University of Engineering and Technology Taxila

Mechanical Engineering Department

Notes: 01
(Entry-2016)

Course Title: THERMODYNAMICS-I

Code: ME-121
Tutor: Khalid Masood Khan
Course Outline

Basic Concepts Introduction (and Motivation); System and Surroundings; Zeroth Law
(Temperature); Volume; Pressure; Heat; Work; SI Units; Working Fluid, Process and State;
Reversibility; Thermodynamic Cycle.
First Law of Thermodynamics Definition, Non-Flow Energy Equation (Internal Energy), Steady Flow
Energy Equation (Enthalpy).
Pure Substances Formation of Steam; -Phase Diagram; Wet Vapor; Use of Steam Tables and the
hs-Chart; Perfect Gas: Equation of State, Specific Heats, Joules Law and Enthalpy, Ratio of Specific
Heats.
Reversible Non-Flow Processes Constant Volume, Constant Pressure, Constant Temperature,
Constant Entropy, and Polytropic Process.
Second Law of Thermodynamics Definitions; Heat Engine: Examples of Open and Closed Cycles;
Efficiency; Entropy; Ts-Diagram for Vapor and Perfect Gas, Processes on Ts-Diagram.
Gas Power Cycles Carnot Cycle; Absolute Temperature Scale; Constant Pressure Cycle; Air-Standard
Cycles: Otto, Diesel, Duel-Combustion; Mean Effective Pressure; Stirling and Ericsson Cycles.
Vapor Power Cycles Rankine Cycle; Cycle Analysis; Performance Metrics; Rankine Cycle with
Superheat.

Lab Work Outline Experiments of Thermodynamics-I will be conducted with Thermodynamics-II.

Recommended Books

1. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, SI Units, 4th Edition, By T. D. Eastop and A.
McConkey, Longman Group Limited 1986.
2. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, By Rayner Joel, 5th Edition, Addison Wesley Longman Limited 1996.

3. Engineering Thermodynamics, 3rd Edition, SI Units, By D. B. Spalding and E. H. Cole, 1973.

4. Thermodynamics, 3rd Edition, SI version, By William Z. Black and James G. Hartley, HarperCollins College
Publishers, 1996.

5. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, By M. J. Moran and H. O. Shapiro, John Wiley & Sons,

6. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, By Sonntang, Borgnakke,Van Wylen, John Wiley & Sons

7. Thermal Physics, 2nd Edition, By C. Kittel and H. Kroemer, W. H. Freeman and Company, 1980.
8. Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach, By Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, McGraw-Hill
 Introduction

The machinery for energy transformations has been developed over

the last a little over two centuries, mainly by practical engineering,
followed closely, but sometimes more distantly, by theoretical
analysis and research.

Refinements made over time to fundamental practical ideas have

produced the present highly complex modern power stations from
what initially was the steam power plant of Watt.
 Applied thermodynamics is science of the relationships between
heat, work, and system properties.

It is concerned with the means to convert heat energy from available

resources such as oil, coal, natural gas, and many others like nuclear
piles, into mechanical work.

A heat engine is a continuously operating thermodynamic system

at the boundary of which there are heat and work interactions.
 The laws of thermodynamics are natural realities based on the
observation of the world around us.

Heat and work are mutually convertible forms of energy. This

observation is the basis of the first law of thermodynamics.

Another observation is that heat never flows unaided from a

region of low temperature to one at a high temperature. This is
the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.
 A system may be defined as a collection of matter within
prescribed and identifiable boundary (fig-1.1).
 System boundary is flexible for a closed system (control mass);
inflexible for an open system (control volume).

Surroundings may be defined as part of the universe immediately

next to the system that communicates with the system.

There are exceptions to this point of view such as heat transferred

to the system from the sun through the mechanism called thermal
radiation.

Far away heavenly objects rarely influence interactions taking place

at the level of thermodynamics that comprises the contents of
Thermodynamics-I course.
 Heat is the form of energy that is transferred from system to
surroundings, and vice versa, due to a difference of
temperature.

Heat is an interaction at the boundary between the system and

the surroundings.

There is decrease in the intrinsic energy of the system that

losses energy and an increase in the intrinsic energy of the one
that gains energy.
 Expansion (process) in the cylinder of a reciprocating engine is
an example of a closed system doing work on the surroundings
(fig-1.3). The system boundary (fig-1.3) is the cylinder walls and
the piston crown.

There is no transfer of mass across the system boundary

(control mass).
 The fluid, as it flows through a turbine, is example of an open
system (fig-1.4).

System boundary in this case is inflexible and mass is crossing the

system boundary. However, system volume is constant (control
volume).
 Pressure of a system is the force exerted by the system on unit
area of its boundary.

The unit of pressure, in SI, is N/m2. It is called pascal (Pa). The

symbol for pressure is p.

