres to cementitious composites
presented in the following sections.
is to improve the tensile behaviour after
The last type of tests refers to a number cracking, in terms of providing a residual
3.2 Tensile strength testing of specialised tensile tests like the Wedge tensile strength and ductility. It should
It is the post-crack tensile performance of Split Test (WST, see Lofgren 2005)) and be underlined that FRC is a composite
FRC that marks the significant difference of the Double Punch Test (DPT or Barcelona material, rather than the fibres being just
FRCs behaviour in relation to that of plain indirect tensile test). The WST provides an addition to a concrete matrix; for this
concrete. For the design of a segmental the stress - crack width curve and is reason a proper mix design is required
FRC tunnel lining, the most important independent of specimen size, although and mechanical properties should be
parameter to be quantified is the tensile the results are affected by the size (length) determined by testing the composite itself.
stress-strain response in its hardened state. of fibres as well as the type of fibre. The
The ability of FRC to absorb energy beyond
As discussed earlier (see sections 1.3.2), DPT is performed on cylinders 150mm high
the first crack in the matrix is termed
the tensile strength at first crack is not by 150mm in diameter and the derivation
toughness. FRC toughness depends
altered by the fibres and, where needed, it of load deflection curve is described in
on fibre characteristics (such as material
can determined by standard tests. technical literature (Molins et al 2009).
properties: elastic modulus, shape, aspect
However, it should be noted that these
The determination of the post-crack ratio, tensile yield strength, mechanical
tests are specialised and not - at this point
tensile properties can be achieved with the anchorage, quantity (usually expressed by
in time - validated by any international
following types of tensile tests: the volume percentage %) and orientation
standards organisation. Therefore, they
as well as on the properties of the
Direct Uniaxial should not be used as stand-alone tests
cementitious matrix surrounding the fibres.
Flexural (bending) as an alternative to the standardised beam
bending tests or full-scale segment testing. It should be noted that not all the strengths
Indirect/Special quoted at deflection values in standard
The first type of tests is the tensile test of In summary, testing of FRCs structural
tests may be relevant to the design of
specimens under direct uniaxial load. These performance should be carried out for the
tunnel linings. Section 3.3.3 discusses
are notoriously difficult tests, as it is almost following reasons:
this in more detail. The determination of
impossible to avoid bending in the medium C
haracterisation of post-crack behaviour toughness through testing is also influenced
sized specimens, which are required to in flexure by the test method (load, load rate, load
minimise the fibre length effect. These D
erivation of tensile strength parameters control, stiffness frame), specimen size and
tests are used primarily in research as they that can be used in design analysis instrumentation reliability.
enable the stress - strain and stress - crack
The specification should define the types
width curves to be derived directly from the 3.3.2 Notched vs unnotched beams
and frequency of this testing as well as the
testing, without analytical manipulation. One
acceptance criteria. Some commonly used third-point loaded

beam test methods such as ASTM C1609/ structure. In theory, a correction factor per series. The best practice is to make
C1609M share similarities in that load is should be applied to flexural data generated one worker responsible for each type of
imposed at the third-points, the beam in notched specimens. specimen.
dimensions are usually 150mm x 150mm The RILEM and fib MC2010 design It is important to note that the toughness
in cross-section with a span of 450mm, methods are based on notched beams parameters are sensitive to size effects.
and there is no notch introduced to the because of the perceived benefits of This effect is more pronounced in high
specimen prior to testing. The absence notched samples. These are that the notch performance FRC mixes that exhibit
of a notch has a major influence on will provide a slower cracking process, deflection hardening behaviour and
performance compared to notched beam thereby reducing the risk of a sudden therefore special care is required, if
test methods such as EN14561 (Foster et drop in load. Also notch allows the test to toughness parameters are to be used in
al 2012, Stahli & van Mier 2006). A sawn be controlled on the basis of the rate of design calculations.
notch has the effect of increasing both the increase of CMOD and the rate of increase The ASTM C1550 and EN 14488-5
Modulus of Rupture (alternatively expressed of deflection. (EFNARC plate) are plate bending tests
at the Limit of Proportionality in EN14561)
With this issue in mind, it is essential that which are widely using for sprayed concrete
and post-cracking residual strengths
the design method and test method are lined tunnels but they are not relevant to
compared to unnotched specimens. The
consistent. This shows that results from precast concrete segments.
primary reason why a notch increases
different tests cannot be compared directly
apparent performance compared to 3.3.3.2 ASTM C1609
in some cases. This issue does not affect
unnotched specimens and real structures
to data generated using third-point loaded
is related to the presence of imperfections This test is performed on a beam (350mm
unnotched beams.
in FRC. The notch controls the position of x 100mm x 100mm or 500mm x 150mm
the crack and forces it to occur at a specific 3.3.3 Standard Tests for FRC flexural x 150mm), without any notch, on a four
location in the specimen regardless of the strength testing point loading configuration and it requires
location of nearby weak points. In contrast, a servo-controlled closed-loop machine.
the crack can occur anywhere between the 3.3.3.1 General This test is used widely in North America
third-points in an ASTM C1609/C1609M and addresses some of the issues with
The most common flexural tests for FRC the previous, well-documented ASTM
beam test and will find the weakest point in
(defined in a standard) are described in C1018. The ACI 544.FR design method is
an unnotched specimen. X-ray analysis of
the following sections. There are also based on this test (Bakhshi & Nasri 2014).
cracks and fibre density in FRC members
bending tests, described in various National Performance is expressed as a load-
(Foster et al, 2012) has shown that an
Standards such as German DIN, Italian deflection curve in which load is taken to be
unconstrained propagating crack will divert
UNI, Belgian NBN, etc. These can be the total load applied across the two third
around the ends of fibres within a stressed
adopted for the characterisation, if relevant points and the deflection is taken to be the
FRC member. However, it will be forced
experience exists within the designer and central deflection measured relative to the
through the fibre when constrained by a
accredited laboratories can be used for supports.
notch, thus the average post-cracking
carrying out the bending tests.
performance of a third-point loaded The parameters used to summarize
unnotched specimen is lower than that of a A feature of the bending tests compared performance are defined graphically in
nominally identical notched specimen. For to full-scale testing of tunnel segments is Figure 7. Performance is primarily assessed
the type of FRC commonly used in tunnel that the coefficient of variation (COV) on at three points: the first peak in the
segments, the magnitude of the difference the residual mean values may be quite load-deflection curve, which is used to
in apparent post-cracking flexural strength significant, sometimes up to 25%. This calculate the Modulus of Rupture; the load
is in the authors experience about 10-20% could lead to a signification reduction in at 0.75 mm central deflection, which is
at equivalent crack widths. design tensile strength after the application used for performance assessment under
of statistical rules for interpretation of test service conditions (SLS); and the load at
Since in reality FRC tunnel segments do not
results (see Appendix B). However, with 3.0 mm central deflection, which is used for
include notches, the flexural performance
appropriate training for testing staff, this ultimate strength estimates (ULS). These
of a sample of FRC tested in a notched
can be mitigated and COVs as low as 10% points correspond to the load at first crack
beam will be higher than the performance
can be achieved in residual strengths with and deflections of span/600 and span/150
obtained in an unnotched beam and the
EN 14651 beams, using 12 specimens for 500mm x 150mm x 150mm beams.
performance of the FRC in the actual

3.3.3.3 EN 14651
This is a test developed specifically to

characterise FRC and derive design
parameters. EN 146514 is the reference
standard for the European Union CE label for
steel and polymer fibres and has been adopted
by a number of fibre manufacturers and
designers, primarily in Europe, Asia and Middle
East. The great advantage of this test is that it
relates the strength to specific CMODs (Crack
Mouth Opening Displacement) and the strength
indices can be used directly in design for the
appropriate Limit State. This test procedure has
been adopted by Model Code 2010 and its
implementation is relatively straightforward and
independent of the type of fibre.
The behaviour in tension of FRC is evaluated
in terms of residual flexural tensile strength
Figure 7 : Typical load vs deflection curve for ASTM values, which are determined based on
C1609 for strain softening FRC where:
the load-crack opening curve or the load-
deflection curve, obtained by applying a
While the crack is free to occur anywhere Eq. 1
centre-point load on a simply supported
between the third-points, experience has f = the strength, MPa or N/mm2 notched (notch: 25mm length, 5mm wide)
shown that it tends to occur near the
P = the load, N beam (550mm x 150mm x 150mm) on a
centre. For a centrally located crack, the
L = the span length, mm 500mm span. The test results are expressed
maximum crack width for a deflection of
as the limit of proportionality (LOP) and the
0.75mm is 1.0mm. For a centrally located b = the average width of the specimen at
residual flexural strength (see Figure 8).
crack, the maximum crack width at the point of fracture, mm, and
3.0mm central deflection is 4 mm. Steel The limit of proportionality, fct,Lf, is calculated as
d = the average depth of the specimen at
fibres longer than 50mm are not normally 3 l
the point of fracture, mm
fct,L
f
= .F.
permitted to be used in cast ASTM C1609/
Determine the peak load as that value of 2 L bh2
C1609M beams due to fibre alignment
load corresponding to the point on the
problems caused by vibration of the mould where FL is the maximum load between a
load-deflection curve that corresponds to
walls. If longer steel fibres are used the beam CMOD of 0 and 0.05mm or a deflection of 0
the greatest value of load
must be sawn from a larger cast specimen and 0.08mm. The residual flexural strength,
obtained prior to reaching the end-point
or a performance correction factor applied to f R,I, needs to be evaluated at four different
deflection. Calculate the peak strength
the results. displacements.
using the peak load, the average specimen
Performance parameters are calculated as dimensions determined above, and Eq 1. 3 l
fR,i = .F .
follows. The first-peak strength is determined
Determine the residual load values, 2 R,i bh2
using the first-peak load shown in Figure 1,
the average specimen dimensions measured PD600 and P150 for specimen depth of
D
at the location of the crack, and the following 150mm, corresponding to net deflection where FR,i is the residual load at:
formula for modulus of rupture : values of L/600 (0.75mm) and L/150 (3.0mm)
i = 1: CMOD = 0.5mm or deflection
of the span length. Calculate the residual
strengths, PD 600 and P150 using the
D 0.47mm
residual loads, the average specimen i = 2: CMOD = 1.5mm or deflection
dimensions, and Eq. 1. 1.32mm
This is similar to RILEM test, although the RILEM test refers to steel fibre concrete: see TC162TDF 2002, Bending Test Final Recommendation, Materials and Structures, v35,
4
579-582

