Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895
DOI 10.1007/s12665-011-1132-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Vertical electrical sounding (VES) and multi-electrode
resistivity in environmental impact assessment studies
over some selected lakes: a case study
N. Sundararajan S. Sankaran T. K. Al-Hosni
Received: 29 September 2009 / Accepted: 14 May 2011 / Published online: 7 June 2011
Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract A combined geophysical investigation consist-
ing of vertical electrical sounding (VES) and multielec-
trode system was carried out to map the subsurface
resistivity in all major lakes which are highly polluted by
the discharge of sewage and other chemical effluents in
greater Hyderabad, India. The structural features identified
in the study area play a major role in groundwater flow and
storage. The interpretation of geophysical data and litho-
logs indicates that a silt/clay zone (predominantly silt) has
a thickness of 510 m all along the drainage from Patel-
cheruvu to the Musi River. The silt/clay zone inferred close
to the lakes is a mixture of clay, silt and sand with more silt
content as indicated from the lithologs during drilling. The
low resistivity values obtained can be attributed to the
pollutant accumulated in the silt which can reduce the
resistivity values. Further, the TDS of the water samples in
these wells are more than 1,000 mg/l which further con-
firms the above scenario. The pollution spread is less in the
upstream areas whereas it is more in the downstream which
can be attributed to the shallow water table conditions and
also due to the interaction of surface water and
groundwater.
Keywords Resistivity  Lithologs  Clay  Silt 
Groundwater  Chemical effluents  Pollution  Drainage 
Vertical electrical sounding  Multielectrode system
N. Sundararajan (&)  T. K. Al-Hosni
Department of Earth Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University,
Post Box 36, Al-Khod, 123 Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
e-mail: Sundararajan_N@yahoo.com
S. Sankaran
National Geophysical Research Institute,
Hyderabad 500007, India
Introduction
Indian civilization for centuries have either settled near
existing water bodies, or created artificial lakes and reser-
voirs, by damming streams and rivers and harvesting
rainwater. These impounded water bodies primarily pro-
vided water during periods of scarcity and served to control
floods. These lakes and reservoirs remain the most acces-
sible sources of water to the majority of local people. Over
the years, the settlements on the shores of the lakes in many
parts of the country have grown into urban and semi-urban
areas, changing the characteristics of the lake shores
themselves.
Today, demands on lakes have increased, as they are
also used for hydropower generation, sports and commer-
cial fisheries and water-based recreation. The natural sed-
imentation and siltation process have been accelerated due
to increased human activity in the catchments and shores of
the lakes. Activities related to urbanization, principally
sewage and industrial pollution, are decreasing the life span
of the lakes. Most of the sewage water in urban areas is
untreated and discharged into storm water drains, canals,
streams, rivers, lakes and sea. Further, most of the lakes are
used as dumping yards for municipal waste and residential
sewage is freely discharged into the lakes. The wetlands
close to the lake are occupied by settlements and
encroachments across the lake boundaries are prevalent
everywhere. In August 2000, the twin cities of Hyderabad
Secunderabad witnessed one of the worst flood situations
which led to the enormous loss of human life and property.
This scenario was an awakening to the government and
public regarding the importance of lake restoration and
protection. There are 169 lakes in and around greater Hy-
derabad and hardly a few lakes have water with high
enough quality worth to support a diverse biology. Under
123
882 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

the Green Hyderabad Environment Programme (GHEP),

integrated treatment and management of 87 urban lakes Ammuguda

and tanks were one of the primary components to be

implemented by Hyderabad Urban Development Authority 17.48
o
RKPuramcheruvu INDIA
(HUDA). Safilguda Hyderabad
A lake management/restoration program generally Nadimicheruvu Neradment
involves activities to protect, restore, manipulate, and
provide for functions and values emphasizing both quality
Gautamnagar Bandacheruvu
and acreage by advocating their sustainable usage. The first 17.46
o

Mirjalguda
and most obvious step towards improving lake water Mallajgiri
quality is to limit, divert, or treat excessive external load-
ing. Worldwide experience indicates that lake restoration is Maulali Rly Sun

a Herculean task. Restoration means the return of an eco- o Lalapet

17.44
system to a close approximation of its conditions prior to Patelcheruvu

disturbance. Restoration of lakes may not be possible but

Peddacheruvu
rehabilitation can be done by re-establishing certain Pink granites
Tarnaka

important missing or altered processes, habitats, concen- Sheet rocks

Habshiguda
trations, and species. Lakes are open systems, a watershed o Grey granites NGRI
17.42
will influence the lake, and the lake will influence the Porphyritic granites

watershed. It is therefore hardly possible to manage the Alluvium

Birappagandda
Nallcheruvu
Lineament
lake as a system, separated from the watershed and its Shear zone
Uppal

environment. All lake protection and restoration/rehabili- Dyke

Stream
tation activities involve management which, in turn, calls 17.40
o
Lakes
Musi River
in for an environmental impact assessment (EIA). Geo-
o o o o

physical methods, particularly electrical methods, can play 78.51 78.53 78.55 78.57