Another commonly used unit is bar. Advantage of using bar as

the pressure unit is that standard atmosphere is exactly equal to
1.01325 bar or 1 bar (approximately).
 When pressure of a system is below atmospheric, it is called
vacuum pressure (fig-1.5c). When one side of a U-tube is
completely evacuated and sealed, then the gauge acts as a
barometer (fig-1.5d). It can measure atmospheric pressure.
 The gauges shown in fig-1.5a and fig-1.5c measure gauge
pressure in mm of a liquid of known relative density, and are
called manometers.
 Work, like heat, is an interaction at the boundary between the system
and the surroundings. It is neither contained in nor possessed by the
system.

When a gas (system) in a well-insulated cylinder (fig-1.6a) is

compressed by moving the piston to the left, the pressure and
temperature of the gas are observed to increase.

This process increases the intrinsic energy of the gas. Since the
cylinder is insulated, no heat can get into or out of the system (gas).
Therefore, increase in the intrinsic energy of the system has been
caused by the work done by the piston on the gas.
 Consider now a gas contained in a rigid cylinder and heated (fig-
1.6b). Since boundary of the system is fixed, no work is done on
or by the system. The pressure and temperature, again, are
observed to increase.

This will increase the intrinsic energy of the gas. This increase in
intrinsic energy has been caused, in this case, by the heat added
to the system.
 In fig-1.6a and fig-1.6b, each case, system interacts with the
surroundings as work is done on the system or heat is added to it.

Both heat and work appear during the interaction.

Heat and work disappear as soon as interaction between the

system and the surroundings ceases to exist.

However, the effect of this interaction (process) in each case, heat

or work, is there in terms of a change in the intrinsic energy of the
system.

In both cases, the final condition of the system is different from its
initial condition. The state of the system has changed.
 The paddle wheel is another example of work done on the
system (Fig-1.7).
For a suitably insulated container, all the work input using
the paddle wheel goes to increasing the intrinsic energy of
the system.
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics defines temperature as follows:
When two bodies have equality of temperature with a third body,
they have equality of temperature with each other. This law is also
known as equality of temperature law.

The change in volume at constant pressure, or the change in pressure

at constant volume, of a fixed mass of gas which is not easily
liquefied (e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, helium, etc.) can be used as a
measure of temperature. Such an instrument is called the Gas
Thermometer.
 The international system of units (Systm International dUnits, SI) is a
coherent system, i.e., all derived unit quantities are formed by the product
or quotient of other unit quantities.

In SI unites, six physical quantities are arbitrarily assigned unit value (Table-
1.1). All other quantities have been derived from these six fundamental
quantities.
thermodyna
Physical electric luminous
length mass time mic
Quantity current intensity
temperature
ampere, kelvin, candela,
Unit meter, m kilogram, kg second, s
A K cd
Table-1.1: Fundamental physical quantities

velocity, acceleration, volume, specific volume,

Quantity
length/time length/time2 length3 length3/mass
etc.
meter/second, meter/second2 , meter3, meter3/kilogram,
Unit
m/s m/s2 m3 m3/kg

Table-1.2: Derived quantities

 Multiples and Submultiples
These are obtained from the basic units by means of prefixes. Most commonly
used are in Table-3.

Multiplying factor Prefix Symbol

one million, 106 mega

one thousand, 103 kilo

one thousandth, 10-3 milli

one millionth, 10-6 micro

Table-1.3: Multiples and submultiples

Working Fluid (System) and Properties

Matter contained within the boundary of a system can be liquid, vapor, or gas
and is known as the working fluid.

Condition of the working fluid (system) at any instant may be defined by

certain observable/measurable characteristics called system properties.

Therefore, property is a system characteristic, a system aspect, or a system

attribute.

System state is the condition of the system at any instant as defined by its
properties.
 Property Pressure Temperature Specific volume Specific internal energy Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

Attribute directly measurable directly measurable directly measurable calculated calculated calculated

Unit (SI)

Table-1.4: Six of the most common thermodynamic properties

 Pure Working Fluid

For any pure working fluid, only two independent properties are necessary
to define completely the state of the fluid.

System (working fluid) state can be represented on a diagram using

properties as coordinates.
Note: A process is the succession of states passed through by the system
during the change in its condition from state 1 to state 2.
 When system changes state in such a way that at any instant during
the process the state point can be located on the diagram then the
process is said to be reversible.

The fluid undergoing a reversible process passes through a

continuous series of equilibrium states.

All such states connected together appear as a continuous (solid) line

on any property diagram (fig-1.10).
 No process in practice is truly reversible. A real process, called
irreversible, cannot be kept in equilibrium in its intermediate states.

An irreversible process is represented by a dashed line (fig-1.11).

Rigorous Definition of Reversibility:
When a fluid (system) undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and the
surroundings can always be restored to their original states.
Criteria of reversibility:
a) Process must be frictionless
b) Difference in pressure between the fluid and its surroundings during
the process must be infinitely small
c) Difference in temperature between the fluid and its surroundings
during the process must be infinitely small
 Processes in cylinders with a reciprocating piston are generally
assumed to be internally reversible, i.e. system maintains equilibrium
while surroundings may not.

Processes in turbomachinery (turbines, rotary compressors, etc.) are

known to be highly irreversible due to the high degree of turbulence
and fluid scrubbing.
 For a compression process (fig-1.15), the work is done on the system.

The integral in this case is again area under the process curve (note the line arrow).