i = 3: CMOD = 2.5mm or deflection b if 0.7 fR3k/fR1k 0.9 These are only indicative performance levels
2.17mm c if 0.9 fR3k/fR1k 1.1 and there may be reasons why a particular
i = 4: CMOD = 3.5mm or deflection project requires higher ones (see Appendix
d if 1.1 fR3k/fR1k 1.3
3.02mm D). More details of the test procedure are
e if 1.3 fR3k/fR1k included in Appendix G.
l = the span between the supports (nominal
An example of FRC classification is given An example of a flexural strength vs
distance 500mm)
below: CMOD curve is shown in Figure 9. The
b = the width of the concrete sample
FRC 40/50 - 5.0c means data presented are from a large diameter
(nominal value 150mm)
C
ompressive cylinder strength, (7.8m ID) water tunnel in London with a
h = the residual height of the concrete steel fibre reinforced segmental lining. The
fck = 40 N/mm2
sample (nominal value 125mm) concrete mix was specified to be resistant
Residual flexural strength at CMOD = 0.5mm
against aggressive ground conditions with
fR1k = 5.0 N/mm2
a ratio fR1k/fLk 0.4 and fLk 5.5N/mm2. The
Residual flexural strength at CMOD = 2.5mm performance requirements were achieved
fR3k = 4.5 N/mm2 up to 5.5N/mm2 by using a mix CEM IIB (27% fly ash, w/c
(NB: All strength values are characteristic < 0.4) C50/60 (at 56 days) with 30kg/m3 of
values after statistical analysis.) steel fibres (aspect ratio 80, length 60mm).
More precise minimum characteristic values The results shown in the graph are based
can be specified by the designer as a on more than 30 bending tests (according
Figure 8 : Typical load vs CMOD curve for EN14651
refinement to this classification. to EN 14651). The mix can be classified as
Since brittleness must be avoided in FRC 50/60 - 2.5b.
The residual strength indices which are of
structural behaviour, fibre reinforcement can
greater importance, according to fib Model
be used as substitution (even partially) of
Code, are:
conventional reinforcement (at ULS), only if
Value fR1 (CMOD = 0.5mm) is used for the both the following relationships are fulfilled
verification of Service Limit State. (according to fib MC2010):
Value fR3 (CMOD = 2.5mm) is used for fR1k/fLk> 0.4 and fR3k/fR1k >0.5
verification of the Ultimate Limit State.
Where fLk is the characteristic value of the
The FRC stress-strain curve can be derived
nominal strength, corresponding to the
from the strength indices and a stress
peak load (or the highest load value in the
block can be deduced assuming either Figure 9 : Results from EN14651 tests for steel fibre
interval 0 0.05mm), determined from the
linear-elastic or rigid plastic post crack reinforced concrete segments from a London project
EN 14651 beam test.
behaviour. With the previous assumptions,
FRC toughness can be classified by using Typical minimum performance levels, for
tunnel segmental linings are: While EN 14651 is used for many
a couple of parameters. The first one is a
Compressive Strength: international standards such as the Model
number representing the fR1 class while the
Code and CE marking, a performance
second one is a letter representing the ratio -e
arly-age (demoulding, handling and
class defined by Model Code can easily
fR3k/fR1k The fR3k/fR1k ratio corresponds to storing): fck > 12 N/mm2;
be adapted to ASTM 1609 tests (see also
different strength classes. - at 28 days, fck 40 N/mm2 the discussion on notched vs unnotched
The strength interval for fR1k is defined by - at 90 days, fck 50 N/mm2 beams in 3.3.2).
two subsequent numbers in the series:
Bending residual tensile strength: L/150 according to ASTM 1609 equates
1.0 ; 1.5 ; 2.0 ; 2.5 ; 3.0 ; 4.0 ; 5.0 ; 6.0 ; to about the same deformation as fr4
- early-age (demoulding, handling and
7.0 ; 8.0 [N/mm2] according to EN 14651
storing): fR1k > 1.2 N/mm2;
The fR3k/fR1k ratio can be represented with L
/600 according to ASTM equates to
-a
t age equal or greater to 28 days, fR1k >
letters a, b, c, d, e, corresponding to the about the same deformation between fr1
2.2 N/mm2, fR3k > 1.8 N/mm2;
ranges: and fr2 according to EN 14651.
a if 0.5 fR3k/fR1k 0.7

3.3.3.4 JSCE SF-4 where no other national standard on steel - Proper mixing of the fibres in the
fibres is issued, the ISO 13270 standard concrete to obtain an uniform distribution
This used to be a very popular flexural test can be used. - Complete elimination of the appearance
to derive the toughness of FRC, especially
The type of fibre and the dosage should be of fibre balls (detrimental during
for the design of FRC slabs. It is performed
adapted to the compressive strength of the installation phase)
on a beam 450mm x 150mm x 150mm.
concrete. For cold-drawn wire steel fibres - The use of bonded/glued fibres can
The total area under the load deflection
(Group 1 EN 14889-1), a minimum tensile assist in fulfilling the above requirements.
curve is measured out to a specified
yield strength of steel wire of fy 800 N/
deflection (L/150) and a toughness factor is The normal dosage for steel fibres ranges
mm2 is recommended when the concrete
defined. The toughness factor then can be from 30 to 50 kg/m3, depending on the
class is less than or equal to C40/50
used in the calculation of flexural (bending performance required for each case.
(fck=40N/mm2). At higher compressive
moment) resistance.
strengths, the tensile strength of the steel
The main disadvantage of this method is fibres has to be higher to maintain ductility. 3.4.2 Macro-synthetic fibres
that the toughness factor represents an fy 1500 N/mm2 is recommended for High
average value of load-bearing capacity Macro synthetic fibres or any other type of
Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
over the displacement from zero to fibres, which comply with EN 14889-2 Class
(HPFRC).
L/150. It does not differentiate between II certification (i.e. diameter > 0.30 mm), can
In addition, here are some other notes: be used as a structural reinforcement (see
pre-peak and post-peak behaviour. That
means that FRCs, which exhibit strain To ensure a maximum network effect Table 1). This standard, like those for steel
softening behaviour, might be significantly (m/m) the aspect ratio should be fibres, covers definition, specification and
overestimated in performance at larger set as follows, l/D 65. l/D= 80 is conformity. Fibres can be both
displacements. A further disadvantage of recommended; mono-filament or fibrillated. The mean tensile
this test is the calculation of the toughness The anchor system should be optimised yield strength for macro synthetic fibres
parameter, which is dependent on the (e.g. using hooks at the end to ensure the should be greater than 500 N/mm2.
specimen size. fibre is anchored in the concrete matrix);
The normal dosage for macro synthetic
The air content with fibres may not differ fibres ranges from 8 to 10 kg/m3, depending
3.4 Fibre Specification more than 2% versus plain concrete (ISO on the performance required for each case.
13270);
This section describes the minimum Fibre dosage and concrete mixing must 3.4.3 Micro polymer fibres
recommendations proposed for steel take account of the following:
and macro synthetic fibres for structural Micro polymer fibres have no reinforcing effect
- Introduction of the fibres using an but they can be successfully used to improve
applications.
automatic dosing system which is early age concrete shrinkage and fire resistance,
3.4.1 Steel fibres validated for the selected fibres by the even under severe fire conditions (see section
dosing equipment producer 2.5, OVBB guideline and ACI 544.5R-10).
Minimum requirements on the properties
and for quality controls of steel fibres are
Deviation of the Deviation of the
defined in ISO 13270, ASTM A820 or EN Property Symbol individual value relative to average value relative
14889-1. ISO 13270 has two classes the declared value to the declared value
for tolerances, one which is similar to EN
Class II Class II
14889 and a more stringent class (Class
A), which is often recommended for uses Length & developed
such as precast segments. In EN 14889, length
l & ld
> 30mm 10% 5%
a differentiation is made between two < 30mm 10% 1.5mm
systems for the certificate of conformity:
Equivalent diameter
system 1 fibres for load-bearing purposes) > 0.30mm
de 50% 5%
and system 3 (fibres for other purposes).
In countries where EN 14889-1 or ASTM Length/diameter 50% 10%
A820 are not applicable, or in countries
Table 1 : Tolerance on lenght and diameter for macro synthetic fibres (EN 14489-2)

4 >> Sustainability
Increasingly, todays design engineers While it is possible to significantly reduce It may be seen from Table 3 that the use
are required to make conscious efforts the embodied CO2 of a concrete mixture for of fibre reinforcement as an alternative
to reduce the embodied carbon dioxide segment production by replacing a portion to conventional reinforcement cages in
(CO2) contents of the structures they are of its cement content with GGBFS or PFA, the design and manufacture of precast
designing. It is generally recognised that there is little or no difference between the concrete segments for tunnel linings will
increasing emissions of CO2 gas, generated cementitious blends and contents required dramatically reduce their embodied CO2
from fossil fuelled power supplied to for the production of fibre reinforced footprint.
industrial processes and fossil fuelled or conventionally reinforced concrete Designers should remember that the design
vehicles, are responsible for global climate segments for tunnel linings. In fact, of a tunnel lining segment is primarily
change. durability assessments arising from ground dependent upon the load conditions
Concrete and steel are the most widely and groundwater conditions (e.g., chlorides applied to it (ground loads, handling,
used materials in the construction and sulphates) may well necessitate a high transportation and erection, as well as live
sector and both materials, requiring high level of replacement materials for both loads). The table above is not based on
consumption of power in their manufacture, types of segment. a particular performance and is indicative
are responsible for very large CO2 emissions The use of fibre reinforcement in the design only. The benefits of reduced embodied
into the earths atmosphere. and manufacture of precast concrete CO2 can only be realised when the selected
Concrete is the second most widely segments for tunnel linings can, however, reinforcement methodology is able to meet
consumed commodity on the planet (after offer significant reductions in the embodied all the design conditions.
water) and the manufacture of Portland CO2 of these elements.
Cement is the largest chemical processing Table 3 shows the embodied CO2
industry in the world today. Table 2 shows contents of conventional reinforcement,
figures for the embedded CO2 contents steel wire fibres and synthetic fibres.
that were published by the Concrete Centre There are differences in dosage rates of
of the United Kingdom in its Fact Sheet these materials, depending on the project
18 [P1] Embodied CO2 of UK cement, requirements, and differences in power
additions and cementitious material (2007). supply sources for their manufacture
(coal, gas, oil and nuclear power stations).
Cement and Embodied CO2
additions (kg CO2/tonne) Additionally, the type of furnace (basic
Ordinary Portland Cement 930
oxygen or electric arc) has a significant
effect on the embodied CO2 of steel fibres.
Ground
Granulated Blast Furnace 52 This is reflected in the ranges shown in
Slag (GGBFS) Table 3.
Pulverised Fuel Ash
4
(PFA or Fly Ash) MATERIAL Embodied CO2 Dosage used in Embodied CO2 per m3
(kg CO2/tonne) segment of concrete
Limestone 32 production (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Conventional steel
1,932 (1) 60 to 160 116 to 309
Minor additional reinforcement
32
constituents
Steel wire fibres 2,425 (2) 25 to 40 61 to 97
Table 2 : Embodied carbon dioxide for concrete constituents
Polypropylene synthetic
260 (3) 8 to 10 2 to 2.6
fibres
Table 3 : Embodied carbon dioxide for difference forms of reinforcement
Sources
(1) Embodied carbon dioxide (ECO2) and construction materials (V1.1, 2008) Concrete Centre (UK)
(2) Correspondence from steel fibre manufacturers, 2014
(3) Correspondence from synthetic manufacturers, 2014