a major role to map the subsurface information in such a
scenario.
The primary objective of the present study aims at
mapping the subsurface resistivity so as to determine the
extent of contamination, thickness of silt/clay zone and
also identify locations for drilling, etc. This study may help
in the assessment of contamination impact by correlation to
contaminant concentration, mapping plumes, hydrogeo-
logical evaluation, geochemical analysis, etc. To realize
part of the aforesaid objectives, a detailed geophysical
investigation can be useful. Vertical electrical soundings
(VESs) and multi-electrode resistivity imaging were car-
ried out mainly to select suitable sites for drilling of
observation wells at the inlet and outlet of the lakes for
monitoring the water level and water quality parameters, to
decipher the silt/clay zone thickness and its spread close to
the lake boundaries and to estimate the thickness of the
weathered zone besides depth to basement in the watershed
in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India. The results of the
study are presented here as a case study.
Location, physiography, drainage, climate and rainfall
The study area covers an area of 38 km2 and lies between
the latitudes 17230 N17290 3000 N and longitudes 78310 E study area.
78350 3000 E. The prominent locations in the study area
including National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI)
Fig. 1 Location and geology map of the study area
are given in Fig. 1. It falls in the NE Musi Basin which
consists of chain of surface water bodies (lakes) namely
R.K. Puramcheruvu, Nadimicheruvu, Bandacheruvu, Pa-
telcheruvu, Peddacheruvu and Nallacheruvu (Fig. 1).
The Hyderabad city is surrounded by rocky hills with
an extension in the northwest, prominent being the
Banjara Hills 533640 m above mean sea level (amsl),
Golconda range (518625 m amsl) towards west, Fala-
knuma-Chandrayanagutta hills (518596 m amsl) in the
south, Moula Ali hills (518628 m amsl) in the northeast
with Tirumalgiri heights and Gunrock Enclave forming
the northern part. A gently undulating terrain between 487
and 533 m amsl dotted by housing colonies marks the rest
of the area. In general, the twin cities (HyderabadSec-
underabad) reflect an undulating topography interspersed
with many hillocks and knolls. The elevation of low lying
areas ranges between 493 and 510 m amsl whereas hill-
ocks and knolls are 518 and 580 m amsl. The drainage is
dendritic, characterized by irregular branching of tributary
streams in many directions. The drainage system slopes
towards the south to join river Musi. There are number of
small to medium size inter-linked tanks spread over the
The study area is a part of the semi-arid region of the
Deccan Plateau and enjoys a tropical climate, being warm

