Online Stator and Rotor Resistance Estimation
Scheme Using Swarm Intelligence for Induction
Motor Drive in EV/HEV
1
K. Lakshmi Varaha Iyer, Student Member, IEEE, 2Xiaomin Lu, Student Member, IEEE,
3
Kaushik Mukherjee, Member, IEEE, and 4Narayan C. Kar, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractThe usage of niche copper-rotor induction motor
(CRIM) in the Tesla Roadster electric vehicle has bolstered the
technology of using copper-rotor induction motor for electrified
transportation. Understanding the merits, demerits and state of
art technology of induction motor and its drive in EV/HEV ap-
plication, this research manuscript proposes an online stator and
rotor resistance estimation scheme using particle swarm optimi-
zation (PSO) technique for efficient and accurate control of in-
duction motors in the same application. Firstly, an insight is pro-
vided on the state or art CRIM technology in EV/HEV and the
need for reliable online rotor and stator resistance estimation
scheme. Secondly, a PSO based scheme for resistance estimation
is developed through a mathematical model. The developed mod-
el is validated and tested on a 10hp CRIM thorough a computer
programme. Thereafter, the calculated results obtained from
numerical investigations are analyzed.
Index Terms Copper-rotor induction machine, electric ve-
hicle, particle swarm optimization, rotor resistance estimation,
stator resistance estimation.
I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND STUDIES
I nduction motors fed by voltage source inverters apparently
is one of the most promising solutions for electric vehicle
traction systems. The prototypes built in the past have often
used induction motors of standard design having conventional
aluminum-rotor bars in the rotor of the machine. However, the
research being performed over the last decade indicate that
specially designed motors must be studied and developed to
satisfy the typical requirements for road traction applications.
Conventional induction motors use less efficient aluminum
rotors because fabrication by pressure die casting is a well
established and economical method. Conventional wisdom
states that copper conductors are the most reliable and outper-
form their aluminum counterparts, since the electrical conduc-
tivity of copper is 60% more than aluminum. Recent devel-
opments in the die casting process that produces copper rotors
can easily increase the machines efficiency by up to 2.1% [1].
Use of copper rotors can also reduce motor operating tempera-
tures by 5oC to 32oC [2]. As a general rule, for every 7-10oC
This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-
search council of Canada.
The authors of this paper are with the Centre for Hybrid Automotive Re-
search and Green Energy, University of Windsor, ON, Canada. (email:
1
iyerl@uwindsor.ca, 2lu117@uwindsor.ca, 3kmukh@uwindsor.ca, and
4
nkar@uwindsor.ca)
978-1-4577-1370-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE
increase in the motor operating temperature above the maxi-
mum temperature as dictated by its class of insulation, the
insulation life of the motor is halved. Therefore, this data indi-
cates that the lifetime of motors using copper rotors may be
extended by 50% or more, with proper maintenance.
Recently, four 520 V, 140 hp induction machines with die
cast copper rotors powered the latest generation of US army
severe duty hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). These machines
were manufactured by Reliance Electric and it is stated that
the die cast copper rotor technology was the only way they
could meet the rigorous military requirements for weight, size
and performance. It is also mentioned that, since copper is a
better conductor of electricity and has lower resistance; copper
rotors can be smaller, run cooler and have a higher power den-
sity. Hence, copper rotors may improve the efficiency of the
system and result in a more fault tolerant system [3].
Also in the lime light is the Tesla Roadster electric vehicle
(EV) which uses the 215 kW copper rotor machine. It is stated
that even though it was bit harder to build the copper-rotor, it
has a much lower resistance and can therefore handle higher
currents. Special care is taken in the motor design to handle
the high speed up to 14,000 r/min [4].
The nameplate efficiency of a practical, in-service, 15 hp,
1,800 r/min aluminum-rotor induction machine today is about
89.5%, which is below the 1997 Energy Policy Act standard
of 91%. As demonstrated by many other researchers, the adop-
tion of copper rotors should bring efficiencies to the 94 to 96%
range exceeding the requirements of todays NEMA premium
efficiency motor, nominally 93% [5]. In addition, analyses by
motor manufacturers have shown that copper rotors can be
employed to reduce overall manufacturing costs at a given
efficiency or to reduce motor weight, depending on which
attribute the designer chooses to emphasize. The potential
energy savings achievable through the use of copper rotors is
substantial. Research performed in [4]-[6] have also taken care
and suggested suitable bar designs to improve the starting per-
formance of these machines, hence, making the machine more
efficient and reliable.
As the technology and research advances in the area of
electric vehicle drivetrain systems, the copper rotor in induc-
tion motors will play an important role in building premium
efficiency high speed motors.
Speed control, an essential requirement in any electric vehi-
cle, may be done in induction motor driven vehicles in a sim-
pler way by employing V/f control below base speed and by
fixed voltage, variable frequency control above base speed.
This method is indeed employed in many electric vehicles.
202
However, changing the magnitudes only (off voltage and fre-
quency), otherwise called as scalar control strategies, causes
the dynamic torque response of the inductionn motor to be slow
considering the state-of-the-art requirement oof super-fast vehi-
cle dynamics. To meet such advanced requuirements of fast
dynamics, field oriented control (vector ccontrol) or direct
torque control of induction motors is the soluution today, where
developed torque can be changed at a muchh faster rate. With