>> Bibliography
(see also section1.1) BRE Digest 451 (2000) Tension tests for concrete, BRE Press,
UK.
ACI 318-14 (2014) Building Code Requirements for Structural
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Tunnelling Society and The Institution of Civil Engineers.
ACI 544.5R-10 (2010) Report on the Physical Properties and
Durability of fiber Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete CNR-DT 204/2006 (2006), Guide for the Design and Construction
Institute. of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Structures, design recommendation.
Advisory Committee on Technical Recommendations for
ACI 544.FR. 2014 (in print) Indirect method to obtain a stress-strain Construction, Rome
diagram for strain softening fibre-reinforced concretes. American
Concrete Institute. Coccia, S., Meda, A. & Rinaldi, Z. (2015) On shear verification
to Model Code 2010 in FRC elements without traditional
ACI 544.7R.16 (2016) Report on Design and Construction of Fiber- reinforcement, (Accepted by Structural Concrete Journal)
Reinforced Precast Concrete Tunnel Segments
Concrete Society (2007). TR63 Guidance for the design of steel-
AFTES (2013) Design, dimensioning and execution of precast fibre-reinforced concrete. Technical Report 63. The Concrete
steel fibre reinforced concrete arch segments, recommendations Society, UK. www.concrete.org.uk
of AFTES No. GT38R1A1, Tunnels et espaces souterrain, No. 238
July/ August 2013 Concrete Society (2007) TR65 Guidance on Macro-synthetic fibre
reinforced concrete. Technical Report 65. The Concrete Society,
ASTM A820/A820M-11 (2011) Standard Specification for Steel UK. www.concrete.org.uk
Fibers for Fiber-Reinforced Concrete, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2011, www.astm.org DAfStB (2012) Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton: : Ergnzung und
nderung zu DIN EN 1992-1-1 in Verbindung mit DIN EN 1992-1-
ASTM C1116/C1116M (2010): Standard Specification for Fiber 1/NA, DIN EN 206-1, DIN 1045-2 und DIN EN 13670, Deutscher
Reinforced Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton / DIN.
PA, 2011, www.astm.org
DAUB (2013) Recommendations for the design, production
ASTM C1399/C1399M (2010): Standard Test Method for Obtaining and installation of segmental rings, DAUB (German Tunnelling
Average Residual Strength of fiber Reinforced Concrete, ASTM Committee) working group Lining Segment Design
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011, www.astm.org
di Prisco, M., Colombo, M. & Dozio, D. (2013) Fibre-reinforced
ASTM C1550/1550M (2012): Standard Method for flexural concrete in fib Model Code 2010: principles, models and test
Toughness of fiber Reinforced Concrete (using centrally Loaded validation, Structural Concrete 14 (2013), No. 4, pp 342 361
Round Panel), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011,
www.astm.org EFNARC (2006), Specification and Guidelines for Testing of Passive
Fire Protection for Concrete Tunnels Linings, www.efnarc.org
ASTM C1609/C1609M (2010): Standard Test Method for Flexural
Performance of Fibre reinforced concrete (third point bending test), EN 1992-1-2 (2004), Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2011, www.astm. Part 1-2: General rules Structural fire design: CEN
org
EN 14488-5 2006, Testing sprayed concrete. Determination of
ASTM D7508 / D7508M-10 (2010): Standard Specification energy absorption capacity of fibre reinforced slab specimens:
for Polyolefin Chopped Strands for Use in Concrete, ASTM CEN
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010, www.astm.org
EN 14651: 2005, Test methods for metallic fibre concrete.
Bakhshi, M. & Nasri, V. (2014) Design considerations for precast Measuring the flexural tensile strength (limit of proportionality (LOP),
tunnel segments according to international recommendations, residual): CEN
guidelines and standards, TAC 2014, Vancouver, Canada.
EN14889-1: 2006, Fibres for concrete Part 1: Steel fibres -
Bazant, Z.P., & Oh, B. H. (1984). Crack Band Theory for Fracture Definitions, specifications and conformity.
of Concrete. Materials and Structures, Vol. 16, pp. 155-177.

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EN14889-2: 2006, Fibres for concrete Kaufmann, J.P. (2014). Durability National Fire Protection Association.
Part 2: Polymer fibres Definitions, performance of fiber reinforced shotcrete in (2008). NFPA 502 Standard for Road
specifications and conformity aggressive environment. Proceedings of the Tunnels, Bridges and other Limited Access
World Tunnel Congress 2014 Tunnels for a Highways.
Fib (2013) -International Federation for better Life. Foz do Iguau. Brazil, pp 297.
Structural Concrete. Fib Model Code for Nemegeer, D., Vanbrabant, J. & Stang, H.
Concrete Structures 2010. Berlin: Verlag Khoury, G.A. & Willoughby, B. (2008) (2000), Final report on durability of steel
Ernst & Sohn, 2013 Polypropylene fibres in heated concrete. fibre reinforced concrete. Subtask 5.1
Part 1: Molecular structure and materials Durability of SFRC, Brite Euram Project
Foster, S. J., Htut, T., & Ng, T. S. (2012). behaviour, Magazine of Concrete BRPR-CT98-0813, 2000.
High performance fibre reinforced concrete: Research, Volume 60, Issue 2, 01 March
fundamental behavior and modelling. 2008 , pp. 125 136. VBB (2010) Richtlinie Faserbeton,
FraMCoS-8, JGM Van Mier, G Ruiz, C Guideline on the use of fibre reinforced
Andrade, RC Yu & XX Zhang (Eds), pp10. Khoury, G.A. (2008), Polypropylene fibres concrete, sterreichsche Vereinigung fr
in heated concrete. Part 2: Pressure relief Beton- und Bautechnik (2010)
Granju, J.-L. & Balouch, S.U. (2005) mechanisms and modelling criteria,
Corrosion of steel fibre reinforced concrete Magazine of Concrete Research, Volume Ridout, A. (2009), Macro-fibre-reinforced
from the cracks, Cement and Concrete 60, Issue 3, 01 April 2008 , pp. 189 204. concrete slab track, Concrete September
Research 35 (2005) pp 572577. 2009, pp 16-18.
Lacroix, D., and Haack, A. (2004, October).
Hannant D. P., Edgington J., (1975) PIARC Design Criteria for Resistance to RILEM (2001) TC-162 TDF, Test and
Durability of steel fibre concrete Fire for Road Tunnel Structures. Routes/ design methods for steel fibre reinforced
Proceeding, RILEM Symposium on Fibre Roads. World Road Association, No 324. concrete. Recommendations for uni-axial
reinforced cement and concrete, Vol 1, tension test, Materials and Structures, Vol.
September 1975, pp. 159-169. Lfgren, I., (2005), Fibre-reinforced 34, pp 3-6.
Concrete for Industrial Construction, PhD
Ingason, H. (2006), Modelling of Real thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, RILEM (2002) TC162TDF, Bending Test
World Fire Data, 2nd International Gothenburg, Sweden. Final Recommendation, Materials and
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(ISTSS), 7-13, March 15-17, 2006 Madrid, Mangat P. S., Gurusamy K, (1987)
Spain, 2006 Pemmissible crack widths in steel fibre RILEM (2003) TC 162-TDF, Test and
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International Tunnel Association. (2004). Structures, 119, 1987 pp. 338-347. concrete. sigma-epsilon-design method,
Guidelines for Structural Fire Resistance Materials and Structures, Vol. 36, pp
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Maintenance & Repair. Numerical modeling of precast frc
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ISO 834 (1975) Fire Resistance Tests Panama, 8th RILEM International Concrete Tunnel Linings. Proceedings of
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ISO 13270 (2013) Steel fibres for concrete Smith, K., & Atkinson, T. (2009) Factors to
Definitions and specification. Geneva: ISO Molins C, Aguado C, Saludes S, (2009), consider in using PP fibres in concrete to
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Recommendations of the Multidisciplinary
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Tarada, F. & King, M. (2009) Structural

fire protection of railway tunnels, Railway
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World Road Association. (2008). Road

Tunnels: An Assessment of Fixed Fire
Fighting Systems, Technical Committee
C3.3 on Road Tunnels.

