1 Vectors and Tensors

Continuum Mechanics
Chapter 1
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors
C. Agelet de Saracibar
ETS Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politcnica de Catalua (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE), Barcelona, Spain
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Contents
Contents
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Algebra of vectors
3. Algebra of tensors
4. Higher order tensors
5. Differential operators
6. Integral theorems
September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 2

Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Introduction
Introduction
Tensors
Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of
materials, either solids or fluids, which are independent of any
particular coordinate system in which they are observed.
Those physical properties are mathematically represented by

tensors.
Tensors are mathematical objects which have the required

property of being independent of any particular coordinate
system.

Introduction
Tensors
According to their tensorial order, tensors may be classified as:
Zero-order tensors: scalars, i.e. density, temperature, pressure
First-order tensors: vectors, i.e. velocity, acceleration, force
Second-order tensors, i.e. stress, strain, strain rate
Third-order tensors, i.e. piezoelectric tensor
Fourth-order tensors, i.e. elastic constitutive tensor,
elastoplastic constitutive tensor
First- and higher-order tensors may be expressed in terms of

their components in a given coordinate system.

Introduction
Notation on Printed Documents
Zero-order tensors: , a, A
First-order tensors: , a, A
Second-order tensors: , a, A
Third-order tensors: A
Fourth-order tensors: A
Notation on Hand-written Documents

Zero-order tensors: , a, A
First-order tensors: , a, A
Second-order tensors: , a, A

Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Vectors
Algebra of Vectors
Scalar
A physical quantity, completely described by a single real
number, such as the temperature, density or pressure, is called a
scalar and is designated by , a, A .
A scalar may be viewed as a zero-order tensor.
Vector
A vector is a directed line element in space. A model for physical
quantities having both direction and length, such as velocity,
acceleration or force, is called a vector and is designated by.
, a, A.
A vector may be viewed as a first-order tensor.

Algebra of Vectors
Sum of Vectors
The sum of vectors yields a new vector, based on the parallelo-
gram law of addition.
The sum of vectors has the following properties,
u+ v = v+u
(u + v ) + w = u + ( v + w )
u+0=u
u + ( u ) = 0
where 0 denotes the unique zero vector with unspecified
direction and zero length.

Algebra of Vectors
Scalar Multiplication
Let u be a vector and be a scalar. The scalar multiplication u
gives a new vector with the same direction as u if > 0 or with
the opposite direction to u if < 0.
The scalar multiplication has the following properties,
( ) u = ( u )
( + ) u = u + u
(u + v ) = u + v

Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of two vectors u and v,
denoted by u v, is a scalar given by,
u v = u v cos ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
where u is the norm (or length or magnitude) of the vector u,

which is a non-negative real number defined as,
12
u = (u u) 0
and ( u, v ) is the angle between the non-zero vectors u and v
when their origins coincide.

Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of vectors has the following
properties,
u v = v u
u0 = 0
u ( v + w ) = ( u v ) + ( u w )
u u > 0 u 0
u u = 0 u = 0
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 u v

Algebra of Vectors
Unit Vectors
A vector e is called a unit vector if its norm (or lenght or
magnitude) is equal to 1,
e =1
Orthogonal Vectors
A non-zero vector u is said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular)
to a non-zero vector v if,
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 ( u, v ) = 2 u v

Algebra of Vectors
Projection
The projection of a vector u along a direction given by a unit
vector e is a (positive or negative) scalar quantity defined as,
u e = u cos ( u, e ) , 0 ( u, e )
u
( u, e )
e
u cos ( u, e )

Algebra of Vectors
Cartesian Basis
Let us consider a three-dimensional Euclidean space with a fixed
set of three right-handed orthonormal basis vectors e1 , e 2 , e3 ,
denoted as Cartesian basis, satisfying the following properties,
x3 ,
e3
e1 e2 = e1 e3 = e2 e3 = 0
e1
O e2
x2 , e1 = e2 = e3 = 1
x1,
A fixed set of three unit vectors which are mutually orthogonal

form a so called orthonormal basis vectors, collectively denoted
as {ei }, and define an orthonormal system.

Algebra of Vectors
Cartesian Components
Any vector u in the three-dimensional Euclidean space is
represented uniquely by a linear combination of the basis
vectors e1 , e 2 , e3 , i.e.
u = u1e1 + u2e 2 + u3e3
where the three real numbers u1 , u2 , u3 are the uniquely
determined Cartesian components of vector u along the given
directions e1 , e 2 , e3 , respectively.
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of the vector u
can be collected into a vector of components [u ] 3 given by,
T
[u ] = [u1 u2 u3 ]

Algebra of Vectors
Index Notation
Using index notation the vector u can be written as,
u = i =1 ui ei
3
Leaving out the summation symbol, using the so called Einstein

notation, the vector u can be written in short form as,
u = ui ei
where we have adopted the summation convention introduced

by Einstein.

Algebra of Vectors
Index Notation
The index that is summed over is said to be a dummy (or
summation) index.
The same repeated index can appear only twice.
An index that is not summed over in a given term is called a
free (or live) index.
vi = ai b j c j = ai ( b1c1 + b2 c2 + b3c3 )
v = ai bi c j d j = ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 )( c1d1 + c2 d 2 + c3 d3 )
vi = ai b j c j ck d k = ai ( b1c1 + b2 c2 + b3c3 )( c1d1 + c2 d 2 + c3 d3 )

Algebra of Vectors
Kronecker Delta
The Kronecker delta ij is defined as,
1 if i = j
ij =
0 if i j
The Kronecker delta satisfies the following properties,
ii = 3, ij jk = ik , ij u j = ui
Note that the Kronecker delta plays the role of a replacement
operator.

Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
The dot (or scalar or inner) product of two orthonormal basis
vectors ei and e j , denoted as ei e j , is a scalar quantity (taking
values either 0 or 1) and can be conveniently written in terms of
the Kronecker delta as,
ei e j = ij

Algebra of Vectors
Components of a Vector
Taking the basis {ei }, the projection of a vector u onto the basis
vector ei yields the i-th component of u ,
u ei = ( u j e j ) ei = u j e j ei = u j ji = ui

Algebra of Vectors
Dot Product
Taking the basis {ei }, the dot (or scalar or inner) product of two
vectors u and v, denoted as u v , is a scalar quantity and using
index notation can be written as,
u v = ui ei v j e j = ui v j ei e j = ui v j ij = ui vi
= u1v1 + u2 v2 + u3v3

Algebra of Vectors
Euclidean Norm
Taking the basis {ei }, the Euclidean norm (or length or
magnitude) of a vector u, denoted as u , is a non-negative
scalar quantity and, using index notation, can be written as,
12 12
= ( ui ei u j e j ) = ( ui u j ij )
12 12
u = (u u ) = ( ui ui )
2 12
= (u + u + u
2
1
2
2 3 )

Assignment 1.1
Assignment 1.1 [Classwork]
Write in index form the following expressions,
v = (a b) c
v = a (b c)
v = ( a b )( c d )
v = a ( b c )( c d )

Assignment 1.1
Write in index form the following expressions,
v = ( a b ) c = a j b j ci ei = vi ei , vi = a j b j ci
v = a ( b c ) = ai b j c j ei = vi ei , vi = ai b j c j
v = ( a b )( c d ) = ai bi c j d j , v = ai bi c j d j
v = a ( b c )( c d ) = ai b j c j ck d k ei = vi ei , vi = ai b j c j ck d k

Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of two vectors u and v , denoted
as u v, is another vector which is perpendicular to the plane
defined by the two vectors and its norm (or length) is given by
the area of the parallelogram spanned by the two vectors,
u v = u v sin ( u, v ) e, 0 ( u, v )
where e is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane defined by
the two vectors, u e = 0, v e = 0, in the direction given by the
right-hand rule, .

Algebra of Vectors
Norm of the Cross Product of two Vectors
The norm (or magnitude or length) of the cross (or vector)
product of two vectors u and v, denoted as u v , measures
the area spanned by the two vectors and is given by,
u v = u v sin ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
u v
v
u v
u
Algebra of Vectors
Permutation Symbol
The permutation (or alternating or Levi-Civita) symbol ijk is
defined as,
+1 for even permutations of (i, j , k ), i.e. 123, 231, 312

ijk = 1 for odd permutations of (i, j , k ), i.e. 213, 132, 321
0 if there is repeated index


Algebra of Vectors
Permutation Symbol
The permutation (or alternating or Levi-Civita) symbol ijk may
be written in terms of the Kronecker delta and has the following
properties,
i1 i 2 i 3 ip iq ir

ijk = det j1 j 2 j 3 , ijk pqr = det jp jq jr
k 1 k 2 k 3 kp kq kr

ijp pqk = ip jq iq jp , ijk pjk = 2 ip , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6
ijk =
( i j )( j k )( k i )
2
Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of two right-handed orthonormal
basis vectors satisfies the following properties,
x3 ,
e1 e2 = e3 , e2 e3 = e1 , e3 e1 = e2 ,
e3
O e2
e2 e1 = e3 , e3 e2 = e1 , e1 e3 = e2 ,
x2 ,
e1
e1 e1 = e2 e2 = e3 e3 = 0.
x1,
Taking the right-handed orthonormal basis {ei }, the cross (or

vector) product of two basis vectors ei and e j , denoted as ei e j ,
can defined as,
ei e j = ijk e k

Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
Taking the basis {ei } , the cross (or vector) product of two
vectors u and v, denoted as u v , is another vector,
perpendicular to the plane defined by the two vectors, and can
be written in index form as,
u v = ui ei v j e j = ui v j ei e j = ui v j ijk e k = ijk ui v j e k
= ( u2 v3 u3v2 ) e1 + ( u3v1 u1v3 ) e 2 + ( u1v2 u2 v1 ) e3
e1 e 2 e3
= det u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

Algebra of Vectors
Cross Product
The cross (or vector) product of vectors has the following
properties,
u v = ( v u)
u v = 0, u 0, v 0 u || v
( u ) v = u ( v ) = ( u v )
u( v + w) = u v + u w

Assignment 1.2
Assignment 1.2
Using the expression,
2 2 2
u v = u v sin 2 ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
obtain the following relationships between the permutation
symbol and the Kronecker delta,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk , ipq jpq = 2 ij , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6

Assignment 1.2
Assignment 1.2
Using the expression,
2 2 2
u v = u v sin 2 ( u, v ) , 0 ( u, v )
obtain the following relationships between the permutation
symbol and the Kronecker delta,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk , ipq jpq = 2 ij , ijk ijk = 2 ii = 6
Using index notation, the left hand side takes the form,
u v = ( u v ) ( u v ) = ( ijk u j vk ) ( ilmul vm ) = u j vk ul vm ijk ilm
2

Assignment 1.2
Using index notation, the right hand side takes the form,
u
2 2
v sin ( u, v ) = u
2 2
v
2
(1 cos ( u, v ) ) =
2
u
2 2
v (u v )
2
= u j u j vk vk u j v j uk vk = u j vk ul vm ( jl km jm kl )
Comparing the two expressions we get,
ijp klp = ik jl il jk
Contracting index j with index l,
ijp kjp = ijp klp jl = ( ik jl il jk ) jl = 3 ik il lk = 2 ik
Contracting index i with index k,
ijp ijp = ijp kjp ik = 2 ik ik = 2 ii = 6
Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product of three right-handed
orthonormal basis vectors ei , e j , e k , denoted as ei ( e j e k ) , is a
scalar quantity (taking values either 1, -1 or 0) and can be
conveniently written in terms of the permutation symbol as,
ijk = ei ( e j e k ) = ( ei e j ) ek

Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei }, the box (or triple scalar)
product of three vectors u, v, w , denoted as u ( v w ), is a
scalar quantity and using index notation can be written as,
u ( v w ) = ui ei ( v j e j wk ek ) = ui v j wk ei ( e j ek )
= ijk ui v j wk
u1 u2 u3
= det v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3

Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product of three vectors u, v, w
represents the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the
three vectors forming a right-handed triad,
V = u ( v w)
vw
u
V = u ( v w)
w
v
Algebra of Vectors
Box Product
The box (or triple scalar) product has the following properties,
u ( v w ) = w (u v ) = v ( w u)
u ( v w ) = u ( w v )
u (u v ) = v (u v ) = 0

Algebra of Vectors
Triple Vector Product
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei } , the triple vector product of
three vectors u, v, w , denoted as u ( v w ) , is a vector and
using index notation can be written as,
u ( v w ) = ijk ui ( pqj v p wq ) ek
= kij pqj ui v p wq e k
= ( kp iq kq ip ) ui v p wq ek
= ui vk wi e k ui vi wk e k
= (u w ) v (u v ) w

Algebra of Vectors
Taking the orthonormal basis {ei } , the triple vector product of
three vectors u, v, w , denoted as ( u v ) w , is a vector and
using index notation can be written as,
( u v ) w = ijk ( pqiu p vq ) w j ek
= jki pqi u p vq w j e k
= ( jp kq jq kp ) u p vq w j e k
= u j w j vk ek v j w j uk e k
= (u w ) v ( v w ) u

Algebra of Vectors
The triple vector product has the following properties,
u ( v w ) = (u w ) v (u v ) w
(u v ) w = (u w ) v ( v w ) u
u ( v w ) (u v ) w

Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
Second-order Tensors
A second-order tensor A may be thought of as a linear operator
that acts on a vector u generating a vector v , defining a linear
transformation that assigns a vector v to a vector u,
v = Au
The second-order unit tensor, denoted as 1 , satisfies the

following identity,
u = 1u

Algebra of Tensors
As linear operators defining linear transformations, second-
order tensors have the following properties,
A ( u + v ) = Au + Av
( A ) u = ( Au )
( A B ) u = Au Bu

Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) of two vectors u and v , denoted
as u v , is a second-order tensor which linearly transforms a
vector w into a vector with the direction of u following the rule,
(u v ) w = u ( v w ) = ( v w ) u
A dyadic is a linear combination of dyads.

Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) has the following linear properties,
( u v )( w + x ) = ( u v ) w + ( u v ) x
( u + v ) w = u w + v w
(u v ) w = ( v w ) u = u ( v w )
( u v )( w x ) = ( v w ) u x = u x ( v w )
A ( u v ) = ( Au ) v
Generally, the tensor product (or dyad) is not commutative, i.e.
u v v u
( u v )( w x ) ( w x )( u v )
Algebra of Tensors
Tensor Product
The tensor product (or dyad) of two orthonormal basis vectors ei
and e j , denoted as ei e j , is a second-order tensor and can be
thought as a linear operator such that,
(e e ) e = (e
i j k j e k ) ei = jk ei

Algebra of Tensors
Any second-order tensor A may be represented by a linear
combination of dyads formed by the Cartesian basis {ei }
A = Aij ei e j
where the nine real numbers, represented by Aij , are the
uniquely determined Cartesian components of the tensor A
with respect to the dyads formed by the Cartesian basis {ei },
represented by ei e j , which constitute a basis second-order
tensor for A .
The second-order unit tensor may be written as,
1 = ij ei e j = ei ei

Algebra of Tensors
Cartesian Components
The ij-th Cartesian component of the second-order tensor A,
denoted as Aij , can be written as,
ei Ae j = ei ( Akl e k el ) e j = ei ( Akl lj e k )
= ei ( Akj e k ) = Akj ei e k = Akj ik = Aij
The ij-th Cartesian component of the second-order unit tensor 1

is the Kronecker delta,
ei 1e j = ei e j = ij

Algebra of Tensors
Matrix of Components
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of any second-
order tensor A may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of compo-
nents, denoted by [ A ] , given by,
A = Aij ei e j
A11 A12 A13

A A23
[ ] 21
A = A22
A31 A32 A33

Algebra of Tensors
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of the second-
order unit tensor 1 may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of
components, denoted as [1], given by,
1 0 0
[1] = 0 1 0
0 0 1

Algebra of Tensors
The tensor product (or dyad) of the vectors u and v, denoted as
u v , may be represented by a linear combination of dyads
formed by the Cartesian basis {ei }
u v = ui v j ei e j
where the nine real numbers, represented by ui v j , are the

uniquely determined Cartesian components of the tensor u v
with respect to the dyads formed by the Cartesian basis {ei },
represented by ei e j .

Algebra of Tensors
Using matrix notation, the Cartesian components of any second-
order tensor u v may be collected into a 3 x 3 matrix of
components, denoted as [u v ], given by,
u v = ui v j ei e j
u1v1 u1v2 u1v3

[u v ] = u2v1 u2v2 u2 v3
u3v1 u3v2 u3v3

Algebra of Tensors
Using index notation, the linear transformation v = Au can be
written as,
v = Au
vi ei = ( Aij ei e j ) ( uk e k ) = Aij uk ( ei e j ) e k = Aij uk jk ei
vi ei = Aij u j ei
yielding
v = Au, vi = Aij u j , [ v ] = [ A ][u ]

Algebra of Tensors
Positive Semi-definite Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be a positive semi-definite
tensor if the following relation holds for any non-zero vector u 0
u Au 0 u 0
Positive Definite Second-order Tensor

A second-order tensor A is said to be a positive-definite tensor
if the following relation holds for any non-zero vector u 0
u Au > 0 u 0

Algebra of Tensors
Transpose of a Second-order Tensor
The unique transpose of a second-order tensor A , denoted as AT ,
is governed by the identity,
v AT u = u Av u, v
vi AijT u j = vi Aji u j = u j Aji vi u j , vi
The Cartesian components of the transpose of a second-order
tensor A satisfy,
AijT := ( AT ) = ei AT e j = e j Aei = Aji
ij
Using index notation the transpose of A may be written as,

AT = Aji ei e j
Algebra of Tensors
Transpose of a Second-order Tensor
The matrix of components of the transpose of a second-order
tensor A is equal to the transpose of the matrix of components
of A and takes the form,
A = Aij ei e j
AT = Aji ei e j
A11 A21 A31

= A12 A32
T
A = [ A ]
T
A22
A13 A23 A33

Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be symmetric if the following
relation holds,
A = AT
Using index notation, the Cartesian components of a symmetric
second-order tensor A satisfy,
A = Aij ei e j = Aji ei e j = AT , Aij = Aji
Using matrix notation, the matrix of components of a symmetric
second-order tensor A satisfies,
T
[ A ] = A T
= [ A ]

Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The dot product of two second-order tensors A and B, denoted
as AB , is a second-order tensor such that,
( AB ) u = A ( Bu ) u

Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The components of the dot product AB along an orthonormal
basis {ei } read,
Cij = ( AB )ij = ei ( AB ) e j = ei A ( Be j )
= ei A ( Bkj ek ) = ei Aek Bkj
= Aik Bkj
C = AB, Cij = Aik Bkj

Algebra of Tensors
Dot Product
The dot product of second-order tensors has the following
properties,
( AB ) C = A ( BC) = ABC
A 2 = AA
AB BA

Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a dyad u v, denoted as tr ( u v ) , is a scalar
quantity given by,
tr ( u v ) = u v = ui vi
The trace of a second-order tensor A , denoted as tr A , is a scalar
quantity given by,
tr A = tr ( Aij ei e j ) = Aij tr ( ei e j )
= Aij ( ei e j ) = Aij ij
= Aii
= A11 + A22 + A33 = tr [ A ]
Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a second-order tensor A, denoted as tr A , is a scalar
quantity given by,
tr A = ei Aei = ei ( Akl e k el ) ei = ei ( Akl li e k )

= ei ( Aki e k ) = Aki ei e k = Aki ik
= Aii
= A11 + A22 + A33 = tr [ A ]

Algebra of Tensors
Trace
The trace of a second-order tensor has the following properties,
tr A = tr AT
tr ( AB ) = tr ( BA )
tr ( A + B ) = tr A + tr B
tr ( A ) = tr ( A )

Algebra of Tensors
Double Dot Product
The double dot product of two second-order tensors A and B ,
denoted as A : B , is a scalar quantity defined as,
A : B = tr ( AT B ) = tr ( BT A )
= tr ( ABT ) = tr ( BAT )
= B:A
or using index notation,
A : B = Aij Bij = Bij Aij = B : A

Algebra of Tensors
Double Dot Product
The double dot product has the following properties,
A : 1 = 1 : A = tr A
A:B = B:A
A : ( BC ) = ( BT A ) : C = ( ACT ) : B
A : ( u v ) = u Av = ( u v ) : A
( u v ) : ( w x ) = ( u w )( v x )
( ei e j ) : ( ek el ) = ( ei ek ) ( e j el ) = ik jl

Algebra of Tensors
Euclidean Norm
The euclidean norm of a second-order tensor A is a non-
negative scalar quantity, denoted as A , given by,
12
= ( Aij Aij )
12
A = ( A : A) 0

Algebra of Tensors
Determinant
The determinant of a second-order tensor A is a scalar quantity,
denoted as det A , given by,
det A = det [ A ]
A11 A13
A12
= det A21 A22 A23
A31 A32 A33
1
= ijk A1i A2 j A3k = ijk pqr Api Aqj Ark
6

Algebra of Tensors
Determinant
The determinant of a second-order tensor has the following
properties,
det AT = det A
det ( A ) = 3 det A
det ( AB ) = det A det B

Algebra of Tensors
Singular Tensors
A second-order tensor A is said to be singular if and only if its
determinant is equal to zero, i.e.
A is singular det A = 0

Algebra of Tensors
Inverse of a Second-order Tensor
For a non-singular second-order tensor A , i.e. det A 0, there
exist a unique non-singular inverse second-order tensor,
denoted as A 1 , satisfying,
( ) ( A ) u = 1u = u u
AA 1
u = A 1
yielding,
AA 1 = A 1A = 1, Aik Akj1 = Aik1 Akj = ij

Algebra of Tensors
Inverse of a Second-order Tensor
The inverse second-order tensor satisfies the following
properties,
1 1
(A ) =A
1 1 T
(A ) T
= (A ) = A T
1
( )
A = 1 1
A
1
( AB ) = B 1A 1
A 2 = A 1A 1
1
det A = ( det A )
1

Algebra of Tensors
Orthogonal Second Order Tensor
An orthogonal second-order tensor Q is a linear operator that
preserves the norms and the angles between two vectors,
12
Qu = ( u Q Qu )
12
T
= (u u) = u u
Qu Qv = u QT Qv = u v
T u, v
Qv Qu = v Q Qu = v u
and the following relations hold,
QT Q = QQT = 1, Q 1 = QT , det Q = 1

Algebra of Tensors
Rotation Second Order Tensor
A rotation tensor R is a proper orthogonal second-order tensor,
i.e., is a linear operator that preserves the lengths (norms) and
the angles between two vectors,
12
Ru = ( u R Ru )
12
T
= (u u) = u u
Ru Rv = u RT Rv = u v
T u, v
Rv Ru = v R Ru = v u
and satisfies the following expressions,
RT R = RRT = 1, R 1 = RT , det R = 1

Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric/Skew-symmetric Additive Split
A second-order tensor A can be uniquely additively split into a
symmetric second-order tensor S and a skew-symmetric
second-order tensor W, such that,
A = S + W, Aij = Sij + Wij

1 1
S=
2
( A+A )=ST T
, Sij =
2
( A
ij + Aji ) = S ji
1 1
W=
2
( A A ) = W
T T
, Wij =
2
( A
ij Aji ) = W ji

Algebra of Tensors
Symmetric/Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensors
The matrices of components of a symmetric second-order
tensor S and a skew-symmetric second-order tensor W, are
given by,
S11 S12 S13 0 W12 W13

S S23 , W W23
[ ] 12
S = S22 [ ] 12
W = 0
S13 S23 S33 W13 W23 0

Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensors
The double dot product of a symmetric second-order tensor S
and a skew-symmetric second-order tensor W gives,
S : W = SijWij
= S12W12 + S13W13 + S23W23 S12W12 S13W13 S23W23
=0

Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensor
A skew-symmetric second-order tensor W can be defined by
means of an axial (or dual) vector , such that,
Wu = u u
W = 2
and using index notation the following relations hold,
W = Wij ei e j = ijk k ei e j , Wij = ijk k
1 1
= k ek = ijkWij ek , k = ijkWij
2 2

Algebra of Tensors
Skew-symmetric Second-order Tensor
Using matrix notation and index notation the following relations
hold,
0 W12 W13 0 3 2
[ W] = W12 0 W23 = 3 0 1
W13 W23 0 2 1 0
T T
[ ] = [1 , 2 , 3 ] = [ W23 , W13 , W12 ]
W = 2 (W122 + W132 + W232 ) = 2 12 + 32 + 32 = 2

Algebra of Tensors
Spherical Second-order Tensor
A spherical second-order tensor A is defined as,
A = 1, Aij = ij
and has the following properties,
tr A = tr 1 = 3 , Aii = ii = 3
0 0
0 0
[ ]
A =
0 0

Algebra of Tensors
Deviatoric Second-order Tensor
A second-order tensor A is said to be deviatoric if the following
condition holds,
tr A = 0, Aii = 0

Algebra of Tensors
Spherical/Deviatoric Additive Split
A second-order tensor A can be uniquely additively split into a
spherical second-order tensor Aesf and a deviatoric second-
order tensor dev A, such that,
A = A esf + dev A, Aij = Aijesf + ( dev A)ij

1 1
A esf
= ( tr A ) 1, A esf
ij = Akk ij
3 3
1 1
dev A = A ( tr A ) 1, ( dev A)ij = Aij Akk ij
3 3

Algebra of Tensors
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors
Given a symmetric second-order tensor A , its eigenvalues
i and associated eigenvectors ni, which define an
orthonormal basis along the principal directions, satisfy the
following equation (Einstein notation does not apply here),
Ani = i ni , ( A i 1) ni = 0
In order to get a non-trivial solution, the tensor A i 1 has to
be singular, i.e., its determinant, defining the characteristic
polynomial, has to be equal to zero, yielding,
p ( i ) = det ( A i 1) = 0

Algebra of Tensors
Given a symmetric second-order tensor A , its eigenvalues
i and associated eigenvectors ni, which define an
orthonormal basis along the principal directions, characterize
the physical nature of the tensor.
The eigenvalues do not depend on the particular orthonormal

basis chosen to define the components of the tensor and,
therefore, the solution of the characteristic polynomial does not
depend on the system of reference in which the components of
the tensor are given.

Algebra of Tensors
Characteristic Polynomial and Principal Invariants
The characteristic polynomial of a second-order tensor A takes
the form,
p ( ) = det ( A 1) = 3 + I1 2 I 2 + I 3 = 0
where the coefficients of the polynomial are the principal scalar
invariants of the tensor (invariants in front of an arbitrary
rotation of the orthonormal basis) given by,
I1 ( A ) = tr A = 1 + 2 + 3
1
I2 ( A) =
2
( tr 2
A tr A 2
) = 12 + 23 + 31
I 3 ( A ) = det A = 123
Algebra of Tensors
Given a deviatoric part of a symmetric second-order tensor
dev A , its eigenvalues i and asociated eigenvectors ni ,
which define an orthonormal basis along the principal directions,
satisfy the following equation (Einstein notation does not apply
here),
dev Ani = ini , ( dev A i1) ni = 0
In order to get a non-trivial solution, the tensor dev A i1 has
to be singular, i.e., its determinant, defining the characteristic
polynomial, has to be equal to zero, yielding,
p ( i) = det ( dev A i1) = 0

Algebra of Tensors
Characteristic Polynomial and Principal Invariants
The characteristic polynomial of the deviatoric part of a second-
order tensor dev A takes the form,
p ( ) = det ( dev A 1) = 3 + I1 2 I 2 + I 3 = 0
where the coefficients of the polynomial are the pincipal scalar
invariants of the deviatoric part of the tensor (invariants in front
of an arbitrary rotation of the orthonormal basis) given by,
I1 ( dev A ) = tr dev A = 0
1 2 1
I 2 ( dev A ) = tr ( dev A ) = ( 11 + 22 + 33 )
2 2
I 3 ( dev A ) = det dev A = 123
Algebra of Tensors
The eigenvalues/eigenvectors problem for a symmetric second-
order tensor A and its the deviatoric part dev A satisfy the
following relations (Einstein notation does not apply here),
Ani = i ni , ( A i 1) ni = 0
dev Ani = ini , ( dev A i1) ni = 0
Then,
1
( dev A i1) ni = A i + ( tr A ) 1 ni = ( A i 1) ni = 0
3
yielding,
1
i = i + ( tr A ) , ni = ni
3
Algebra of Tensors
Spectral Decomposition
The spectral decomposition of the secod-order unit tensor takes
the form,
For a second-order unit tensor, all three eigenvalues are equal to
one, 1 = 2 = 3 = 1, and any direction is a principal direction.
Then we may take any orthonormal basis as principal directions
and the spectral decomposition can be written,
1 = i=1,3 ni ni = ni ni

Algebra of Tensors
Spectral Decomposition
The spectral decomposition of a symmetric second-order tensor A
takes the form (Einstein notation does not apply here),
A = i =1,3 i ni ni
If there are two equal eigenvalues = 1 = 2 , the spectral
decomposition takes the form,
A = (1 n3 n3 ) + 3n3 n3
If the three eigenvalues are equal = 1 = 2 = 3 , the spectral
decomposition takes the form,
A = 1 = i =1,3 ni ni = ni ni
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Higher-order Tensors
Third-order Tensors
Third-order Tensors
A third-order tensor, denoted as A , may be written as a linear
combination of tensor products of three orthonormal basis
vectors, denoted as ei e j e k , such that,
A = i =1 j =1 k =1 Aijk ei e j e k = Aijk ei e j e k
3 3 3
A third-order tensor has 33 = 27 components.

Fourth-order Tensors
A fourth-order tensor, denoted as C , may be written as a linear
combination of tensor products of four orthonormal basis
vectors, denoted as ei e j e k el , such that,
C = i =1 j =1 k =1 l =1C ijkl ei e j e k el = C ijkl ei e j e k el

3 3 3 3
A fourth-order tensor has 34 = 81 components.

Double Dot Product with Second-order Tensors
The double dot product of a fourth-order tensor C with a
second-order tensor A is another second-order tensor B given
by,
B = C : A = C ijkl Akl ei e j = Bij ei e j , Bij = C ijkl Akl

Transpose of a Fourth-order Tensor
The transpose of a fourth-order tensor C is uniquely defined as
a fourth-order tensor CT such that for arbitrary second-order
tensors A and B the following relationship holds,
A : C : B = B : CT : A, AijC ijkl Bkl = BklC Tklij Aij , C Tijkl = C klij
The transpose of the transpose of a fourth-order tensor C is

the same fourth-order tensor C ,
T T
(C ) =C

Tensor Product of two Second-order Tensors
The tensor product of two second-order tensors A and B is a
fourth order tensor C given by,
C = A B = Aij Bkl ei e j e k el = C ijkl ei e j e k el ,
C ijkl = ( A B )ijkl = Aij Bkl
The transpose of the fourth-order tensor C = A B is given by,

T
C = ( A B ) = B A = Bij Akl ei e j ek el
T
T
= C ijkl ei e j e k el ,
T
T
C
ijkl = ( A B )ijkl = ( B A )ijkl = Bij Akl
Fourth-order Identity Tensors
Let us consider the following fourth-order identity tensors,
I = ik jl ei e j ek el
I = il jk ei e j ek el
I = 1 ( I + I ) = 1 ( + ) e e e e
ik jl il jk i j k l
2 2

The fourth-order identity tensor I satisfies the following
expressions,
I : A = ik jl Akl ei e j = Aij ei e j = A,
A : I = Aij ik jl ek el = Akl ek el = A
The fourth-order identity tensor I is symmetric, satisfying,

A : I : B = A : B = B : A = B : I : A
T I = I T
A:I:B = B:I :A

expressions,
I : A = il jk Akl ei e j = Aji ei e j = AT
A : I = Aij il jk Akl ek el = Alk ek el = AT

A : I : B = A : BT = B : AT = B : I : A
T I = I T
A: I :B = B: I :A

expressions,
I : A = 1 ( I + I ) : A = 1 ( A + AT )
2 2
1 1
A : I = A : ( I + I ) = ( A + AT )

2 2
1 1
A : I : B = A : ( B + B ) = B : ( A + AT ) = B : I : A
T
2 2
I =
I T
A : I : B = B : I T : A

Fourth-order Deviatoric Projection Operator Tensor
The fourth-order deviatoric projection operator tensor Pdev is
defined as,
1 1
Pdev = I 1 1,
3
(P ) dev ijkl = ik jl ij kl
3
The deviatoric part of a second-order tensor A can be obtained
as,
1 1
dev A = Pdev : A = I 1 1 : A = A ( tr A ) 1,
3 3
1 1
( dev A )ij = ( Pdev )ijkl Akl = ik jl ij kl Akl = Aij ( Akk ) ij
3 3
Algebra of Tensors
Algebra of Tensors
a = u v = ui vi , a = ui vi
w = u v = ijk u j vk ei , wi = ijk u j vk
a = u ( v w ) = ijk ui v j wk , a = ijk ui v j wk
A = u v = ui v j ei e j , Aij = ui v j
v = Au = Aij u j ei , vi = Aij u j
C = AB = Aik Bkj ei e j , Cij = Aik Bkj
a = A : B = Aij Bij , a = Aij Bij
B = C : A = C ijkl Akl ei e j , Bij = C ijkl Akl
C = A B = Aij Bkl ei e j ek el , C ijkl = Aij Bkl
Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Differential Operators
Differential Operators
Nabla
The nabla vector differential operator, denoted as , is defined
as,

= ei
xi
Laplacian
The laplacian scalar differential operator, denoted as , is
defined as,
2
= 2
xi

Hessian
The hessian symmetric second-order tensor differential
operator, denoted as , is defined as,
2
= ei e j
xi x j

Divergence, Curl and Gradient
The divergence differential operator div () is defined as,
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl differential operator curl () is defined as,
( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The gradient differential operator grad () is defined as,
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
Laplacian
The laplacian scalar differential operator can be expressed as the
div (grad ()) operator,
2
( i ) = ( i ) = 2 ( i ) = div grad ( i )
xi
Hessian
The hessian symmetric second order-tensor differential operator
can be expressed as the grad (grad ()) operator,
2 (i)
( i) = ei e j = grad grad ( i )
xi x j
Gradient of a Scalar Field
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field defined as,

grad = = ei = ,i ei
xi

Laplacian of a Scalar Field
The laplacian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 ( i)
( i ) = div grad ( i ) = ( i ) =
xi2
The laplacian of a scalar field is a scalar field defined as,
2
= div grad = = 2 = ,ii
xi

Hessian of a Scalar Field
The hessian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 (i)
(i) = ei e j
xi x j
The hessian of a scalar field is a symmetric second-order tensor
field defined as,
2
= ei e j = ,ij ei e j
xi x j

Gradient of a Vector Field
(i) ( i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a vector field is a second-order tensor field
defined as,
u ui
grad u = u = ej = ei e j = ui , j ei e j
x j x j

Curl of a Vector Field
( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
u uk uk
curl u = u = e j = ej ek = ijk ei = ijk uk , j ei
x j x j x j
If the curl of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said to be
curl-free and there is a scalar field such that,
curl u = 0 | u = grad
Curl of the Gradient of a Scalar Field
The curl differential operator curl () and gradient differential
operator grad () are defined, respectively, as,
( i) ( i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei , grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field defined as,

grad = = ei = ,i ei
xi
The curl of the gradient of a vector field is a null vector,
curl grad = = ijk,kj ei = 0
Divergence of a Vector Field
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field defined as,
u ui ui ui
div u = u = e j = ei e j = ij = = ui ,i
x j x j x j xi
If the divergence of a vector field is zero, the vector field is said
to be solenoidal or div-free and there is a vector field such that,
div u = 0 v | u = curl v
Divergence of the Curl of a Vector Field
The divergence differential operator div () and curl differential
operator curl () are defined, respectively, as,
(i) (i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei , curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The curl of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
u uk uk
curl u = u = e j = ej ek = ijk ei = ijk uk , j ei
x j x j x j
The divergence of a curl of a vector field is a null scalar,
div curl u = ( u ) = ijk uk , ji = 0

Laplacian of a Vector Field
The laplacian differential operator ( i ) is defined as,
2 ( i)
( i ) = ( i ) =
xi2
The laplacian of a vector field is a vector field defined as,
2ui
u = u = 2 ei = ui , jj ei
x j

Divergence of a Second Order Tensor Field
(i)
div ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The divergence of a second-order tensor field is a vector field
defined as,
div A = A
A Aik Aik
= e j = ei e k e j = kj ei
x j x j x j
Aij
= ei = Aij , j ei
x j
Curl of a Second-order Tensor Field
(i)
curl ( i ) = ( i ) = ei
xi
The curl of a second-order tensor field is a second-order tensor
field defined as,
curl A = A
A Akj
= el = el ek e j
xl xl
Akj
= lki ei e j = lki Akj ,l ei e j
xl
Gradient of a Second-order Tensor Field
(i) (i)
grad ( i ) = ( i ) = ei = ( i ) = ei
xi xi
The gradient of a second-order tensor field is a third-order
tensor field defined as,
grad A = A
A
= ek
xk
Aij
= ei e j ek = Aij ,k ei e j ek
xk
grad = = ,i ei , = = ,ii , = ,ij ei e j
div u = u = ui ,i
grad u = u = ui , j ei e j ,
curl u = u = ijk uk , j ei
u = u = ui , jj ei
div A = A = Aij , j ei
grad A = A = Aij ,k ei e j e k
curl A = A = lki Akj ,l ei e j

Assignments
Assignment 1.3
Establish the following identities involving a smooth scalar field
and a smooth vector field v,
(1) div ( v ) = div v + v grad
(2) grad ( v ) = v grad + grad v

Assignments
Assignment 1.3
Establish the following identities involving a smooth scalar field
and a smooth vector field v,

div ( v ) = ( vi ),i = vi ,i + vi,i = div v + v grad

( grad ( v ) ) = ( v )
ij i ,j = vi, j + vi , j = ( v grad )ij + ( grad v )ij
Assignments
Establish the following identities involving the smooth scalar
fields and , smooth vector fields u and v , and a smooth
second order tensor field A,
(1) div ( A ) = div A + A grad
(2) div ( AT v ) = ( div A ) v + A : grad v
(3) div ( u v ) = v curl u u curl v
(4) div ( u v ) = ( grad u ) v + u div v
(5) grad ( ) = ( grad ) + ( grad )

Assignments
fields and , smooth vector fields u and v , and a smooth
second order tensor field A,
(1) div ( A ) = div A + A grad
( div ( A ) ) = ( A )
i ij , j = Aij , j + Aij, j = ( div A )i + ( A grad )i
(2) div ( AT v ) = ( div A ) v + A : grad v

div ( AT v ) = ( ATji vi ) = ( Aij vi ) = Aij , j vi + Aij vi , j
,j ,j
= ( div A ) v + A : grad v
Assignments
(3) div ( u v ) = v curl u u curl v
div ( u v ) = ijk ( u j vk ) = ijk u j ,i vk + ijk u j vk ,i
,i
= vk kij u j ,i u j jik vk ,i = v curl u u curl v
(4) div ( u v ) = ( grad u ) v + u div v

( div ( u v ) ) = ( u v )
i i j ,j = ui , j v j + ui v j , j = ( ( grad u ) v )i + ui div v
(5) grad ( ) = ( grad ) + ( grad )
( grad ( ) ) = ( )
i ,i
= ,i + ,i = ( grad )i + ( grad )i

Assignments
Assignment 1.5 [Homework]
field , and smooth vector fields u and v,
(
(1) grad ( u v ) = gradT u v + gradT v u ) ( )
(2) curl ( v ) = grad v + curl v
(3) curl ( u v ) = u div v v div u + ( grad u ) v ( grad v ) u
(4) v = grad ( div v ) curl ( curl v )
(5) ( u v ) = ( u ) v + 2 grad u : grad v + u v

Assignments
Assignment 1.5 [Homework]
field , and smooth vector fields u and v,
(1) grad ( u v ) = ( gradT u ) v + ( gradT v ) u
grad ( u v )i = ( u j v j ) = u j ,i v j + u j v j ,i
,i
= ( grad u ) ji v j + ( grad v ) ji u j
= ( gradT u ) v j + ( gradT v ) u j
ij ij
(
= ( gradT u ) v + ( gradT v ) u ) i

Assignments
(2) curl ( v ) = grad v + curl v
( curl ( v ) ) i
= ijk ( vk ), j = ijk, j vk + ijk vk , j
= ( grad v + curl v )i
(3) curl ( u v ) = u div v v div u + ( grad u ) v ( grad v ) u
( curl ( u v ) ) i
= ijk ( u v )k , j = ijk ( klmul vm ), j
= ijk klmul , j vm + ijk klmul vm, j
= ( il jm im jl ) ul , j vm + ( il jm im jl ) ul vm, j
= ui , j v j u j , j vi + ui v j , j u j vi , j
= ( ( grad u ) v )i vi div u + ui div v ( ( grad v ) u )i
Assignments
(4) v = grad ( div v ) curl ( curl v )
( v )i = vi = vi , jj , ( grad ( div v ) )i = v j , ji
( curl ( curl v ) )i = ijk ( curl v )k , j = ijk ( klmvm,l ), j = ijk klmvm,lj
= ( il jm im jl ) vm,lj = v j ,ij vi , jj = v j , ji vi , jj
(5) ( u v ) = ( u ) v + 2 grad u : grad v + u v

( u v ) = ( ui vi ) = ( ui vi ), jj = ( ui , j vi ) + ( ui vi , j )
,j ,j
= ui , jj vi + 2ui , j vi , j + ui vi , jj
= ( u ) v + 2 grad u : grad v + u v
Assignments
Given the vector v = v ( x ) = x1 x2 x3e1 + x1 x2e2 + x1e3 determine
div v, curl v, grad v, v.

Assignments
div v = vi ,i = v1,1 + v2,2 + v3,3 = x2 x3 + x1
e1 e2 e3
curl v = det 1 2 3
v1 v2 v3
= ( v3,2 v2,3 ) e1 + ( v1,3 v3,1 ) e2 + ( v2,1 v1,2 ) e3
= ( x1 x2 1) e2 + ( x2 x1 x3 ) e3

Assignments
grad v = vi , j ei e j
v1,1 v1,2 v1,3 x2 x3 x1 x3 x1 x2

[grad v ] = v2,1 v2,2 v2,3 = x2 x1 0
v3,1 v3,2 v3,3 1 0 0
v = vi ei = vi , jj ei = 0

Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Integral Theorems
Integral Theorems
Divergence or Gauss Theorem
Given a vector field u in a volume V with closed boundary
surface V and outward unit normal to the boundary n, the
divergence (or Gauss) theorem reads,

V
div u dV = u dV = u n dS
V V
Given a second-order tensor field A in a volume V with closed

boundary surface V and outward unit normal to the boundary n
the divergence (or Gauss) theorem reads,

V
div A dV = A dV = An dS
V V

Introduction to Vectors and Tensors > Integral Theorems
Integral Theorems
Curl or Stokes Theorem
Given a vector field u in a surface S with closed boundary S
and outward unit normal to the surface n , the curl (or Stokes)
theorem reads,
( curl u ) n dS = ( u ) n dS =
S S S
u dr
where the curve of the line integral must have positive
orientation, such that dr points counter-clockwise when the unit
normal points to the viewer, following the right-hand rule.

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1 Vectors and Tensors

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Continuum Mechanics

September 27, 2013 Carlos Agelet de Saracibar 2

Those physical properties are mathematically represented by

Tensors are mathematical objects which have the required

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First- and higher-order tensors may be expressed in terms of

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Notation on Hand-written Documents

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where u is the norm (or length or magnitude) of the vector u,

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A fixed set of three unit vectors which are mutually orthogonal

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Leaving out the summation symbol, using the so called Einstein

where we have adopted the summation convention introduced

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Taking the right-handed orthonormal basis {ei }, the cross (or

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The second-order unit tensor, denoted as 1 , satisfies the

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The ij-th Cartesian component of the second-order unit tensor 1

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A11 A12 A13

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where the nine real numbers, represented by ui v j , are the

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u1v1 u1v2 u1v3

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Positive Definite Second-order Tensor

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Using index notation the transpose of A may be written as,