indirect rotor flux oriented control in a squirrrel cage induction
motor, the unstable portion of the natural speeed-torque charac-
teristics vanishes and hence there is no chaance of instability
due to certain types of load torques. The addditional advantage
is the fact that the maximum torque-produccing capability of
the machine is dictated by thermal considerrations only. The
electromagnetic torque response becomes aas fast as a sepa-
rately excited DC machine of identical torquee rating but with a
reduced size and weight. The ruggedness issuue is already well-
known with cage machines. The only disadvantage in field
oriented controlled induction motor drive is the higher cost in
realizing and implementing the complex conntrol strategies in
real-time field application.
Indirect rotor field oriented or vector conntrolled induction
motor drives are widely used in EV/HEV V applications for
high-performance applications. It is a feedd-forward scheme
which has to estimate the slip speed based oon the knowledge
of rotor resistance of the employed machinne. The control is
therefore parameter sensitive. The whole ppurpose of vector
control to achieve fast dynamic torque respoonse is lost if the
estimated slip speed is not proper due to channge of rotor resis-
tance. This is therefore one of the greatest chhallenge in imple-
menting vector control in practice. Rotor ressistance may prac-
tically vary up to 100% due to heating due tto increased load-
ing and recovering this information with a thhermal model or a
temperature sensor is not desirable from ppractical point of
view. In addition, rotor resistance varies alsso with operating
slip due to skin and proximity effect. A propper indirect stator-
flux oriented control, on the other hand, reqquires accurate in-
formation about the stator resistance of the machine and the
stator resistance varies with temperature. Puutting a tempera-
ture sensor in the stator slots again calls fofor a custom-built
machine which is practically not always feasiible.
An estimating technique of rotor resistance and/or stator re-
sistance is therefore justified for electric vehhicles incorporat-
ing different types of vector-controlled inducttion motor drives.
The stator of the permanent magnet syynchronous motor
used in Chevy Volt electric vehicle uses a bar wound con-
struction. However, this construction was prrone to significant
skin and proximity effect which would increease the AC resis-
tance of the machine at high speed [7]. Thhe conductor was
then properly sized to reduce these effects at hhigher speed.
The model reference adaptive control baseed on torque func-
tion reported in [8], could not be used for loww frequencies due
to the stator resistance voltage drop. Three simple methods of
rotor time constant adaptation with referencee adaptive control
structure was proposed using a torque refereence model, reac-
tive power reference model, and axis voltage reference models
[9]. Its major drawback was its dependence on stator resis-
tance. The identification algorithm reportedd in [11] was to
minimize the error between the measured staator current trajec-
tory and an estimated current trajectory, thhe update is done
978-1-4577-1370-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE 203
only every 60 s, as the method wass largely computational in-
tensive. The methods discussed in n [12][14] are based on
model reference adaptation of eitheer flux or reactive power.
The second approach, developed in i [15] and [16], was to
compensate for rotor resistance variaation by adaptive feedback
linearization control with unknown rotor resistance. The third
identification method is to detect th he output signal variation
invoked by the artificial injection signal [17]. Also, an ex-
tended Kalman filter was used for rotorr resistance identifica-
tion in [18] and [19].
Furthermore, mostly speed estim mation schemes utilize an
induction motor model for the speed estimation and require
the accurate knowledge of most of the t motor parameters [20].
The accurate value of the stator resistance is critical for the
correct operation of a speed sensorrless drive, since an error
between its actual value and the vallue used in the speed esti-
mator may lead not only to a substan ntial speed error but also to
unstable operation of the drive.
Section 2 of this paper illustrates measured results obtained
from an on road vehicle test perforrmed using the laboratory
electric vehicle [21]. The electric veehicle uses a 7.5 hp alumi-
num- rotor induction motor with a variable frequency drive.
The vehicle instrumentation layout is i as shown in Fig. 1. The
results obtained using a Tektronix 20242 digital storage oscil-
loscope and a Fluke 434 power quaality analyzer is shown in
Fig. 2. It can be observed from the figures
fi thatthe power peaks
at the beginning of the drive as the vehicle
v starts to accelerate
from a stationary position, causing considerable transients in
the motor. Also, it can be seen thatt the current peaks at two
different levels. One peak is roughly around 150 A while the
other is at nearly 200 A. The first peeak of 150 A represents the
value obtained as a result of a maxim mum acceleration whereas
the second peak is due to regenerativ ve braking.
Hence, it can be inferred from thiis study that the as the load
increases, in order to keep up the constant speed of the ve-
hicle, acceleration has to be increaased. In the process of in-
creasing the acceleration the frequen ncy of current in the stator
and the rotor varies significantly an nd rapidly. This sudden in-
crease frequency would lead to change in stator and rotor re-
sistance periodically along the drivee cycle due to the skin and
proximity effects. Also, the motor is run continuously for a
longer duration with rapid load variaation, when covering long-
er distances. This would increase thee operating temperature of
the motor, again leading to change in resistances due to ther-
mal effect.
Fig. 1. Vehicle instrumentation layout. (a) Data acquisition and logging note-
book A. (b) Fluke 434 Power Quality Anallyser B. (c) Tektronix TPS2024
digital storage oscilloscope C.
 4000 Aggregating the set of equations in (2), the velocity of the
ith particle can be modified as follows:
Rea l Power [W]