123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895
and dry for most part of the year. May is the hottest month
with a mean daily maximum temperature of 39.6C and
December is the coldest month with a mean minimum
temperature of 13.6C. The long-term average rainfall
(based on 28 years data) is estimated to be 857 mm. The
mean monthly highest rainfall (180 mm) occurs generally
during July. About 78% of the rainfall is received from the
SW monsoon during rainy season from June to October.
The relative humidity ranges between 70 and 80% during
the monsoon and 3035% during summer.
Regional geology and geology of the watershed
The HyderabadSecunderabad area is underlain by coarse
porphyritic granite containing large plagioclase phenocryst
and abundant biotite. The origin of granite is considered to
be either late or post-tectonic. The region is underlain by a
series of coalesced plutons, collectively referred to as the
Dharwar craton. Pal et al. (1978), Rai et al. (1996), Ma-
hadevan (1995), and Radhakrishna and Naqvi (1986) have
studied in detail on the Dharwarian craton. The craton was
a zone of reactivation and remobilization where gneisses
were formed. In Archean time, a series of granite plutons
were emplaced around a central core of Archean gneisses.
The central area consists of granitoids collectively referred
to as the Older Gray Series. 38 km2. There are two big reservoirs, namely, Osmansagar
The Hyderabad granites, which form part of the
Dharwarian craton are referred to as the basement com-
plex or unclassified gneissic complex. Krishnan (1960)
and Sitaramayya (1968) have discussed that the granitic
group ranges in composition from granite, through
granodiorite to adamellite, augite-diorite, monazite, etc.
and contain inclusions of hornblende rocks. Raja and
Sarma (1958), Janardhan Rao (1963) have classified dif-
ferent rocks that occur in the area into three categories.
The first two belong to granites and the third group
comprises the dolerite dykes. Subsequently, Balakrishna
(1961, 1964), Janardhan Rao (1965), Sitaramayya (1968,
1971), Divakara Rao (1974), and Gnaneshwar (1987)
added substantially to the study of granites through geo-
physical, petrgraphic and geochemical mapping. Crawford
(1969) studied peninsular granites and gneisses in detail
and indicated a stage of granatisation and surprisingly the
ages of many of the granites in the peninsula are similar.
Pichamuthu (1967) opines that the narrow and elongated
granite bands represent a former Dharwar schist belt of
which only isolated remnants are now left in various
stages of granatisation. Peninsular gneisses are present in
the area of Hyderabad along with later minor intrusions.
Dolerite dykes, pegmatites and quartz veins traverse
through two types of granites (Raja 1959) namely pink
and grey granites with medium grain size. According to
883
petrography, the grey granites are older than the pink
granites and that the pink granites are intrusive into grey
ones. Spheroid boulders and prominent ridges formed due
to weathering are present in the area.
The important structural feature which controls the
groundwater movement is a NWSE trending dolerite
dyke traversing from Ammuguda to Boduppal cheruvu
and the other being EW trending dyke on the upstream
of Patelcheruvu. Another dyke running EW is traced
abutting the downstream side of Nallacheruvu (Fig. 1).
The dug wells and bore wells traced along these dykes
indicate that the altered shear zones extend to a depth of
2030 m which was later confirmed by geophysical
investigations. The study of hydrogeology of the water-
shed is essential and observation of the stream network,
topography and morphological features have significant
bearing on the surface watergroundwater interaction in
the area.
Hydrology
The Hyderabad district lies in the Musi river basin, and is
situated at the confluence of the Musi and its tributary,
Musa. The total length of the basin is about 12.6 km and
average width is about 3.0 km thus covering an area of
and Himayatsagar, at a distance of about 25 and 19 km,
respectively, towards west of the city. The Osmansagar has
a maximum discharging capacity of 2,608 m3/s, while the
Himayatsagar has a maximum discharging capacity of
6,665 m3/s at maximum water levels and form sources of
drinking water to the city. The drainage system in the
district can be subdivided into five tributary sub-basins
which are Osmansagar, Mirjumla, Sarurnagar, Uppal and
Hussainsagar and other sub-basins of lower order. The
Hussainsagar forms the major subbasin in the north of the
river Musi. The study area including Uppal forms the
Northeast Musi basin. Presently, the river Musi contains
stagnant water, polluted by the city drainage. However,
during monsoon season due to excessive floodwater from
the lakes, the pollutants are flushed out to the discharge
areas.
Electrical properties of geological formation
The electrical resistivity of a geological formation is
physical characteristic, determines the flow of electric
current in the formation. Resistivity varies with texture of
the rock, nature of mineralization and conductivity of
electrolyte contained within the rock (Parkhomenko 1967).
Resistivity not only changes from formation to formation
123
884
but also changes within a particular formation (Sharma and
Rao 1962). Resistivity increases with grain size and tends
to maximum when the grains are coarse, also when the
rock is fine grained and compact. The resistivity drastically
reduces with increase in clay content. The clay is com-
monly dispersed throughout as coatings on grains or dis-
seminated masses or as thin layers or lenses. In saturated
rocks low resistivity can be due to increased clay content or
salinity. Hence, the resistivity surveys are the well suited
for delineation of clay or saline zone. Further, combining
resistivity data with in situ total dissolved solids (TDS) or
electrical conductivity measurements in wells can help
identify shallow contaminated zones. A combination of
hydrogeological, geophysical and geochemical investiga-
tions can be very effective in the detection of contaminant
migration (Sankaran et al. 2005). Detection of contamina-
tion due to sea water intrusion, mine seepage, oil field
leakage and hazardous waste disposal were discussed by
Warner 1969; Kelly 1976; Urish 1983; Mazac et al. 1987;
Ebraheem et al. (1990, 1996) and Barker 1981. Hence,
electrical resistivity method is our choice to trace the extent
of pollution in the vicinity of the lakes.
Electrical resistivity method
Electrical resistivity techniques measure earth resistivity by
driving a direct current (DC) signal into the ground and
measuring the resulting potentials (voltages) created in the
earth. From the data obtained, the electrical properties of
the earth (the geoelectric section) can be derived. The
theory and practice of this method is well documented by
Battacharya and Patra (1968) and Parasnis (1973). The
interpretation of resistivity data and its application to
groundwater studies has been given in detail by Zhody
(1965, 1975). DC resistivity techniques may be used in the
profiling mode to map lateral changes and identify near-
vertical features or they may be used in the sounding mode
to determine depths to geoelectric horizons (e.g., depth to
saline groundwater). Common applications of the DC
resistivity method include, delineation of aggregate
deposits for quarry operations, estimating depth to water
table and bed rock or to other geoelectric boundaries, and
mapping and/or detecting other geologic features (Verma
et al. 1980). Detection of contamination due to sea water
intrusion, groundwater exploration, mine seepage, oil field
leakage and hazardous waste disposal, etc., is also an
important application of resistivity methods (Sundararajan
et al. 2007; Urish 1983).
In the DC resistivity measurement process, the ener-
gizing current is sent into the ground by means of two
grounded electrodes, called current electrodes designated
as A and B placed at two selected points. The potential measured and, in turn, the apparent resistivities are
123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895
in the area is measured by another two more grounded
electrodes called potential electrodes designated as M and
N (Fig. 2). Electrical resistivity is defined as the resistance
offered by a unit cube of material for the flow of current
through its normal surface. If L is the length of the con-
ductor, and A is its cross-sectional area, then the resistance
is defined as
R q L=A;
where q is resistivity expressed in ohm-m. There are dif-
ferent electrode arrangements for measuring the potential
difference, which are uniquely used for different purposes
in exploration, the most popular among them are
Schlumberger and Wenner arrays (Fig. 2) (Keller and
Frischnecht 1966). Using these arrays, the vertical varia-
tion as well as lateral variation of resistivity in 1-D can be
mapped and they are known as VES and electrical profil-
ing, respectively (Dobrin 1976; Grant and West 1965;
Koefoed 1979; Telford et al. 1990). In a multilayered earth,
the resistivity measured is known as apparent resistivity
which depends on the layer thickness and resistivities
(subsurface inhomogeneities) and also electrode spacing.
The apparent resistivity (qa) needs to be interpreted in
terms of a subsurface model to evaluate the actual or true
resistivities of the layers.
The Schlumberger array (Fig. 2b) consists of four col-
linear point electrodes to measure the potential gradient at
the mid point. In this array the current electrodes and
potential electrodes are spaced in the ratio of 1:5 and the
geometrical factor K for this array is given by:
K pAB=22  MN2 =MN
1
i:e: K pa2  b2 =2b:
Apparent resistivity qa is calculated as qa = K(DV/I),
where a is the half spacing of current electrodes and b is
the half of spacing of potential electrodes. In this, config-
uration, when AM = MN = NB = a, results in the
Wenner configuration (Fig. 2c).
Vertical electrical sounding
This method gives the information about depth and thick-
ness of various subsurface layers and their potential for
groundwater exploitation and pollution. The Wenner and
Schlumberger arrays are particularly suited to VES,
wherein Schlumberger array has some specific advantages.
There are always some naturally developing potentials
(self-potential, SP) in the ground, which have to be nulli-
fied instrumentally. Thus, in such electrode configuration,
the potential difference for a selected value of AB/2 is
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895 885