>> Appendix A - design approch based on fib mc2010
The section reproduces parts of fibs b. if 0.7fR3k/fR1k 0.9 Constitutive law for SLS
Model Code 2010, defining key design c. if 0.9fR3k/fR1k 1.1
parameters. The structural design of
d. if 1.1fR3k/fR1k 1.3
FRC elements is based on the post-
cracking residual strength provided by e. if fR3k/fR1k 1.3
the fibres. For structural use, a minimum The figure 10 shows a concrete which
mechanical performance of FRC must be could be classified as C 35/45 4.0c.
guaranteed. Fibres can partially or totally Fibre reinforcement can substitute (fully
replace conventional reinforcement. Other or partially) conventional reinforcement
cases, like early age crack- control or fire at ultimate limit state, if the following
resistance, are considered non-structural relationships are fulfilled:
uses of FRC. Fibres can be used to improve
fR1k/fLk > 0.4
the behaviour at SLS since they can reduce
crack spacing and crack width, thereby fR3k/fR1k > 0.5
improving durability. While the mechanical The Model Code 2010 notes that Fiber
properties of a cementitious matrix are materials with a Youngs modulus which
modified when fibres are added, the elastic is significantly affected by time and/or
properties and compressive strength are thermo-hygrometrical phenomenon are
not significantly affected by fibres, unless a not covered by MC2010. In terms of
high percentage of fibres is used. the design method, it states that Fiber Figure 12 : Stress-strain relations at SLS for softening (a)
There are two key chapters in fib MC2010: materials with a Youngs modulus which is and softening or hardening (b & c) behaviour of FRC.
Materials: Fibres / Fibre Reinforced significantly affected by time and/or thermo-
Concrete hygrometrical phenomenon are not covered
Structural design must satisfy requirements
Design: Verification of safety and by MC2010, since The rules of this
for resistance and serviceability for the
serviceability of FRC structures chapter are based most of all on experience
expected life of the FRC elements. The ductility
with steel fibre reinforced concrete. Using
requirement in bending can be satisfied by
the codes approach with other materials
Strength and ductility minimum reinforcement (see 7.7.2 and 7.13 of
therefore requires consideration of the
classification for fibre fib MC2010).
validity of the underlying assumptions.
reinforced concrete In all FRC structures without minimum
Constitutive law for ULS conventional reinforcement, one of the
fR1k is the reference value for the following conditions shall be satisfied:
classification and it can be given the
Where u is the ultimate displacement, peak is
following values: 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0,
the displacement at maximum load and
5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 N/mm2
sls is the displacement at maximum service
load, computed by performing a linear elastic
analysis, assuming uncracked concrete and
the initial elastic modulus.
Figure 11: Simplified post-cracking constitutive laws:
stress-crack opening (continuous and dashed lines refer
to softening and hardening post-cracking behaviour
respectively)
Partial safety factor
Design values for the post-cracking

Figure 10 : Typical test data for a C35/45 4.0c concrete flexural strength parameter at ULS can be
determined as shown in Figure 11.
Parameter fR3k/fR1k The recommended values for partial safety
a. if 0.5fR3k/fR1k 0.7 factors are given in Table 5 of Appendix B. Figure 13 : Typical load (P) displacement () curve for
a FRC structure

>> Appendix B - frc material characterisation
Limit State design NUmber of kn,mean for 95% kn,mean for 5% kn,mean for 5%
samples (kn =1.64n-0.5) (kn =1.64n-0.5)
The modern structural concrete design
codes have adopted the concept of
Limit State, which is a condition where (Vx: known) (Vx: known) (Vx: unknown)
the structure ceases to fulfil the intended
function. Limit state design accounts for 3 0.95 1.89 3.37
the factors that influence the resistance

6 0.67 1.77 2.18
(strength of the structure) and the forces
(loads) by using a probabilistic basis
12 0.47 1.71 1.89
to reflect the uncertainty in the design
calculations. Limit State design requires
>30 0.00 1.64 1.64
the use of representative values for the
strength of the material, which in the Table 4 : Coefficient kn for known VX (assuming Normal distribution)
context of limit state standards is defined as
Characteristic strength. This definition requires that there is a For SLS verification referring to crack width
probability of 95% that the mean strength calculations, the characteristic strength can
Characteristic strength governing the occurrence of limit state in be based on the 95% reliable estimate of
the structure is larger than the characteristic the mean value.
According to Eurocode 0 (EN 1990:2002)
value. For FRC a large database of beam Example:
cl. 1.5.4.1 the characteristic value (Xk or
test results exist with a significant number 12 no. beams were cast and tested at
Rk) is defined as: ...value of a material
of published data, the coefficient kn is 28 days according to EN 14651 and the
or product property having a prescribed
given in Table 4. It is recommended that matrix of the SFRC mix has been classified
probability of not being attained in
the minimum number of tests required for as C40/50 strength class. At the LOP the
a hypothetical unlimited test series.
verification of the variation coefficient for a strength index fLOPm is 6.0 N/mm2 with a
This value generally corresponds to a
new project is 12. standard deviation of 0.6 N/mm2. This
specified fractile of the assumed statistical
distribution of the particular property of For SLS/ULS verification5, the characteristic means that VX = 10%. At CMOD = 0.5mm
the material or product. A nominal value is strength shall be based on 5% lower fractile the strength index fR1m is 5.0 N/mm2 with
used as the characteristic value in some estimate. a standard deviation of 1.25 N/mm2. This
circumstances. Maximum allowable variation coefficient means that Vx = 25%. Hence, based on 12
for beam (EN 14651) tests results is no. beams, the characteristic strengths are:
The strength of the FRC is a fundamental
property that determines the structural recommended to be 15% and 25%, for At SLS (crack control):
reliability, and therefore representative fLOP and for fR1 to fR4 indices, respectively. fLOPk =6.0 N/mm2*(1 - 0.47 *0.10) = 5.7 N/mm2
values should be used in design. In design It is well documented that the bending and
calculations the flexural tensile strength of tests may exhibit significant scatter in the fR1k = 5.0 N/mm2*(1 - 0.47 *0.25) = 4.4 N/mm2
the FRC is represented by the characteristic residual values. A higher fractile (say 10%)
value, which corresponds to the prescribed for deriving the characteristic residual At SLS/ULS:
probability not being infringed. The values can be accepted, but this needs to fLOPk =6.0 N/mm2*(1 1.71 *0.10) = 5.0 N/mm2
characteristic value of FRC flexural tensile be assessed on each project separately, and
strength shall be determined by the considering also that a tunnel lining is an fR1k = 5.0 N/mm2*(1 - 1.71* 0.25) = 2.9 N/mm2
following equation: indeterminate structure with a significant
degree of redundancy allowing stress
ffctk = ffctm* (1 - kn* Vx)
redistribution. Therefore, the size of the 5
These include the typical SLS (deflection, durability)
ffctk:
characteristic FRC flexural tensile test specimen and the size and type of and ULS (stability, fatigue, fire and earthquake)
strength the structure to be designed should be 6
It has been shown that the scatter of test results
ffctm: mean FRC flexural tensile strength considered by checking the total area (or reduces with increasing the size of member, see
Lambrechts, A. N., 2004. The variation of steel fibre
Vx: coefficient of variation, equal to the ratio volume) where cracking is expected, in concrete characteristics - Study on toughness results
of standard deviation of ffct to the mean, relation to the size of the lining . This issue 2002-2003, Int- Workshop on advances in FRC,
Bergamo, Italy, 135-148
ffctm can be partially addressed by carrying out
kn: is a statistical coefficient depending large-scale structural (bending) tests of
on whether the variability is known in segments or beams at full thickness.
advance

>> Appendix B - frc material characterisation
If a significant number of test results are The designer should select the appropriate
available (>30) from previous projects approach depending on the available
on the same FRC mix (tested on same information and the project.
facilities), assuming a coefficient of variation, The first approach is the most common
VX, as known7, then the characteristic way to derive the design tensile strength
strengths are: ffctd, and requires utilizing partial factors of
At SLS (crack control): safety on the characteristic flexural strength,
fLOPk =6.0 N/mm2*(1 0.00 *0.10) = 6.0 N/mm2 ffctk, according to:
and ffctd = ffctk / M
fR1k = 5.0 N/mm *(1 - 0.00* 0.25) = 5.0 N/mm
2 2
where, M is for material factor to
At SLS/ULS: account for model, geometrical and
mix uncertainties. FRC for tunnel
fLOPk =6.0 N/mm2*(1 1.64 *0.10) = 5.0 N/mm2 lining applications remains primarily a
and cementitious composite and it is recognised
that the same material factors as per
fR1k = 5.0 N/mm2*(1 - 1.64* 0.25) = 2.95 N/mm2 conventional reinforced concrete should be
applied to achieve similar reliability levels.
Design (Tensile) strength Table 5 summarises the typical values for
material factor of safety.
The design strength to be used for
verifying ULS and SLS can be determined Material Factor
Design Situations or Load Cases (ULS)
M
by factoring the characteristic strength
to account for uncertainties in structural Persistent (Permanent) 1.5
resistance model, material properties
Persistent (high quality control in produc-
and imposed actions. The characteristic tion & less than 10% 1.4
strength should be derived from bending variation coefficient on strength tests)
tests such as for example, EN14651.
Transient (Temporary) 1.3
An alternative approach is to directly
assess the representative value for the Accidental 1.2
respective limit state from flexural bending
test results , or to deduce the strength from Seismic 1.2
large-scale testing (i.e. crushing tests on
PC segments) at full lining thickness. The Table 5 : Partial Factors of Safety accounting for material
strength and structural uncertainties.
flexural tensile strength cannot be used
directly in calculations which require the use
of the direct tensile strength. Appropriate For serviceability limit states (SLS) the
conversion factors must be applied, as recommended value is 1.0.
detailed e.g. in Model Code 2010.
7
his is a procedure compliant to Eurocode 0 (EN 1990:2002), see Annex D7.1 (5) and appropriate for concrete
T
produced in a controlled environment.