2000
vik +1 = wvik + c1 rand1 ( pbesti sik )
0 (3)
0 50 100 150 200 250 + c2 rand2 ( gbesti sik )
-2000
where, w represents weighting function which is usually util-
36 ized in (4):
32
w wmin
Voltage [V]

28 w = wmax max iter (4)

24 itermax
20
0 50 100 150 200 250 where, wmax is the initial weight, wmin is the final weight, iter-
max is the maximum iteration number, and iter is the current
200
iteration number.
150
PSO utilizes pbest and gbest to modify current searching
Current [A]

100
point. With equations (3) and (4), a certain velocity that con-
50
0
verges gradually towards pbest and gbest can be calculated,
0 50 100 150 200 250 which is called Inertial Weights Approach (IWA). The current
position can be, therefore, modified by the following equation:
1
sik +1 = sik + vik +1 (5)
Power Factor

0.5
0 According to Shi and Eberharts examination [24], [25], ci =
-0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 2.0, wmax = 0.9, wmin = 0.4 are appropriate parameters as these
-1 Time [Sec] values do not depend on any particular problem.
Fig. 2. Measured induction motor active power, phase voltage, phase current
and power factor profiles during the on-road vehicle testing.
Assuming discrete stator current signal {(t j , is (t j ))}pj as
learning sample of the particle swarm, the objective function
Understanding the need for a sensitive and reliable online can be defined as:
stator and rotor estimation scheme, section 3 of this paper pro- p
poses a simple and yet sensitive approach of online parameter e = (is (t j ) is (t j )) 2 (6)
determination using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) j =1
technique. The PSO technique is used here to increased accu- where, x (t j ) denotes the calculated output of the particle
racy while determining the resistances. This would further
improve the overall performance of the induction motor drives swarm. Therefore, stator and rotor resistance can be found by
like the vector control drive. updating si and minimizing e. The steps involved in estimating
motor parameters are shown in Fig.3 and described as follows:
II. ONLINE RESISTANCE ESTIMATION USING PARTICLE SWARM
OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUE
Start
The two-axis model of an induction machine used in this
research can be described as in (1). Set parameters N, itermax, si, wmax,