Fig. 2 a Schematic sketch of (a) Schematic Representation of Resistivity Method

current and potential electrodes,
b Schluberger array and
c Wenner array

A M N B

(b) Schlumberger array

A M N B
2

(c) Wenner array

A M N B

obtained from Eq. 1. The apparent resistivities are plotted
against AB/2 on a double log graph.
A loglog plot of the apparent resistivity versus current
electrode spacing (AB/2) is commonly referred to as the
sounding curve. Resistivity data are generally inter-
preted using the modeling process. A hypothetical
model of the earth and its resistivity structure (geoelectric
section) is generated. The theoretical electrical resistivity
response over that model is then calculated. The theoretical
response is then compared with the observed field
response. The differences between the observed and the
calculated are then adjusted to create a response which very
closely fits the observed data. When this iterative process is
automated it is referred to as iterative inversion or
optimization. The end product from a DC resistivity
survey or VES is generally a one-dimensional (1-D)
geoelectric cross-section showing thickness and resis-
tivities of all the geoelectric units or layers. If borehole data
or a conceptual geologic model is available, then a geo-
logic identity can be assigned to the geoelectric units. A
2-D geoelectric section may be made up of a series of 1-D
soundings joined together which yield the required sub-
surface information.
Multi-electrode resistivity imaging
The improvement of resistivity methods using multi-elec-
trode arrays has led to an important development of elec-
trical imaging for subsurface surveys (Griffiths et al. 1990;
Griffiths and Barker 1993). The multi-electrode resistivity
technique is now fairly well established with respect to
theory, practical application and interpretation techniques
(Barker 1981; Loke and Barker 1996a, b). A detail picture
of the subsurface can be obtained by combining the
sounding and profiling data to give 2-D cross-sections,
which, in turn, can be combined to give a 3-D model of the
ground. Multi-electrode resistivity imaging techniques is a
combination of both sounding and profiling which has been
used as a complimentary to traditional electrical resistivity
methods in this work. Such surveys are usually carried out
using a large number of electrodes, say 24 or more, con-
nected to a multi-core cable. A laptop microcomputer
together with an electrode-switching unit is used to auto-
matically select the relevant four electrodes for each
measurement. Apparent resistivity measurements are
recorded sequentially sweeping any set of four electrodes
(two current and two potential electrodes) within the multi-