>> Appendix C - design by full scale testing
A case study from the Monte Lirio water Figure 15. During the test, the following
tunnel, in Panama, is presented here in parameters were continuously registered:
order to show how full scale tests can be The load F;
used to assist the design procedure. More
T
he midspan displacement measured
information can be found in Meda et al
by means of four potentiometer wire
2013.
transducers placed along the transverse
Two different kinds of full scale tests have line;
been performed: a) bending tests aiming to
T
he crack opening at midspan, measured
evaluate the bearing capacity under flexure,
by means of two LVDTs.
under temporary cases (i.e. demoulding,
storage and moving phase) and in field
due to the asymmetrical soil pressure and
b) point load tests to examine the action
of TBM rams on the segment during the
excavation process.
The Monte Lirio tunnel is 7878 m long
with an external diameter of 3.7 m. The
thickness of the precast segments, is 250
mm, so the internal diameter of the tunnel
is 3.2 m. Four different segments are used
for the lining ring. The S1 precast segment
analysed is here, see Figure 14.
Figure 17 : Crack pattern at: a) first crack b) failure

condition
Figure 15 : Bending test set-up
The results, expressed in terms of graphs

of force vs mean displacement, from the
two tests, named BK1 and BK2, are shown
in Figure 16. Figure 17 shows the typical
cracking pattern.
Figure 14 : Segment geometry

Figure 17: Crack pattern at:
a) first crack
BK1
Bending tests
The segments were placed on a roller BK2

support with a span of 1200 mm and the
load, applied at midspan, was transversally b) failure condition
distributed via a steel beam as shown in
Figure 16 : Bending tests: load-displacement diagrams

>> Appendix C - design by full scale testing
Point load test Four load steps were imposed:

I- a load step up to 100 kN for the system
A point load test was performed by
arrangement;
applying two point loads at the segment,
with the same steel plates used by the TBM II- a load step up to 785 kN for each shoe,
machine, see Figure 18. A uniform support representing the design limit value;
was provided by placing the segment on a III- a load step up to 1100 kN for each
suitably stiff beam. Two 2000kN jacks were shoe, representing the maximum load of
used for every steel plate. the TBM jacks;
The load was continuously measured IV- a load step up to 2000 kN for each shoe
by pressure transducers. Four wire (maximum load of the laboratory jacks).
transducers (two located at the intrados The first cracks appeared for a load of 1650
and two at the extrados) measured the kN (for each shoes) between the two shoes,
displacement of the shoes, while one as shown in Figure 19 (a). The crack pattern
LVDT transducer was attached between at the maximum load, equal to 2000 kN (for
the shoes, in order to measure the crack each shoe) is depicted in Figure 19 (b), and
openings. shows a small increase in the length of the
two cracks between the load shoes.
It should be noted that the first crack Figure 19 : Point load test:
a) first cracks (1650 kN)
occurred at a load level (1650 kN), which is b) crack pattern at load level of 2000 kN
more than twice as high as the design value
(785 kN) and higher than the maximum load
of the TBM (1100 kN). Furthermore, it can
be noted that fibre reinforcement was able
to control crack development, with a limited
increase of the crack length when the load
was increased from 1650 kN to 2000kN.
Figure 18 : Point load test set-up

>> Appendix D - case studies
1. PROJECT REFERENCE Inner and outer diameter: 1.4 Picture Reference

OENZBERG TUNNEL ID 11,44 m, OD 12,04m
Ring segmentation: 7
1.1 Project Details
Dimensions of segments:
History & brief description: Segment Width: 1,7m, Thickness: 0.300m,
The most complicated part of the tunnel Type of segment reinforcement:
section was the construction of the Dramix 3D 65/60BG/ & bar reinforcement
crossing of the new double track Zurich
Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
Bern line and the existing single track
concrete :
Solothurn line. The first part of the tunnel
30 kg/m3 of fibres with 65kg/m3 of bars for
was driven in hard rock, but a section
crossing zone & 60 kg/m3 of fibres only for
of 340 m had to be built in a weak soil
HYDRO section
(Moraine) under the groundwater level. This
was called the HYDRO part. In this latter 1.3 Project key points
part the TBM progressed at a speed of 170
m per month. The concrete segments are T
he options were investigated: bar
steel fibre reinforced in 2 sections of the reinforcement (90 kg/m3); 60 kg/m3 steel
tunnel: fibres & hybrid bar fibre solution (30 kg/
m3 of fibres with 65kg/m3 of bars). Figure 20 : Flexural tests on tunnel segment
The crossing zone of the Oenzberg tunnel
and the Wolfacher South tunnel T
he research and testing was carried
The HYDRO part out by Prof. Dr. R. Suter at the Ecole
dIngnieurs et darchitectes in Fribourg in
Year: 2002
order to investigate the capacity of SFRC
Client and Location: segments.
Swiss Federal Railways, Switzerland
T
ests were made on the circumferential
Type of tunnel: (longitudinal) joint between adjacent rings
Double track railway tunnel with a linear load applied over the entire
Ground conditions: length of the elements and at the contact
Hard rock/weak soil/Molasse/Moraine between the two rounded joint surfaces at
Alignment length: the radial joint.
3160m; Depth=shallow A
ll three options gave similar results in
TBM type: Mixshield TBM; Maximum full scale compression tests on radial and
thrust: the segments were tested and circumferential joints and in the bending
could withstand more than a total ram load test (see picture below)
of 300MN per ring; the load at collapse T
he use of steel fibres instead of standard
equated to about 750 MN per ring. reinforcement has reduced the number
of segments to be repaired as the steel
1.2 Design Approach Adopted fibres distribute and resist much better the
highly concentrated jack loads.
Design method & standard used:
Fibres chosen based on SN 562 162/2 & T
his extensive test programme resulted
JSCE-SF4 tests in the use of 60 kg/m3 fibres as the
sole reinforcement for the HYDRO part
Specified strengths of concrete
segments of the Oenzberg tunnel
compressive and residual tensile:
C35/45; fctf~0.7 N/mm2

2. PROJECT REFERENCE 2.3 Project key points

ABU DHABI STEP SEWER PROJECT
T
he chloride levels in the ground and
2.1 Project Details ground water are considerably higher
than in sea water. In order to deal with
History & brief description: this severe environment, steel fibre
The Abu Dhabi Strategic Tunnel reinforcement was chosen.
Enhancement Program (STEP) is to provide
U
ncracked steel fibre reinforced concrete
a major improvement in the capacity of Abu
is known to be very durable. Corrosion is
Dhabis waste water system.
limited to fibres exposed on the surface
Year: 2009-2015 and this does not damage the concrete.
Client and Location: C
hlorides were a particular concern with
Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company concentrations up to 9%. Some studies
(ADSSC); Abu Dhabi have shown that the durability of steel
Type of tunnel: Sewer fibre reinforced concrete under chloride
Figure 22 : Stacked segments
Ground conditions: exposure is superior to that of steel bar
Dolomitic Mudstone/Claystone and reinforced concrete.
Gypsum A
n inner lining with a HDPE membrane
Alignment length: was installed inside to protect the
45 km. Depth=36-62m segmental lining from microbiologically
induced corrosion due to aerobic bacterial
TBM type: EPBM; operating thrust of 3167
activity (producing sulphuric acid).
kN/shoe with 16 shoes; maximum thrust
54288 kN T
he design life 80 years.
2.2 Design Approach Adopted

2.4 Picture Reference
DBV; Eurocode 2; EN 14889-1
C50/60 FL 1.6/1.0
Inner and outer diameter:
ID 2.75m, OD 3.31m
Ring segmentation:
5 segments +1 key
Segment Width: 1,4m ; thickness: 0.280m Figure 21 : Vacuum lifting system
Type of segment reinforcement:

Bars at radial joints: stirrups T10@100 with
4 no. T10 bars for bending
Quantity of steel fibres per m3 of
concrete:
40 kg/m3 Dramix fibres

3. PROJECT REFERENCE Dimensions of segments:

BRISBANE AIRPORT LINK SEGMENTAL Thickness: 0.4m, ring length: 2m
LINING, AUSTRALIA Type of segment reinforcement:
Steel fibres / Micro synthetic fibre
3.1 Project Details
Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
History & brief description: concrete:
The Airport Link project involves 15 km of 35kg/m3 Dramix RC80/60BN & 1,5kg/m3
tunnelling including the road (5.7 km of twin Duomix M6 Fire
tunnels), busway tunnels and connecting
ramps, as well as 25 bridges and results in 3.3 Project key points
over 7 km of new roads.
Considerable refinement was required to
More than 300 cubic metres of concrete arrive at a mix that provided the required
were used per day to produce more than demoulding strength while still providing
100 segments in a 24-hour shift. Over a sufficient ductility to meet the flexural
12-month period, 65,000 cubic metres strength requirement. This was achieved
of concrete were required to produce the by:
21,000 segments.
Increasing the proportion of fly ash in the
Year: 2008-2013 binder from 20% to nearly 29%
Client and Location: Controlling the compressive strength to
BrisConnections, Australia keep the average closer to 65MPa
Type of tunnel: Road Adjusting the proportions of sand and
Ground conditions: aggregate in the mix to improve pull-out
Mixed conditions; rock and soft ground; performance of the fibres
weathered sedimentary silts and Key learning points:
sandstones
The use of SFRC, rather than
Alignment length: conventional bar reinforced concrete, is
5.7km. Depth = 60m known to provide significant benefits for
TBM type: long term durability and maintenance of
EPBM; Operating thrust: 60000kN (19 segmental tunnel linings
shoes), Maximum theoretic al thrust Programme/cost savings from
89000kN reduction/elimination of conventional
bar reinforcement by using Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) segments
Design method & standard used: -
C55/67; LOP = 7.0MPa, Flexural strength=
3,4MPa
ID 11.34m, OD 12.14m
Ring segmentation:
Varies, max=9+1

4. PROJECT REFERENCE Type of segment reinforcement: 4.4 Picture Reference

HOBSON BAY SEWER TUNNEL, NEW Steel fibres
ZEALAND Fibre type: Length, aspect ratio, tensile
strength:
4.1 Project Details
L = 50mm, L/D = 67, fy = 1230MPa
History & brief description: Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
Undersea sewer tunnel to replace a 90 concrete:
year old viaduct to meet the demands of 40 or 45kg Wirand FF3 fibres (depending
population growth and to virtually eliminate on ground conditions)
overflows into the Hobson Bay. First EPB Curing:
machine driven tunnel in New Zealand. 4 hours steam curing
Year: 2008 2009 Handling and erection: Figure 23 : Project Hobson Segment production
Client and Location: Vacuum lifter, mechanical erector
Watercare, Auckland, New Zealand Way of stacking (horizontal, vertical):
Type of tunnel: Sewer Vertical
Ground conditions: Durability considerations:
East Coast Bay Formation (weak 35mm sacrificial layer considered in the
interbedded sandstone and mudstone), structural design.
Old Alluvium.
4.3 Project Benefits
Alignment length:
3.0km; Depth=23m 1
00% higher productivity by replacing the
TBM type: rebar cages and using a carousel line
EPBM. Operating thrust: 12000kN (12 B
etter segment quality and robustness
shoes), Maximum theoretic al thrust
R
educed rejection and repair rates Figure 24 : Project Hobson Nearing completion
21000kN.
(<0.1%)
4.2 Design Approach Adopted Inherent cost savings (10% of project
costs)
H
igher durability of the segments
RILEM TC162-TDF, DBV 2001, EN 14651
educed quantity of steel reinforcement
R
and embodied carbon footprint
C50/60; LOP = 7.0MPa, fR1 = 3.5MPa, T
he shallower tunnel alignment of
fR4 = 3.0MPa the TBM tunnel reduced pumping
requirements compared to the initial
design, reducing carbon emission by
ID 3.70m, OD 4.20m
69,000t of CO2 over the lifetime of 100
Ring segmentation: years.
4 rhombic + 2 trapezoidal (60, universal
rings)
Developed centreline length: 2.068m,
thickness: 0.250m, aspect ratio: 8.3, ring
length: 1.20m

5. PROJECT REFERENCE Dimensions of segments: 5.4 Picture Reference

CONTRACT C933, MRT DOWNTOWN Developed centreline length: 2.603m,
LINE 3, SINGAPORE thickness: 0.275m, aspect ratio: 9.5, ring
length:1.40m
5.1 Project Details
History & brief description: Steel fibres and micro-synthetic fibres
Downtown Line Stage 3 is an underground Fibre type: Length, aspect ratio, tensile
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) system strength:
consisting of 16 stations along a 21 Steel: L = 50mm, L/D = 67, fy = 1230 N/
kilometre route. Package C933 has been mm2
selected to trial new lining technologies. Micro-PP: L = 6mm, D = 18 micron
This is the first metro tunnel in Asia built Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
using steel fibres as primary reinforcement concrete: Figure 25 : DTL3 C933 East TBM launch shaft at
and micro-synthetic fibres for fire resistance 40kg/m3 Wirand FF3 steel fibres, 1.0kg/m3 Bendemeer station
of the segmental lining. FibroMac micro-synthetic fibres
Year: 2012 2014 Curing:
Client and Location: 10 hours heat curing
Land Transport Authority (LTA), Singapore. Handling and erection:
Type of tunnel: Vacuum lifters
Mass Rapid Transit (Metro) Way of stacking (horizontal, vertical):
Ground conditions: Vertical
Old Alluvium and some areas in the Kallang Durability considerations:
formation 70% GGBS to be used within the binders
Alignment length: to minimise chloride penetration
2.35km; Depth=27,7m - 39,5m.
5.3 Project Benefits Figure 26 : DTL3 C933 View into tunnel (TBM #3)
TBM type:
EPBM. Operating thrust 16000kN- 5.3.1 Key benefits to the client that led to
22000kN. Maximum theoretical thrust the decision using FRC
35000kN.
H
igher durability
5.2 Design Approach Adopted Higher productivity
R
educed work force by using a carousel
line
RILEM TC162-TDF, EN 14651
Specified strengths of concrete 5.3.2 Further benefits
compressive and residual tensile: B
etter segment quality and robustness
C50/60; fLk = 4.2 N/mm2, fR1k = 2.8 N/
Reduced rejection and repair rates
mm2, fR4k = 1.4 N/mm2
Inherent cost savings
ID 5.80m, OD 6.35m R
educed quantity of steel reinforcement
and embodied carbon footprint
Ring segmentation:
7 segments + 1 key (49.091 and 16.364) T
he successful progress of this pilot
project gave the confidence for further
projects in South-East Asia.

6. PROJECT REFERENCE Dimensions of segments:

SAN FRANCISCO BAY UTILITY Developed centreline length: 2.275m,
TUNNEL, USA thickness: 0.25m, aspect ratio: 9.1, ring
length:1.5m
6.1 Project Details
History & brief description: Steel fibres only
San Francisco Bay Utility Tunnel is the first Fibre type: Length, aspect ratio, tensile
TBM tunnel to be excavated under San strength:
Francisco Bay. A key structure in terms of Steel: L = 50mm, D = 0.75mm, L/D = 67, fy
challenges regarding both environmental = 1230 N/mm2
protection and seismic reliability for the Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
Figure 28 : Segments at the production yard
delivery of potable water to millions concrete:
of customers. Hence there were high 40kg Wirand FF3 steel fibre
performance requirements for the tunnel
Curing:
segments in terms of crack opening and
7 hours heat curing
post-crack residual strength.
Way of stacking (horizontal, vertical):
Year: 2011 2012
Horizontal
Client and Location:
Durability considerations:
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission;
San Francisco, USA 6.3 Project Benefits
Type of tunnel:
Utility Tunnel The San Francisco Bay Utility Tunnel will
ensure the provision of reliable, clean
Ground condition:
and affordable water to the 2.4 million
Sandy and silty clays under high
customers in San Francisco, Alameda,
groundwater pressures (3,45bar max
Santa Clara and San Mateo. It is designed
hydrostatic pressure)
to replace the existing pipelines which
Alignment length: cross the bay on a system of trestles.
8 km; depth=23 - 34m By tunnelling, the solution enhances
TBM type: the aesthetics of the bay, as well as
Operating thrust ~60%*20000=12000kN reducing the vulnerability of the pipeline to
Maximum theoretical thrust 20000kN earthquakes. A double shell lining concept
was used.
ACI 318-05, ASTM C1609
42 N/mm2; Flexural tensile
strength=0,37*3,1N/mm2
I.D. 3.9m, O.D. 4.42m
Ring segmentation:
5 segments + 1 key
Figure 27 : Project San Francisco Bay Segment production

7. PROJECT REFERENCE Fibre type: Length, aspect ratio, tensile

SOUTHALL TO HAREFIELD GAS strength: -
PIPELINE, UK Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
concrete:
7.1 Project Details
7kg Barchip fibres
History & brief description:
7.3 Project Benefits
The Harefield to Southall Gas Pipeline is a
27 bar, 18.5km gas pipeline in Middlesex, O
ff-site segment production: segments
UK, commissioned by National Grid to meet were produced at a local precast factory
rising gas demands in West London. This where synthetic fibre was mixed into the
included a 900m long TBM driven tunnel concrete then poured into vertical moulds.
with a precast fibre reinforced segmental The initial segments were preassembled
lining. at the plant to form a trial ring to ensure
Year: 2009 that the correct tolerances were achieved. Figure 30 : Finite element analysis designs by JKP Static
Client and Location: The segments were then horizontally

National Grid; Southall to Harefield, UK stacked and trucked to site.
Type of tunnel: T
he use of fibres in these segments
Gas transfer tunnel proved very effective in meeting all the
design requirements as well as ensuring
Ground conditions:
that the segments sustained minimal
London clay (a stiff overconsolidated clay)
damage from the jacking rams during
Alignment length: installation. The segments have since
976m; Depth approximately 21m performed to the specified design criteria.
Thrust of TBM: T
he use of fibres has lowered the overall
Maximum theoretical thrust: 6800kN. carbon footprint of the project.
Operating thrust: 2500kN
C
oncerns over corrosion of the segment
7.2 Design Approach Adopted reinforcement were removed.
Design method & standard used: 7.4 Picture Reference

C45/55; flexural strength=5,0 N/mm2;
Residual post-crack=2,4 N/mm2
ID 2.59m, OD 2.95m
Ring segmentation:
7 segments +1 key
Dimensions of segments :
Thickness: 0.180m, ring length: 1.0m
Type of segment reinforcement: Figure 29 : Segmental lining of macrosynthetic fibre reinforced TBM
tunnel
macrosynthetic fibres


8. PROJECT REFERENCE Type of segment reinforcement:

CHANNEL TUNNEL RAIL LINK, Steel fibres & Micro polypropylene fibres
LONDON Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
concrete :
8.1 Project Details
30kg/m3 Dramix RC 80/60 BN fibres
History & brief description: & 1kg/m3 PP fibres
The UKs Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL)
8.3 Project key points
between the Channel Tunnel Terminal
at Cheriton and London rail terminal J ob site experience has shown that the
of St. Pancras was one of the largest time needed to install a 7 + 1 segment
construction projects in Europe at the ring is almost the same as for 9+1
segments ring. Hence this segmentation Figure 32 : Segments stacked at the factory
time of construction. Fibre reinforcement
was chosen for the segmental lining of the was chosen.
tunnels under London, based on a long T
he segment thickness of 350 mm was
history of successful steel fibre reinforced driven by loading conditions. The design
segmental linings in the UK. criteria for the tunnel linings were based
Year: 2003-2007 on experience from other projects,
including the Jubilee Line Extension in
Client and Location:
London and the MTRC in Hong Kong.
HS1 Ltd, UK
T
he steel fibre reinforced concrete
Type of tunnel:
eliminated spalling at the contact
Rail link
surfaces, even in the case of birds
Ground conditions: mouthing.
Soft rock, weak rock
E
ach segment mould has four vibrators
Alignment length: and, after minor screeding, the segments
19km (single track twin tube tunnels). are cured for six hours at 35 to 40C in a
Depth=25 50m chamber heated by hot water rather than
TBM type: steam.
Operating thrust: 75000kN (30 shoes)

C50/60 (with low permeability specified
to improve durability and minimise water
ingress into the tunnel; Characteristic
residual flexural strength=3,6 N/mm2
ID 7.15m, OD 7.85m
Ring segmentation:
9 segments +1 key
Figure 31 : Demoulding of key segment
Dimensions of segments :
Thickness: 0.350m, ring length: 1.50m

9. PROJECT REFERENCE Dimensions of segments :

PISTA NUEVA MALAGA Segment Width: 1,5 m, Thickness: 0.320m,
Type of segment reinforcement :
9.1 Project Details
Hybrid: macrosynthetic fibre & steel bar
History & brief description: Quantity of reinforcement per m3 of
A Joint Venture of Acciona Infrastructures concrete :
and Sando Construcciones were awarded 5 kg/ m3 Barchip fibres & 98 kg/ m3 bars
the construction of the suburban rail line
by AENA. The extension to Malaga airport 9.3 Project Benefits
required an investment of 280 million. The
Use of macrosynthetic fibres as non-
Los Prados-Airport section runs almost
corrosive reinforcement for:
entirely below the surface, crossing under
the Guadalhorce River and Malaga Airports Crack control
new runway. The name of the tunnel is Reduced concrete cover
Tnel Guadalhorce-Aeropuerto. It is an M
inimising spalling in handling and
electrified double track tunnel and is part installation
of La lnea C-1 de Cercanas Mlaga,
B
ursting resistance under jacking loads
between Mlaga and Fuengirola.
Client and Location: 9.4 Picture Reference
ADIF (Administrador de Infrasrructuras
Ferroviarias); Spain
Type of tunnel:
Railway
Ground conditions:
Alternating gravel, sand and clay layer
Alignment length:
2900m; Depth=15-28m
TBM type:
Operating thrust=8500-36600kN; Maximum
theoretical thrust=83643kN Figure 33 : Portal of the TBM tunnel

Spanish code EH-91
50 N/mm2, Flexural tensile strength= 5 N/
mm2, Residual Strength= 2.9 N/mm2
ID 8,43 m, OD 9,07m
Ring segmentation:
6 segments + 1 trapezoidal key
Figure 34 : Stacked segments

>> Appendix E - ce marking
The basic information given in the European System 1 is applicable when the fibres have
Unions system of CE marking is the a structural function, i.e. when the fibres
following: are designed to contribute to the load-
type of fibres: steel/polymer; bearing capacity. The system requires a
continuous surveillance of the production
CE Certification;
process of the fibres by an independent
type and dimension; Certifying Body, which delivers a certificate
tensile strength; of conformity (CE-mark).
Youngs modulus; System 3 is applicable when fibres are
length; used for other reasons, i.e. for some non-
structural function - for instance to reduce
cross sectional form;
the risk of plastic shrinkage, or to improve
diameter or dimensions of cross section; the behaviour of concrete in fire. This
surface finish and anchorage (e.g. hooked system allows the manufacturer alone to
at the end or embossed); declare that the quality is in accordance
tolerances on the length, the diameter with the requirements of the standard: no
(and the aspect ratio for steel fibres); confirmation by a third party is necessary.
safety aspects. In practice, therefore, when the post-crack
In addition the declaration of performance strength of fibre concrete is taken into
under standard tests is reported. account in the structural design, the fibres
must be certified under System 1, and the
For CE-marking of fibres, two levels of
CE label on the packaging must indicate
attestation of conformity are defined:
that the fibres are certified for structural use
System 1 and System 3 see Table 7.
(System 1).
SYSTEM 1 SYSTEM 3
Field of use
Structural use A Non-structural use
Quality control
Initial type Testing (ITT) under the responsibility of the Initial Type Testing by a Notified Laboratory
Notified certification Body F
actory Production Control (FPC) under responsibility
Initial and Annually Factory Production Control (FPC) of the manufacturer
assessment by Notified Body T
he manufacturer creates and signs a Declaration of
Certification institute Certificate of Conformity conformity
Table 6 : CE marking definition of sustem 1 and system 3

A
Structural use of fibres is where the addition of fibres is designed to contribute to the load bearing capacity of a
concrete element

>> Appendix F - fire protection
Introduction concrete permeability, rate of heating, The simple explanation as to why PP fibres
presence of reinforcement and external influence the reduction of explosive spalling
Following a succession of major tunnel fires loadings (e.g. Sullivan 2001 and Khoury is that when the fibre reinforced concrete
across Europe, the need for effective fire 2008). Experts agree that there is is heated to approximately 160 C the
protection for the structural concrete lining significantly more risk of explosive spalling fibres melt to form channels that provide
has become a matter of priority for both when high strength, low permeability a pressure release mechanism within the
new and existing tunnels. concrete is specified, because of the higher concrete. The remains of the fibre are soot,
This document covers the integral pore pressures which can build up during occupying ca. 5% of the void. The newly
protection incorporated into the structural heating. The most critical parameters for formed cavity system reduces significantly
concrete, based on the use of micro explosive spalling are: internal pressures and the amount of
polypropylene fibres manufactured to EN Moisture content of concrete explosive spalling that may otherwise occur.
14889-2:2006 standards.
D
ensity and strength of concrete (higher
strength and density leads to more Fibre quality
What is explosive spalling? severe spalling)
Fibres used for explosive spalling resistance
Concrete spalling can be described as the G
radient of temperature increase and
should be PP micro-fibres (100 percent
breaking off of layers or pieces of concrete peak temperature
virgin polypropylene fibres, containing no
from the surface of a structural element The theories of how and why explosive reprocessed olefin materials) conforming
when exposed to the high and rapidly spalling occurs are predominantly to EN 14889-2:2006 Class 1a and
increasing temperatures experienced in based upon moisture movement. As the specifically engineered & manufactured
fires. Three different kinds of concrete temperature of the concrete increases, in an ISO 9001 certified facility for use as
spalling can be categorized: the moisture in the concrete changes to concrete secondary reinforcement. Where
a) Surface Spalling steam vapour. If it is unable to escape applicable, fibres should also carry the CE
from the concrete matrix, this vapour marking. The properties of the fibres should
b) Corner Break-off
creates a dramatic increase in pressure be constant. The variation of properties
c) Explosive Spalling inside the concrete. As this process should be declared by the supplier. The PP
Explosive Spalling is unquestionably the continues, the vapour pressure increases micro fibres should have been tested and
most serious and dangerous form of to the point where it exceeds the tensile proven in accredited fire testing laboratories
spalling. This occurs during the first 20 capacity of the concrete, causing pieces to show their effectiveness in reducing
30 minutes of a fire when the temperature of concrete to be violently and explosively explosive spalling and suppliers should
in the concrete is in the range of 150 - dislodged from the element. As well as this demonstrate a track-record of usage in
250C. Explosive spalling occurs when conventional moisture movement theory, tunnel lining applications. For the tests, the
there is a rapid temperature rise, such as in there is also a consensus that aggregate variability of the properties has to be taken
hydrocarbon-fuelled fires following a traffic expansion caused by thermal stresses into account.
incident. Very large pieces of concrete also has a direct influence on explosive
Fibrillated PP fibres provide a limited degree
can be violently ejected over several spalling. Despite ongoing research, a full
of protection whilst macro synthetic and
metres away from the concrete. As a fresh understanding of the spalling and further
steel fibres have been found to have little or
concrete face is presented to the fire, damaging processes has not been found
no influence on the prevention of explosive
progressive explosive spalling continues yet.
spalling, unless the moisture content of the
deep into the concrete section, threatening segments is low (i.e. less than 3%).
the structural integrity of the construction by How do the polypropylene
reducing the cross-section of concrete and fibres work?
exposing the reinforcement to fire. Steel Fibre dosage
rapidly loses its load bearing capacity from It has been well accepted for many years
The concrete specification and the fire
250 C onwards. that the addition of suitable polypropylene
risk assessment are important factors
As a result of several decades of research (PP) micro-fibres can counteract explosive
to consider when selecting the dosage
it is known that there is a complex spalling in cast concrete and sprayed
of PP micro-fibres to use for passive fire
combination of chemical, physical and concrete. Since explosive spalling is caused
protection. The accurate determination of
thermodynamic factors that influence by the pressure created by a restriction
the actual minimum fibre dosage, to provide
explosive spalling, including moisture on the movement of moisture/steam, then
the required explosive spalling resistance,
content, type and size of aggregate, the presence of the fibres must relieve that
can only really be established by large scale
pressure.

fire testing of the actual concrete which is to various options can be correctly compared. Ingason (2006) reported on the
be used on a specific project. Large scale The addition of PP micro-fibres to concrete UPTUN series of experimental fire
means to do the test under same load, is a relatively simple process depending tests on a disused tunnel, and made
stress and fixity conditions as the concrete on the size of the project. Fibres designed recommendations regarding the most
will have at the construction site specifically for concrete reinforcement appropriate fire temperature curve for a
This is a costly exercise and an expense are normally supplied in fully degradable range of fire risks (Table 9). The ISO 834
that many projects would like to avoid. paper packaging that enables the desired curve is recommended up to an expected
Section 6.2 of EN 1992-1-2:2004 dosage per unit volume to be simply fire heat release rate of 50MW, above which
makes reference to the use of 2 kg/m3 of added directly into the concrete truck or the hydrocarbon curve (up to 100MW)
monofilament polypropylene micro-fibres to pan mixer. The packaging is designed and thereafter the RWS curve (up to the
control explosive spalling in high strength to rapidly break down allowing uniform stoichiometric limit) should be applied.
concrete. The properties of fibres (type, distribution of the fibres into the concrete. However, these recommendations should
diameter, length) and strength of concrete In relatively small projects this is often the be considered as preliminary only, since
which relate to this recommendation are most cost effective method to adopt, with they are not yet backed up by sufficient
not defined. Many engineers follow this packaging available in 1 kg or 2 kg bags. evidence. EFNARC (2006) provides further
recommendation to eliminate the need for Where projects involve significant quantities information on this subject.
expensive testing in the knowledge that this of PP micro-fibres, the contractors and Once a suitable fire time-temperature curve
dosage will provide a good safety margin. ready-mixed suppliers often consider the has been selected, the likely effects of such
This does not preclude the usage of lower use of more sophisticated, automated and a fire on the tunnels structure should be
dosages but it does highlight the need integrated dosing systems for adding fibres ascertained. EN 1992-1-2:2004 provides
for careful consideration and a necessity to the concrete. The mixing time has to be methods of calculating the reduction of
to carry out fire testing on large concrete determined to guarantee a homogeneous concrete strength due to high-temperature
samples that completely replicate the mixing of PP-fibres. damage within the concrete and its steel
materials to be used on an actual project. reinforcement. EN 1992-1-2:2004 also
Where this has been done, dosage rates of, provides guidance on the reduction in the
Choosing the correct fire
for example, 1.0 kg/m3 and 1.5 kg/m3 have cross-section due to fire damage, based
curve for your project
been used in actual tunnel projects. When on cellulosic fires as per ISO 834. The
conducting fire tests also the strength and There are a number of fire time- calculation of the structural response to
density development of concrete should be temperature curves proposed for a variety non-ISO 834 fires within concrete members
taken into account. of applications, ranging from the ISO is currently not covered by European
834 (1975) cellulosic curve to the RWS standards.
Practical Considerations curve (Figure 35). The selection of an
appropriate time-temperature curve and Conclusions
During the selection process for PP micro- the relevant fire duration is an important
For more than 14 years, PP fibres have
fibres, it is imperative that designers take consideration, which should be driven by a
been used in millions of cubic metres of
into consideration the effect of the fibres on risk assessment, in cases where no design
concrete worldwide to help reduce the
the rheology of the concrete, e.g. concrete standards apply.
incidence of explosive spalling in concrete.
workability, air content and strength. This
During this period the understanding of
can present some difficulties in the casting
the mechanisms, by which these materials
process. This optimisation of the mix
provide resistance to explosive spalling,
and process should be done prior to any
has developed, although it is fair to say that
fire testing procedures so that potential
some experts contend that the definitive
changes to the mix design due to the fibre
mechanisms are yet to be identified.
addition are eliminated. This will ensure
that the positive and negative effects of If PP micro-fibres are to be used to provide
fibres, together with any additional cement explosive spalling resistance in concrete
or admixture costs and in-place concrete tunnel linings, the chosen mix design
costs, are taken into account so that the should satisfy the following criteria:
Figure 35 : Fire time-temperature curves (ITA 2004)

Demonstrate ability to counteract explosive spalling is clear to lots of

explosive spalling engineers and clients but it is important not
Avoid any negative side effects on the only to choose the correct fibre type but
concrete mix and placement. also the correct aggregate/concrete mix
and placement process.
The message that PP micro-fibres reduce
Size of Examples of road Examples of rail Examples of metro Fire curve

fire in MW vehicles vehicles vehicles
5 1 -2 cars ISO 834
Low combustible passenger

10 Small van 2 -3 cars Electric locomotive ISO 834
carriage
Big vans, public buses, Normal combustible passen-

20 ISO 834
multiple vehicles ger carriage
Risk to structural integrity
30 Bus, empty HGV Passenger carriage Two carriage ISO 834

Risk to life
A combustible load on a Open freight wagons with

50 Multiple carriages >2 ISO 834
truck lorries
HGV with a combustible load
70 Hydro carbon
(approx. 4 tonne)
100 HGV average Hydro carbon
Loaded with an easily

150 combustible load (approx. 10 RWS
tonnes)
Limited by oxygen, petrol
200 Limited by oxygen RWS
tanker, multiple HGVs
Table 7 : UPTUN fire resistance recommendations (Ingason, 2006)

>> Appendix G - notes on en 14651 testing procedure
This section should be read in conjunction Curing of the test specimens is the same
with the section 3.3.3.3. as for the EN14488-5 square panels, and
shall be done according EN12390-2. They
should be left in the moulds for at least 16
Sample preparation
hours, but no longer than 3 days, protected
The test specimens shall be prisms against shock, vibration and dehydration
conforming to EN12390-1 with a section at a temperature of 205C. After removal
of 1500.75mm (between the moulded from the mould, the specimens shall
surfaces) x 1501.5mm (between trowelled be rotated, if necessary, and then sawn
and bottom moulded face), and a length through the specimen width at mid-span
between 550 and 700 mm. A length of 600 (see Figure 39 for orientation of notch
mm is often used in practice. Two methods Figure 36: Filling the mould of an EN14651 beam relative to top surface during casting).
can be used to fill the moulds.
Preferably, the specimens are made under
lab conditions. In this case, a pan mixer
shall be used to mix the concrete, and all
the ingredients must be weighed accurately.
Aggregates, sand and cement are added
Figure 39 : Position of the notch in an EN14651 beam
to the mixer (in this order) and mixed for 60
seconds. Then the water is added, and the
The width of the notch shall be 5 mm or
concrete is mixed for another 60 seconds.
less, and the distance of hsp, mentioned in
After this step, the fibres are added, and
Figure 39, shall be 1251mm.
mixed for 270 seconds to make sure that
all fibres are separated and homogeneously The test specimens shall be cured for
Figure 37 : Vibrating an EN14651 beam
distributed. The mixer can then be stopped, a minimum of 3 days after sawing until
and a visual inspection of the distribution of If no laboratory is available, the alternative minimum 3 hours before testing, water at a
the fibres needs to be performed. method described below (see Figure 38) temperature of 202C, or in a chamber at
should be taken into account to fill the 202C and a relative humidity of minimum
Filling the moulds is done in one action,
moulds. The size of increment 1 should be 95%. Regular checks should be made
up to a height of 110 % of the mould (see
twice increment 2. The mould shall be filled that the surfaces of the specimens in the
Figure 36). The concrete is then vibrated on
up to approximately 90 % of the height of chamber are continuously wet.
a vibrating table (unless it is self-compacting
concrete), and levelled off during vibration the test specimen before compaction. The Loss of moisture and deviations from the
(see Figure 37). Full compaction is achieved mould shall be topped up and levelled off required temperature should be avoided
when no further appearance of large air while being compacted. Compaction shall at all stages of transport by, for example,
bubbles on the surface of the concrete be carried out by external vibration. In the packing the hardened specimens in wet
can be seen, and the surface is becoming case of self-compacting FRC, the mould sand, wet sawdust or wet clothes, or
relatively smooth with a glazed appearance, shall be filled and levelled off without any transporting them in sealed plastic bags
without excessive segregation. Internal compaction. containing water.
vibration is not recommended so as not to
disturb the 3-dimensional homogeneous Test procedure
distribution of the fibres. If a vibration needle
is used, the zone around the vibration Normally, testing shall be performed at 28
needle will contain fewer fibres than the rest top view days.
of the beam. Testing of the specimens is done in a
3-point bending test, but can be performed
in two ways. In the first method, the crack
Figure 38 : Alternative method to (or notch) mouth opening displacement
fill moulds for EN14651 beams
side view

>> Appendix G - notes on en 14651 testing procedure
(CMOD) is measured, and a displacement The testing machine should be capable of For the case of controlling the rate of
transducer is mounted along the operating in a controlled manner, producing increase of deflection, the machine shall
longitudinal axis at the mid-width of the a constant rate of displacement (CMOD or start the test with a deflection increase
test specimen. The distance between the deflection), and have a sufficient stiffness of 0.08 mm/min with a datalogging of
bottom of the specimen and the line of to avoid unstable zones in the load-CMOD minimum 5 Hz. When the deflection
measurement shall be less than 5 mm (see curve or the load-deflection curve. A total reaches 0.125 mm, the deflection increase
Figure 40). stiffness of the system of 200kN/mm shall be changed to 0.21 mm/min until
A second possibility is to measure the (including frame, load cell, loading device a final deflection of 3.5 mm, and a data-
deflection instead of the CMOD. In that and supports) is advised as a minimum logging of minimum 1 Hz.
case a displacement transducer shall be requirement. If the crack starts outside the notch, the
mounted on a rigid frame that is fixed to All rollers should be made of steel and test result should be rejected.
the test specimen at mid-height over the have circular cross section with a diameter
supports. One end of the frame should be of 301mm. Two of the rollers, including
Test validation and quality
fixed to the specimen with a sliding fixture, the upper one, shall be capable of rotating
control
and the other end with a rotating fixture. A freely around their axis and of being inclined
thin plate fixed at one end can be placed at in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal Bending tests must be performed on a
mid-width across the notch mouth at the axis of the test specimen. The distance minimum number of specimens and the
point of measurement (see Figure 41). between the centres of the supporting variation of the results in terms of residual
The tests are preferably deflection rollers shall be equal to 5002 mm. strength, fR,j, must not exceed the following
controlled. To control the test with a CMOD, values:
knifes need to be glued next to the notch. Characterization tests: 12 no. specimens
It is possible that they come loose during and residual strength variation 25%
the test due to a bad connection between Control tests: 9 no. specimens and
the knives and the concrete. It is easier to residual strength variation 25%
mechanically fix the deflection transducer
to the concrete specimens. Fewer test
specimens and test results will be lost in
this way.
Figure 41 : EN 14651 test setup with deflection
transducer
The load measuring device needs

an accuracy of 0.1 kN and the linear
displacement transducer needs an
accuracy of 0.01 mm. The data recording
system should be able to record load and
displacement at a rate not less than 5 Hz.
For the case of a testing machine
controlling the rate of increase of CMOD,
the machine shall operate from the start
of the test with a CMOD-increase of 0.05
mm/min and datalogging at minimum 5 Hz.
When CMOD = 0.1 mm, the machine shall
operate at a CMOD-increase of 0.2 mm/
Figure 40 : EN14651 test setup with CMOD transducer
min and a minimum datalogging of 1 Hz.
The test shall not be terminated before a
CMOD value of 4 mm.

longrine 04 90 14 48 48 - (21374 - 04/16)
ITA Secretariat c/o EPFL - Bt. GC - Station 18 - CH - 1015 Lausanne - Tel. : + 41 21 693 23 10 - Fax : + 41 21 693 41 53
Email : secretariat@ita-aites.org - Web : www.ita-aites.org

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ITAtech Guidance For Precast Fibre Reinforced

Concrete Segments - Vol. 1 : Design Aspects

ITAtech Activity Group

N ISBN: 978-2-97010132-1 ITAtech Report n7 / APRIL 2016

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ITAtech Activity Group

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Main authors Company

Activity Group members

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1.2 FIBRES TYPES AND PROPERTIES........................................................................................................1 0

2. DESIGN OF FRC SEGMENTAL LININGS..........................................................................................1 4

2.2 ULS DESIGN CONCEPT. ....................................................................................................................1 4

2.3 SLS DESIGN CONCEPT......................................................................................................................1 6

2.4 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF FRC.......................................................................................................1 7

2.5 FIRE PROTECTION. ...........................................................................................................................18

3. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION OF FRC.....................................................................................1 9

3.2 TENSILE STRENGTH TESTING. ...........................................................................................................1 9

3.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH TESTING. ........................................................................................................1 9

3.4 FIBRE SPECIFICATION. ......................................................................................................................23

itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 5

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Modulus of rupture: The maximum

PFRCS: Precast Fibre Reinforced

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A significant number of international reference projects have demonstrated that a high

OBJECTIVE OF THE GUIDANCE DOCUMENT

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itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 11

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2.2.2 Design for flexure

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itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 19

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This is a test developed specifically to

itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 21

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itatech ACTIVITY GROUP - SUPPORT 23

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Table 3 : Embodied carbon dioxide for difference forms of reinforcement

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Sullivan, P.J.E., (2001). Deterioration and

Tarada, F. (2007). Improving Road Tunnel

2. DESIGN OF FRC SEGMENTAL LININGS..........................................................................................1 4

3. PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION OF FRC.....................................................................................1 9

Demonstrate ability to counteract explosive spalling is clear to lots of