R + pLs Ls pLm Lm Sample real-time data is, vs

vqs s iqs
L Rs + pLs Lm pLm ids (1)
vds = s
k=1
v
qr pLm ( r )Lm Rr + pLr ( r )Lr iqr Generate the initial particle value

vdr ( )L pLm ( r )Lr
i
Rr + pLr dr si = [Rsik , Rrik ]
r m

The PSO simulates the behavior of swarm as a simplified Calculation ei of each agent i
social system. Each particle modifies its velocity according to Update Y
its own position and the positions of the neighbors in the fol- pbesti is eik < e (pbestik) ?
N Update
lowing form: is eik < e (gbestk) ? Y gbest
i
vik +1 = vik + c1 rand 1 ( pbest i sik ) N
(2) Modification of capacitance value
vik +1 = vik + c2 rand 2 ( gbest i sik ) s ik + 1 = s ik + v ik + 1

where, vik is the velocity of particle i at iteration k, cj is weight- is k=itermax ?

N
k=k+1
ing coefficient, randi is a random number between 0 and 1, sik, Y
the current position of particle i at iteration k, is equal to a Output gbestk
vector [Rsik , Rrik ] in this application. pbesti is the best pre-
vious position of the ith particle, gbesti represents the best pre- Fig. 3. Flowchart of the step by step process involved in estimating the stator
vious position among all the particles in the swarm [22], [23]. and rotor resistance.

978-1-4577-1370-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE 204

 Step 1. Generation of initial conditions: Initialize popula- 400
tion size N, maximum iteration number itermax, and other PSO 300
parameters. Randomly generate the initial trial particles si (i 200

Voltage [V]
=1, 2, , N, where N is the population size) which indicate 100
0
the possible solutions of capacitance value.
-100 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Step 2. Acquisition of data: Sample stator voltage and cur- -200
rent instantaneous value. The size of both samples is p. Vol- -300
tage sample is further used as an input to swarm estimation -400
system, while current data is the reference for the output of Time [Sec]
swarm estimation. Fig. 4. Terminal phase voltage of the CRIM with 30 dB noise.
Step 3. Computation of objective function: resistance val-
ues are fed into the developed two-axis model of the CRIM to 4
calculate the stator current of the motor. The error of each 3 25%
particle can be attained with (6). 50%

Performance
Step 4. Evaluation of searching point: If e is smaller than 2 75%
the current pbest of the agent, the pbest value is replaced by 100%
1
the current value. If the smallest e of pbest is smaller than the
Iterations
current gbest, gbest is replaced by the best value. 0
Step 5. Modification of the searching point: The current re- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
sistance values of each agent are changed using (3)-(5).
Fig. 5. PSO performance as a function of iterations for varying machine stator
Step 6. Checking the exit condition: When the current itera- and rotor resistance values.
tion number reaches the predetermined maximum iteration
number or if the error is lesser than10-2, then exits. Otherwise, This will improve the computation speed significantly,
the process goes back to Step 3. hence improving the real-time performance and flexibility of
this scheme to be integrated into the induction motor drive
III. NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE DEVELOPED PSO used in HEV/EV application. The resistances were varied in
MODEL USING A 10 HP COPPER-ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR regular steps to verify the convergence of the developed opti-
The algorithm developed in section 2 for parameter estima- mization method. From Fig. 5, it is evident that the PSO per-
tion using PSO is further validated and investigated in this formance is satisfactory after 6 iterations for all the tested pa-
section through numerical results obtained from a developed rameter values.
computer program. As reported in [26], the AC conduction effects have been
The equivalent circuit parameters determined from the the only concern in further increasing the efficiency of copper-
standard no-load, DC and blocked rotor tests, and important rotor machines and the higher conductivity of copper allows
machine ratings of the CRIM under investigation is presented the rotor designer to use these effects to tailor the behavior of
in Table 1. the rotor to improve machine performance. Also, a better bar
In order to simulate real-time field conditions, 30 dB noises design would improve the efficiency of the machine and re-
are added to the sampled signal of voltages and currents taken duce these effects. Hence, understanding the significance of
as inputs and objectives, respectively. Fig. 4 shows the ac- these effects a mathematical model for the corresponding rotor
quired phase voltage waveform of the CRIM with noise at a resistance coefficient as a function of these frequency related
constant 265 V. Similarly, the current waveform is also cor- effects is as shown in (7) [27].
rupted with noise. br
As the variation range of the resistance is not too wide, it is = hr f
enough to set the population size of the swarm as 5 and the bs
iteration time as 10. sinh(2) + sin(2)
TABLE 1 K r = (7)
INDUCTION MACHINE DATA cosh(2) cos(2)
Output power [kW] 7460 1
Rated voltage [V] 460 =
f
Rated current [A] 11.5
Number of poles 4 where, br, bs, and hr are bar width, slot width, skin depth and
Rated speed [rpm] 1,760 height of the rotor bar, respectively.
Rated frequency [Hz] 60
The stator resistance of the machine is also affected by these
effects but the change would be lesser during machine opera-
Rs [pu] 0.017
tion as the stator frequency will be fixed at the line frequency.
Rr [pu] 0.011
However, temperature effect significantly changes the stator
Xls [pu] 0.039
resistance as all the heat generated in the machine over a pe-
Xlr [pu] 0.039
riod of time concentrates on the stator. Hence, in this paper,
Xm [pu] 1.400 the objective resistance values are varied from 100% to 200%