123
886 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

electrode array. As a result, high-definition pseudosections The VESs were carried out using a NGRI make DC
with dense sampling of apparent resistivity variation at resistivity meter wherein the current and potential readings
shallow depth (10100 m) are obtained in a short time. It are displayed for calculating the resistance. Cast iron stakes
allows the detailed interpretation of 2-D resistivity distri- as current electrodes and carbon filled porous pots as
bution of the subsurface (Loke and Barker 1996a, b). potential electrodes were used to improve the ground
A resistivity meter SYSCAL Junior Switch has been used contact. The entire VES were carried out with a maximum
in the present case with 48 electrodes connected to the current electrode separation (AB/2) of 100 m or slightly
meter through a multi-core cable. more wherever necessary. Either DC or low frequency AC
power of 4590 V with current 5500 mA (milli ampere)
can be used depending on the depth of investigation and
Field investigation ground conditions. Also, the use of porous pot electrodes
minimizes the SP (self-potential) effect. The location of
In all 30 VESs were carried out at selected locations VES on either side of the main drainage was chosen in such
(Fig. 3) covering the entire water shed (study area) in order a way that the distance between any two soundings was
to infer the subsurface conditions along the major drainage 200500 m. Due to space constraint, multi-electrode
and 12 km on either side of the lakes (Fig. 1). Multi- resistivity imaging could be carried out at only two loca-
electrode resistivity imaging (a large number of electrodes, tions near VES points.
i.e. 48 or more connected to a multicore cable) which is an
advance version of the old four electrode resistivity system
was carried out at two different locations close to the lakes Processing and interpretation
Patelcheruvu and Peddacheruvu. The salient feature of the
system is that high-resolution pseudosections with dense There are four basic types of sounding curves depending on
sampling of apparent resistivity variation at shallow depth the resistivity distribution with depth. If q1, q2 and q3 are
are obtained in a short time. the resistivities of the three subsurface layers with q1 at the
top followed by q2 and q3 then, q1 [ q2 \ q3 is defined
as H-type, q1 \ q2 \ q3 is defined as A-type
X S27 q1 \ q2 [ q3 is defined as K-type and q1 [ q2 [ q3 is
S26 defined as Q-type. All the VES data were analyzed initially
S23
A'
with the curve matching using various master curve man-
o
S24 uals (Orellana and Mooney 1966) for obtaining the initial
17.48
S22 models. Iterative inversion algorithms developed by Gup-
tasarma (1982) and Jupp and Vozoff (1975) are available
S25 S21
B'
A S17 using different inversion codes. The sounding curves were
S18
interpreted using available VES software. The interpreted
S20
o
B C'
results were compared with available lithologs of bore
17.46 S16
wells at six selected locations. The observation bore wells
S1
S19
S12 D' were constructed near inlet and outlet of lakes viz.,
C Nallacheruvu, Peddacheruvu and Patelcheruvu.
Y Although, all the 30 VESs were interpreted, a selected
S5 S11 E'
17.44
o
S6-BH
S8-BH
set of six (VES-2, VES-3, VES-4, VES-6, VES-7 and VES-
S29
8) typical sounding curves where the drilling was carried
S7-BH
out in the study area, their interpreted layer parameters are
D S26 F'
shown in Table 1. It may be noticed from Table 2 that
G'
S30
S10 water struck in all the six wells at depths ranging from as
E S4-BH
17.42
o
VES
low as 2.827.7 m implying that the water table is at
S9
Multielectrode survey S28
shallow depth. Further, the details of the bore well depth,
S3-BH
static water level, yield, and water quality are also incor-
Geoelectric sections F
S2-BH
porated in the table. The pH values of water from these
S2-BH Location of bore wells drilled S1
S14 wells found to be uniform around 7, whereas the TDS
Lakes in NE Musi Basin
17.40
o
G ranges from 930 to 1690 mg/l indicating of its hard nature.
X' Y'
o o o o
It is shown (Fig. 4) that the TDS distribution in the study
78.51 78.53 78.55 78.57
area generally increases towards Musi river. The boring
Fig. 3 Location of VES, bore wells and geoelectric sections lithologs of all the six are shown in Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and

123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895 887

Table 1 Interpreted layer parameters from VES where the drilling were carried out in the watershed
S. no. VES no. q1/h1 q2/h2 q3/h3 q4/h4 q5/h5 H (Rh) (m) Location of VES

1 S-2 56.10 13.30 39.20 356.1 136.43 45.35 Nallacheruvu outlet

0.6 00 2.71 4.19 37.85
2 S-3 25.7 8.57 29.8 134.1 9931.36 29.08 Uppalcheruvu inlet
0.61 3.04 14.4 11.03
3 S-4 12.4 6.39 16.6 59.33 10045.1 18.27 Annapurnanagar colony,
0.66 1.41 4.51 11.69 Peddacheruvu outlet
4 S-6 8.0 45.00 28.00 75.00 21 42.5 A.P. Dairy farm
0.5 2.00 5.00 35.00
5 S-7 1.68 6.89 96.10 9903 31.76 Peddacheruvu inlet
0.63 3.97 27.20
6 S-8 13.2 21.00 153.00 10005 33.7 Kartikeyanagar Erragunta
0.54 9.72 29.40
Resistivity (q in ohm-m) and thickness (h in m) of various layers with suffixes indicating the layer number
qi in m and hi in ohm-m

Table 2 Details of bore wells drilled with total depth, depth at water struck, yield, static water level and water quality yield and water quality
S. no. VES. no. Location Total Water striking Yield Static water Water quality
depth (m) depth (m) (l/h) level (m-bgl)
pH TDS (mg/l)

1 VES-2 Nallacheruvu outlet 63.8 2.8 Moisture 1.93 7.4 1,690

2 VES-3 Nallacheruvu inlet 15.0 4.5 2,845 0.76 7.4 1,450
3 VES-4 SriSairam nagar 18.0 3.2 4,930 2.01 7.4 1,390
4 VES-6 A.P. Dairy farm 33.3 22.7 7,960 7.7 7.1 930
5 VES-7 Peddacheruvu inlet 22.7 3.9 4,930 1.96 7.4 1,270
6 VES-8 Nacharam 18.1 10.6 4,930 2.0 7.4 1,000

10, of which VES-2, VES-3, VES-4 and VES-7 indicate
silt as the top layer with thickness ranging from 5 to 10 m.
Shallow basement was encountered at VES-2 located at the
outlet of Nallacheruvu with poor yield. The boring litholog
for the sounding VES-4 located at Srisairam Nagar shows a
silt zone thickness of 6.5 m which extends up to a depth of
9.0 m. The well drilled at VES-6 at the AP Dairy Farm
indicates almost 25 m thick highly weathered zone with a
maximum yield of 7,950 l/h (GPH) implying the possibil-
ity of bore well located on the suspected lineament. At all
six drilled locations, the drill time litholog correlated clo-
sely with the interpreted layer parameters. The silt/clay
zone thickness close to the inlet/outlet of the lake could be
estimated from the inferred layer parameters at VES-2,
VES-3, VES-4 and VES-7. The, TDS values monitored at
VES-6 and VES-8 located away from the drainage/lake
were much lower as compared to other four wells located at
the inlet/outlet of the lakes (Table 2). Thus, the low
resistivity values obtained for the soundings for the top
layer up to a depth of 10 m correspond to silt formation as
observed and analyzed during drilling.
In VES interpretation it is a practice to assume that the
layers are horizontal and isotropic. Deviations from this
assumptions result in errors in the final interpretation. If the
layers are dipping (more than 20), then the assumptions of
horizontal interface are invalid. Therefore, the inconsis-
tencies or differences in the VES interpretation may be
attributed to such deviations of assumptions. Further, the
principle of equivalence states that two conductive layers
will carry the same current if their ratios of thickness to
resistivity (h/qlongitudinal conductance) are the same or
two resistivity layers will carry nearly the same current if
their product of resistivity and thickness (h qtransverse
resistance) are the same. Also, a resistant layer sandwiched
between two conducting beds is electrically equivalent if
the transverse resistance is the same. This is called prin-
ciple of suppression. In general, the VES interpretation
suffers from nonuniqueness due to the principle of equiv-
alence and suppression and, in particular, the importance of
longitudinal conductance for a particular layer is that it is
not possible to know both the true resistivity and thickness
of layer due to equivalence.

123
888 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

Geoelectric cross-section the entire watershed could be represented by different

vertical geo-electric cross-sections as represented in Fig. 3
Based on the above drilling results, the resistivity range for (AA0 , BB0 , CC0 , DD0 , EE0 , FF0 , GG0 , XX0 and YY0 ). These
different formations was deciphered and the lithology of various cross sections give important information about the
thickness of silt/clay/soil, weathered and fractured zones
and their variation along and away from the main drainage.
This, in turn, was used to calculate the seepage of surface
Ammuguda
water to groundwater and assigning the transmissivity
distribution for aquifer modeling. The variation of the
17.48
o
RKPuramcheruvu INDIA
subsurface lithology from north to south of the watershed is
Safilguda Hyderabad described taking the layer parameters of various eastwest
Nadimicheruvu Neradment profiles as well as the other two profiles all along the
drainage.
o Gautamnagar Bandacheruvu The geoelectric section (AA0 ) represents the subsurface
17.46
Mirjalguda TDS (mg/L) conditions in the upstream of the watershed from VES-25
Mallajgiri 1500 through VES-22, VES-24 and VES-23. The section reveals
1000
a thin top soil layer and a weathered zone thickness of
Maulali Rly Sun 515 m. The fractured zone thickness varied from
17.44
o Lalapet 1025 m all through. The interesting feature of this profile
is the absence of silt layer at VES-22. The section (BB0 )
Peddacheruvu begins from east traversing through VES-20, VES-18 and
Tarnaka
VES-21. A 5-m thick silt was encountered as top layer
Habshiguda
between GautamnagarSafilguda and a maximum weath-
17.42
o NGRI ered zone thickness of 30 m at Safilguda. It is interesting to
observe a very thick fracture zone of 40 m at Gautamnagar,
Nallcheruvu
Town
Birappagandda indicating a possible lineament in this area. The section
Uppal
(CC0 ) traverses through VES-14, VES-15 and VES-16
Stream
reveals a thin silt lense at Malkajgiri close to the drainage
Lakes in NE Musi Basin
17.40
o

Musi River
and a very thick weathered zone of around 40 m at Sa-
o o o o
filguda-Moula-ali cross roads followed by hard rock.
78.51 78.53 78.55 78.57
Geoelectric section (DD0 ) covers VES-29, VES-8, VES-5
Fig. 4 The TDS distribution map and VES-12. Weathered granite of 10 m thickness is seen

Fig. 5 Litholog from bore well

Schlumberger Configuration - VES-2 No h h
at VES-2 at the outlet of
Nallacheru 1 56.1 0.6 0.6
10000 2 13.3 2.7 3.3
3 39.2 4.2 7.5
RMS - error : 2.4
4 356.1 37.8 45.4
5 136.4 -.- -.-
Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

1000 Litholog
Sand
3.3 m
Silt
7.8 m

100

Hard
Granite

10
1 10 100 1000

Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 63.8 m

123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895 889

Fig. 6 Litholog from bore well No h h

at VES-3 along profile GG0 Schlumberger Configuration - VES-3
1 25.7 0.6 0.6
10000 2 8.6 3.0 3.6
RMS - error : 1.5 3 29.8 14.4 18.0
4 134.1 11.0 29.1
5 9931.4 -.- -.-

Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

1000 Litholog
Silt
2.7 m
Sand
3.3 m

100

Weathered
Granite

12.3 m
10
1 10 100 1000 Fractured
Granite
Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 15.0 m

Fig. 7 Litholog from bore well No

Schlumberger Configuration - VES-4 h h
at VES-4 along profile FF0
1 12.4 0.7 0.7
1000 2 6.4 1.4 2.1
RMS - error : 2.4 3 16.6 4.5 6.6
4 59.3 11.7 18.3
5 10045.1 -.- -.-
Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

100 Litholog

Silt

10 6.5 m
Sandy Silt
9.0 m
Weathered
Granite
with Sand
14.1 m
1
1 10 100 1000 Weathered
Granite
Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 18.0 m

in this section. At Erragunta, a silt zone of 10 m thickness
was encountered within the weathered granite at VES-8 is
close to the lakebed of Patelcheruvu.
Geoelectric section (EE0 ) traversing through and cov-
ering the sounding locations VES-30, VES-7 and VES-11
encounters a thin layer of topsoil at Habsiguda and Na-
charam IDA. A silt zone of 5 m thickness was encountered
within the weathered granites at VES-7 close to the lake
bed. The weathered granite is followed by fractured rock
having a maximum thickness of 30 m. The section (FF0 )
through VES-28, VES-4 and VES-13. Near by VES-4, a
silt zone of 5 m thickness was encountered. The weathered
zone thickness found to increase from VES-28 towards
VES-13. GG0 extends from VES-14 through VES-3 and
VES-10 covers Musi river, and other lakes. The entire
section representing the downstream of the water shed
reveals a 5 m average thickness of silt layer. This can be
attributed to the transported silt and sediments from the
upstream areas. The silt zone is followed by highly
weathered and fractured granite having a maximum
thickness of 25 m.
The NS trending section (XX0 ) reflects the layer
parameters of 10 different VES locations namely VES-26,
VES-22, VES-17, VES-20, VES-15, VES-5, VES-6, VES-

123
890 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

Fig. 8 Litholog from bore well No

Schlumberger Configuration - VES-6 h h
at VES-6 along DD0 and XX0
1 8.9 0.5 0.5
1000 2 24.5 1.9 2.3
RMS - error : 2.4 3 46.1 9.7 12.1
4 66.5 20.4 32.4
5 41.8 -.- -.-

Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

100 Litholog
Red Soil
1.6 m
Sandy Soil
7.5 m

10

Highly
Weathered
/Fractured
Granite
14.1 m
1
1 10 100 1000

Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 33.3 m

Fig. 9 Litholog from bore well No

Schlumberger Configuration - VES-7 h h
at VES-7 along profile EE0 and
XX0 1000
1 1.1 0.5 0.5
2 9.9 6.5 7.0
RMS - error : 2.1 3 98.1 10.2 17.2
4 9987.6 -.- -.-
Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

100 Litholog

Silt

4.5 m
10

Highly
Weathered
Granite

1
1 10 100 1000

Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 22.7 m

7, VES-4 and VES-14. It clearly indicates the presence of
silt as the top layer from Gautamnagar to Musi River.
Maximum thickness of the silt of about 10 m is noticed
between Peddacheruvu outlet and Musi river. Differential
weathering is observed from Ammuguda to AP Dairy Farm
with a maximum weathered zone thickness of 15 m.
Within the hard rock, a very thick fracture zone was
encountered at Gautamnagar and at AP Dairy Farm,
Nacharam indicating that these locations fall on a sus-
pected lineament. The lithologs of the bore wells drilled at
VES-6, VES-7 and VES-4 confirm the inferred geoelectric
sections. Section YY0 along NWSE covers the
downstream lakes namely Patelcheruvu, Peddacheruvu and
Nallacheruvu traverses through as many as six soundings
namely VES-8, VES-7, VES-4, VES-3, VES-2 and VES-1.
A thick silt layer at the top was encountered throughout the
section revealing the subsurface lithology all along the
drainage. Below the silt, a thick fracture zone was
encountered at Erragunta and Nacharam having a thickness
of 30 m. Between Peddacheruvu and Nallacheruvu outlets,
a 10 m weathered zone was followed by a thin fractured
zone before the hard rock was encountered. At Peerjadig-
uda, a very thick fracture zone was encountered indicating
the possibility of this location falling upstream and close to

123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895 891

Fig. 10 Litholog from bore No

Schlumberger Configuration - VES-8 h h
well at VES-8 along profile DD0
1 12.2 1.0 1.0
1000 2 26.8 6.7 7.7
RMS - error : 2.4 3 17.5 4.7 12.4
4 108.4 9.3 21.7
5 10030.7 -.- -.-

Apparent Resistivity (Ohm-m)

RMS on smoothed data

100 Litholog
Sandy Soil
0.5 m

10
Weathered
Granite

13.6 m
1 Fractured
1 10 100 1000 Granite
Current Electrode Distance (AB/2) in meters 18.1 m

25 22 24 23 29 08 05 12 14 02 03 09 10
A A' D D' G G'
10m 10m 10m

30m 30m 30m

(a) (c)
50m 50m 50m

23 Sainikpuri 24 Vajpainagar 70m (b) 09 Saraswatinagar 10 Saidurganagar

25 AOC Chib 29 Osmania University 08 Erragunta 12 Moulali Rly. Sun 02 Nallacheruvu, Outlet 03 Nallacheruvu, Inlet

26 22 17 20 15 05 06 07 04 14
X X'
10m

30m

(d)
50m

26 Ammuguda 22 RKPuram 17 Nadimicheruvu, Inlet 20 Gouthamnagar 15 Malkajgiri

05 Moulali 06 A. P. Dairy 07 Nacharam 04 Peddacheruvu, Outlet 14 Near Musi River

22
VES and its location Hard Granite Fractured Granite Weathered Granite Silt/ Soil

Fig. 11 Inferred lithology from VES a along profile AA0 , b along profile DD0 , c along profile GG0 and d along profile XX0

the EW dyke at the southern end of the watershed as potential zone in the upstream of the dyke. Further, the
shown in the geology map (Fig. 1). The intrusion of the dyke acts as a groundwater barrier which has resulted in the
dyke has created intense tensile fractures in the hard rock water level build up as evinced by the shallow water table
resulting in the development of a high groundwater condition (12 m bgl) in and around this area. A selected

123
892 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

Ps. Z
0.0 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 m

2.56
5.12
7.68
10.2
12.8
15.4
Measured Apparent Resistivity Pseudosection
Ps. Z 0.0 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 40.00 45.00 70.00 75.00
35.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 m

2.56
5.12
7.68
10.2
12.8
15.4
Calculated Apparent Resistivity Pseudosection

Depth in m, Iteration 5 RMS error = 1.82 %

0.0 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00 85.00 90.00 m
1.25
3.75
6.38
9.26

12.4

15.9
Inverse Model Resistivity Section

9.42 15.4 25.2 41.3 67.7 111 181 297

Resistivity in ohm.m Unit electrode spacing 5.00 m

TDS variation on either side of drainage at downstream of Patelcheruvu

1800
TDS in mg/L

1200

600

0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000
Distance in m

Fig. 12 Multi-electrode imaging sections at inlet of Peddacheruvu and TDS variations on either side of drainage

set of four geoelectric sections namely AA0 , DD0 , GG0 and
XX0 along with VES locations through them are shown in
Fig. 11.
Multi-electrode resistivity imaging carried out close to
the inlet and outlet of Peddacheruvu and the resulting
sections along with the TDS variations on either side of
drainage are given in Figs. 12 and 13. The monitored TDS
values on either side of the drainage clearly indicate that
the TDS values are much lower as we travel away from the
drainage. The resistivity imaging sections also reveal a silt/
clay zone thickness of 610 m as indicated by geoelectric
cross-sections (XX0 and YY0 ). Further, the low infiltration
rates obtained close to the drainage and lakes are due to the
low permeable mixed layer of silt and clay inferred from

123
Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895 893

Ps. Z
0.0 16.00 32.00 48.00 64.00 80.00 m
1.04
3.41
5.73
8.03
10.3
12.6
14.9
17.2
Measured Apparent Resistivity Pseudosection
Ps. Z
0.0 16.00 32.00 48.00 64.00 80.00 m
1.04
3.41
5.73
8.03
10.3
12.6
14.9
17.2
Calculated Apparent Resistivity Pseudosection

Depth in m, Iteration 5 RMS error = 2.8 %

0.0 16.00 32.00 48.00 64.00 80.00 m
0.50
3.70
6.37
9.60

13.5
15.8
18.2
Inverse Model Resistivity Section

4.93 9.39 17.9 34.1 65.0 124 236 450

Resistivity in ohm.m Unit electrode spacing 2.00 m

TDS variation on either side of drainage at downstream of Peddacheruvu

1800
TDS in mg/L

1200

600

0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000
Distance in m

Fig. 13 Multi-electrode imaging sections at outlet of Patelcheruvu and TDS variations on either side of drainage

resistivity surveys. Thus, the hydrogeological setup and
shallow water table conditions in the downstream could be
clearly explained through resistivity and drilling data. All
the above information formed the basis for conceptualizing
the aquifer system. Finally, a preliminary assessment of the
pollution spread close to the lakes and drainage is shown in
Fig. 14 wherein the pollution spread is less in upstream
areas whereas it is more in the downstream which can be
attributed to the shallow water table conditions and also
due to the interaction of surface water and groundwater.
Conclusions
The interpretation of geophysical data and lithologs indi-
cates that the silt/clay zone (predominantly silt) thickness is

123
894 Environ Earth Sci (2012) 65:881895

records his thanks to Dr. V.P. Dimri, Director, National Geophysical

Research Institute, Hyderabad for his permission to publish this paper.

17.48
o RKPuramcheruvu INDIA
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