978-1-4577-1370-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE 205

of rated resistances as resistances due to the inherent skin ef-
fect, proximity effect and thermal effect can vary up to 200%
of their rated values. Shown in Figs. 6 and 7 is the change in
rotor resistance coefficient (Kr) as a function of frequency
obtained from (7) and change in stator resistance (Rs) as a
function of temperature over a period of time, respectively.
Figs. 8(a) and (b) show calculated results of the estimate
and objective rotor resistance and stator resistance values,
respectively. It can be seen that the algorithm developed here
for online resistance prediction estimates the objective value
very close to maximum accuracy at all levels of loading and
frequency.
4
3
Kr
IV. CONCLUSION
This research manuscript first provides an insight on the
niche copper-rotor induction motor and its usage in the
EV/HEV application as a traction motor. It also studies the
need for an accurate and reliable online rotor and stator resis-
tance estimation in an induction motor drive in the same ap-
plication. A novel particle swarm optimization scheme is de-
veloped for online resistance estimation through a mathemati-
cal model. The algorithm is built into a computer program to
analyze its performance through numerical investigations. The
developed algorithm is found to be very reliable, fast and ac-
curate at all loading conditions and frequencies of operation
hence making it flexible to be used with the state of art induc-
tion motor drive for EV/HEV application.
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BIOGRAPHIES
K. Lakshmi Varaha Iyer received the B.Tech. degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering from
SASTRA University, Thanjavur, India, in the year 2009.
He is currently pursuing the MASc degree in Electrical and
Computer Engineering at the University of Windsor, On-
tario, Canada. His research presently focuses on design
and analysis of electric machine drives for wind power and
electric vehicle applications.
Xiaomin Lu received her Bachelor in Engineering from
Sun-Yet Sen University in July, 2010. She is currently
working towards her M.A.Sc degree at University of
Windsor, Ontario, Canada. She is focusing on the charac-
teristics of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors. She is
developing innovative magnetic circuit models in order to
study motor behaviour such as losses, cogging torque,
response to faulty condition, etc.
978-1-4577-1370-5/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE 207
Kaushik Mukherjee (M03) was born in 1970. He re-
ceived the B.E. degree from the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India, in
1993, the M.E. degree from the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Bengal Engineering College, Howrah, India,
in 1998, and the Ph.D. degree from the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur, India, in 2003. Since 1993, he has spent al-
most two and a half years in the industry. In 2002, he
joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, Jadavpur University, India as
a Lecturer. From 2006 onwards, he is an Assistant Professor in the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering, Bengal Engineering and Science University,
Howrah, India. Dr. Mukherjee is presently a Visiting Professor at the Centre
for Hybrid Automotive Research & Green Energy, Department of Electrical &
Computer Engineering, University of Windsor, Canada. His research interests
include electrical machine drives and power electronics applications in gener-
al.
Narayan C. Kar received the B.Sc. degree in Electrical
Engineering from Bangladesh University of Engineering
and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 1992 and the
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from
Kitami Institute of Technology, Hokkaido, Japan, in 1997
and 2000, respectively. He is an associate professor in the
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the
University of Windsor, Canada where he holds the Canada
Research Chair position in hybrid drivetrain systems. His
research presently focuses on the analysis, design and control of permanent
magnet synchronous, induction and switched reluctance machines for hybrid
electric vehicle and wind power applications, testing and performance analysis
of batteries and development of optimization techniques for hybrid energy
management system. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE.