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Title:ThePrince

Author:NicoloMachiavelli

Translator:W.K.Marriott

ReleaseDate:February11,2006[EBook#1232]
Lastupdated:August26,2016

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKTHEPRINCE***

ProducedbyJohnBickers,DavidWidgerandOthers

THEPRINCE

byNicoloMachiavelli

TranslatedbyW.K.Marriott

NicoloMachiavelli,bornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.
From1494to1512
heldanofficialpostatFlorencewhichincluded
diplomaticmissionsto
variousEuropeancourts.ImprisonedinFlorence,1512;
laterexiledand
returnedtoSanCasciano.DiedatFlorenceon22ndJune
1527.

INTRODUCTION

NicoloMachiavelliwasbornatFlorenceon3rdMay1469.
Hewasthe
secondsonofBernardodiNicoloMachiavelli,alawyerof
somerepute,
andofBartolommeadiStefanoNelli,hiswife.Both
parentsweremembers
oftheoldFlorentinenobility.

Hislifefallsnaturallyintothreeperiods,eachof
whichsingularly
enoughconstitutesadistinctandimportanterainthe
historyof
Florence.Hisyouthwasconcurrentwiththegreatnessof
Florenceasan
ItalianpowerundertheguidanceofLorenzode'Medici,
IlMagnifico.
ThedownfalloftheMediciinFlorenceoccurredin1494,
inwhichyear
Machiavellienteredthepublicservice.Duringhis
officialcareer
FlorencewasfreeunderthegovernmentofaRepublic,
whichlasted
until1512,whentheMedicireturnedtopower,and
Machiavellilosthis
office.TheMediciagainruledFlorencefrom1512until
1527,whenthey
wereoncemoredrivenout.Thiswastheperiodof
Machiavelli'sliterary
activityandincreasinginfluence;buthedied,withina
fewweeksof
theexpulsionoftheMedici,on22ndJune1527,inhis
fiftyeighth
year,withouthavingregainedoffice.

YOUTHAet.125146994

Althoughthereislittlerecordedoftheyouthof
Machiavelli,the
Florenceofthosedaysissowellknownthattheearly
environmentof
thisrepresentativecitizenmaybeeasilyimagined.
Florencehasbeen
describedasacitywithtwooppositecurrentsoflife,
onedirectedby
theferventandaustereSavonarola,theotherbythe
splendourloving
Lorenzo.Savonarola'sinfluenceupontheyoung
Machiavellimusthave
beenslight,foralthoughatonetimehewieldedimmense
poweroverthe
fortunesofFlorence,heonlyfurnishedMachiavelliwith
asubjectof
agibein"ThePrince,"whereheiscitedasanexample
ofanunarmed
prophetwhocametoabadend.Whereasthemagnificence
oftheMedicean
ruleduringthelifeofLorenzoappearedtohave
impressedMachiavelli
strongly,forhefrequentlyrecurstoitinhiswritings,
anditisto
Lorenzo'sgrandsonthathededicates"ThePrince."

Machiavelli,inhis"HistoryofFlorence,"givesusa
pictureofthe
youngmenamongwhomhisyouthwaspassed.Hewrites:
"Theywerefreer
thantheirforefathersindressandliving,andspent
moreinother
kindsofexcesses,consumingtheirtimeandmoneyin
idleness,gaming,
andwomen;theirchiefaimwastoappearwelldressedand
tospeakwith
witandacuteness,whilsthewhocouldwoundothersthe
mostcleverly
wasthoughtthewisest."InalettertohissonGuido,
Machiavellishows
whyyouthshouldavailitselfofitsopportunitiesfor
study,andleads
ustoinferthathisownyouthhadbeensooccupied.He
writes:"I
havereceivedyourletter,whichhasgivenmethe
greatestpleasure,
especiallybecauseyoutellmeyouarequiterestoredin
health,than
whichIcouldhavenobetternews;forifGodgrantlife
toyou,and
tome,Ihopetomakeagoodmanofyouifyouare
willingtodoyour
share."Then,writingofanewpatron,hecontinues:
"Thiswillturn
outwellforyou,butitisnecessaryforyoutostudy;
since,then,you
havenolongertheexcuseofillness,takepainstostudy
lettersand
music,foryouseewhathonourisdonetomeforthe
littleskillI
have.Therefore,myson,ifyouwishtopleaseme,andto
bringsuccess
andhonourtoyourself,dorightandstudy,because
otherswillhelpyou
ifyouhelpyourself."

OFFICEAet.254314941512

ThesecondperiodofMachiavelli'slifewasspentinthe
serviceofthe
freeRepublicofFlorence,whichflourished,asstated
above,from
theexpulsionoftheMediciin1494untiltheirreturnin
1512.After
servingfouryearsinoneofthepublicofficeshewas
appointed
ChancellorandSecretarytotheSecondChancery,theTen
ofLiberty
andPeace.Hereweareonfirmgroundwhendealingwith
theeventsof
Machiavelli'slife,forduringthistimehetooka
leadingpartin
theaffairsoftheRepublic,andwehaveitsdecrees,
records,
anddispatchestoguideus,aswellashisownwritings.
Amere
recapitulationofafewofhistransactionswiththe
statesmenand
soldiersofhistimegivesafairindicationofhis
activities,and
suppliesthesourcesfromwhichhedrewtheexperiences
andcharacters
whichillustrate"ThePrince."

Hisfirstmissionwasin1499toCatherinaSforza,"my
ladyofForli"of
"ThePrince,"fromwhoseconductandfatehedrewthe
moralthatit
isfarbettertoearntheconfidenceofthepeoplethan
torelyon
fortresses.Thisisaverynoticeableprinciplein
Machiavelli,andis
urgedbyhiminmanywaysasamatterofvitalimportance
toprinces.

In1500hewassenttoFrancetoobtaintermsfromLouis
XIIfor
continuingthewaragainstPisa:thiskingitwaswho,in
hisconduct
ofaffairsinItaly,committedthefivecapitalerrorsin
statecraft
summarizedin"ThePrince,"andwasconsequentlydriven
out.He,also,
itwaswhomadethedissolutionofhismarriagea
conditionofsupport
toPopeAlexanderVI;whichleadsMachiavellitorefer
thosewhourge
thatsuchpromisesshouldbekepttowhathehaswritten
concerningthe
faithofprinces.

Machiavelli'spubliclifewaslargelyoccupiedwith
eventsarisingout
oftheambitionsofPopeAlexanderVIandhisson,Cesare
Borgia,the
DukeValentino,andthesecharactersfillalargespace
of"ThePrince."
Machiavellineverhesitatestocitetheactionsofthe
dukeforthe
benefitofusurperswhowishtokeepthestatestheyhave
seized;he
can,indeed,findnopreceptstooffersogoodasthe
patternofCesare
Borgia'sconduct,insomuchthatCesareisacclaimedby
somecriticsas
the"hero"of"ThePrince."Yetin"ThePrince"theduke
isinpointof
factcitedasatypeofthemanwhorisesonthefortune
ofothers,and
fallswiththem;whotakeseverycoursethatmightbe
expectedfroma
prudentmanbutthecoursewhichwillsavehim;whois
preparedforall
eventualitiesbuttheonewhichhappens;andwho,when
allhisabilities
failtocarryhimthrough,exclaimsthatitwasnothis
fault,butan
extraordinaryandunforeseenfatality.

OnthedeathofPiusIII,in1503,Machiavelliwassent
toRometowatch
theelectionofhissuccessor,andtherehesawCesare
Borgiacheated
intoallowingthechoiceoftheCollegetofallon
GiulianodelleRovere
(JuliusII),whowasoneofthecardinalsthathadmost
reasontofear
theduke.Machiavelli,whencommentingonthiselection,
saysthat
hewhothinksnewfavourswillcausegreatpersonagesto
forgetold
injuriesdeceiveshimself.Juliusdidnotrestuntilhe
hadruined
Cesare.

ItwastoJuliusIIthatMachiavelliwassentin1506,
whenthatpontiff
wascommencinghisenterpriseagainstBologna;whichhe
broughttoa
successfulissue,ashedidmanyofhisotheradventures,
owingchiefly
tohisimpetuouscharacter.ItisinreferencetoPope
Juliusthat
MachiavellimoralizesontheresemblancebetweenFortune
andwomen,and
concludesthatitistheboldratherthanthecautious
manthatwillwin
andholdthemboth.

Itisimpossibletofollowherethevaryingfortunesof
theItalian
states,whichin1507werecontrolledbyFrance,Spain,
andGermany,
withresultsthathavelastedtoourday;weare
concernedwiththose
events,andwiththethreegreatactorsinthem,sofar
onlyasthey
impingeonthepersonalityofMachiavelli.Hehadseveral
meetingswith
LouisXIIofFrance,andhisestimateofthatmonarch's
characterhas
alreadybeenalludedto.Machiavellihaspainted
FerdinandofAragonas
themanwhoaccomplishedgreatthingsunderthecloakof
religion,but
whoinrealityhadnomercy,faith,humanity,or
integrity;andwho,
hadheallowedhimselftobeinfluencedbysuchmotives,
wouldhavebeen
ruined.TheEmperorMaximilianwasoneofthemost
interestingmen
oftheage,andhischaracterhasbeendrawnbymany
hands;but
Machiavelli,whowasanenvoyathiscourtin15078,
revealsthesecret
ofhismanyfailureswhenhedescribeshimasasecretive
man,without
forceofcharacterignoringthehumanagenciesnecessary
tocarry
hisschemesintoeffect,andneverinsistingonthe
fulfilmentofhis
wishes.

TheremainingyearsofMachiavelli'sofficialcareerwere
filledwith
eventsarisingoutoftheLeagueofCambrai,madein1508
betweenthe
threegreatEuropeanpowersalreadymentionedandthe
pope,withthe
objectofcrushingtheVenetianRepublic.Thisresultwas
attainedin
thebattleofVaila,whenVenicelostinonedayallthat
shehadwonin
eighthundredyears.Florencehadadifficultpartto
playduringthese
events,complicatedastheywerebythefeudwhichbroke
outbetween
thepopeandtheFrench,becausefriendshipwithFrance
haddictatedthe
entirepolicyoftheRepublic.When,in1511,JuliusII
finallyformed
theHolyLeagueagainstFrance,andwiththeassistance
oftheSwiss
drovetheFrenchoutofItaly,Florencelayatthemercy
ofthePope,
andhadtosubmittohisterms,oneofwhichwasthatthe
Medicishould
berestored.ThereturnoftheMedicitoFlorenceon1st
September
1512,andtheconsequentfalloftheRepublic,wasthe
signalforthe
dismissalofMachiavelliandhisfriends,andthusputan
endtohis
publiccareer,for,aswehaveseen,hediedwithout
regainingoffice.

LITERATUREANDDEATHAet.4358151227

OnthereturnoftheMedici,Machiavelli,whoforafew
weekshad
vainlyhopedtoretainhisofficeunderthenewmasters
ofFlorence,was
dismissedbydecreedated7thNovember1512.Shortly
afterthishewas
accusedofcomplicityinanabortiveconspiracyagainst
theMedici,
imprisoned,andputtothequestionbytorture.Thenew
Mediceanpope,
LeoX,procuredhisrelease,andheretiredtohissmall
propertyatSan
Casciano,nearFlorence,wherehedevotedhimselfto
literature.Ina
lettertoFrancescoVettori,dated13thDecember1513,he
hasleft
averyinterestingdescriptionofhislifeatthis
period,which
elucidateshismethodsandhismotivesinwriting"The
Prince."After
describinghisdailyoccupationswithhisfamilyand
neighbours,he
writes:"Theeveningbeingcome,Ireturnhomeandgoto
mystudy;at
theentranceIpulloffmypeasantclothes,coveredwith
dustanddirt,
andputonmynoblecourtdress,andthusbecominglyre
clothedI
passintotheancientcourtsofthemenofold,where,
beinglovingly
receivedbythem,Iamfedwiththatfoodwhichismine
alone;whereI
donothesitatetospeakwiththem,andtoaskforthe
reasonoftheir
actions,andtheyintheirbenignityanswerme;andfor
fourhoursI
feelnoweariness,Iforgeteverytrouble,povertydoes
notdismay,
deathdoesnotterrifyme;Iampossessedentirelyby
thosegreatmen.
AndbecauseDantesays:

Knowledgedothcomeoflearningwellretained,
Unfruitfulelse,

IhavenoteddownwhatIhavegainedfromtheir
conversation,andhave
composedasmallworkon'Principalities,'whereIpour
myselfout
asfullyasIcaninmeditationonthesubject,
discussingwhata
principalityis,whatkindsthereare,howtheycanbe
acquired,how
theycanbekept,whytheyarelost:andifanyofmy
fanciesever
pleasedyou,thisoughtnottodispleaseyou:andtoa
prince,
especiallytoanewone,itshouldbewelcome:therefore
Idedicateit
tohisMagnificenceGiuliano.FilippoCasavecchiohas
seenit;hewill
beabletotellyouwhatisinit,andofthediscourses
Ihavehadwith
him;nevertheless,Iamstillenrichingandpolishing
it."

The"littlebook"sufferedmanyvicissitudesbefore
attainingtheform
inwhichithasreachedus.Variousmentalinfluences
wereatwork
duringitscomposition;itstitleandpatronwere
changed;andforsome
unknownreasonitwasfinallydedicatedtoLorenzode'
Medici.Although
MachiavellidiscussedwithCasavecchiowhetheritshould
besentor
presentedinpersontothepatron,thereisnoevidence
thatLorenzo
everreceivedorevenreadit:hecertainlynevergave
Machiavelliany
employment.Althoughitwasplagiarizedduring
Machiavelli'slifetime,
"ThePrince"wasneverpublishedbyhim,anditstextis
still
disputable.

MachiavelliconcludeshislettertoVettorithus:"Andas
tothislittle
thing[hisbook],whenithasbeenreaditwillbeseen
thatduringthe
fifteenyearsIhavegiventothestudyofstatecraftI
haveneither
sleptnoridled;andmenoughtevertodesiretobe
servedbyonewho
hasreapedexperienceattheexpenseofothers.Andofmy
loyaltynone
coulddoubt,becausehavingalwayskeptfaithIcouldnot
nowlearnhow
tobreakit;forhewhohasbeenfaithfulandhonest,as
Ihave,cannot
changehisnature;andmypovertyisawitnesstomy
honesty."

BeforeMachiavellihadgot"ThePrince"offhishandshe
commencedhis
"DiscourseontheFirstDecadeofTitusLivius,"which
shouldberead
concurrentlywith"ThePrince."Theseandseveralminor
worksoccupied
himuntiltheyear1518,whenheacceptedasmall
commissiontolook
aftertheaffairsofsomeFlorentinemerchantsatGenoa.
In1519the
MediceanrulersofFlorencegrantedafewpolitical
concessionsto
hercitizens,andMachiavelliwithotherswasconsulted
uponanew
constitutionunderwhichtheGreatCouncilwastobe
restored;buton
onepretextoranotheritwasnotpromulgated.

In1520theFlorentinemerchantsagainhadrecourseto
Machiavelli
tosettletheirdifficultieswithLucca,butthisyear
waschiefly
remarkableforhisreentryintoFlorentineliterary
society,wherehe
wasmuchsoughtafter,andalsofortheproductionofhis
"ArtofWar."
Itwasinthesameyearthathereceivedacommissionat
theinstance
ofCardinalde'Medicitowritethe"Historyof
Florence,"atask
whichoccupiedhimuntil1525.Hisreturntopopular
favourmayhave
determinedtheMedicitogivehimthisemployment,foran
oldwriter
observesthat"anablestatesmanoutofwork,likeahuge
whale,will
endeavourtooverturntheshipunlesshehasanempty
casktoplay
with."

Whenthe"HistoryofFlorence"wasfinished,Machiavelli
tookitto
Romeforpresentationtohispatron,Giulianode'Medici,
whohadin
themeanwhilebecomepopeunderthetitleofClementVII.
Itissomewhat
remarkablethat,as,in1513,Machiavellihadwritten
"ThePrince"for
theinstructionoftheMediciaftertheyhadjust
regainedpowerin
Florence,so,in1525,hededicatedthe"Historyof
Florence"tothe
headofthefamilywhenitsruinwasnowathand.Inthat
yearthe
battleofPaviadestroyedtheFrenchruleinItaly,and
leftFrancisI
aprisonerinthehandsofhisgreatrival,CharlesV.
Thiswasfollowed
bythesackofRome,uponthenewsofwhichthepopular
partyat
FlorencethrewofftheyokeoftheMedici,whowereonce
morebanished.

MachiavelliwasabsentfromFlorenceatthistime,but
hastenedhis
return,hopingtosecurehisformerofficeofsecretary
tothe"Tenof
LibertyandPeace."Unhappilyhewastakenillsoonafter
hereached
Florence,wherehediedon22ndJune1527.

THEMANANDHISWORKS
NoonecansaywherethebonesofMachiavellirest,but
modernFlorence
hasdecreedhimastatelycenotaphinSantaCroce,bythe
sideofher
mostfamoussons;recognizingthat,whateverother
nationsmayhave
foundinhisworks,Italyfoundinthemtheideaofher
unityandthe
germsofherrenaissanceamongthenationsofEurope.
Whilstitisidle
toprotestagainsttheworldwideandevilsignification
ofhisname,
itmaybepointedoutthattheharshconstructionofhis
doctrinewhich
thissinisterreputationimplieswasunknowntohisown
day,andthat
theresearchesofrecenttimeshaveenabledusto
interprethimmore
reasonably.Itisduetotheseinquiriesthattheshape
ofan"unholy
necromancer,"whichsolonghauntedmen'svision,has
beguntofade.

Machiavelliwasundoubtedlyamanofgreatobservation,
acuteness,and
industry;notingwithappreciativeeyewhateverpassed
beforehim,and
withhissupremeliterarygiftturningittoaccountin
hisenforced
retirementfromaffairs.Hedoesnotpresenthimself,nor
ishe
depictedbyhiscontemporaries,asatypeofthatrare
combination,
thesuccessfulstatesmanandauthor,forheappearsto
havebeen
onlymoderatelyprosperousinhisseveralembassiesand
political
employments.HewasmisledbyCatherinaSforza,ignored
byLouisXII,
overawedbyCesareBorgia;severalofhisembassieswere
quitebarrenof
results;hisattemptstofortifyFlorencefailed,andthe
soldierythat
heraisedastonishedeverybodybytheircowardice.Inthe
conductofhis
ownaffairshewastimidandtimeserving;hedarednot
appearbythe
sideofSoderini,towhomheowedsomuch,forfearof
compromising
himself;hisconnectionwiththeMediciwasopento
suspicion,and
Giulianoappearstohaverecognizedhisrealfortewhen
hesethimto
writethe"HistoryofFlorence,"ratherthanemployhim
inthestate.
Anditisontheliterarysideofhischaracter,and
therealone,that
wefindnoweaknessandnofailure.

Althoughthelightofalmostfourcenturieshasbeen
focusedon"The
Prince,"itsproblemsarestilldebatableand
interesting,becausethey
aretheeternalproblemsbetweentheruledandtheir
rulers.Suchas
theyare,itsethicsarethoseofMachiavelli's
contemporaries;yetthey
cannotbesaidtobeoutofdatesolongasthe
governmentsofEurope
relyonmaterialratherthanonmoralforces.Its
historicalincidents
andpersonagesbecomeinterestingbyreasonoftheuses
which
Machiavellimakesofthemtoillustratehistheoriesof
governmentand
conduct.

Leavingoutofconsiderationthosemaximsofstatewhich
stillfurnish
someEuropeanandeasternstatesmenwithprinciplesof
action,"The
Prince"isbestrewnwithtruthsthatcanbeprovedat
everyturn.Men
arestillthedupesoftheirsimplicityandgreed,as
theywereinthe
daysofAlexanderVI.Thecloakofreligionstill
concealsthevices
whichMachiavellilaidbareinthecharacterofFerdinand
ofAragon.
Menwillnotlookatthingsastheyreallyare,butas
theywishthem
tobeandareruined.Inpoliticstherearenoperfectly
safecourses;
prudenceconsistsinchoosingtheleastdangerousones.
Thentopassto
ahigherplaneMachiavellireiteratesthat,although
crimesmaywin
anempire,theydonotwinglory.Necessarywarsarejust
wars,and
thearmsofanationarehallowedwhenithasnoother
resourcebutto
fight.

ItisthecryofafarlaterdaythanMachiavelli'sthat
government
shouldbeelevatedintoalivingmoralforce,capableof
inspiringthe
peoplewithajustrecognitionofthefundamental
principlesofsociety;
tothis"highargument""ThePrince"contributesbut
little.Machiavelli
alwaysrefusedtowriteeitherofmenorofgovernments
otherwisethan
ashefoundthem,andhewriteswithsuchskilland
insightthathis
workisofabidingvalue.Butwhatinvests"ThePrince"
withmorethan
amerelyartisticorhistoricalinterestisthe
incontrovertibletruth
thatitdealswiththegreatprincipleswhichstillguide
nationsand
rulersintheirrelationshipwitheachotherandtheir
neighbours.

Intranslating"ThePrince"myaimhasbeentoachieveat
allcostsan
exactliteralrenderingoftheoriginal,ratherthana
fluentparaphrase
adaptedtothemodernnotionsofstyleandexpression.
Machiavelliwas
nofacilephrasemonger;theconditionsunderwhichhe
wroteobligedhim
toweigheveryword;histhemeswerelofty,hissubstance
grave,his
mannernoblyplainandserious."Quiseofuitunquamin
partiundis
rebus,indefiniendis,inexplanandispressior?"In"The
Prince,"itmay
betrulysaid,thereisreasonassignable,notonlyfor
everyword,but
forthepositionofeveryword.ToanEnglishmanof
Shakespeare'stime
thetranslationofsuchatreatisewasinsomewaysa
comparativelyeasy
task,forinthosetimesthegeniusoftheEnglishmore
nearlyresembled
thatoftheItalianlanguage;totheEnglishmanoftoday
itisnotso
simple.Totakeasingleexample:theword
"intrattenere,"employedby
MachiavellitoindicatethepolicyadoptedbytheRoman
Senatetowards
theweakerstatesofGreece,wouldbyanElizabethanbe
correctly
rendered"entertain,"andeverycontemporaryreaderwould
understand
whatwasmeantbysayingthat"Romeentertainedthe
Aetoliansandthe
Achaeanswithoutaugmentingtheirpower."Buttodaysuch
aphrasewould
seemobsoleteandambiguous,ifnotunmeaning:weare
compelledtosay
that"Romemaintainedfriendlyrelationswiththe
Aetolians,"etc.,
usingfourwordstodotheworkofone.Ihavetriedto
preservethe
pithybrevityoftheItaliansofaraswasconsistent
withanabsolute
fidelitytothesense.Iftheresultbeanoccasional
asperityIcan
onlyhopethatthereader,inhiseagernesstoreachthe
author's
meaning,mayoverlooktheroughnessoftheroadthat
leadshimtoit.

ThefollowingisalistoftheworksofMachiavelli:
Principalworks.DiscorsosopralecosediPisa,1499;
Delmododi
trattareipopolidellaValdichianaribellati,1502;Del
modotenutodal
ducaValentinonell'ammazzareVitellozzoVitelli,
OliverottodaFermo,
etc.,1502;Discorsosopralaprovisionedeldanaro,
1502;Decennale
primo(poeminterzarima),1506;Ritrattidellecose
dell'Alemagna,
150812;Decennalesecondo,1509;Ritrattidellecosedi
Francia,1510;
DiscorsisopralaprimadecadiT.Livio,3vols.,1512
17;IlPrincipe,
1513;Andria,comedytranslatedfromTerence,1513(?);
Mandragola,
prosecomedyinfiveacts,withprologueinverse,1513;
Della
lingua(dialogue),1514;Clizia,comedyinprose,1515
(?);Belfagor
arcidiavolo(novel),1515;Asinod'oro(poeminterza
rima),1517;Dell'
artedellaguerra,151920;Discorsosoprailriformare
lostatodi
Firenze,1520;SommariodellecosedellacittadiLucca,
1520;Vita
diCastruccioCastracanidaLucca,1520;Istorie
fiorentine,8books,
15215;Frammentistorici,1525.

OtherpoemsincludeSonetti,Canzoni,Ottave,andCanti
carnascialeschi.

Editions.Aldo,Venice,1546;dellaTertina,1550;
Cambiagi,Florence,6
vols.,17825;deiClassici,Milan,101813;Silvestri,9
vols.,18202;
Passerini,Fanfani,Milanesi,6vols.onlypublished,
18737.

Minorworks.Ed.F.L.Polidori,1852;Letterefamiliari,
ed.E.
Alvisi,1883,2editions,onewithexcisions;Credited
Writings,ed.
G.Canestrini,1857;LetterstoF.Vettori,seeA.
Ridolfi,Pensieri
intornoalloscopodiN.MachiavellinellibroIl
Principe,etc.;D.
Ferrara,ThePrivateCorrespondenceofNicolo
Machiavelli,1929.

DEDICATION

TotheMagnificentLorenzoDiPieroDe'Medici:

Thosewhostrivetoobtainthegoodgracesofa
princeare
accustomedtocomebeforehimwithsuchthingsas
theyholdmost
precious,orinwhichtheyseehimtakemost
delight;whenceone
oftenseeshorses,arms,clothofgold,precious
stones,and
similarornamentspresentedtoprinces,worthyof
theirgreatness.

Desiringthereforetopresentmyselftoyour
Magnificencewith
sometestimonyofmydevotiontowardsyou,Ihave
notfoundamong
mypossessionsanythingwhichIholdmoredearthan,
orvalueso
muchas,theknowledgeoftheactionsofgreatmen,
acquiredby
longexperienceincontemporaryaffairs,anda
continualstudyof
antiquity;which,havingreflecteduponitwith
greatand
prolongeddiligence,Inowsend,digestedintoa
littlevolume,to
yourMagnificence.

AndalthoughImayconsiderthisworkunworthyof
your
countenance,neverthelessItrustmuchtoyour
benignitythatit
maybeacceptable,seeingthatitisnotpossible
formetomakea
bettergiftthantoofferyoutheopportunityof
understandingin
theshortesttimeallthatIhavelearntinsomany
years,and
withsomanytroublesanddangers;whichworkIhave
not
embellishedwithswellingormagnificentwords,nor
stuffedwith
roundedperiods,norwithanyextrinsicallurements
oradornments
whatever,withwhichsomanyareaccustomedto
embellishtheir
works;forIhavewishedeitherthatnohonour
shouldbegivenit,
orelsethatthetruthofthematterandthe
weightinessofthe
themeshallmakeitacceptable.

NordoIholdwiththosewhoregarditasa
presumptionifaman
oflowandhumbleconditiondaretodiscussand
settlethe
concernsofprinces;because,justasthosewhodraw
landscapes
placethemselvesbelowintheplaintocontemplate
thenatureof
themountainsandofloftyplaces,andinorderto
contemplatethe
plainsplacethemselvesuponhighmountains,evenso
tounderstand
thenatureofthepeopleitneedstobeaprince,
andto
understandthatofprincesitneedstobeofthe
people.

Takethen,yourMagnificence,thislittlegiftin
thespiritin
whichIsendit;wherein,ifitbediligentlyread
andconsidered
byyou,youwilllearnmyextremedesirethatyou
shouldattain
thatgreatnesswhichfortuneandyourother
attributespromise.
AndifyourMagnificencefromthesummitofyour
greatnesswill
sometimesturnyoureyestotheselowerregions,you
willseehow
unmeritedlyIsufferagreatandcontinuedmalignity
offortune.

THEPRINCE

CHAPTERIHOWMANYKINDSOFPRINCIPALITIESTHEREARE,
ANDBYWHAT
MEANSTHEYAREACQUIRED

Allstates,allpowers,thathaveheldandholdruleover
menhavebeen
andareeitherrepublicsorprincipalities.

Principalitiesareeitherhereditary,inwhichthefamily
hasbeenlong
established;ortheyarenew.

Thenewareeitherentirelynew,aswasMilanto
FrancescoSforza,or
theyare,asitwere,membersannexedtothehereditary
stateofthe
princewhohasacquiredthem,aswasthekingdomof
Naplestothatof
theKingofSpain.

Suchdominionsthusacquiredareeitheraccustomedto
liveundera
prince,ortoliveinfreedom;andareacquiredeitherby
thearmsof
theprincehimself,orofothers,orelsebyfortuneor
byability.
CHAPTERIICONCERNINGHEREDITARYPRINCIPALITIES

Iwillleaveoutalldiscussiononrepublics,inasmuchas
inanother
placeIhavewrittenofthematlength,andwilladdress
myselfonlyto
principalities.IndoingsoIwillkeeptotheorder
indicatedabove,
anddiscusshowsuchprincipalitiesaretoberuledand
preserved.

Isayatoncetherearefewerdifficultiesinholding
hereditarystates,
andthoselongaccustomedtothefamilyoftheirprince,
thannew
ones;foritissufficientonlynottotransgressthe
customsofhis
ancestors,andtodealprudentlywithcircumstancesas
theyarise,fora
princeofaveragepowerstomaintainhimselfinhis
state,unlesshe
bedeprivedofitbysomeextraordinaryandexcessive
force;andifhe
shouldbesodeprivedofit,wheneveranythingsinister
happenstothe
usurper,hewillregainit.

WehaveinItaly,forexample,theDukeofFerrara,who
couldnothave
withstoodtheattacksoftheVenetiansin'84,northose
ofPopeJulius
in'10,unlesshehadbeenlongestablishedinhis
dominions.Forthe
hereditaryprincehaslesscauseandlessnecessityto
offend;henceit
happensthathewillbemoreloved;andunless
extraordinaryvicescause
himtobehated,itisreasonabletoexpectthathis
subjectswillbe
naturallywelldisposedtowardshim;andintheantiquity
andduration
ofhisrulethememoriesandmotivesthatmakeforchange
arelost,for
onechangealwaysleavesthetoothingforanother.

CHAPTERIIICONCERNINGMIXEDPRINCIPALITIES

Butthedifficultiesoccurinanewprincipality.And
firstly,ifitbe
notentirelynew,butis,asitwere,amemberofastate
which,taken
collectively,maybecalledcomposite,thechangesarise
chieflyfrom
aninherentdifficultywhichthereisinallnew
principalities;for
menchangetheirrulerswillingly,hopingtobetter
themselves,andthis
hopeinducesthemtotakeuparmsagainsthimwhorules:
whereinthey
aredeceived,becausetheyafterwardsfindbyexperience
theyhave
gonefrombadtoworse.Thisfollowsalsoonanother
naturalandcommon
necessity,whichalwayscausesanewprincetoburden
thosewhohave
submittedtohimwithhissoldieryandwithinfinite
otherhardships
whichhemustputuponhisnewacquisition.

Inthiswayyouhaveenemiesinallthosewhomyouhave
injuredin
seizingthatprincipality,andyouarenotabletokeep
thosefriends
whoputyoutherebecauseofyournotbeingableto
satisfytheminthe
waytheyexpected,andyoucannottakestrongmeasures
againstthem,
feelingboundtothem.For,althoughonemaybevery
stronginarmed
forces,yetinenteringaprovinceonehasalwaysneedof
thegoodwill
ofthenatives.

ForthesereasonsLouistheTwelfth,KingofFrance,
quicklyoccupied
Milan,andasquicklylostit;andtoturnhimoutthe
firsttimeit
onlyneededLodovico'sownforces;becausethosewhohad
openedthe
gatestohim,findingthemselvesdeceivedintheirhopes
offuture
benefit,wouldnotenduretheilltreatmentofthenew
prince.Itis
verytruethat,afteracquiringrebelliousprovincesa
secondtime,
theyarenotsolightlylostafterwards,becausethe
prince,with
littlereluctance,takestheopportunityoftherebellion
topunishthe
delinquents,toclearoutthesuspects,andtostrengthen
himselfinthe
weakestplaces.ThustocauseFrancetoloseMilanthe
firsttimeitwas
enoughfortheDukeLodovico(*)toraiseinsurrectionson
theborders;
buttocausehimtoloseitasecondtimeitwas
necessarytobring
thewholeworldagainsthim,andthathisarmiesshould
bedefeatedand
drivenoutofItaly;whichfollowedfromthecausesabove
mentioned.

(*)DukeLodovicowasLodovicoMoro,asonof
Francesco
Sforza,whomarriedBeatriced'Este.Heruledover
Milan
from1494to1500,anddiedin1510.

NeverthelessMilanwastakenfromFranceboththefirst
andthesecond
time.Thegeneralreasonsforthefirsthavebeen
discussed;itremains
tonamethoseforthesecond,andtoseewhatresources
hehad,andwhat
anyoneinhissituationwouldhavehadformaintaining
himselfmore
securelyinhisacquisitionthandidtheKingofFrance.

NowIsaythatthosedominionswhich,whenacquired,are
addedtoan
ancientstatebyhimwhoacquiresthem,areeitherofthe
samecountry
andlanguage,ortheyarenot.Whentheyare,itis
easiertoholdthem,
especiallywhentheyhavenotbeenaccustomedtoself
government;and
toholdthemsecurelyitisenoughtohavedestroyedthe
familyofthe
princewhowasrulingthem;becausethetwopeoples,
preservinginother
thingstheoldconditions,andnotbeingunlikein
customs,willlive
quietlytogether,asonehasseeninBrittany,Burgundy,
Gascony,and
Normandy,whichhavebeenboundtoFranceforsolonga
time:and,
althoughtheremaybesomedifferenceinlanguage,
neverthelessthe
customsarealike,andthepeoplewilleasilybeableto
getonamongst
themselves.Hewhohasannexedthem,ifhewishestohold
them,hasonly
tobearinmindtwoconsiderations:theone,thatthe
familyoftheir
formerlordisextinguished;theother,thatneither
theirlawsnor
theirtaxesarealtered,sothatinaveryshorttime
theywillbecome
entirelyonebodywiththeoldprincipality.

Butwhenstatesareacquiredinacountrydifferingin
language,
customs,orlaws,therearedifficulties,andgood
fortuneandgreat
energyareneededtoholdthem,andoneofthegreatest
andmostreal
helpswouldbethathewhohasacquiredthemshouldgo
andresidethere.
Thiswouldmakehispositionmoresecureanddurable,as
ithasmade
thatoftheTurkinGreece,who,notwithstandingallthe
othermeasures
takenbyhimforholdingthatstate,ifhehadnot
settledthere,would
nothavebeenabletokeepit.Because,ifoneisonthe
spot,disorders
areseenastheyspringup,andonecanquicklyremedy
them;butifone
isnotathand,theyareheardofonlywhentheyare
great,andthenone
cannolongerremedythem.Besidesthis,thecountryis
notpillaged
byyourofficials;thesubjectsaresatisfiedbyprompt
recoursetothe
prince;thus,wishingtobegood,theyhavemorecauseto
lovehim,and
wishingtobeotherwise,tofearhim.Hewhowouldattack
thatstate
fromtheoutsidemusthavetheutmostcaution;aslongas
theprince
residesthereitcanonlybewrestedfromhimwiththe
greatest
difficulty.

Theotherandbettercourseistosendcoloniestooneor
twoplaces,
whichmaybeaskeystothatstate,foritisnecessary
eithertodo
thisorelsetokeepthereagreatnumberofcavalryand
infantry.A
princedoesnotspendmuchoncolonies,forwithlittle
ornoexpensehe
cansendthemoutandkeepthemthere,andheoffendsa
minorityonlyof
thecitizensfromwhomhetakeslandsandhousestogive
themtothenew
inhabitants;andthosewhomheoffends,remainingpoor
andscattered,
areneverabletoinjurehim;whilsttherestbeing
uninjuredareeasily
keptquiet,andatthesametimeareanxiousnottoerr
forfearit
shouldhappentothemasithastothosewhohavebeen
despoiled.In
conclusion,Isaythatthesecoloniesarenotcostly,
theyaremore
faithful,theyinjureless,andtheinjured,ashasbeen
said,being
poorandscattered,cannothurt.Uponthis,onehasto
remarkthatmen
oughteithertobewelltreatedorcrushed,becausethey
canavenge
themselvesoflighterinjuries,ofmoreseriousonesthey
cannot;
thereforetheinjurythatistobedonetoamanoughtto
beofsucha
kindthatonedoesnotstandinfearofrevenge.

Butinmaintainingarmedmenthereinplaceofcolonies
onespendsmuch
more,havingtoconsumeonthegarrisonalltheincome
fromthe
state,sothattheacquisitionturnsintoaloss,and
manymoreare
exasperated,becausethewholestateisinjured;through
theshifting
ofthegarrisonupanddownallbecomeacquaintedwith
hardship,and
allbecomehostile,andtheyareenemieswho,whilst
beatenontheir
ownground,areyetabletodohurt.Foreveryreason,
therefore,such
guardsareasuselessasacolonyisuseful.

Again,theprincewhoholdsacountrydifferinginthe
aboverespects
oughttomakehimselftheheadanddefenderofhisless
powerful
neighbours,andtoweakenthemorepowerfulamongstthem,
takingcare
thatnoforeigneraspowerfulashimselfshall,byany
accident,get
afootingthere;foritwillalwayshappenthatsucha
onewillbe
introducedbythosewhoarediscontented,eitherthrough
excessof
ambitionorthroughfear,asonehasseenalready.The
Romanswere
broughtintoGreecebytheAetolians;andineveryother
countrywhere
theyobtainedafootingtheywerebroughtinbythe
inhabitants.Andthe
usualcourseofaffairsisthat,assoonasapowerful
foreignerenters
acountry,allthesubjectstatesaredrawntohim,moved
bythehatred
whichtheyfeelagainsttherulingpower.Sothatin
respecttothose
subjectstateshehasnottotakeanytroubletogain
themoverto
himself,forthewholeofthemquicklyrallytothestate
whichhehas
acquiredthere.Hehasonlytotakecarethattheydonot
getholdof
toomuchpowerandtoomuchauthority,andthenwithhis
ownforces,and
withtheirgoodwill,hecaneasilykeepdownthemore
powerfulofthem,
soastoremainentirelymasterinthecountry.Andhe
whodoesnot
properlymanagethisbusinesswillsoonlosewhathehas
acquired,and
whilsthedoesholdithewillhaveendlessdifficulties
andtroubles.

TheRomans,inthecountrieswhichtheyannexed,observed
closelythese
measures;theysentcoloniesandmaintainedfriendly
relationswith(*)
theminorpowers,withoutincreasingtheirstrength;they
keptdownthe
greater,anddidnotallowanystrongforeignpowersto
gainauthority.
Greeceappearstomesufficientforanexample.The
Achaeansand
Aetolianswerekeptfriendlybythem,thekingdomof
Macedoniawas
humbled,Antiochuswasdrivenout;yetthemeritsofthe
Achaeansand
Aetoliansneversecuredforthempermissiontoincrease
theirpower,nor
didthepersuasionsofPhilipeverinducetheRomansto
behisfriends
withoutfirsthumblinghim,nordidtheinfluenceof
Antiochusmakethem
agreethatheshouldretainanylordshipoverthe
country.Becausethe
Romansdidintheseinstanceswhatallprudentprinces
oughttodo,
whohavetoregardnotonlypresenttroubles,butalso
futureones,for
whichtheymustpreparewitheveryenergy,because,when
foreseen,itis
easytoremedythem;butifyouwaituntiltheyapproach,
themedicine
isnolongerintimebecausethemaladyhasbecome
incurable;forit
happensinthis,asthephysicianssayithappensin
hecticfever,
thatinthebeginningofthemaladyitiseasytocure
butdifficultto
detect,butinthecourseoftime,nothavingbeeneither
detectedor
treatedinthebeginning,itbecomeseasytodetectbut
difficultto
cure.Thusithappensinaffairsofstate,forwhenthe
evilsthatarise
havebeenforeseen(whichitisonlygiventoawiseman
tosee),they
canbequicklyredressed,butwhen,throughnothaving
beenforeseen,
theyhavebeenpermittedtogrowinawaythateveryone
canseethem,
thereisnolongeraremedy.Therefore,theRomans,
foreseeingtroubles,
dealtwiththematonce,and,eventoavoidawar,would
notletthem
cometoahead,fortheyknewthatwarisnottobe
avoided,butisonly
tobeputofftotheadvantageofothers;moreoverthey
wishedtofight
withPhilipandAntiochusinGreecesoasnottohaveto
doitinItaly;
theycouldhaveavoidedboth,butthistheydidnotwish;
nordidthat
everpleasethemwhichisforeverinthemouthsofthe
wiseonesofour
time:Letusenjoythebenefitsofthetimebutrather
thebenefitsof
theirownvalourandprudence,fortimedriveseverything
beforeit,and
isabletobringwithitgoodaswellasevil,andevil
aswellasgood.

(*)Seeremarkintheintroductionontheword
"intrattenere."

ButletusturntoFranceandinquirewhethershehas
doneanyofthe
thingsmentioned.IwillspeakofLouis(*)(andnotof
Charles)(+)as
theonewhoseconductisthebettertobeobserved,he
havingheld
possessionofItalyforthelongestperiod;andyouwill
seethathe
hasdonetheoppositetothosethingswhichoughttobe
donetoretaina
statecomposedofdiverselements.

(*)LouisXII,KingofFrance,"TheFatherofthe
People,"
born1462,died1515.

(+)CharlesVIII,KingofFrance,born1470,died
1498.

KingLouiswasbroughtintoItalybytheambitionofthe
Venetians,who
desiredtoobtainhalfthestateofLombardybyhis
intervention.I
willnotblamethecoursetakenbytheking,because,
wishingtogeta
footholdinItaly,andhavingnofriendsthereseeing
ratherthatevery
doorwasshuttohimowingtotheconductofCharleshe
wasforcedto
acceptthosefriendshipswhichhecouldget,andhewould
havesucceeded
veryquicklyinhisdesignifinothermattershehadnot
madesome
mistakes.Theking,however,havingacquiredLombardy,
regainedatonce
theauthoritywhichCharleshadlost:Genoayielded;the
Florentines
becamehisfriends;theMarquessofMantua,theDukeof
Ferrara,the
Bentivogli,myladyofForli,theLordsofFaenza,of
Pesaro,of
Rimini,ofCamerino,ofPiombino,theLucchese,the
Pisans,the
Sieneseeverybodymadeadvancestohimtobecomehis
friend.Thencould
theVenetiansrealizetherashnessofthecoursetakenby
them,which,
inorderthattheymightsecuretwotownsinLombardy,
hadmadetheking
masteroftwothirdsofItaly.

Letanyonenowconsiderwithwhatlittledifficultythe
kingcouldhave
maintainedhispositioninItalyhadheobservedthe
rulesabovelaid
down,andkeptallhisfriendssecureandprotected;for
althoughthey
werenumeroustheywerebothweakandtimid,someafraid
oftheChurch,
someoftheVenetians,andthustheywouldalwayshave
beenforcedto
standinwithhim,andbytheirmeanshecouldeasily
havemadehimself
secureagainstthosewhoremainedpowerful.Buthewasno
soonerin
MilanthanhedidthecontrarybyassistingPope
Alexandertooccupythe
Romagna.Itneveroccurredtohimthatbythisactionhe
wasweakening
himself,deprivinghimselfoffriendsandofthosewho
hadthrown
themselvesintohislap,whilstheaggrandizedtheChurch
byaddingmuch
temporalpowertothespiritual,thusgivingitgreater
authority.And
havingcommittedthisprimeerror,hewasobligedto
followitup,so
muchsothat,toputanendtotheambitionofAlexander,
andtoprevent
hisbecomingthemasterofTuscany,hewashimselfforced
tocomeinto
Italy.

Andasifitwerenotenoughtohaveaggrandizedthe
Church,and
deprivedhimselfoffriends,he,wishingtohavethe
kingdomofNaples,
divideditwiththeKingofSpain,andwherehewasthe
primearbiterin
Italyhetakesanassociate,sothattheambitiousof
thatcountryand
themalcontentsofhisownshouldhavesomewhereto
shelter;andwhereas
hecouldhaveleftinthekingdomhisownpensioneras
king,hedrove
himout,toputonetherewhowasabletodrivehim,
Louis,outinturn.

Thewishtoacquireisintruthverynaturalandcommon,
andmenalways
dosowhentheycan,andforthistheywillbepraised
notblamed;but
whentheycannotdoso,yetwishtodosobyanymeans,
thenthereis
follyandblame.Therefore,ifFrancecouldhaveattacked
Napleswith
herownforcessheoughttohavedoneso;ifshecould
not,thenshe
oughtnottohavedividedit.Andifthepartitionwhich
shemadewith
theVenetiansinLombardywasjustifiedbytheexcuse
thatbyitshegot
afootholdinItaly,thisotherpartitionmeritedblame,
forithadnot
theexcuseofthatnecessity.

ThereforeLouismadethesefiveerrors:hedestroyedthe
minorpowers,
heincreasedthestrengthofoneofthegreaterpowersin
Italy,he
broughtinaforeignpower,hedidnotsettleinthe
country,hedidnot
sendcolonies.Whicherrors,hadhelived,werenot
enoughtoinjure
himhadhenotmadeasixthbytakingawaytheir
dominionsfromthe
Venetians;because,hadhenotaggrandizedtheChurch,
norbroughtSpain
intoItaly,itwouldhavebeenveryreasonableand
necessarytohumble
them;buthavingfirsttakenthesesteps,heoughtnever
tohave
consentedtotheirruin,forthey,beingpowerful,would
alwayshave
keptoffothersfromdesignsonLombardy,towhichthe
Venetianswould
neverhaveconsentedexcepttobecomemastersthemselves
there;also
becausetheotherswouldnotwishtotakeLombardyfrom
Franceinorder
togiveittotheVenetians,andtoruncountertoboth
theywouldnot
havehadthecourage.

Andifanyoneshouldsay:"KingLouisyieldedthe
RomagnatoAlexander
andthekingdomtoSpaintoavoidwar,"Ianswerforthe
reasonsgiven
abovethatablunderoughtnevertobeperpetratedto
avoidwar,because
itisnottobeavoided,butisonlydeferredtoyour
disadvantage.And
ifanothershouldallegethepledgewhichthekinghad
giventothe
Popethathewouldassisthimintheenterprise,in
exchangeforthe
dissolutionofhismarriage(*)andforthecaptoRouen,
(+)tothatI
replywhatIshallwritelateronconcerningthefaithof
princes,and
howitoughttobekept.

(*)LouisXIIdivorcedhiswife,Jeanne,daughterof
Louis
XI,andmarriedin1499AnneofBrittany,widowof
Charles
VIII,inordertoretaintheDuchyofBrittanyfor
the
crown.

(+)TheArchbishopofRouen.HewasGeorges
d'Amboise,
createdacardinalbyAlexanderVI.Born1460,died
1510.

ThusKingLouislostLombardybynothavingfollowedany
ofthe
conditionsobservedbythosewhohavetakenpossessionof
countriesand
wishedtoretainthem.Noristhereanymiracleinthis,
butmuchthat
isreasonableandquitenatural.AndonthesemattersI
spokeatNantes
withRouen,whenValentino,asCesareBorgia,thesonof
PopeAlexander,
wasusuallycalled,occupiedtheRomagna,andonCardinal
Rouen
observingtomethattheItaliansdidnotunderstandwar,
Ireplied
tohimthattheFrenchdidnotunderstandstatecraft,
meaningthat
otherwisetheywouldnothaveallowedtheChurchtoreach
such
greatness.Andinfactithasbeenseenthatthe
greatnessoftheChurch
andofSpaininItalyhasbeencausedbyFrance,andher
ruinmaybe
attributedtothem.Fromthisageneralruleisdrawn
whichneveror
rarelyfails:thathewhoisthecauseofanother
becomingpowerful
isruined;becausethatpredominancyhasbeenbrought
abouteitherby
astutenessorelsebyforce,andbotharedistrustedby
himwhohasbeen
raisedtopower.
CHAPTERIVWHYTHEKINGDOMOFDARIUS,CONQUEREDBY
ALEXANDER,DIDNOT
REBELAGAINSTTHESUCCESSORSOFALEXANDERATHISDEATH

Consideringthedifficultieswhichmenhavehadtohold
toanewly
acquiredstate,somemightwonderhow,seeingthat
Alexanderthe
GreatbecamethemasterofAsiainafewyears,anddied
whilstit
wasscarcelysettled(whenceitmightappearreasonable
thatthewhole
empirewouldhaverebelled),neverthelesshissuccessors
maintained
themselves,andhadtomeetnootherdifficultythanthat
whicharose
amongthemselvesfromtheirownambitions.

Ianswerthattheprincipalitiesofwhichonehasrecord
arefoundto
begovernedintwodifferentways;eitherbyaprince,
withabody
ofservants,whoassisthimtogovernthekingdomas
ministersbyhis
favourandpermission;orbyaprinceandbarons,who
holdthatdignity
byantiquityofbloodandnotbythegraceoftheprince.
Suchbarons
havestatesandtheirownsubjects,whorecognizethemas
lordsandhold
theminnaturalaffection.Thosestatesthataregoverned
byaprince
andhisservantsholdtheirprinceinmoreconsideration,
becauseinall
thecountrythereisnoonewhoisrecognizedassuperior
tohim,and
iftheyyieldobediencetoanothertheydoitastoa
ministerand
official,andtheydonotbearhimanyparticular
affection.

Theexamplesofthesetwogovernmentsinourtimearethe
Turkandthe
KingofFrance.TheentiremonarchyoftheTurkis
governedbyonelord,
theothersarehisservants;and,dividinghiskingdom
intosanjaks,he
sendstheredifferentadministrators,andshiftsand
changesthemas
hechooses.ButtheKingofFranceisplacedinthemidst
ofanancient
bodyoflords,acknowledgedbytheirownsubjects,and
belovedbythem;
theyhavetheirownprerogatives,norcanthekingtake
theseaway
exceptathisperil.Therefore,hewhoconsidersbothof
thesestates
willrecognizegreatdifficultiesinseizingthestateof
theTurk,
but,onceitisconquered,greateaseinholdingit.The
causesofthe
difficultiesinseizingthekingdomoftheTurkarethat
theusurper
cannotbecalledinbytheprincesofthekingdom,nor
canhehopetobe
assistedinhisdesignsbytherevoltofthosewhomthe
lordhasaround
him.Thisarisesfromthereasonsgivenabove;forhis
ministers,being
allslavesandbondmen,canonlybecorruptedwithgreat
difficulty,and
onecanexpectlittleadvantagefromthemwhentheyhave
beencorrupted,
astheycannotcarrythepeoplewiththem,forthe
reasonsassigned.
Hence,hewhoattackstheTurkmustbearinmindthathe
willfindhim
united,andhewillhavetorelymoreonhisownstrength
thanonthe
revoltofothers;but,ifoncetheTurkhasbeen
conquered,androuted
inthefieldinsuchawaythathecannotreplacehis
armies,there
isnothingtofearbutthefamilyofthisprince,and,
thisbeing
exterminated,thereremainsnoonetofear,theothers
havingnocredit
withthepeople;andastheconquerordidnotrelyon
thembeforehis
victory,soheoughtnottofearthemafterit.

Thecontraryhappensinkingdomsgovernedlikethatof
France,because
onecaneasilyentertherebygainingoversomebaronof
thekingdom,
foronealwaysfindsmalcontentsandsuchasdesirea
change.Suchmen,
forthereasonsgiven,canopenthewayintothestate
andrenderthe
victoryeasy;butifyouwishtoholditafterwards,you
meetwith
infinitedifficulties,bothfromthosewhohaveassisted
youandfrom
thoseyouhavecrushed.Norisitenoughforyoutohave
exterminated
thefamilyoftheprince,becausethelordsthatremain
makethemselves
theheadsoffreshmovementsagainstyou,andasyouare
unableeither
tosatisfyorexterminatethem,thatstateislost
whenevertimebrings
theopportunity.

Nowifyouwillconsiderwhatwasthenatureofthe
governmentof
Darius,youwillfinditsimilartothekingdomofthe
Turk,and
thereforeitwasonlynecessaryforAlexander,firstto
overthrowhimin
thefield,andthentotakethecountryfromhim.After
whichvictory,
Dariusbeingkilled,thestateremainedsecureto
Alexander,forthe
abovereasons.Andifhissuccessorshadbeenunitedthey
wouldhave
enjoyeditsecurelyandattheirease,fortherewereno
tumultsraised
inthekingdomexceptthosetheyprovokedthemselves.

Butitisimpossibletoholdwithsuchtranquillity
statesconstituted
likethatofFrance.Hencearosethosefrequent
rebellionsagainstthe
RomansinSpain,France,andGreece,owingtothemany
principalities
therewereinthesestates,ofwhich,aslongasthe
memoryofthem
endured,theRomansalwaysheldaninsecurepossession;
butwiththe
powerandlongcontinuanceoftheempirethememoryof
thempassed
away,andtheRomansthenbecamesecurepossessors.And
whenfighting
afterwardsamongstthemselves,eachonewasableto
attachtohimself
hisownpartsofthecountry,accordingtotheauthority
hehadassumed
there;andthefamilyoftheformerlordbeing
exterminated,noneother
thantheRomanswereacknowledged.

Whenthesethingsarerememberednoonewillmarvelat
theeasewith
whichAlexanderheldtheEmpireofAsia,oratthe
difficultieswhich
othershavehadtokeepanacquisition,suchasPyrrhus
andmanymore;
thisisnotoccasionedbythelittleorabundanceof
abilityinthe
conqueror,butbythewantofuniformityinthesubject
state.

CHAPTERVCONCERNINGTHEWAYTOGOVERNCITIESOR
PRINCIPALITIESWHICH
LIVEDUNDERTHEIROWNLAWSBEFORETHEYWEREANNEXED

Wheneverthosestateswhichhavebeenacquiredasstated
havebeen
accustomedtoliveundertheirownlawsandinfreedom,
therearethree
coursesforthosewhowishtoholdthem:thefirstisto
ruinthem,the
nextistoresidethereinperson,thethirdistopermit
themtolive
undertheirownlaws,drawingatribute,andestablishing
withinitan
oligarchywhichwillkeepitfriendlytoyou.Because
suchagovernment,
beingcreatedbytheprince,knowsthatitcannotstand
without
hisfriendshipandinterest,anddoesitutmostto
supporthim;and
thereforehewhowouldkeepacityaccustomedtofreedom
willholdit
moreeasilybythemeansofitsowncitizensthaninany
otherway.

Thereare,forexample,theSpartansandtheRomans.The
Spartansheld
AthensandThebes,establishingthereanoligarchy;
neverthelessthey
lostthem.TheRomans,inordertoholdCapua,Carthage,
andNumantia,
dismantledthem,anddidnotlosethem.Theywishedto
holdGreeceas
theSpartansheldit,makingitfreeandpermittingits
laws,anddid
notsucceed.Sotoholdittheywerecompelledto
dismantlemany
citiesinthecountry,forintruththereisnosafeway
toretainthem
otherwisethanbyruiningthem.Andhewhobecomesmaster
ofacity
accustomedtofreedomanddoesnotdestroyit,mayexpect
tobe
destroyedbyit,forinrebellionithasalwaysthe
watchwordofliberty
anditsancientprivilegesasarallyingpoint,which
neithertime
norbenefitswillevercauseittoforget.Andwhatever
youmaydoor
provideagainst,theyneverforgetthatnameortheir
privilegesunless
theyaredisunitedordispersed,butateverychancethey
immediately
rallytothem,asPisaafterthehundredyearsshehad
beenheldin
bondagebytheFlorentines.

Butwhencitiesorcountriesareaccustomedtoliveunder
aprince,and
hisfamilyisexterminated,they,beingontheonehand
accustomedto
obeyandontheotherhandnothavingtheoldprince,
cannotagreein
makingonefromamongstthemselves,andtheydonotknow
howtogovern
themselves.Forthisreasontheyareveryslowtotakeup
arms,anda
princecangainthemtohimselfandsecurethemmuchmore
easily.But
inrepublicsthereismorevitality,greaterhatred,and
moredesire
forvengeance,whichwillneverpermitthemtoallowthe
memoryoftheir
formerlibertytorest;sothatthesafestwayisto
destroythemorto
residethere.

CHAPTERVICONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHARE
ACQUIREDBYONE'S
OWNARMSANDABILITY

Letnoonebesurprisedif,inspeakingofentirelynew
principalities
asIshalldo,Iadducethehighestexamplesbothof
princeandof
state;becausemen,walkingalmostalwaysinpathsbeaten
byothers,and
followingbyimitationtheirdeeds,areyetunableto
keepentirelyto
thewaysofothersorattaintothepowerofthosethey
imitate.Awise
manoughtalwaystofollowthepathsbeatenbygreatmen,
andtoimitate
thosewhohavebeensupreme,sothatifhisabilitydoes
notequal
theirs,atleastitwillsavourofit.Lethimactlike
theclever
archerswho,designingtohitthemarkwhichyetappears
toofar
distant,andknowingthelimitstowhichthestrengthof
theirbow
attains,takeaimmuchhigherthanthemark,nottoreach
bytheir
strengthorarrowtosogreataheight,buttobeable
withtheaidof
sohighanaimtohitthemarktheywishtoreach.

Isay,therefore,thatinentirelynewprincipalities,
wherethereis
anewprince,moreorlessdifficultyisfoundinkeeping
them,
accordinglyasthereismoreorlessabilityinhimwho
hasacquired
thestate.Now,asthefactofbecomingaprincefroma
privatestation
presupposeseitherabilityorfortune,itisclearthat
oneorother
ofthesethingswillmitigateinsomedegreemany
difficulties.
Nevertheless,hewhohasreliedleastonfortuneis
establishedthe
strongest.Further,itfacilitatesmatterswhenthe
prince,havingno
otherstate,iscompelledtoresidethereinperson.

Buttocometothosewho,bytheirownabilityandnot
throughfortune,
haverisentobeprinces,IsaythatMoses,Cyrus,
Romulus,Theseus,
andsuchlikearethemostexcellentexamples.And
althoughonemaynot
discussMoses,hehavingbeenamereexecutorofthewill
ofGod,yet
heoughttobeadmired,ifonlyforthatfavourwhich
madehimworthyto
speakwithGod.ButinconsideringCyrusandotherswho
haveacquiredor
foundedkingdoms,allwillbefoundadmirable;andif
theirparticular
deedsandconductshallbeconsidered,theywillnotbe
foundinferior
tothoseofMoses,althoughhehadsogreatapreceptor.
Andin
examiningtheiractionsandlivesonecannotseethat
theyowedanything
tofortunebeyondopportunity,whichbroughtthemthe
materialtomould
intotheformwhichseemedbesttothem.Withoutthat
opportunitytheir
powersofmindwouldhavebeenextinguished,andwithout
thosepowers
theopportunitywouldhavecomeinvain.

Itwasnecessary,therefore,toMosesthatheshouldfind
thepeopleof
IsraelinEgyptenslavedandoppressedbytheEgyptians,
inorderthat
theyshouldbedisposedtofollowhimsoastobe
deliveredoutof
bondage.ItwasnecessarythatRomulusshouldnotremain
inAlba,and
thatheshouldbeabandonedathisbirth,inorderthat
heshouldbecome
KingofRomeandfounderofthefatherland.Itwas
necessarythatCyrus
shouldfindthePersiansdiscontentedwiththegovernment
oftheMedes,
andtheMedessoftandeffeminatethroughtheirlong
peace.Theseus
couldnothaveshownhisabilityhadhenotfoundthe
Athenians
dispersed.Theseopportunities,therefore,madethosemen
fortunate,
andtheirhighabilityenabledthemtorecognizethe
opportunitywhereby
theircountrywasennobledandmadefamous.

Thosewhobyvalorouswaysbecomeprinces,likethese
men,acquire
aprincipalitywithdifficulty,buttheykeepitwith
ease.The
difficultiestheyhaveinacquiringitriseinpartfrom
thenewrules
andmethodswhichtheyareforcedtointroduceto
establishtheir
governmentanditssecurity.Anditoughttobe
rememberedthatthere
isnothingmoredifficulttotakeinhand,moreperilous
toconduct,or
moreuncertaininitssuccess,thantotaketheleadin
theintroduction
ofaneworderofthings,becausetheinnovatorhasfor
enemies
allthosewhohavedonewellundertheoldconditions,
andlukewarm
defendersinthosewhomaydowellunderthenew.This
coolnessarises
partlyfromfearoftheopponents,whohavethelawson
theirside,and
partlyfromtheincredulityofmen,whodonotreadily
believeinnew
thingsuntiltheyhavehadalongexperienceofthem.
Thusithappens
thatwheneverthosewhoarehostilehavetheopportunity
toattackthey
doitlikepartisans,whilsttheothersdefend
lukewarmly,insuchwise
thattheprinceisendangeredalongwiththem.

Itisnecessary,therefore,ifwedesiretodiscussthis
matter
thoroughly,toinquirewhethertheseinnovatorscanrely
onthemselves
orhavetodependonothers:thatistosay,whether,to
consummate
theirenterprise,havetheytouseprayersorcanthey
useforce?Inthe
firstinstancetheyalwayssucceedbadly,andnever
compassanything;
butwhentheycanrelyonthemselvesanduseforce,then
theyarerarely
endangered.Henceitisthatallarmedprophetshave
conquered,andthe
unarmedoneshavebeendestroyed.Besidesthereasons
mentioned,the
natureofthepeopleisvariable,andwhilstitiseasy
topersuade
them,itisdifficulttofixtheminthatpersuasion.And
thusitis
necessarytotakesuchmeasuresthat,whentheybelieve
nolonger,it
maybepossibletomakethembelievebyforce.

IfMoses,Cyrus,Theseus,andRomulushadbeenunarmed
theycouldnot
haveenforcedtheirconstitutionsforlongashappened
inourtimeto
FraGirolamoSavonarola,whowasruinedwithhisnew
orderofthings
immediatelythemultitudebelievedinhimnolonger,and
hehadnomeans
ofkeepingsteadfastthosewhobelievedorofmakingthe
unbelieversto
believe.Thereforesuchasthesehavegreatdifficulties
inconsummating
theirenterprise,foralltheirdangersareinthe
ascent,yetwith
abilitytheywillovercomethem;butwhentheseare
overcome,andthose
whoenviedthemtheirsuccessareexterminated,theywill
begintobe
respected,andtheywillcontinueafterwardspowerful,
secure,honoured,
andhappy.

TothesegreatexamplesIwishtoaddalesserone;still
itbearssome
resemblancetothem,andIwishittosufficemeforall
ofalikekind:
itisHierotheSyracusan.(*)Thismanrosefroma
privatestationto
bePrinceofSyracuse,nordidhe,either,oweanything
tofortunebut
opportunity;fortheSyracusans,beingoppressed,chose
himfortheir
captain,afterwardshewasrewardedbybeingmadetheir
prince.Hewas
ofsogreatability,evenasaprivatecitizen,thatone
whowrites
ofhimsayshewantednothingbutakingdomtobeaking.
Thisman
abolishedtheoldsoldiery,organizedthenew,gaveup
oldalliances,
madenewones;andashehadhisownsoldiersandallies,
onsuch
foundationshewasabletobuildanyedifice:thus,
whilsthehad
enduredmuchtroubleinacquiring,hehadbutlittlein
keeping.

(*)HieroII,bornabout307B.C.,died216B.C.

CHAPTERVIICONCERNINGNEWPRINCIPALITIESWHICHARE
ACQUIREDEITHER
BYTHEARMSOFOTHERSORBYGOODFORTUNE

Thosewhosolelybygoodfortunebecomeprincesfrom
beingprivate
citizenshavelittletroubleinrising,butmuchin
keepingatop;they
havenotanydifficultiesonthewayup,becausethey
fly,buttheyhave
manywhentheyreachthesummit.Sucharethosetowhom
somestate
isgiveneitherformoneyorbythefavourofhimwho
bestowsit;
ashappenedtomanyinGreece,inthecitiesofIoniaand
ofthe
Hellespont,whereprincesweremadebyDarius,inorder
thattheymight
holdthecitiesbothforhissecurityandhisglory;as
alsowerethose
emperorswho,bythecorruptionofthesoldiers,from
beingcitizens
cametoempire.Suchstandsimplyelevateduponthe
goodwillandthe
fortuneofhimwhohaselevatedthemtwomostinconstant
andunstable
things.Neitherhavetheytheknowledgerequisiteforthe
position;
because,unlesstheyaremenofgreatworthandability,
itisnot
reasonabletoexpectthattheyshouldknowhowto
command,havingalways
livedinaprivatecondition;besides,theycannothold
itbecausethey
havenotforceswhichtheycankeepfriendlyand
faithful.

Statesthatriseunexpectedly,then,likeallother
thingsinnature
whicharebornandgrowrapidly,cannotleavetheir
foundationsand
correspondencies(*)fixedinsuchawaythatthefirst
stormwill
notoverthrowthem;unless,asissaid,thosewho
unexpectedlybecome
princesaremenofsomuchabilitythattheyknowthey
havetobe
preparedatoncetoholdthatwhichfortunehasthrown
intotheirlaps,
andthatthosefoundations,whichothershavelaidBEFORE
theybecame
princes,theymustlayAFTERWARDS.

(*)"Leradiciecorrispondenze,"theirroots(i.e.
foundations)andcorrespondenciesorrelationswith
other
statesacommonmeaningof"correspondence"and
"correspondency"inthesixteenthandseventeenth
centuries.

Concerningthesetwomethodsofrisingtobeaprinceby
abilityor
fortune,Iwishtoadducetwoexampleswithinourown
recollection,and
theseareFrancescoSforza(*)andCesareBorgia.
Francesco,byproper
meansandwithgreatability,frombeingaprivateperson
rosetobe
DukeofMilan,andthatwhichhehadacquiredwitha
thousandanxieties
hekeptwithlittletrouble.Ontheotherhand,Cesare
Borgia,calledby
thepeopleDukeValentino,acquiredhisstateduringthe
ascendancyof
hisfather,andonitsdeclinehelostit,
notwithstandingthathehad
takeneverymeasureanddoneallthatoughttobedoneby
awiseand
ablemantofixfirmlyhisrootsinthestateswhichthe
armsand
fortunesofothershadbestowedonhim.

(*)FrancescoSforza,born1401,died1466.He
married
BiancaMariaVisconti,anaturaldaughterofFilippo
Visconti,theDukeofMilan,onwhosedeathhe
procuredhis
ownelevationtotheduchy.Machiavelliwasthe
accredited
agentoftheFlorentineRepublictoCesareBorgia
(1478
1507)duringthetransactionswhichleduptothe
assassinationsoftheOrsiniandVitelliat
Sinigalia,and
alongwithhisletterstohischiefsinFlorencehe
hasleft
anaccount,writtentenyearsbefore"ThePrince,"
ofthe
proceedingsofthedukeinhis"Descritionedelmodo
tenuto
dalducaValentinonelloammazzareVitellozzo
Vitelli,"
etc.,atranslationofwhichisappendedtothe
present
work.

Because,asisstatedabove,hewhohasnotfirstlaid
hisfoundations
maybeablewithgreatabilitytolaythemafterwards,
buttheywill
belaidwithtroubletothearchitectanddangertothe
building.If,
therefore,allthestepstakenbythedukebeconsidered,
itwillbe
seenthathelaidsolidfoundationsforhisfuturepower,
andIdonot
consideritsuperfluoustodiscussthem,becauseIdonot
knowwhat
betterpreceptstogiveanewprincethantheexampleof
hisactions;
andifhisdispositionswereofnoavail,thatwasnot
hisfault,but
theextraordinaryandextrememalignityoffortune.

AlexandertheSixth,inwishingtoaggrandizetheduke,
hisson,had
manyimmediateandprospectivedifficulties.Firstly,he
didnotseehis
waytomakehimmasterofanystatethatwasnotastate
oftheChurch;
andifhewaswillingtorobtheChurchheknewthatthe
DukeofMilan
andtheVenetianswouldnotconsent,becauseFaenzaand
Riminiwere
alreadyundertheprotectionoftheVenetians.Besides
this,hesawthe
armsofItaly,especiallythosebywhichhemighthave
beenassisted,in
handsthatwouldfeartheaggrandizementofthePope,
namely,theOrsini
andtheColonnesiandtheirfollowing.Itbehovedhim,
therefore,
toupsetthisstateofaffairsandembroilthepowers,so
astomake
himselfsecurelymasterofpartoftheirstates.Thiswas
easyforhim
todo,becausehefoundtheVenetians,movedbyother
reasons,inclined
tobringbacktheFrenchintoItaly;hewouldnotonly
notopposethis,
buthewouldrenderitmoreeasybydissolvingtheformer
marriageof
KingLouis.ThereforethekingcameintoItalywiththe
assistanceof
theVenetiansandtheconsentofAlexander.Hewasno
soonerinMilan
thanthePopehadsoldiersfromhimfortheattempton
theRomagna,
whichyieldedtohimonthereputationoftheking.The
duke,therefore,
havingacquiredtheRomagnaandbeatentheColonnesi,
whilewishingto
holdthatandtoadvancefurther,washinderedbytwo
things:theone,
hisforcesdidnotappearloyaltohim,theother,the
goodwillof
France:thatistosay,hefearedthattheforcesofthe
Orsini,which
hewasusing,wouldnotstandtohim,thatnotonlymight
theyhinder
himfromwinningmore,butmightthemselvesseizewhathe
hadwon,and
thatthekingmightalsodothesame.OftheOrsinihe
hadawarning
when,aftertakingFaenzaandattackingBologna,hesaw
themgovery
unwillinglytothatattack.Andastotheking,he
learnedhismindwhen
hehimself,aftertakingtheDuchyofUrbino,attacked
Tuscany,andthe
kingmadehimdesistfromthatundertaking;hencethe
dukedecidedto
dependnomoreuponthearmsandtheluckofothers.

ForthefirstthingheweakenedtheOrsiniandColonnesi
partiesin
Rome,bygainingtohimselfalltheiradherentswhowere
gentlemen,
makingthemhisgentlemen,givingthemgoodpay,and,
accordingtotheir
rank,honouringthemwithofficeandcommandinsucha
waythatinafew
monthsallattachmenttothefactionswasdestroyedand
turnedentirely
totheduke.Afterthisheawaitedanopportunityto
crushtheOrsini,
havingscatteredtheadherentsoftheColonnahouse.This
cametohim
soonandheuseditwell;fortheOrsini,perceivingat
lengththatthe
aggrandizementofthedukeandtheChurchwasruinto
them,calleda
meetingoftheMagioneinPerugia.Fromthissprungthe
rebellionat
UrbinoandthetumultsintheRomagna,withendless
dangerstotheduke,
allofwhichheovercamewiththehelpoftheFrench.
Havingrestored
hisauthority,nottoleaveitatriskbytrustingeither
totheFrench
orotheroutsideforces,hehadrecoursetohiswiles,
andheknew
sowellhowtoconcealhismindthat,bythemediationof
Signor
Pagolowhomthedukedidnotfailtosecurewithall
kindsof
attention,givinghimmoney,apparel,andhorsesthe
Orsiniwere
reconciled,sothattheirsimplicitybroughttheminto
hispower
atSinigalia.(*)Havingexterminatedtheleaders,and
turnedtheir
partisansintohisfriends,thedukelaidsufficiently
goodfoundations
tohispower,havingalltheRomagnaandtheDuchyof
Urbino;andthe
peoplenowbeginningtoappreciatetheirprosperity,he
gainedthem
allovertohimself.Andasthispointisworthyof
notice,andtobe
imitatedbyothers,Iamnotwillingtoleaveitout.

(*)Sinigalia,31stDecember1502.

WhenthedukeoccupiedtheRomagnahefounditunderthe
ruleofweak
masters,whoratherplunderedtheirsubjectsthanruled
them,andgave
themmorecausefordisunionthanforunion,sothatthe
countrywas
fullofrobbery,quarrels,andeverykindofviolence;
andso,wishing
tobringbackpeaceandobediencetoauthority,he
consideredit
necessarytogiveitagoodgovernor.Thereuponhe
promotedMesser
Ramirod'Orco,(*)aswiftandcruelman,towhomhegave
thefullest
power.Thismaninashorttimerestoredpeaceandunity
withthe
greatestsuccess.Afterwardsthedukeconsideredthatit
wasnot
advisabletoconfersuchexcessiveauthority,forhehad
nodoubtbut
thathewouldbecomeodious,sohesetupacourtof
judgmentinthe
country,underamostexcellentpresident,whereinall
citieshadtheir
advocates.Andbecauseheknewthatthepastseverityhad
causedsome
hatredagainsthimself,so,toclearhimselfintheminds
ofthepeople,
andgainthementirelytohimself,hedesiredtoshow
that,ifany
crueltyhadbeenpractised,ithadnotoriginatedwith
him,butinthe
naturalsternnessoftheminister.Underthispretencehe
tookRamiro,
andonemorningcausedhimtobeexecutedandleftonthe
piazzaat
Cesenawiththeblockandabloodyknifeathisside.The
barbarityof
thisspectaclecausedthepeopletobeatoncesatisfied
anddismayed.

(*)Ramirod'Orco.RamirodeLorqua.

Butletusreturnwhencewestarted.Isaythattheduke,
finding
himselfnowsufficientlypowerfulandpartlysecuredfrom
immediate
dangersbyhavingarmedhimselfinhisownway,and
havinginagreat
measurecrushedthoseforcesinhisvicinitythatcould
injurehimifhe
wishedtoproceedwithhisconquest,hadnexttoconsider
France,for
heknewthattheking,whotoolatewasawareofhis
mistake,wouldnot
supporthim.Andfromthistimehebegantoseeknew
alliancesandto
temporizewithFranceintheexpeditionwhichshewas
makingtowardsthe
kingdomofNaplesagainsttheSpaniardswhowere
besiegingGaeta.It
washisintentiontosecurehimselfagainstthem,and
thishewouldhave
quicklyaccomplishedhadAlexanderlived.

Suchwashislineofactionastopresentaffairs.Butas
tothefuture
hehadtofear,inthefirstplace,thatanewsuccessor
totheChurch
mightnotbefriendlytohimandmightseektotakefrom
himthatwhich
Alexanderhadgivenhim,sohedecidedtoactinfour
ways.Firstly,by
exterminatingthefamiliesofthoselordswhomhehad
despoiled,soas
totakeawaythatpretextfromthePope.Secondly,by
winningtohimself
allthegentlemenofRome,soastobeabletocurbthe
Popewiththeir
aid,ashasbeenobserved.Thirdly,byconvertingthe
collegemoreto
himself.Fourthly,byacquiringsomuchpowerbeforethe
Popeshoulddie
thathecouldbyhisownmeasuresresistthefirstshock.
Ofthesefour
things,atthedeathofAlexander,hehadaccomplished
three.Forhehad
killedasmanyofthedispossessedlordsashecouldlay
handson,and
fewhadescaped;hehadwonovertheRomangentlemen,and
hehadthe
mostnumerouspartyinthecollege.Andastoanyfresh
acquisition,he
intendedtobecomemasterofTuscany,forhealready
possessedPerugia
andPiombino,andPisawasunderhisprotection.Andas
hehadnolonger
tostudyFrance(fortheFrenchwerealreadydrivenout
ofthekingdom
ofNaplesbytheSpaniards,andinthiswaybothwere
compelledtobuy
hisgoodwill),hepounceddownuponPisa.Afterthis,
LuccaandSiena
yieldedatonce,partlythroughhatredandpartlythrough
fearof
theFlorentines;andtheFlorentineswouldhavehadno
remedyhadhe
continuedtoprosper,ashewasprosperingtheyearthat
Alexanderdied,
forhehadacquiredsomuchpowerandreputationthathe
wouldhave
stoodbyhimself,andnolongerhavedependedontheluck
andtheforces
ofothers,butsolelyonhisownpowerandability.

ButAlexanderdiedfiveyearsafterhehadfirstdrawn
thesword.He
leftthedukewiththestateofRomagnaalone
consolidated,withthe
restintheair,betweentwomostpowerfulhostile
armies,andsickunto
death.Yettherewereinthedukesuchboldnessand
ability,andheknew
sowellhowmenaretobewonorlost,andsofirmwere
thefoundations
whichinsoshortatimehehadlaid,thatifhehadnot
hadthose
armiesonhisback,orifhehadbeeningoodhealth,he
wouldhave
overcomealldifficulties.Anditisseenthathis
foundationswere
good,fortheRomagnaawaitedhimformorethanamonth.
InRome,
althoughbuthalfalive,heremainedsecure;andwhilst
theBaglioni,
theVitelli,andtheOrsinimightcometoRome,they
couldnoteffect
anythingagainsthim.IfhecouldnothavemadePopehim
whomhewished,
atleasttheonewhomhedidnotwishwouldnothavebeen
elected.But
ifhehadbeeninsoundhealthatthedeathofAlexander,
(*)everything
wouldhavebeendifferenttohim.OnthedaythatJulius
theSecond(+)
waselected,hetoldmethathehadthoughtofeverything
thatmight
occuratthedeathofhisfather,andhadprovideda
remedyforall,
exceptthathehadneveranticipatedthat,whenthedeath
didhappen,he
himselfwouldbeonthepointtodie.

(*)AlexanderVIdiedoffever,18thAugust1503.

(+)JuliusIIwasGiulianodellaRovere,Cardinalof
San
PietroadVincula,born1443,died1513.

Whenalltheactionsofthedukearerecalled,Idonot
knowhowto
blamehim,butratheritappearstobe,asIhavesaid,
thatIoughtto
offerhimforimitationtoallthosewho,bythefortune
orthearmsof
others,areraisedtogovernment.Becausehe,havinga
loftyspiritand
farreachingaims,couldnothaveregulatedhisconduct
otherwise,
andonlytheshortnessofthelifeofAlexanderandhis
ownsickness
frustratedhisdesigns.Therefore,hewhoconsidersit
necessaryto
securehimselfinhisnewprincipality,towinfriends,
toovercome
eitherbyforceorfraud,tomakehimselfbelovedand
fearedbythe
people,tobefollowedandreveredbythesoldiers,to
exterminatethose
whohavepowerorreasontohurthim,tochangetheold
orderofthings
fornew,tobesevereandgracious,magnanimousand
liberal,todestroy
adisloyalsoldieryandtocreatenew,tomaintain
friendshipwithkings
andprincesinsuchawaythattheymusthelphimwith
zealandoffend
withcaution,cannotfindamorelivelyexamplethanthe
actionsofthis
man.
OnlycanhebeblamedfortheelectionofJuliusthe
Second,inwhomhe
madeabadchoice,because,asissaid,notbeingableto
electaPope
tohisownmind,hecouldhavehinderedanyotherfrom
beingelected
Pope;andheoughtnevertohaveconsentedtothe
electionofany
cardinalwhomhehadinjuredorwhohadcausetofearhim
iftheybecame
pontiffs.Formeninjureeitherfromfearorhatred.
Thosewhomhe
hadinjured,amongstothers,wereSanPietroadVincula,
Colonna,San
Giorgio,andAscanio.(*)Therest,inbecomingPope,had
tofearhim,
RouenandtheSpaniardsexcepted;thelatterfromtheir
relationshipand
obligations,theformerfromhisinfluence,thekingdom
ofFrancehaving
relationswithhim.Therefore,aboveeverything,theduke
oughttohave
createdaSpaniardPope,and,failinghim,heoughtto
haveconsentedto
RouenandnotSanPietroadVincula.Hewhobelievesthat
newbenefits
willcausegreatpersonagestoforgetoldinjuriesis
deceived.
Therefore,thedukeerredinhischoice,anditwasthe
causeofhis
ultimateruin.

(*)SanGiorgioisRaffaelloRiario.Ascaniois
Ascanio
Sforza.

CHAPTERVIIICONCERNINGTHOSEWHOHAVEOBTAINEDA
PRINCIPALITYBY
WICKEDNESS

Althoughaprincemayrisefromaprivatestationintwo
ways,neither
ofwhichcanbeentirelyattributedtofortuneorgenius,
yetitis
manifesttomethatImustnotbesilentonthem,
althoughonecouldbe
morecopiouslytreatedwhenIdiscussrepublics.These
methodsare
when,eitherbysomewickedornefariousways,one
ascendstothe
principality,orwhenbythefavourofhisfellow
citizensaprivate
personbecomestheprinceofhiscountry.Andspeakingof
thefirst
method,itwillbeillustratedbytwoexamplesone
ancient,theother
modernandwithoutenteringfurtherintothesubject,I
considerthese
twoexampleswillsufficethosewhomaybecompelledto
followthem.

Agathocles,theSicilian,(*)becameKingofSyracusenot
onlyfrom
aprivatebutfromalowandabjectposition.Thisman,
thesonofa
potter,throughallthechangesinhisfortunesalways
ledaninfamous
life.Nevertheless,heaccompaniedhisinfamieswithso
muchabilityof
mindandbodythat,havingdevotedhimselftothe
militaryprofession,
herosethroughitsrankstobePraetorofSyracuse.
Beingestablished
inthatposition,andhavingdeliberatelyresolvedto
makehimself
princeandtoseizebyviolence,withoutobligationto
others,that
whichhadbeenconcededtohimbyassent,hecametoan
understanding
forthispurposewithAmilcar,theCarthaginian,who,
withhisarmy,was
fightinginSicily.Onemorningheassembledthepeople
andthesenate
ofSyracuse,asifhehadtodiscusswiththemthings
relatingtothe
Republic,andatagivensignalthesoldierskilledall
thesenatorsand
therichestofthepeople;thesedead,heseizedandheld
theprincedom
ofthatcitywithoutanycivilcommotion.Andalthoughhe
wastwice
routedbytheCarthaginians,andultimatelybesieged,yet
notonlywas
heabletodefendhiscity,butleavingpartofhismen
foritsdefence,
withtheothersheattackedAfrica,andinashorttime
raisedthe
siegeofSyracuse.TheCarthaginians,reducedtoextreme
necessity,were
compelledtocometotermswithAgathocles,and,leaving
Sicilytohim,
hadtobecontentwiththepossessionofAfrica.

(*)AgathoclestheSicilian,born361B.C.,died289
B.C.

Therefore,hewhoconsiderstheactionsandthegeniusof
thismanwill
seenothing,orlittle,whichcanbeattributedto
fortune,inasmuchas
heattainedpreeminence,asisshownabove,notbythe
favourofany
one,butstepbystepinthemilitaryprofession,which
stepswere
gainedwithathousandtroublesandperils,andwere
afterwardsboldly
heldbyhimwithmanyhazardousdangers.Yetitcannotbe
calledtalent
toslayfellowcitizens,todeceivefriends,tobe
withoutfaith,
withoutmercy,withoutreligion;suchmethodsmaygain
empire,but
notglory.Still,ifthecourageofAgathoclesin
enteringintoand
extricatinghimselffromdangersbeconsidered,together
withhis
greatnessofmindinenduringandovercominghardships,
itcannotbe
seenwhyheshouldbeesteemedlessthanthemostnotable
captain.
Nevertheless,hisbarbarouscrueltyandinhumanitywith
infinite
wickednessdonotpermithimtobecelebratedamongthe
mostexcellent
men.Whatheachievedcannotbeattributedeitherto
fortuneorgenius.

Inourtimes,duringtheruleofAlexandertheSixth,
Oliverottoda
Fermo,havingbeenleftanorphanmanyyearsbefore,was
broughtup
byhismaternaluncle,GiovanniFogliani,andinthe
earlydaysofhis
youthsenttofightunderPagoloVitelli,that,being
trainedunder
hisdiscipline,hemightattainsomehighpositioninthe
military
profession.AfterPagolodied,hefoughtunderhis
brotherVitellozzo,
andinaveryshorttime,beingendowedwithwitanda
vigorousbody
andmind,hebecamethefirstmaninhisprofession.But
itappearing
apaltrythingtoserveunderothers,heresolved,with
theaidofsome
citizensofFermo,towhomtheslaveryoftheircountry
wasdearerthan
itsliberty,andwiththehelpoftheVitelleschi,to
seizeFermo.So
hewrotetoGiovanniFoglianithat,havingbeenawayfrom
homeformany
years,hewishedtovisithimandhiscity,andinsome
measuretolook
uponhispatrimony;andalthoughhehadnotlabouredto
acquireanything
excepthonour,yet,inorderthatthecitizensshouldsee
hehadnot
spenthistimeinvain,hedesiredtocomehonourably,so
wouldbe
accompaniedbyonehundredhorsemen,hisfriendsand
retainers;andhe
entreatedGiovannitoarrangethatheshouldbereceived
honourablyby
theFermians,allofwhichwouldbenotonlytohis
honour,butalsoto
thatofGiovannihimself,whohadbroughthimup.

Giovanni,therefore,didnotfailinanyattentionsdue
tohisnephew,
andhecausedhimtobehonourablyreceivedbythe
Fermians,andhe
lodgedhiminhisownhouse,where,havingpassedsome
days,andhaving
arrangedwhatwasnecessaryforhiswickeddesigns,
Oliverottogavea
solemnbanquettowhichheinvitedGiovanniFoglianiand
thechiefsof
Fermo.Whentheviandsandalltheotherentertainments
thatareusual
insuchbanquetswerefinished,Oliverottoartfullybegan
certaingrave
discourses,speakingofthegreatnessofPopeAlexander
andhisson
Cesare,andoftheirenterprises,towhichdiscourse
Giovanniandothers
answered;butheroseatonce,sayingthatsuchmatters
oughttobe
discussedinamoreprivateplace,andhebetookhimself
toachamber,
whitherGiovanniandtherestofthecitizenswentin
afterhim.No
soonerweretheyseatedthansoldiersissuedfromsecret
placesand
slaughteredGiovanniandtherest.Afterthesemurders
Oliverotto,
mountedonhorseback,rodeupanddownthetownand
besiegedthechief
magistrateinthepalace,sothatinfearthepeoplewere
forcedtoobey
him,andtoformagovernment,ofwhichhemadehimself
theprince.He
killedallthemalcontentswhowereabletoinjurehim,
andstrengthened
himselfwithnewcivilandmilitaryordinances,insucha
waythat,in
theyearduringwhichheheldtheprincipality,notonly
washe
secureinthecityofFermo,buthehadbecomeformidable
toallhis
neighbours.Andhisdestructionwouldhavebeenas
difficultasthat
ofAgathoclesifhehadnotallowedhimselftobe
overreachedbyCesare
Borgia,whotookhimwiththeOrsiniandVitelliat
Sinigalia,aswas
statedabove.Thusoneyearafterhehadcommittedthis
parricide,he
wasstrangled,togetherwithVitellozzo,whomhehadmade
hisleaderin
valourandwickedness.

SomemaywonderhowitcanhappenthatAgathocles,and
hislike,after
infinitetreacheriesandcruelties,shouldliveforlong
securein
hiscountry,anddefendhimselffromexternalenemies,
andneverbe
conspiredagainstbyhisowncitizens;seeingthatmany
others,bymeans
ofcruelty,haveneverbeenableeveninpeacefultimes
toholdthe
state,stilllessinthedoubtfultimesofwar.Ibelieve
thatthis
followsfromseverities(*)beingbadlyorproperlyused.
Thosemaybe
calledproperlyused,ifofevilitispossibletospeak
well,thatare
appliedatoneblowandarenecessarytoone'ssecurity,
andthatare
notpersistedinafterwardsunlesstheycanbeturnedto
theadvantage
ofthesubjects.Thebadlyemployedarethosewhich,
notwithstanding
theymaybefewinthecommencement,multiplywithtime
ratherthan
decrease.Thosewhopractisethefirstsystemareable,
byaidofGod
orman,tomitigateinsomedegreetheirrule,as
Agathoclesdid.Itis
impossibleforthosewhofollowtheothertomaintain
themselves.
(*)MrBurdsuggeststhatthiswordprobablycomes
nearthe
modernequivalentofMachiavelli'sthoughtwhenhe
speaksof
"crudelta"thanthemoreobvious"cruelties."

Henceitistoberemarkedthat,inseizingastate,the
usurperought
toexaminecloselyintoallthoseinjurieswhichitis
necessaryforhim
toinflict,andtodothemallatonestrokesoasnotto
havetorepeat
themdaily;andthusbynotunsettlingmenhewillbe
abletoreassure
them,andwinthemtohimselfbybenefits.Hewhodoes
otherwise,either
fromtimidityoreviladvice,isalwayscompelledtokeep
theknife
inhishand;neithercanherelyonhissubjects,norcan
theyattach
themselvestohim,owingtotheircontinuedandrepeated
wrongs.For
injuriesoughttobedoneallatonetime,sothat,being
tastedless,
theyoffendless;benefitsoughttobegivenlittleby
little,sothat
theflavourofthemmaylastlonger.

Andaboveallthings,aprinceoughttoliveamongsthis
peopleinsuch
awaythatnounexpectedcircumstances,whetherofgood
orevil,shall
makehimchange;becauseifthenecessityforthiscomes
introubled
times,youaretoolateforharshmeasures;andmildones
willnothelp
you,fortheywillbeconsideredasforcedfromyou,and
noonewillbe
underanyobligationtoyouforthem.
CHAPTERIXCONCERNINGACIVILPRINCIPALITY

Butcomingtotheotherpointwherealeadingcitizen
becomesthe
princeofhiscountry,notbywickednessorany
intolerableviolence,
butbythefavourofhisfellowcitizensthismaybe
calledacivil
principality:norisgeniusorfortunealtogether
necessarytoattainto
it,butratherahappyshrewdness.Isaythenthatsucha
principality
isobtainedeitherbythefavourofthepeopleorbythe
favourofthe
nobles.Becauseinallcitiesthesetwodistinctparties
arefound,
andfromthisitarisesthatthepeopledonotwishtobe
rulednor
oppressedbythenobles,andthenobleswishtoruleand
oppressthe
people;andfromthesetwooppositedesirestherearises
incitiesone
ofthreeresults,eitheraprincipality,selfgovernment,
oranarchy.

Aprincipalityiscreatedeitherbythepeopleorbythe
nobles,
accordinglyasoneorotherofthemhastheopportunity;
forthenobles,
seeingtheycannotwithstandthepeople,begintocryup
thereputation
ofoneofthemselves,andtheymakehimaprince,sothat
underhis
shadowtheycangiveventtotheirambitions.Thepeople,
finding
theycannotresistthenobles,alsocryupthereputation
ofoneof
themselves,andmakehimaprincesoastobedefendedby
hisauthority.
Hewhoobtainssovereigntybytheassistanceofthe
noblesmaintains
himselfwithmoredifficultythanhewhocomestoitby
theaidof
thepeople,becausetheformerfindshimselfwithmany
aroundhimwho
considerthemselveshisequals,andbecauseofthishe
canneitherrule
normanagethemtohisliking.Buthewhoreaches
sovereigntybypopular
favourfindshimselfalone,andhasnonearoundhim,or
few,whoarenot
preparedtoobeyhim.

Besidesthis,onecannotbyfairdealing,andwithout
injurytoothers,
satisfythenobles,butyoucansatisfythepeople,for
theirobjectis
morerighteousthanthatofthenobles,thelatter
wishingtooppress,
whiletheformeronlydesirenottobeoppressed.Itis
tobeaddedalso
thataprincecanneversecurehimselfagainstahostile
people,because
oftheirbeingtoomany,whilstfromthenobleshecan
securehimself,
astheyarefewinnumber.Theworstthataprincemay
expectfroma
hostilepeopleistobeabandonedbythem;butfrom
hostilenobleshe
hasnotonlytofearabandonment,butalsothattheywill
riseagainst
him;forthey,beingintheseaffairsmorefarseeingand
astute,always
comeforwardintimetosavethemselves,andtoobtain
favoursfromhim
whomtheyexpecttoprevail.Further,theprinceis
compelledtolive
alwayswiththesamepeople,buthecandowellwithout
thesamenobles,
beingabletomakeandunmakethemdaily,andtogiveor
takeaway
authoritywhenitpleaseshim.

Therefore,tomakethispointclearer,Isaythatthe
noblesoughtto
belookedatmainlyintwoways:thatistosay,they
eithershapetheir
courseinsuchawayasbindsthementirelytoyour
fortune,ortheydo
not.Thosewhosobindthemselves,andarenotrapacious,
oughttobe
honouredandloved;thosewhodonotbindthemselvesmay
bedealt
withintwoways;theymayfailtodothisthrough
pusillanimityanda
naturalwantofcourage,inwhichcaseyououghttomake
useofthem,
especiallyofthosewhoareofgoodcounsel;andthus,
whilstin
prosperityyouhonourthem,inadversityyoudonothave
tofearthem.
Butwhenfortheirownambitiousendstheyshunbinding
themselves,it
isatokenthattheyaregivingmorethoughtto
themselvesthantoyou,
andaprinceoughttoguardagainstsuch,andtofear
themasifthey
wereopenenemies,becauseinadversitytheyalwayshelp
toruinhim.

Therefore,onewhobecomesaprincethroughthefavourof
thepeople
oughttokeepthemfriendly,andthishecaneasilydo
seeingthey
onlyasknottobeoppressedbyhim.Butonewho,in
oppositionto
thepeople,becomesaprincebythefavourofthenobles,
ought,above
everything,toseektowinthepeopleovertohimself,
andthishemay
easilydoifhetakesthemunderhisprotection.Because
men,whenthey
receivegoodfromhimofwhomtheywereexpectingevil,
areboundmore
closelytotheirbenefactor;thusthepeoplequickly
becomemoredevoted
tohimthanifhehadbeenraisedtotheprincipalityby
theirfavours;
andtheprincecanwintheiraffectionsinmanyways,but
asthesevary
accordingtothecircumstancesonecannotgivefixed
rules,soIomit
them;but,Irepeat,itisnecessaryforaprincetohave
thepeople
friendly,otherwisehehasnosecurityinadversity.

Nabis,(*)PrinceoftheSpartans,sustainedtheattackof
allGreece,
andofavictoriousRomanarmy,andagainstthemhe
defendedhiscountry
andhisgovernment;andfortheovercomingofthisperil
itwasonly
necessaryforhimtomakehimselfsecureagainstafew,
butthiswould
nothavebeensufficienthadthepeoplebeenhostile.And
donotletany
oneimpugnthisstatementwiththetriteproverbthat"He
whobuildson
thepeople,buildsonthemud,"forthisistruewhena
privatecitizen
makesafoundationthere,andpersuadeshimselfthatthe
peoplewill
freehimwhenheisoppressedbyhisenemiesorbythe
magistrates;
whereinhewouldfindhimselfveryoftendeceived,as
happenedtothe
GracchiinRomeandtoMesserGiorgioScali(+)in
Florence.Butgranted
aprincewhohasestablishedhimselfasabove,whocan
command,andis
amanofcourage,undismayedinadversity,whodoesnot
failinother
qualifications,andwho,byhisresolutionandenergy,
keepsthewhole
peopleencouragedsuchaonewillneverfindhimself
deceivedinthem,
anditwillbeshownthathehaslaidhisfoundations
well.

(*)Nabis,tyrantofSparta,conqueredbytheRomans
under
Flamininusin195B.C.;killed192B.C.

(+)MesserGiorgioScali.Thiseventistobefound
in
Machiavelli's"FlorentineHistory,"BookIII.
Theseprincipalitiesareliabletodangerwhentheyare
passingfromthe
civiltotheabsoluteorderofgovernment,forsuch
princeseitherrule
personallyorthroughmagistrates.Inthelattercase
theirgovernment
isweakerandmoreinsecure,becauseitrestsentirelyon
thegoodwill
ofthosecitizenswhoareraisedtothemagistracy,and
who,especially
introubledtimes,candestroythegovernmentwithgreat
ease,either
byintrigueoropendefiance;andtheprincehasnotthe
chanceamid
tumultstoexerciseabsoluteauthority,becausethe
citizensand
subjects,accustomedtoreceiveordersfrommagistrates,
arenotof
amindtoobeyhimamidtheseconfusions,andtherewill
alwaysbein
doubtfultimesascarcityofmenwhomhecantrust.For
suchaprince
cannotrelyuponwhatheobservesinquiettimes,when
citizenshave
needofthestate,becausetheneveryoneagreeswith
him;theyall
promise,andwhendeathisfardistanttheyallwishto
dieforhim;
butintroubledtimes,whenthestatehasneedofits
citizens,then
hefindsbutfew.Andsomuchthemoreisthisexperiment
dangerous,
inasmuchasitcanonlybetriedonce.Thereforeawise
princeoughtto
adoptsuchacoursethathiscitizenswillalwaysin
everysortand
kindofcircumstancehaveneedofthestateandofhim,
andthenhewill
alwaysfindthemfaithful.
CHAPTERXCONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHTHESTRENGTHOF
ALL
PRINCIPALITIESOUGHTTOBEMEASURED

Itisnecessarytoconsideranotherpointinexamining
thecharacterof
theseprincipalities:thatis,whetheraprincehassuch
powerthat,in
caseofneed,hecansupporthimselfwithhisown
resources,orwhether
hehasalwaysneedoftheassistanceofothers.Andto
makethisquite
clearIsaythatIconsiderthosewhoareabletosupport
themselvesby
theirownresourceswhocan,eitherbyabundanceofmen
ormoney,raise
asufficientarmytojoinbattleagainstanyonewho
comestoattack
them;andIconsiderthosealwaystohaveneedofothers
whocannot
showthemselvesagainsttheenemyinthefield,butare
forcedto
defendthemselvesbyshelteringbehindwalls.Thefirst
casehasbeen
discussed,butwewillspeakofitagainshoulditrecur.
Inthesecond
caseonecansaynothingexcepttoencouragesuchprinces
toprovision
andfortifytheirtowns,andnotonanyaccounttodefend
thecountry.
Andwhoevershallfortifyhistownwell,andshallhave
managedthe
otherconcernsofhissubjectsinthewaystatedabove,
andtobeoften
repeated,willneverbeattackedwithoutgreatcaution,
formenare
alwaysadversetoenterpriseswheredifficultiescanbe
seen,andit
willbeseennottobeaneasythingtoattackonewho
hashistownwell
fortified,andisnothatedbyhispeople.

ThecitiesofGermanyareabsolutelyfree,theyownbut
littlecountry
aroundthem,andtheyyieldobediencetotheemperorwhen
itsuits
them,nordotheyfearthisoranyotherpowertheymay
havenearthem,
becausetheyarefortifiedinsuchawaythateveryone
thinksthe
takingofthembyassaultwouldbetediousanddifficult,
seeingthey
haveproperditchesandwalls,theyhavesufficient
artillery,andthey
alwayskeepinpublicdepotsenoughforoneyear's
eating,drinking,and
firing.Andbeyondthis,tokeepthepeoplequietand
withoutlossto
thestate,theyalwayshavethemeansofgivingworkto
thecommunity
inthoselaboursthatarethelifeandstrengthofthe
city,andon
thepursuitofwhichthepeoplearesupported;theyalso
holdmilitary
exercisesinrepute,andmoreoverhavemanyordinancesto
upholdthem.

Therefore,aprincewhohasastrongcity,andhadnot
madehimself
odious,willnotbeattacked,orifanyoneshouldattack
hewillonly
bedrivenoffwithdisgrace;again,becausethatthe
affairsofthis
worldaresochangeable,itisalmostimpossibletokeep
anarmyawhole
yearinthefieldwithoutbeinginterferedwith.And
whoevershould
reply:Ifthepeoplehavepropertyoutsidethecity,and
seeitburnt,
theywillnotremainpatient,andthelongsiegeand
selfinterestwill
makethemforgettheirprince;tothisIanswerthata
powerfuland
courageousprincewillovercomeallsuchdifficultiesby
givingatone
timehopetohissubjectsthattheevilwillnotbefor
long,atanother
timefearofthecrueltyoftheenemy,thenpreserving
himselfadroitly
fromthosesubjectswhoseemtohimtobetoobold.

Further,theenemywouldnaturallyonhisarrivalatonce
burnandruin
thecountryatthetimewhenthespiritsofthepeople
arestillhotand
readyforthedefence;and,therefore,somuchtheless
oughttheprince
tohesitate;becauseafteratime,whenspiritshave
cooled,thedamage
isalreadydone,theillsareincurred,andthereisno
longerany
remedy;andthereforetheyaresomuchthemorereadyto
unitewith
theirprince,heappearingtobeunderobligationsto
themnowthat
theirhouseshavebeenburntandtheirpossessionsruined
inhis
defence.Foritisthenatureofmentobeboundbythe
benefitsthey
conferasmuchasbythosetheyreceive.Therefore,if
everythingis
wellconsidered,itwillnotbedifficultforawise
princetokeepthe
mindsofhiscitizenssteadfastfromfirsttolast,when
hedoesnot
failtosupportanddefendthem.

CHAPTERXICONCERNINGECCLESIASTICALPRINCIPALITIES

Itonlyremainsnowtospeakofecclesiastical
principalities,touching
whichalldifficultiesarepriortogettingpossession,
becausethey
areacquiredeitherbycapacityorgoodfortune,andthey
canbeheld
withouteither;fortheyaresustainedbytheancient
ordinancesof
religion,whicharesoallpowerful,andofsucha
characterthatthe
principalitiesmaybeheldnomatterhowtheirprinces
behaveandlive.
Theseprincesalonehavestatesanddonotdefendthem;
andtheyhave
subjectsanddonotrulethem;andthestates,although
unguarded,are
nottakenfromthem,andthesubjects,althoughnot
ruled,donotcare,
andtheyhaveneitherthedesirenortheabilityto
alienatethemselves.
Suchprincipalitiesonlyaresecureandhappy.Butbeing
upheldby
powers,towhichthehumanmindcannotreach,Ishall
speaknomoreof
them,because,beingexaltedandmaintainedbyGod,it
wouldbetheact
ofapresumptuousandrashmantodiscussthem.

Nevertheless,ifanyoneshouldaskofmehowcomesit
thatthe
Churchhasattainedsuchgreatnessintemporalpower,
seeingthatfrom
AlexanderbackwardstheItalianpotentates(notonly
thosewhohavebeen
calledpotentates,buteverybaronandlord,thoughthe
smallest)
havevaluedthetemporalpowerveryslightlyyetnowa
kingofFrance
tremblesbeforeit,andithasbeenabletodrivehim
fromItaly,and
toruintheVenetiansalthoughthismaybevery
manifest,itdoesnot
appeartomesuperfluoustorecallitinsomemeasureto
memory.

BeforeCharles,KingofFrance,passedintoItaly,(*)
thiscountrywas
underthedominionofthePope,theVenetians,theKing
ofNaples,the
DukeofMilan,andtheFlorentines.Thesepotentateshad
twoprincipal
anxieties:theone,thatnoforeignershouldenterItaly
underarms;the
other,thatnoneofthemselvesshouldseizemore
territory.Thoseabout
whomtherewasthemostanxietywerethePopeandthe
Venetians.To
restraintheVenetianstheunionofalltheotherswas
necessary,asit
wasforthedefenceofFerrara;andtokeepdownthePope
theymadeuse
ofthebaronsofRome,who,beingdividedintotwo
factions,Orsiniand
Colonnesi,hadalwaysapretextfordisorder,and,
standingwitharmsin
theirhandsundertheeyesofthePontiff,keptthe
pontificateweakand
powerless.Andalthoughtheremightarisesometimesa
courageouspope,
suchasSixtus,yetneitherfortunenorwisdomcouldrid
himofthese
annoyances.Andtheshortlifeofapopeisalsoacause
ofweakness;
forinthetenyears,whichistheaveragelifeofa
pope,hecanwith
difficultyloweroneofthefactions;andif,soto
speak,onepeople
shouldalmostdestroytheColonnesi,anotherwouldarise
hostiletothe
Orsini,whowouldsupporttheiropponents,andyetwould
nothavetime
toruintheOrsini.Thiswasthereasonwhythetemporal
powersofthe
popewerelittleesteemedinItaly.

(*)CharlesVIIIinvadedItalyin1494.

AlexandertheSixtharoseafterwards,whoofallthe
pontiffsthat
haveeverbeenshowedhowapopewithbothmoneyandarms
wasableto
prevail;andthroughtheinstrumentalityoftheDuke
Valentino,andby
reasonoftheentryoftheFrench,hebroughtaboutall
thosethings
whichIhavediscussedaboveintheactionsoftheduke.
Andalthough
hisintentionwasnottoaggrandizetheChurch,butthe
duke,
nevertheless,whathedidcontributedtothegreatnessof
theChurch,
which,afterhisdeathandtheruinoftheduke,became
theheirtoall
hislabours.

PopeJuliuscameafterwardsandfoundtheChurchstrong,
possessingall
theRomagna,thebaronsofRomereducedtoimpotence,
and,throughthe
chastisementsofAlexander,thefactionswipedout;he
alsofound
thewayopentoaccumulatemoneyinamannersuchashad
neverbeen
practisedbeforeAlexander'stime.SuchthingsJuliusnot
onlyfollowed,
butimprovedupon,andheintendedtogainBologna,to
ruinthe
Venetians,andtodrivetheFrenchoutofItaly.Allof
these
enterprisesprosperedwithhim,andsomuchthemoreto
hiscredit,
inasmuchashedideverythingtostrengthentheChurch
andnotany
privateperson.HekeptalsotheOrsiniandColonnesi
factionswithin
theboundsinwhichhefoundthem;andalthoughtherewas
amongthem
somemindtomakedisturbance,neverthelessheheldtwo
thingsfirm:the
one,thegreatnessoftheChurch,withwhichheterrified
them;andthe
other,notallowingthemtohavetheirowncardinals,who
causedthe
disordersamongthem.Forwheneverthesefactionshave
theircardinals
theydonotremainquietforlong,becausecardinals
fosterthefactions
inRomeandoutofit,andthebaronsarecompelledto
supportthem,and
thusfromtheambitionsofprelatesarisedisordersand
tumultsamong
thebarons.ForthesereasonshisHolinessPopeLeo(*)
foundthe
pontificatemostpowerful,anditistobehopedthat,if
othersmadeit
greatinarms,hewillmakeitstillgreaterandmore
veneratedbyhis
goodnessandinfiniteothervirtues.

(*)PopeLeoXwastheCardinalde'Medici.

CHAPTERXIIHOWMANYKINDSOFSOLDIERYTHEREARE,AND
CONCERNING
MERCENARIES

Havingdiscoursedparticularlyonthecharacteristicsof
such
principalitiesasinthebeginningIproposedtodiscuss,
andhaving
consideredinsomedegreethecausesoftheirbeinggood
orbad,and
havingshownthemethodsbywhichmanyhavesoughtto
acquirethemand
toholdthem,itnowremainsformetodiscussgenerally
themeansof
offenceanddefencewhichbelongtoeachofthem.

Wehaveseenabovehownecessaryitisforaprinceto
havehis
foundationswelllaid,otherwiseitfollowsofnecessity
hewillgo
toruin.Thechieffoundationsofallstates,newaswell
asoldor
composite,aregoodlawsandgoodarms;andasthere
cannotbegoodlaws
wherethestateisnotwellarmed,itfollowsthatwhere
theyarewell
armedtheyhavegoodlaws.Ishallleavethelawsoutof
thediscussion
andshallspeakofthearms.

Isay,therefore,thatthearmswithwhichaprince
defendshisstate
areeitherhisown,ortheyaremercenaries,auxiliaries,
ormixed.
Mercenariesandauxiliariesareuselessanddangerous;
andifoneholds
hisstatebasedonthesearms,hewillstandneitherfirm
norsafe;
fortheyaredisunited,ambitious,andwithout
discipline,unfaithful,
valiantbeforefriends,cowardlybeforeenemies;they
haveneitherthe
fearofGodnorfidelitytomen,anddestructionis
deferredonlyso
longastheattackis;forinpeaceoneisrobbedby
them,andinwar
bytheenemy.Thefactis,theyhavenootherattraction
orreasonfor
keepingthefieldthanatrifleofstipend,whichisnot
sufficient
tomakethemwillingtodieforyou.Theyareready
enoughtobe
yoursoldierswhilstyoudonotmakewar,butifwar
comestheytake
themselvesofforrunfromthefoe;whichIshouldhave
littletrouble
toprove,fortheruinofItalyhasbeencausedby
nothingelsethanby
restingallherhopesformanyyearsonmercenaries,and
althoughthey
formerlymadesomedisplayandappearedvaliantamongst
themselves,yet
whentheforeignerscametheyshowedwhattheywere.Thus
itwasthat
Charles,KingofFrance,wasallowedtoseizeItalywith
chalkin
hand;(*)andhewhotoldusthatoursinswerethecause
ofittoldthe
truth,buttheywerenotthesinsheimagined,butthose
whichIhave
related.Andastheywerethesinsofprinces,itisthe
princeswho
havealsosufferedthepenalty.

(*)"Withchalkinhand,""colgesso."Thisisone
ofthe
_bonsmots_ofAlexanderVI,andreferstotheease
with
whichCharlesVIIIseizedItaly,implyingthatit
wasonly
necessaryforhimtosendhisquartermastersto
chalkupthe
billetsforhissoldierstoconquerthecountry.Cf.
"The
HistoryofHenryVII,"byLordBacon:"KingCharles
had
conqueredtherealmofNaples,andlostitagain,in
akind
ofafelicityofadream.Hepassedthewholelength
of
Italywithoutresistance:sothatitwastruewhat
Pope
Alexanderwaswonttosay:ThattheFrenchmencame
into
Italywithchalkintheirhands,tomarkuptheir
lodgings,
ratherthanwithswordstofight."

Iwishtodemonstratefurthertheinfelicityofthese
arms.The
mercenarycaptainsareeithercapablemenortheyare
not;ifthey
are,youcannottrustthem,becausetheyalwaysaspireto
theirown
greatness,eitherbyoppressingyou,whoaretheir
master,orothers
contrarytoyourintentions;butifthecaptainisnot
skilful,youare
ruinedintheusualway.

Andifitbeurgedthatwhoeverisarmedwillactinthe
sameway,
whethermercenaryornot,Ireplythatwhenarmshaveto
beresortedto,
eitherbyaprinceorarepublic,thentheprinceought
togoin
personandperformthedutyofacaptain;therepublic
hastosendits
citizens,andwhenoneissentwhodoesnotturnout
satisfactorily,it
oughttorecallhim,andwhenoneisworthy,toholdhim
bythelawsso
thathedoesnotleavethecommand.Andexperiencehas
shownprincesand
republics,singlehanded,makingthegreatestprogress,
andmercenaries
doingnothingexceptdamage;anditismoredifficultto
bringa
republic,armedwithitsownarms,undertheswayofone
ofitscitizens
thanitistobringonearmedwithforeignarms.Romeand
Spartastood
formanyagesarmedandfree.TheSwitzersarecompletely
armedand
quitefree.

Ofancientmercenaries,forexample,therearethe
Carthaginians,who
wereoppressedbytheirmercenarysoldiersafterthe
firstwarwiththe
Romans,althoughtheCarthaginianshadtheirowncitizens
forcaptains.
AfterthedeathofEpaminondas,PhilipofMacedonwas
madecaptainof
theirsoldiersbytheThebans,andaftervictoryhetook
awaytheir
liberty.

DukeFilippobeingdead,theMilaneseenlistedFrancesco
Sforzaagainst
theVenetians,andhe,havingovercometheenemyat
Caravaggio,(*)
alliedhimselfwiththemtocrushtheMilanese,his
masters.Hisfather,
Sforza,havingbeenengagedbyQueenJohanna(+)of
Naples,lefther
unprotected,sothatshewasforcedtothrowherselfinto
thearmsof
theKingofAragon,inordertosaveherkingdom.Andif
theVenetians
andFlorentinesformerlyextendedtheirdominionsby
thesearms,andyet
theircaptainsdidnotmakethemselvesprinces,buthave
defendedthem,
IreplythattheFlorentinesinthiscasehavebeen
favouredbychance,
foroftheablecaptains,ofwhomtheymighthavestood
infear,some
havenotconquered,somehavebeenopposed,andothers
haveturnedtheir
ambitionselsewhere.OnewhodidnotconquerwasGiovanni
Acuto,(%)and
sincehedidnotconquerhisfidelitycannotbeproved;
buteveryone
willacknowledgethat,hadheconquered,theFlorentines
wouldhave
stoodathisdiscretion.SforzahadtheBracceschialways
againsthim,
sotheywatchedeachother.Francescoturnedhisambition
toLombardy;
BraccioagainsttheChurchandthekingdomofNaples.But
letuscome
tothatwhichhappenedashortwhileago.TheFlorentines
appointedas
theircaptainPagoloVitelli,amostprudentman,who
fromaprivate
positionhadrisentothegreatestrenown.Ifthisman
hadtakenPisa,
nobodycandenythatitwouldhavebeenproperforthe
Florentinesto
keepinwithhim,forifhebecamethesoldieroftheir
enemiestheyhad
nomeansofresisting,andiftheyheldtohimtheymust
obeyhim.The
Venetians,iftheirachievementsareconsidered,willbe
seentohave
actedsafelyandgloriouslysolongastheysenttowar
theirownmen,
whenwitharmedgentlemenandplebianstheydid
valiantly.Thiswas
beforetheyturnedtoenterprisesonland,butwhenthey
begantofight
onlandtheyforsookthisvirtueandfollowedthecustom
ofItaly.And
inthebeginningoftheirexpansiononland,throughnot
havingmuch
territory,andbecauseoftheirgreatreputation,they
hadnotmuch
tofearfromtheircaptains;butwhentheyexpanded,as
under
Carmignuola,(#)theyhadatasteofthismistake;for,
havingfoundhim
amostvaliantman(theybeattheDukeofMilanunderhis
leadership),
and,ontheotherhand,knowinghowlukewarmhewasin
thewar,they
fearedtheywouldnolongerconquerunderhim,andfor
thisreasonthey
werenotwilling,norweretheyable,tolethimgo;and
so,nottolose
againthatwhichtheyhadacquired,theywerecompelled,
inorderto
securethemselves,tomurderhim.Theyhadafterwardsfor
their
captainsBartolomeodaBergamo,RobertodaSanSeverino,
thecountof
Pitigliano,(&)andthelike,underwhomtheyhadtodread
lossandnot
gain,ashappenedafterwardsatVaila,($)whereinone
battlethey
lostthatwhichineighthundredyearstheyhadacquired
withsomuch
trouble.Becausefromsucharmsconquestscomebut
slowly,longdelayed
andinconsiderable,butthelossessuddenandportentous.

(*)BattleofCaravaggio,15thSeptember1448.

(+)JohannaIIofNaples,thewidowofLadislao,
Kingof
Naples.

(%)GiovanniAcuto.AnEnglishknightwhosenamewas
Sir
JohnHawkwood.HefoughtintheEnglishwarsin
France,and
wasknightedbyEdwardIII;afterwardshecollected
abody
oftroopsandwentintoItaly.Thesebecamethe
famous
"WhiteCompany."Hetookpartinmanywars,anddied
in
Florencein1394.Hewasbornabout1320atSible
Hedingham,
avillageinEssex.HemarriedDomnia,adaughterof
Bernabo
Visconti.

(#)Carmignuola.FrancescoBussone,bornat
Carmagnolaabout
1390,executedatVenice,5thMay1432.

(&)BartolomeoColleoniofBergamo;died1457.
Robertoof
SanSeverino;diedfightingforVeniceagainst
Sigismund,
DukeofAustria,in1487."Primocapitanoin
Italia."
Machiavelli.CountofPitigliano;NicoloOrsini,
born1442,
died1510.

($)BattleofVailain1509.

AndaswiththeseexamplesIhavereachedItaly,which
hasbeenruled
formanyyearsbymercenaries,Iwishtodiscussthem
moreseriously,
inorderthat,havingseentheirriseandprogress,one
maybebetter
preparedtocounteractthem.Youmustunderstandthatthe
empirehas
recentlycometoberepudiatedinItaly,thatthePope
hasacquiredmore
temporalpower,andthatItalyhasbeendividedupinto
morestates,
forthereasonthatmanyofthegreatcitiestookuparms
againsttheir
nobles,who,formerlyfavouredbytheemperor,were
oppressingthem,
whilsttheChurchwasfavouringthemsoastogain
authorityintemporal
power:inmanyotherstheircitizensbecameprinces.From
thisitcame
topassthatItalyfellpartlyintothehandsofthe
Churchandof
republics,and,theChurchconsistingofpriestsandthe
republicof
citizensunaccustomedtoarms,bothcommencedtoenlist
foreigners.

ThefirstwhogaverenowntothissoldierywasAlberigo
daConio,(*)the
Romagnian.Fromtheschoolofthismansprang,among
others,Braccioand
Sforza,whointheirtimewerethearbitersofItaly.
Afterthesecame
alltheothercaptainswhotillnowhavedirectedthe
armsofItaly;
andtheendofalltheirvalourhasbeen,thatshehas
beenoverrun
byCharles,robbedbyLouis,ravagedbyFerdinand,and
insultedbythe
Switzers.Theprinciplethathasguidedthemhasbeen,
first,tolower
thecreditofinfantrysothattheymightincreasetheir
own.Theydid
thisbecause,subsistingontheirpayandwithout
territory,theywere
unabletosupportmanysoldiers,andafewinfantrydid
notgivethem
anyauthority;sotheywereledtoemploycavalry,witha
moderateforce
ofwhichtheyweremaintainedandhonoured;andaffairs
werebroughtto
suchapassthat,inanarmyoftwentythousandsoldiers,
therewere
nottobefoundtwothousandfootsoldiers.Theyhad,
besidesthis,used
everyarttolessenfatigueanddangertothemselvesand
theirsoldiers,
notkillinginthefray,buttakingprisonersand
liberatingwithout
ransom.Theydidnotattacktownsatnight,nordidthe
garrisonsofthe
townsattackencampmentsatnight;theydidnotsurround
thecampeither
withstockadeorditch,nordidtheycampaigninthe
winter.Allthese
thingswerepermittedbytheirmilitaryrules,and
devisedbythemto
avoid,asIhavesaid,bothfatigueanddangers;thus
theyhavebrought
Italytoslaveryandcontempt.

(*)AlberigodaConio.AlbericodaBarbiano,Count
ofCunio
inRomagna.Hewastheleaderofthefamous"Company
ofSt
George,"composedentirelyofItaliansoldiers.He
diedin
1409.

CHAPTERXIIICONCERNINGAUXILIARIES,MIXEDSOLDIERY,
ANDONE'SOWN

Auxiliaries,whicharetheotheruselessarm,are
employedwhenaprince
iscalledinwithhisforcestoaidanddefend,aswas
donebyPope
Juliusinthemostrecenttimes;forhe,having,inthe
enterprise
againstFerrara,hadpoorproofofhismercenaries,
turnedto
auxiliaries,andstipulatedwithFerdinand,Kingof
Spain,(*)forhis
assistancewithmenandarms.Thesearmsmaybeuseful
andgood
inthemselves,butforhimwhocallsthemintheyare
always
disadvantageous;forlosing,oneisundone,andwinning,
oneistheir
captive.

(*)FerdinandV(F.IIofAragonandSicily,F.III
of
Naples),surnamed"TheCatholic,"born1452,died
1516.

Andalthoughancienthistoriesmaybefullofexamples,I
donotwish
toleavethisrecentoneofPopeJuliustheSecond,the
perilofwhich
cannotfailtobeperceived;forhe,wishingtoget
Ferrara,threw
himselfentirelyintothehandsoftheforeigner.Buthis
goodfortune
broughtaboutathirdevent,sothathedidnotreapthe
fruitofhis
rashchoice;because,havinghisauxiliariesroutedat
Ravenna,and
theSwitzershavingrisenanddrivenouttheconquerors
(againstall
expectation,bothhisandothers),itsocametopass
thathedid
notbecomeprisonertohisenemies,theyhavingfled,nor
tohis
auxiliaries,hehavingconqueredbyotherarmsthan
theirs.

TheFlorentines,beingentirelywithoutarms,sentten
thousand
FrenchmentotakePisa,wherebytheyranmoredangerthan
atanyother
timeoftheirtroubles.

TheEmperorofConstantinople,(*)toopposehis
neighbours,sentten
thousandTurksintoGreece,who,onthewarbeing
finished,werenot
willingtoquit;thiswasthebeginningoftheservitude
ofGreeceto
theinfidels.

(*)JoannesCantacuzenus,born1300,died1383.

Therefore,lethimwhohasnodesiretoconquermakeuse
ofthesearms,
fortheyaremuchmorehazardousthanmercenaries,
becausewiththemthe
ruinisreadymade;theyareallunited,allyield
obediencetoothers;
butwithmercenaries,whentheyhaveconquered,moretime
andbetter
opportunitiesareneededtoinjureyou;theyarenotall
ofone
community,theyarefoundandpaidbyyou,andathird
party,whichyou
havemadetheirhead,isnotableallatoncetoassume
enoughauthority
toinjureyou.Inconclusion,inmercenariesdastardyis
mostdangerous;
inauxiliaries,valour.Thewiseprince,therefore,has
alwaysavoided
thesearmsandturnedtohisown;andhasbeenwilling
rathertolose
withthemthantoconquerwiththeothers,notdeeming
thatareal
victorywhichisgainedwiththearmsofothers.

IshallneverhesitatetociteCesareBorgiaandhis
actions.Thisduke
enteredtheRomagnawithauxiliaries,takingthereonly
Frenchsoldiers,
andwiththemhecapturedImolaandForli;but
afterwards,suchforces
notappearingtohimreliable,heturnedtomercenaries,
discerningless
dangerinthem,andenlistedtheOrsiniandVitelli;whom
presently,
onhandlingandfindingthemdoubtful,unfaithful,and
dangerous,he
destroyedandturnedtohisownmen.Andthedifference
betweenone
andtheotheroftheseforcescaneasilybeseenwhenone
considers
thedifferencetherewasinthereputationoftheduke,
whenhehadthe
French,whenhehadtheOrsiniandVitelli,andwhenhe
reliedonhis
ownsoldiers,onwhosefidelityhecouldalwayscountand
founditever
increasing;hewasneveresteemedmorehighlythanwhen
everyonesaw
thathewascompletemasterofhisownforces.

IwasnotintendingtogobeyondItalianandrecent
examples,butIam
unwillingtoleaveoutHiero,theSyracusan,hebeingone
ofthoseI
havenamedabove.Thisman,asIhavesaid,madeheadof
thearmybythe
Syracusans,soonfoundoutthatamercenarysoldiery,
constitutedlike
ourItaliancondottieri,wasofnouse;anditappearing
tohimthathe
couldneitherkeepthemnotletthemgo,hehadthemall
cuttopieces,
andafterwardsmadewarwithhisownforcesandnotwith
aliens.

IwishalsotorecalltomemoryaninstancefromtheOld
Testament
applicabletothissubject.DavidofferedhimselftoSaul
tofightwith
Goliath,thePhilistinechampion,and,togivehim
courage,Saularmed
himwithhisownweapons;whichDavidrejectedassoonas
hehadthem
onhisback,sayinghecouldmakenouseofthem,and
thathewishedto
meettheenemywithhisslingandhisknife.In
conclusion,thearmsof
otherseitherfallfromyourback,ortheyweighyou
down,ortheybind
youfast.

CharlestheSeventh,(*)thefatherofKingLouisthe
Eleventh,(+)having
bygoodfortuneandvalourliberatedFrancefromthe
English,recognized
thenecessityofbeingarmedwithforcesofhisown,and
heestablished
inhiskingdomordinancesconcerningmenatarmsand
infantry.
Afterwardshisson,KingLouis,abolishedtheinfantry
andbeganto
enlisttheSwitzers,whichmistake,followedbyothers,
is,asisnow
seen,asourceofperiltothatkingdom;because,having
raisedthe
reputationoftheSwitzers,hehasentirelydiminished
thevalueof
hisownarms,forhehasdestroyedtheinfantry
altogether;andhis
menatarmshehassubordinatedtoothers,for,beingas
theyareso
accustomedtofightalongwithSwitzers,itdoesnot
appearthatthey
cannowconquerwithoutthem.Henceitarisesthatthe
Frenchcannot
standagainsttheSwitzers,andwithouttheSwitzersthey
donotcome
offwellagainstothers.ThearmiesoftheFrenchhave
thusbecome
mixed,partlymercenaryandpartlynational,bothof
whicharmstogether
aremuchbetterthanmercenariesaloneorauxiliaries
alone,butmuch
inferiortoone'sownforces.Andthisexampleprovesit,
forthe
kingdomofFrancewouldbeunconquerableiftheordinance
ofCharleshad
beenenlargedormaintained.

(*)CharlesVIIofFrance,surnamed"The
Victorious,"born
1403,died1461.

(+)LouisXI,sonoftheabove,born1423,died
1483.

Butthescantywisdomofman,onenteringintoanaffair
whichlooks
wellatfirst,cannotdiscernthepoisonthatishidden
init,asIhave
saidaboveofhecticfevers.Therefore,ifhewhorulesa
principality
cannotrecognizeevilsuntiltheyareuponhim,heisnot
trulywise;
andthisinsightisgiventofew.Andifthefirst
disastertotheRoman
Empire(*)shouldbeexamined,itwillbefoundtohave
commencedonly
withtheenlistingoftheGoths;becausefromthattime
thevigourof
theRomanEmpirebegantodecline,andallthatvalour
whichhadraised
itpassedawaytoothers.

(*)"ManyspeakerstotheHousetheothernightin
the
debateonthereductionofarmamentsseemedtoshow
amost
lamentableignoranceoftheconditionsunderwhich
the
BritishEmpiremaintainsitsexistence.WhenMr
Balfour
repliedtotheallegationsthattheRomanEmpire
sankunder
theweightofitsmilitaryobligations,hesaidthat
this
was'whollyunhistorical.'Hemightwellhaveadded
thatthe
Romanpowerwasatitszenithwheneverycitizen
acknowledgedhisliabilitytofightfortheState,
butthat
itbegantodeclineassoonasthisobligationwas
nolonger
recognized."PallMallGazette,15thMay1906.

Iconclude,therefore,thatnoprincipalityissecure
withouthavingits
ownforces;onthecontrary,itisentirelydependenton
goodfortune,
nothavingthevalourwhichinadversitywoulddefendit.
Andithas
alwaysbeentheopinionandjudgmentofwisementhat
nothingcanbeso
uncertainorunstableasfameorpowernotfoundedonits
ownstrength.
Andone'sownforcesarethosewhicharecomposedeither
ofsubjects,
citizens,ordependents;allothersaremercenariesor
auxiliaries.And
thewaytomakereadyone'sownforceswillbeeasily
foundiftherules
suggestedbymeshallbereflectedupon,andifonewill
consider
howPhilip,thefatherofAlexandertheGreat,andmany
republicsand
princeshavearmedandorganizedthemselves,towhich
rulesIentirely
commitmyself.

CHAPTERXIVTHATWHICHCONCERNSAPRINCEONTHE
SUBJECTOFTHEARTOF
WAR

Aprinceoughttohavenootheraimorthought,nor
selectanythingelse
forhisstudy,thanwaranditsrulesanddiscipline;for
thisisthe
soleartthatbelongstohimwhorules,anditisofsuch
forcethatit
notonlyupholdsthosewhoarebornprinces,butitoften
enablesmen
torisefromaprivatestationtothatrank.And,onthe
contrary,itis
seenthatwhenprinceshavethoughtmoreofeasethanof
armstheyhave
losttheirstates.Andthefirstcauseofyourlosingit
istoneglect
thisart;andwhatenablesyoutoacquireastateisto
bemasterof
theart.FrancescoSforza,throughbeingmartial,froma
privateperson
becameDukeofMilan;andthesons,throughavoidingthe
hardshipsand
troublesofarms,fromdukesbecameprivatepersons.For
amongother
evilswhichbeingunarmedbringsyou,itcausesyoutobe
despised,and
thisisoneofthoseignominiesagainstwhichaprince
oughttoguard
himself,asisshownlateron.Becausethereisnothing
proportionate
betweenthearmedandtheunarmed;anditisnot
reasonablethathewho
isarmedshouldyieldobediencewillinglytohimwhois
unarmed,orthat
theunarmedmanshouldbesecureamongarmedservants.
Because,there
beingintheonedisdainandintheothersuspicion,it
isnotpossible
forthemtoworkwelltogether.Andthereforeaprince
whodoesnot
understandtheartofwar,overandabovetheother
misfortunesalready
mentioned,cannotberespectedbyhissoldiers,norcan
herelyonthem.
Heoughtnever,therefore,tohaveoutofhisthoughts
thissubjectof
war,andinpeaceheshouldaddicthimselfmoretoits
exercisethanin
war;thishecandointwoways,theonebyaction,the
otherbystudy.

Asregardsaction,heoughtaboveallthingstokeephis
menwell
organizedanddrilled,tofollowincessantlythechase,
bywhichhe
accustomshisbodytohardships,andlearnssomethingof
thenatureof
localities,andgetstofindouthowthemountainsrise,
howthevalleys
openout,howtheplainslie,andtounderstandthe
natureofriversand
marshes,andinallthistotakethegreatestcare.Which
knowledge
isusefulintwoways.Firstly,helearnstoknowhis
country,and
isbetterabletoundertakeitsdefence;afterwards,by
meansofthe
knowledgeandobservationofthatlocality,he
understandswitheaseany
otherwhichitmaybenecessaryforhimtostudy
hereafter;because
thehills,valleys,andplains,andriversandmarshes
thatare,for
instance,inTuscany,haveacertainresemblancetothose
ofother
countries,sothatwithaknowledgeoftheaspectofone
countryonecan
easilyarriveataknowledgeofothers.Andtheprince
thatlacksthis
skilllackstheessentialwhichitisdesirablethata
captainshould
possess,foritteacheshimtosurprisehisenemy,to
selectquarters,
toleadarmies,toarraythebattle,tobesiegetownsto
advantage.

Philopoemen,(*)PrinceoftheAchaeans,amongother
praiseswhich
writershavebestowedonhim,iscommendedbecausein
timeofpeacehe
neverhadanythinginhismindbuttherulesofwar;and
whenhewasin
thecountrywithfriends,heoftenstoppedandreasoned
withthem:"If
theenemyshouldbeuponthathill,andweshouldfind
ourselveshere
withourarmy,withwhomwouldbetheadvantage?How
shouldonebest
advancetomeethim,keepingtheranks?Ifweshouldwish
toretreat,
howoughtwetopursue?"Andhewouldsetforthtothem,
ashewent,all
thechancesthatcouldbefallanarmy;hewouldlistento
theiropinion
andstatehis,confirmingitwithreasons,sothatby
thesecontinual
discussionstherecouldneverarise,intimeofwar,any
unexpected
circumstancesthathecouldnotdealwith.

(*)Philopoemen,"thelastoftheGreeks,"born252
B.C.,
died183B.C.

Buttoexercisetheintellecttheprinceshouldread
histories,and
studytheretheactionsofillustriousmen,toseehow
theyhaveborne
themselvesinwar,toexaminethecausesoftheir
victoriesanddefeat,
soastoavoidthelatterandimitatetheformer;and
abovealldoas
anillustriousmandid,whotookasanexemplaronewho
hadbeenpraised
andfamousbeforehim,andwhoseachievementsanddeeds
healwayskept
inhismind,asitissaidAlexandertheGreatimitated
Achilles,Caesar
Alexander,ScipioCyrus.Andwhoeverreadsthelifeof
Cyrus,written
byXenophon,willrecognizeafterwardsinthelifeof
Scipiohowthat
imitationwashisglory,andhowinchastity,affability,
humanity,and
liberalityScipioconformedtothosethingswhichhave
beenwrittenof
CyrusbyXenophon.Awiseprinceoughttoobservesome
suchrules,and
neverinpeacefultimesstandidle,butincreasehis
resourceswith
industryinsuchawaythattheymaybeavailabletohim
inadversity,
sothatiffortunechancesitmayfindhimpreparedto
resistherblows.

CHAPTERXVCONCERNINGTHINGSFORWHICHMEN,AND
ESPECIALLYPRINCES,
AREPRAISEDORBLAMED

Itremainsnowtoseewhatoughttobetherulesof
conductforaprince
towardssubjectandfriends.AndasIknowthatmanyhave
writtenon
thispoint,IexpectIshallbeconsideredpresumptuous
inmentioningit
again,especiallyasindiscussingitIshalldepartfrom
themethodsof
otherpeople.But,itbeingmyintentiontowriteathing
whichshall
beusefultohimwhoapprehendsit,itappearstomemore
appropriateto
followuptherealtruthofthematterthanthe
imaginationofit;for
manyhavepicturedrepublicsandprincipalitieswhichin
facthavenever
beenknownorseen,becausehowonelivesissofar
distantfromhowone
oughttolive,thathewhoneglectswhatisdoneforwhat
oughtto
bedone,soonereffectshisruinthanhispreservation;
foramanwho
wishestoactentirelyuptohisprofessionsofvirtue
soonmeetswith
whatdestroyshimamongsomuchthatisevil.

Henceitisnecessaryforaprincewishingtoholdhis
owntoknow
howtodowrong,andtomakeuseofitornotaccording
tonecessity.
Therefore,puttingononesideimaginarythings
concerningaprince,and
discussingthosewhicharereal,Isaythatallmenwhen
theyarespoken
of,andchieflyprincesforbeingmorehighlyplaced,are
remarkable
forsomeofthosequalitieswhichbringthemeitherblame
orpraise;and
thusitisthatoneisreputedliberal,anothermiserly,
usingaTuscan
term(becauseanavariciouspersoninourlanguageis
stillhewho
desirestopossessbyrobbery,whilstwecallonemiserly
whodeprives
himselftoomuchoftheuseofhisown);oneisreputed
generous,
onerapacious;onecruel,onecompassionate;one
faithless,another
faithful;oneeffeminateandcowardly,anotherboldand
brave;one
affable,anotherhaughty;onelascivious,anotherchaste;
onesincere,
anothercunning;onehard,anothereasy;onegrave,
anotherfrivolous;
onereligious,anotherunbelieving,andthelike.AndI
knowthatevery
onewillconfessthatitwouldbemostpraiseworthyina
princeto
exhibitalltheabovequalitiesthatareconsideredgood;
butbecause
theycanneitherbeentirelypossessednorobserved,for
human
conditionsdonotpermitit,itisnecessaryforhimto
besufficiently
prudentthathemayknowhowtoavoidthereproachof
thoseviceswhich
wouldlosehimhisstate;andalsotokeephimself,ifit
bepossible,
fromthosewhichwouldnotlosehimit;butthisnot
beingpossible,he
maywithlesshesitationabandonhimselftothem.And
again,heneed
notmakehimselfuneasyatincurringareproachforthose
viceswithout
whichthestatecanonlybesavedwithdifficulty,forif
everythingis
consideredcarefully,itwillbefoundthatsomething
whichlookslike
virtue,iffollowed,wouldbehisruin;whilstsomething
else,which
lookslikevice,yetfollowedbringshimsecurityand
prosperity.

CHAPTERXVICONCERNINGLIBERALITYANDMEANNESS

Commencingthenwiththefirstoftheabovenamed
characteristics,Isay
thatitwouldbewelltobereputedliberal.
Nevertheless,liberality
exercisedinawaythatdoesnotbringyouthereputation
forit,
injuresyou;forifoneexercisesithonestlyandasit
shouldbe
exercised,itmaynotbecomeknown,andyouwillnot
avoidthereproach
ofitsopposite.Therefore,anyonewishingtomaintain
amongmenthe
nameofliberalisobligedtoavoidnoattributeof
magnificence;so
thataprincethusinclinedwillconsumeinsuchactsall
hisproperty,
andwillbecompelledintheend,ifhewishtomaintain
thename
ofliberal,toundulyweighdownhispeople,andtax
them,anddo
everythinghecantogetmoney.Thiswillsoonmakehim
odioustohis
subjects,andbecomingpoorhewillbelittlevaluedby
anyone;thus,
withhisliberality,havingoffendedmanyandrewarded
few,heis
affectedbytheveryfirsttroubleandimperilledby
whatevermaybethe
firstdanger;recognizingthishimself,andwishingto
drawbackfrom
it,herunsatonceintothereproachofbeingmiserly.

Therefore,aprince,notbeingabletoexercisethis
virtueof
liberalityinsuchawaythatitisrecognized,exceptto
hiscost,if
heiswiseheoughtnottofearthereputationofbeing
mean,forin
timehewillcometobemoreconsideredthanifliberal,
seeingthat
withhiseconomyhisrevenuesareenough,thathecan
defendhimself
againstallattacks,andisabletoengageinenterprises
without
burdeninghispeople;thusitcomestopassthathe
exercisesliberality
towardsallfromwhomhedoesnottake,whoare
numberless,andmeanness
towardsthosetowhomhedoesnotgive,whoarefew.

Wehavenotseengreatthingsdoneinourtimeexceptby
thosewhohave
beenconsideredmean;theresthavefailed.PopeJulius
theSecondwas
assistedinreachingthepapacybyareputationfor
liberality,yethe
didnotstriveafterwardstokeepitup,whenhemadewar
ontheKingof
France;andhemademanywarswithoutimposingany
extraordinarytaxon
hissubjects,forhesuppliedhisadditionalexpensesout
ofhislong
thriftiness.ThepresentKingofSpainwouldnothave
undertakenor
conqueredinsomanyenterprisesifhehadbeenreputed
liberal.A
prince,therefore,providedthathehasnottorobhis
subjects,thathe
candefendhimself,thathedoesnotbecomepoorand
abject,thathe
isnotforcedtobecomerapacious,oughttoholdof
littleaccount
areputationforbeingmean,foritisoneofthosevices
whichwill
enablehimtogovern.

Andifanyoneshouldsay:Caesarobtainedempireby
liberality,and
manyothershavereachedthehighestpositionsbyhaving
beenliberal,
andbybeingconsideredso,Ianswer:Eitheryouarea
princein
fact,orinawaytobecomeone.Inthefirstcasethis
liberalityis
dangerous,intheseconditisverynecessarytobe
consideredliberal;
andCaesarwasoneofthosewhowishedtobecomepre
eminentinRome;
butifhehadsurvivedafterbecomingso,andhadnot
moderatedhis
expenses,hewouldhavedestroyedhisgovernment.Andif
anyoneshould
reply:Manyhavebeenprinces,andhavedonegreatthings
witharmies,
whohavebeenconsideredveryliberal,Ireply:Eithera
princespends
thatwhichishisownorhissubjects'orelsethatof
others.Inthe
firstcaseheoughttobesparing,inthesecondheought
nottoneglect
anyopportunityforliberality.Andtotheprincewho
goesforthwith
hisarmy,supportingitbypillage,sack,andextortion,
handlingthat
whichbelongstoothers,thisliberalityisnecessary,
otherwisehe
wouldnotbefollowedbysoldiers.Andofthatwhichis
neitheryours
noryoursubjects'youcanbeareadygiver,aswere
Cyrus,Caesar,and
Alexander;becauseitdoesnottakeawayyourreputation
ifyousquander
thatofothers,butaddstoit;itisonlysquandering
yourownthat
injuresyou.

Andthereisnothingwastessorapidlyasliberality,for
evenwhilst
youexerciseityoulosethepowertodoso,andso
becomeeitherpoor
ordespised,orelse,inavoidingpoverty,rapaciousand
hated.Anda
princeshouldguardhimself,aboveallthings,against
beingdespised
andhated;andliberalityleadsyoutoboth.Thereforeit
iswiserto
haveareputationformeannesswhichbringsreproach
withouthatred,
thantobecompelledthroughseekingareputationfor
liberalityto
incuranameforrapacitywhichbegetsreproachwith
hatred.

CHAPTERXVIICONCERNINGCRUELTYANDCLEMENCY,AND
WHETHERITIS
BETTERTOBELOVEDTHANFEARED

Comingnowtotheotherqualitiesmentionedabove,Isay
thatevery
princeoughttodesiretobeconsideredclementandnot
cruel.
Neverthelessheoughttotakecarenottomisusethis
clemency.Cesare
Borgiawasconsideredcruel;notwithstanding,hiscruelty
reconciledthe
Romagna,unifiedit,andrestoredittopeaceand
loyalty.Andifthis
berightlyconsidered,hewillbeseentohavebeenmuch
moremerciful
thantheFlorentinepeople,who,toavoidareputation
forcruelty,
permittedPistoiatobedestroyed.(*)Thereforeaprince,
solongashe
keepshissubjectsunitedandloyal,oughtnottomind
thereproachof
cruelty;becausewithafewexampleshewillbemore
mercifulthanthose
who,throughtoomuchmercy,allowdisorderstoarise,
fromwhichfollow
murdersorrobberies;forthesearewonttoinjurethe
wholepeople,
whilstthoseexecutionswhichoriginatewithaprince
offendthe
individualonly.

(*)DuringtheriotingbetweentheCancellieriand
Panciatichifactionsin1502and1503.

Andofallprinces,itisimpossibleforthenewprince
toavoidthe
imputationofcruelty,owingtonewstatesbeingfullof
dangers.Hence
Virgil,throughthemouthofDido,excusestheinhumanity
ofherreign
owingtoitsbeingnew,saying:

"Resdura,etregninovitasmetaliacogunt
Moliri,etlatefinescustodetueri."(*)

Neverthelessheoughttobeslowtobelieveandtoact,
norshouldhe
himselfshowfear,butproceedinatemperatemannerwith
prudenceand
humanity,sothattoomuchconfidencemaynotmakehim
incautiousand
toomuchdistrustrenderhimintolerable.

(*)...againstmywill,myfate
Athroneunsettled,andaninfantstate,
Bidmedefendmyrealmswithallmypow'rs,
Andguardwiththeseseveritiesmyshores.

ChristopherPitt.

Uponthisaquestionarises:whetheritbebettertobe
lovedthan
fearedorfearedthanloved?Itmaybeansweredthatone
shouldwishto
beboth,but,becauseitisdifficulttounitethemin
oneperson,it
ismuchsafertobefearedthanloved,when,ofthetwo,
eithermustbe
dispensedwith.Becausethisistobeassertedingeneral
ofmen,that
theyareungrateful,fickle,false,cowardly,covetous,
andaslongas
yousucceedtheyareyoursentirely;theywillofferyou
theirblood,
property,life,andchildren,asissaidabove,whenthe
needisfar
distant;butwhenitapproachestheyturnagainstyou.
Andthat
princewho,relyingentirelyontheirpromises,has
neglectedother
precautions,isruined;becausefriendshipsthatare
obtainedby
payments,andnotbygreatnessornobilityofmind,may
indeedbe
earned,buttheyarenotsecured,andintimeofneed
cannotberelied
upon;andmenhavelessscrupleinoffendingonewhois
belovedthanone
whoisfeared,forloveispreservedbythelinkof
obligationwhich,
owingtothebasenessofmen,isbrokenatevery
opportunityfortheir
advantage;butfearpreservesyoubyadreadof
punishmentwhichnever
fails.

Neverthelessaprinceoughttoinspirefearinsuchaway
that,ifhe
doesnotwinlove,heavoidshatred;becausehecan
endureverywell
beingfearedwhilstheisnothated,whichwillalwaysbe
aslongashe
abstainsfromthepropertyofhiscitizensandsubjects
andfromtheir
women.Butwhenitisnecessaryforhimtoproceed
againstthelifeof
someone,hemustdoitonproperjustificationandfor
manifestcause,
butaboveallthingshemustkeephishandsoffthe
propertyofothers,
becausemenmorequicklyforgetthedeathoftheirfather
thantheloss
oftheirpatrimony.Besides,pretextsfortakingawaythe
propertyare
neverwanting;forhewhohasoncebeguntoliveby
robberywillalways
findpretextsforseizingwhatbelongstoothers;but
reasonsfortaking
life,onthecontrary,aremoredifficulttofindand
soonerlapse.But
whenaprinceiswithhisarmy,andhasundercontrola
multitudeof
soldiers,thenitisquitenecessaryforhimtodisregard
thereputation
ofcruelty,forwithoutithewouldneverholdhisarmy
unitedor
disposedtoitsduties.

AmongthewonderfuldeedsofHannibalthisoneis
enumerated:that
havingledanenormousarmy,composedofmanyvarious
racesofmen,
tofightinforeignlands,nodissensionsaroseeither
amongthemor
againsttheprince,whetherinhisbadorinhisgood
fortune.This
arosefromnothingelsethanhisinhumancruelty,which,
withhis
boundlessvalour,madehimreveredandterribleinthe
sightof
hissoldiers,butwithoutthatcruelty,hisothervirtues
werenot
sufficienttoproducethiseffect.Andshortsighted
writersadmire
hisdeedsfromonepointofviewandfromanothercondemn
theprincipal
causeofthem.Thatitistruehisothervirtueswould
nothavebeen
sufficientforhimmaybeprovedbythecaseofScipio,
thatmost
excellentman,notonlyofhisowntimesbutwithinthe
memoryofman,
againstwhom,nevertheless,hisarmyrebelledinSpain;
thisarosefrom
nothingbuthistoogreatforbearance,whichgavehis
soldiersmore
licensethanisconsistentwithmilitarydiscipline.For
thishewas
upbraidedintheSenatebyFabiusMaximus,andcalledthe
corrupterof
theRomansoldiery.TheLocrianswerelaidwastebya
legateofScipio,
yettheywerenotavengedbyhim,norwastheinsolence
ofthelegate
punished,owingentirelytohiseasynature.Insomuch
thatsomeonein
theSenate,wishingtoexcusehim,saidthereweremany
menwhoknew
muchbetterhownottoerrthantocorrecttheerrorsof
others.
Thisdisposition,ifhehadbeencontinuedinthe
command,wouldhave
destroyedintimethefameandgloryofScipio;but,he
beingunderthe
controloftheSenate,thisinjuriouscharacteristicnot
onlyconcealed
itself,butcontributedtohisglory.

Returningtothequestionofbeingfearedorloved,I
cometothe
conclusionthat,menlovingaccordingtotheirownwill
andfearing
accordingtothatoftheprince,awiseprinceshould
establishhimself
onthatwhichisinhisowncontrolandnotinthatof
others;hemust
endeavouronlytoavoidhatred,asisnoted.
CHAPTERXVIII(*)CONCERNINGTHEWAYINWHICHPRINCES
SHOULDKEEP
FAITH

(*)"Thepresentchapterhasgivengreateroffence
thanany
otherportionofMachiavelli'swritings."Burd,"Il
Principe,"p.297.

Everyoneadmitshowpraiseworthyitisinaprinceto
keepfaith,and
tolivewithintegrityandnotwithcraft.Nevertheless
ourexperience
hasbeenthatthoseprinceswhohavedonegreatthings
haveheldgood
faithoflittleaccount,andhaveknownhowtocircumvent
theintellect
ofmenbycraft,andintheendhaveovercomethosewho
havereliedon
theirword.Youmustknowtherearetwowaysof
contesting,(*)theone
bythelaw,theotherbyforce;thefirstmethodis
propertomen,the
secondtobeasts;butbecausethefirstisfrequentlynot
sufficient,it
isnecessarytohaverecoursetothesecond.Thereforeit
isnecessary
foraprincetounderstandhowtoavailhimselfofthe
beastandthe
man.Thishasbeenfigurativelytaughttoprincesby
ancientwriters,
whodescribehowAchillesandmanyotherprincesofold
weregivento
theCentaurChirontonurse,whobroughtthemupinhis
discipline;
whichmeanssolelythat,astheyhadforateacherone
whowashalf
beastandhalfman,soitisnecessaryforaprinceto
knowhowtomake
useofbothnatures,andthatonewithouttheotheris
notdurable.A
prince,therefore,beingcompelledknowinglytoadoptthe
beast,ought
tochoosethefoxandthelion;becausethelioncannot
defendhimself
againstsnaresandthefoxcannotdefendhimselfagainst
wolves.
Therefore,itisnecessarytobeafoxtodiscoverthe
snaresanda
liontoterrifythewolves.Thosewhorelysimplyonthe
liondonot
understandwhattheyareabout.Thereforeawiselord
cannot,norought
heto,keepfaithwhensuchobservancemaybeturned
againsthim,and
whenthereasonsthatcausedhimtopledgeitexistno
longer.Ifmen
wereentirelygoodthispreceptwouldnothold,but
becausetheyare
bad,andwillnotkeepfaithwithyou,youtooarenot
boundtoobserve
itwiththem.Norwillthereeverbewantingtoaprince
legitimate
reasonstoexcusethisnonobservance.Ofthisendless
modernexamples
couldbegiven,showinghowmanytreatiesandengagements
havebeenmade
voidandofnoeffectthroughthefaithlessnessof
princes;andhewho
hasknownbesthowtoemploythefoxhassucceededbest.

(*)"Contesting,"i.e."strivingformastery."Mr
Burd
pointsoutthatthispassageisimitateddirectly
from
Cicero's"DeOfficiis":"Namcumsintduogenera
decertandi,
unumperdisceptationem,alterumpervim;cumque
illud
propriumsithominis,hocbeluarum;confugiendumest
ad
posterius,siutinonlicetsuperiore."

Butitisnecessarytoknowwellhowtodisguisethis
characteristic,
andtobeagreatpretenderanddissembler;andmenare
sosimple,and
sosubjecttopresentnecessities,thathewhoseeksto
deceivewill
alwaysfindsomeonewhowillallowhimselftobe
deceived.Onerecent
exampleIcannotpassoverinsilence.Alexanderthe
Sixthdidnothing
elsebutdeceivemen,noreverthoughtofdoing
otherwise,andhe
alwaysfoundvictims;forthereneverwasamanwhohad
greaterpower
inasserting,orwhowithgreateroathswouldaffirma
thing,yetwould
observeitless;neverthelesshisdeceitsalways
succeededaccordingto
hiswishes,(*)becausehewellunderstoodthissideof
mankind.

(*)"Nondimancosempreglisuccederonogliinganni
(ad
votum)."Thewords"advotum"areomittedinthe
Testina
addition,1550.

Alexanderneverdidwhathesaid,
Cesareneversaidwhathedid.

ItalianProverb.

Thereforeitisunnecessaryforaprincetohaveallthe
goodqualities
Ihaveenumerated,butitisverynecessarytoappearto
havethem.And
Ishalldaretosaythisalso,thattohavethemand
alwaystoobserve
themisinjurious,andthattoappeartohavethemis
useful;toappear
merciful,faithful,humane,religious,upright,andtobe
so,butwitha
mindsoframedthatshouldyourequirenottobeso,you
maybeableand
knowhowtochangetotheopposite.
Andyouhavetounderstandthis,thataprince,
especiallyanewone,
cannotobserveallthosethingsforwhichmenare
esteemed,beingoften
forced,inordertomaintainthestate,toactcontrary
tofidelity,(*)
friendship,humanity,andreligion.Thereforeitis
necessaryforhimto
haveamindreadytoturnitselfaccordinglyasthewinds
andvariations
offortuneforceit,yet,asIhavesaidabove,notto
divergefromthe
goodifhecanavoiddoingso,but,ifcompelled,thento
knowhowto
setaboutit.

(*)"Contrarytofidelity"or"faith,""controalla
fede,"
and"tuttofede,""altogetherfaithful,"inthenext
paragraph.Itisnoteworthythatthesetwophrases,
"contro
allafede"and"tuttofede,"wereomittedinthe
Testina
edition,whichwaspublishedwiththesanctionof
thepapal
authorities.Itmaybethatthemeaningattachedto
theword
"fede"was"thefaith,"i.e.theCatholiccreed,and
notas
renderedhere"fidelity"and"faithful."Observe
thatthe
word"religione"wassufferedtostandinthetext
ofthe
Testina,beingusedtosignifyindifferentlyevery
shadeof
belief,aswitness"thereligion,"aphrase
inevitably
employedtodesignatetheHuguenotheresy.Southin
his
SermonIX,p.69,ed.1843,commentsonthispassage
as
follows:"ThatgreatpatronandCoryphaeusofthis
tribe,
NicoloMachiavel,laiddownthisforamasterrule
inhis
politicalscheme:'Thattheshowofreligionwas
helpfulto
thepolitician,buttherealityofithurtfuland
pernicious.'"

Forthisreasonaprinceoughttotakecarethathenever
letsanything
slipfromhislipsthatisnotrepletewiththeabove
namedfive
qualities,thathemayappeartohimwhoseesandhears
himaltogether
merciful,faithful,humane,upright,andreligious.There
isnothing
morenecessarytoappeartohavethanthislastquality,
inasmuchasmen
judgegenerallymorebytheeyethanbythehand,because
itbelongsto
everybodytoseeyou,tofewtocomeintouchwithyou.
Everyonesees
whatyouappeartobe,fewreallyknowwhatyouare,and
thosefewdare
notopposethemselvestotheopinionofthemany,who
havethemajesty
ofthestatetodefendthem;andintheactionsofall
men,and
especiallyofprinces,whichitisnotprudentto
challenge,onejudges
bytheresult.

Forthatreason,letaprincehavethecreditof
conqueringandholding
hisstate,themeanswillalwaysbeconsideredhonest,
andhewillbe
praisedbyeverybody;becausethevulgararealwaystaken
bywhata
thingseemstobeandbywhatcomesofit;andinthe
worldthereare
onlythevulgar,forthefewfindaplacethereonlywhen
themanyhave
nogroundtoreston.

Oneprince(*)ofthepresenttime,whomitisnotwellto
name,never
preachesanythingelsebutpeaceandgoodfaith,andto
bothheis
mosthostile,andeither,ifhehadkeptit,wouldhave
deprivedhimof
reputationandkingdommanyatime.

(*)FerdinandofAragon."WhenMachiavelliwas
writing'The
Prince'itwouldhavebeenclearlyimpossibleto
mention
Ferdinand'snameherewithoutgivingoffence."
Burd's"Il
Principe,"p.308.

CHAPTERXIXTHATONESHOULDAVOIDBEINGDESPISEDAND
HATED

Now,concerningthecharacteristicsofwhichmentionis
madeabove,I
havespokenofthemoreimportantones,theothersIwish
todiscuss
brieflyunderthisgenerality,thattheprincemust
consider,ashas
beeninpartsaidbefore,howtoavoidthosethingswhich
willmakehim
hatedorcontemptible;andasoftenasheshallhave
succeededhe
willhavefulfilledhispart,andheneednotfearany
dangerinother
reproaches.

Itmakeshimhatedaboveallthings,asIhavesaid,to
berapacious,
andtobeaviolatorofthepropertyandwomenofhis
subjects,from
bothofwhichhemustabstain.Andwhenneithertheir
propertynortheir
honoristouched,themajorityofmenlivecontent,and
hehasonlyto
contendwiththeambitionofafew,whomhecancurbwith
easeinmany
ways.

Itmakeshimcontemptibletobeconsideredfickle,
frivolous,
effeminate,meanspirited,irresolute,fromallofwhich
aprinceshould
guardhimselfasfromarock;andheshouldendeavourto
showinhis
actionsgreatness,courage,gravity,andfortitude;and
inhis
privatedealingswithhissubjectslethimshowthathis
judgmentsare
irrevocable,andmaintainhimselfinsuchreputationthat
noonecan
hopeeithertodeceivehimortogetroundhim.

Thatprinceishighlyesteemedwhoconveysthis
impressionofhimself,
andhewhoishighlyesteemedisnoteasilyconspired
against;for,
provideditiswellknownthatheisanexcellentmanand
reveredby
hispeople,hecanonlybeattackedwithdifficulty.For
thisreason
aprinceoughttohavetwofears,onefromwithin,on
accountofhis
subjects,theotherfromwithout,onaccountofexternal
powers.From
thelatterheisdefendedbybeingwellarmedandhaving
goodallies,
andifheiswellarmedhewillhavegoodfriends,and
affairswill
alwaysremainquietwithinwhentheyarequietwithout,
unlessthey
shouldhavebeenalreadydisturbedbyconspiracy;and
evenshould
affairsoutsidebedisturbed,ifhehascarriedouthis
preparationsand
haslivedasIhavesaid,aslongashedoesnotdespair,
hewillresist
everyattack,asIsaidNabistheSpartandid.

Butconcerninghissubjects,whenaffairsoutsideare
disturbedhehas
onlytofearthattheywillconspiresecretly,fromwhich
aprince
caneasilysecurehimselfbyavoidingbeinghatedand
despised,andby
keepingthepeoplesatisfiedwithhim,whichitismost
necessary
forhimtoaccomplish,asIsaidaboveatlength.Andone
ofthemost
efficaciousremediesthataprincecanhaveagainst
conspiraciesisnot
tobehatedanddespisedbythepeople,forhewho
conspiresagainst
aprincealwaysexpectstopleasethembyhisremoval;
butwhenthe
conspiratorcanonlylookforwardtooffendingthem,he
willnothave
thecouragetotakesuchacourse,forthedifficulties
thatconfront
aconspiratorareinfinite.Andasexperienceshows,many
havebeenthe
conspiracies,butfewhavebeensuccessful;becausehe
whoconspires
cannotactalone,norcanhetakeacompanionexceptfrom
thosewhomhe
believestobemalcontents,andassoonasyouhave
openedyourmind
toamalcontentyouhavegivenhimthematerialwith
whichtocontent
himself,forbydenouncingyouhecanlookforevery
advantage;sothat,
seeingthegainfromthiscoursetobeassured,and
seeingtheother
tobedoubtfulandfullofdangers,hemustbeavery
rarefriend,ora
thoroughlyobstinateenemyoftheprince,tokeepfaith
withyou.

And,toreducethematterintoasmallcompass,Isay
that,ontheside
oftheconspirator,thereisnothingbutfear,jealousy,
prospectof
punishmenttoterrifyhim;butonthesideoftheprince
thereisthe
majestyoftheprincipality,thelaws,theprotectionof
friendsand
thestatetodefendhim;sothat,addingtoallthese
thingsthe
populargoodwill,itisimpossiblethatanyoneshouldbe
sorashasto
conspire.Forwhereasingeneraltheconspiratorhasto
fearbeforethe
executionofhisplot,inthiscasehehasalsotofear
thesequelto
thecrime;becauseonaccountofithehasthepeoplefor
anenemy,and
thuscannothopeforanyescape.

Endlessexamplescouldbegivenonthissubject,butI
willbecontent
withone,broughttopasswithinthememoryofour
fathers.Messer
AnnibaleBentivogli,whowasprinceinBologna
(grandfatherofthe
presentAnnibale),havingbeenmurderedbytheCanneschi,
whohad
conspiredagainsthim,notoneofhisfamilysurvivedbut
Messer
Giovanni,(*)whowasinchildhood:immediatelyafterhis
assassination
thepeopleroseandmurderedalltheCanneschi.This
sprungfromthe
populargoodwillwhichthehouseofBentivoglienjoyedin
thosedaysin
Bologna;whichwassogreatthat,althoughnoneremained
thereafterthe
deathofAnnibalewhowasabletorulethestate,the
Bolognese,having
informationthattherewasoneoftheBentivoglifamily
inFlorence,
whouptothattimehadbeenconsideredthesonofa
blacksmith,sentto
Florenceforhimandgavehimthegovernmentoftheir
city,anditwas
ruledbyhimuntilMesserGiovannicameinduecourseto
thegovernment.

(*)GiovanniBentivogli,borninBologna1438,died
atMilan
1508.HeruledBolognafrom1462to1506.
Machiavelli's
strongcondemnationofconspiraciesmaygetitsedge
from
hisownveryrecentexperience(February1513),when
hehad
beenarrestedandtorturedforhisalleged
complicityinthe
Boscoliconspiracy.

ForthisreasonIconsiderthataprinceoughttoreckon
conspiracies
oflittleaccountwhenhispeopleholdhiminesteem;but
whenit
ishostiletohim,andbearshatredtowardshim,heought
tofear
everythingandeverybody.Andwellorderedstatesand
wiseprinceshave
takeneverycarenottodrivethenoblestodesperation,
andtokeepthe
peoplesatisfiedandcontented,forthisisoneofthe
mostimportant
objectsaprincecanhave.

Amongthebestorderedandgovernedkingdomsofourtimes
isFrance,and
initarefoundmanygoodinstitutionsonwhichdepend
theliberty
andsecurityoftheking;ofthesethefirstisthe
parliamentandits
authority,becausehewhofoundedthekingdom,knowing
theambitionof
thenobilityandtheirboldness,consideredthatabitto
theirmouths
wouldbenecessarytoholdthemin;and,ontheother
side,knowingthe
hatredofthepeople,foundedinfear,againstthe
nobles,hewishedto
protectthem,yethewasnotanxiousforthistobethe
particularcare
oftheking;therefore,totakeawaythereproachwhich
hewouldbe
liabletofromthenoblesforfavouringthepeople,and
fromthepeople
forfavouringthenobles,hesetupanarbiter,who
shouldbeonewho
couldbeatdownthegreatandfavourthelesserwithout
reproachtothe
king.Neithercouldyouhaveabetteroramoreprudent
arrangement,or
agreatersourceofsecuritytothekingandkingdom.
Fromthisonecan
drawanotherimportantconclusion,thatprincesoughtto
leaveaffairs
ofreproachtothemanagementofothers,andkeepthose
ofgracein
theirownhands.Andfurther,Iconsiderthataprince
oughttocherish
thenobles,butnotsoastomakehimselfhatedbythe
people.

Itmayappear,perhaps,tosomewhohaveexaminedthe
livesanddeaths
oftheRomanemperorsthatmanyofthemwouldbean
examplecontrary
tomyopinion,seeingthatsomeofthemlivednoblyand
showedgreat
qualitiesofsoul,neverthelesstheyhavelosttheir
empireorhavebeen
killedbysubjectswhohaveconspiredagainstthem.
Wishing,therefore,
toanswertheseobjections,Iwillrecallthecharacters
ofsomeofthe
emperors,andwillshowthatthecausesoftheirruin
werenotdifferent
tothoseallegedbyme;atthesametimeIwillonly
submitfor
considerationthosethingsthatarenoteworthytohimwho
studiesthe
affairsofthosetimes.

Itseemstomesufficienttotakeallthoseemperorswho
succeededto
theempirefromMarcusthephilosopherdowntoMaximinus;
theywere
MarcusandhissonCommodus,Pertinax,Julian,Severus
andhisson
AntoninusCaracalla,Macrinus,Heliogabalus,Alexander,
andMaximinus.

Thereisfirsttonotethat,whereasinother
principalitiesthe
ambitionofthenoblesandtheinsolenceofthepeople
onlyhavetobe
contendedwith,theRomanemperorshadathirddifficulty
inhavingto
putupwiththecrueltyandavariceoftheirsoldiers,a
mattersobeset
withdifficultiesthatitwastheruinofmany;forit
wasahardthing
togivesatisfactionbothtosoldiersandpeople;because
thepeople
lovedpeace,andforthisreasontheylovedthe
unaspiringprince,
whilstthesoldierslovedthewarlikeprincewhowas
bold,cruel,and
rapacious,whichqualitiestheywerequitewillinghe
shouldexercise
uponthepeople,sothattheycouldgetdoublepayand
giveventto
theirowngreedandcruelty.Henceitarosethatthose
emperorswere
alwaysoverthrownwho,eitherbybirthortraining,had
nogreat
authority,andmostofthem,especiallythosewhocame
newtothe
principality,recognizingthedifficultyofthesetwo
opposinghumours,
wereinclinedtogivesatisfactiontothesoldiers,
caringlittleabout
injuringthepeople.Whichcoursewasnecessary,because,
asprinces
cannothelpbeinghatedbysomeone,theyought,inthe
firstplace,to
avoidbeinghatedbyeveryone,andwhentheycannot
compassthis,they
oughttoendeavourwiththeutmostdiligencetoavoidthe
hatredofthe
mostpowerful.Therefore,thoseemperorswhothrough
inexperiencehad
needofspecialfavouradheredmorereadilytothe
soldiersthanto
thepeople;acoursewhichturnedoutadvantageousto
themornot,
accordinglyastheprinceknewhowtomaintainauthority
overthem.

FromthesecausesitarosethatMarcus,Pertinax,and
Alexander,being
allmenofmodestlife,loversofjustice,enemiesto
cruelty,humane,
andbenignant,cametoasadendexceptMarcus;healone
livedanddied
honoured,becausehehadsucceededtothethroneby
hereditarytitle,
andowednothingeithertothesoldiersorthepeople;
andafterwards,
beingpossessedofmanyvirtueswhichmadehimrespected,
healwayskept
bothordersintheirplaceswhilsthelived,andwas
neitherhatednor
despised.

ButPertinaxwascreatedemperoragainstthewishesof
thesoldiers,
who,beingaccustomedtolivelicentiouslyunder
Commodus,couldnot
endurethehonestlifetowhichPertinaxwishedtoreduce
them;thus,
havinggivencauseforhatred,towhichhatredtherewas
addedcontempt
forhisoldage,hewasoverthrownattheverybeginning
ofhis
administration.Andhereitshouldbenotedthathatred
isacquiredas
muchbygoodworksasbybadones,therefore,asIsaid
before,aprince
wishingtokeephisstateisveryoftenforcedtodo
evil;forwhenthat
bodyiscorruptwhomyouthinkyouhaveneedofto
maintainyourselfit
maybeeitherthepeopleorthesoldiersorthenobles
youhaveto
submittoitshumoursandtogratifythem,andthengood
workswilldo
youharm.
ButletuscometoAlexander,whowasamanofsuchgreat
goodness,
thatamongtheotherpraiseswhichareaccordedhimis
this,thatinthe
fourteenyearsheheldtheempirenoonewaseverputto
deathby
himunjudged;nevertheless,beingconsideredeffeminate
andamanwho
allowedhimselftobegovernedbyhismother,hebecame
despised,the
armyconspiredagainsthim,andmurderedhim.

TurningnowtotheoppositecharactersofCommodus,
Severus,Antoninus
Caracalla,andMaximinus,youwillfindthemallcruel
andrapaciousmen
who,tosatisfytheirsoldiers,didnothesitateto
commiteverykindof
iniquityagainstthepeople;andall,exceptSeverus,
cametoabad
end;butinSeverustherewassomuchvalourthat,
keepingthesoldiers
friendly,althoughthepeoplewereoppressedbyhim,he
reigned
successfully;forhisvalourmadehimsomuchadmiredin
thesightof
thesoldiersandpeoplethatthelatterwerekeptina
wayastonished
andawedandtheformerrespectfulandsatisfied.And
becausethe
actionsofthisman,asanewprince,weregreat,Iwish
toshow
brieflythatheknewwellhowtocounterfeitthefoxand
thelion,which
natures,asIsaidabove,itisnecessaryforaprinceto
imitate.

KnowingtheslothoftheEmperorJulian,hepersuadedthe
armyin
Sclavonia,ofwhichhewascaptain,thatitwouldbe
righttogotoRome
andavengethedeathofPertinax,whohadbeenkilledby
thepraetorian
soldiers;andunderthispretext,withoutappearingto
aspiretothe
throne,hemovedthearmyonRome,andreachedItaly
beforeitwasknown
thathehadstarted.OnhisarrivalatRome,theSenate,
throughfear,
electedhimemperorandkilledJulian.Afterthisthere
remainedfor
Severus,whowishedtomakehimselfmasterofthewhole
empire,two
difficulties;oneinAsia,whereNiger,headofthe
Asiaticarmy,had
causedhimselftobeproclaimedemperor;theotherinthe
westwhere
Albinuswas,whoalsoaspiredtothethrone.Andashe
consideredit
dangeroustodeclarehimselfhostiletoboth,hedecided
toattack
NigerandtodeceiveAlbinus.Tothelatterhewrote
that,beingelected
emperorbytheSenate,hewaswillingtosharethat
dignitywithhimand
senthimthetitleofCaesar;and,moreover,thatthe
Senatehadmade
Albinushiscolleague;whichthingswereacceptedby
Albinusastrue.
ButafterSeverushadconqueredandkilledNiger,and
settledoriental
affairs,hereturnedtoRomeandcomplainedtotheSenate
thatAlbinus,
littlerecognizingthebenefitsthathehadreceivedfrom
him,had
bytreacherysoughttomurderhim,andforthis
ingratitudehewas
compelledtopunishhim.Afterwardshesoughthimoutin
France,and
tookfromhimhisgovernmentandlife.Hewhowill,
therefore,carefully
examinetheactionsofthismanwillfindhimamost
valiantlionand
amostcunningfox;hewillfindhimfearedandrespected
byeveryone,
andnothatedbythearmy;anditneednotbewonderedat
thathe,a
newman,wasabletoholdtheempiresowell,becausehis
supreme
renownalwaysprotectedhimfromthathatredwhichthe
peoplemighthave
conceivedagainsthimforhisviolence.

ButhissonAntoninuswasamosteminentman,andhad
veryexcellent
qualities,whichmadehimadmirableinthesightofthe
peopleand
acceptabletothesoldiers,forhewasawarlikeman,
mostenduring
offatigue,adespiserofalldelicatefoodandother
luxuries,which
causedhimtobebelovedbythearmies.Nevertheless,his
ferocityand
crueltiesweresogreatandsounheardofthat,after
endlesssingle
murders,hekilledalargenumberofthepeopleofRome
andallthoseof
Alexandria.Hebecamehatedbythewholeworld,andalso
fearedbythose
hehadaroundhim,tosuchanextentthathewasmurdered
inthemidst
ofhisarmybyacenturion.Andhereitmustbenoted
thatsuchlike
deaths,whicharedeliberatelyinflictedwitharesolved
anddesperate
courage,cannotbeavoidedbyprinces,becauseanyone
whodoesnotfear
todiecaninflictthem;butaprincemayfearthemthe
lessbecause
theyareveryrare;hehasonlytobecarefulnottodo
anygraveinjury
tothosewhomheemploysorhasaroundhimintheservice
ofthestate.
Antoninushadnottakenthiscare,buthadcontumeliously
killeda
brotherofthatcenturion,whomalsohedailythreatened,
yetretained
inhisbodyguard;which,asitturnedout,wasarash
thingtodo,and
provedtheemperor'sruin.
ButletuscometoCommodus,towhomitshouldhavebeen
veryeasyto
holdtheempire,for,beingthesonofMarcus,hehad
inheritedit,
andhehadonlytofollowinthefootstepsofhisfather
topleasehis
peopleandsoldiers;but,beingbynaturecrueland
brutal,hegave
himselfuptoamusingthesoldiersandcorruptingthem,
sothathemight
indulgehisrapacityuponthepeople;ontheotherhand,
notmaintaining
hisdignity,oftendescendingtothetheatretocompete
withgladiators,
anddoingothervilethings,littleworthyofthe
imperialmajesty,he
fellintocontemptwiththesoldiers,andbeinghatedby
onepartyand
despisedbytheother,hewasconspiredagainstandwas
killed.

ItremainstodiscussthecharacterofMaximinus.Hewas
averywarlike
man,andthearmies,beingdisgustedwiththeeffeminacy
ofAlexander,
ofwhomIhavealreadyspoken,killedhimandelected
Maximinustothe
throne.Thishedidnotpossessforlong,fortwothings
madehimhated
anddespised;theone,hishavingkeptsheepinThrace,
whichbrought
himintocontempt(itbeingwellknowntoall,and
consideredagreat
indignitybyeveryone),andtheother,hishavingatthe
accession
tohisdominionsdeferredgoingtoRomeandtaking
possessionofthe
imperialseat;hehadalsogainedareputationforthe
utmostferocity
byhaving,throughhisprefectsinRomeandelsewherein
theempire,
practisedmanycruelties,sothatthewholeworldwas
movedtoanger
atthemeannessofhisbirthandtofearathis
barbarity.FirstAfrica
rebelled,thentheSenatewithallthepeopleofRome,
andallItaly
conspiredagainsthim,towhichmaybeaddedhisown
army;thislatter,
besiegingAquileiaandmeetingwithdifficultiesin
takingit,were
disgustedwithhiscruelties,andfearinghimlesswhen
theyfoundso
manyagainsthim,murderedhim.

IdonotwishtodiscussHeliogabalus,Macrinus,or
Julian,who,being
thoroughlycontemptible,werequicklywipedout;butI
willbringthis
discoursetoaconclusionbysayingthatprincesinour
timeshavethis
difficultyofgivinginordinatesatisfactiontotheir
soldiersina
farlessdegree,because,notwithstandingonehastogive
themsome
indulgence,thatissoondone;noneoftheseprinceshave
armiesthat
areveteransinthegovernanceandadministrationof
provinces,aswere
thearmiesoftheRomanEmpire;andwhereasitwasthen
morenecessary
togivesatisfactiontothesoldiersthantothepeople,
itisnowmore
necessarytoallprinces,excepttheTurkandtheSoldan,
tosatisfythe
peopleratherthesoldiers,becausethepeoplearethe
morepowerful.

FromtheaboveIhaveexceptedtheTurk,whoalwayskeeps
roundhim
twelvethousandinfantryandfifteenthousandcavalryon
whichdepend
thesecurityandstrengthofthekingdom,anditis
necessarythat,
puttingasideeveryconsiderationforthepeople,he
shouldkeepthem
hisfriends.ThekingdomoftheSoldanissimilar;being
entirelyinthe
handsofsoldiers,itfollowsagainthat,withoutregard
tothepeople,
hemustkeepthemhisfriends.Butyoumustnotethatthe
stateofthe
Soldanisunlikeallotherprincipalities,forthereason
thatit
isliketheChristianpontificate,whichcannotbecalled
eitheran
hereditaryoranewlyformedprincipality;becausethe
sonsoftheold
princearenottheheirs,buthewhoiselectedtothat
positionby
thosewhohaveauthority,andthesonsremainonly
noblemen.Andthis
beinganancientcustom,itcannotbecalledanew
principality,because
therearenoneofthosedifficultiesinitthataremet
withinnew
ones;foralthoughtheprinceisnew,theconstitutionof
thestateis
old,anditisframedsoastoreceivehimasifhewere
itshereditary
lord.

Butreturningtothesubjectofourdiscourse,Isaythat
whoeverwill
consideritwillacknowledgethateitherhatredor
contempthasbeen
fataltotheabovenamedemperors,anditwillbe
recognizedalsohow
ithappenedthat,anumberofthemactinginonewayand
anumber
inanother,onlyoneineachwaycametoahappyendand
therestto
unhappyones.Becauseitwouldhavebeenuselessand
dangerousfor
PertinaxandAlexander,beingnewprinces,toimitate
Marcus,who
washeirtotheprincipality;andlikewiseitwouldhave
beenutterly
destructivetoCaracalla,Commodus,andMaximinustohave
imitated
Severus,theynothavingsufficientvalourtoenablethem
totread
inhisfootsteps.Thereforeaprince,newtothe
principality,cannot
imitatetheactionsofMarcus,nor,again,isit
necessarytofollow
thoseofSeverus,butheoughttotakefromSeverusthose
partswhich
arenecessarytofoundhisstate,andfromMarcusthose
whichareproper
andglorioustokeepastatethatmayalreadybestable
andfirm.

CHAPTERXXAREFORTRESSES,ANDMANYOTHERTHINGSTO
WHICHPRINCES
OFTENRESORT,ADVANTAGEOUSORHURTFUL?

1.Someprinces,soastoholdsecurelythestate,have
disarmedtheir
subjects;othershavekepttheirsubjecttownsdistracted
byfactions;
othershavefosteredenmitiesagainstthemselves;others
havelaid
themselvesouttogainoverthosewhomtheydistrustedin
thebeginning
oftheirgovernments;somehavebuiltfortresses;some
haveoverthrown
anddestroyedthem.Andalthoughonecannotgiveafinal
judgmentonall
ofthesethingsunlessonepossessestheparticularsof
thosestates
inwhichadecisionhastobemade,neverthelessIwill
speakas
comprehensivelyasthematterofitselfwilladmit.

2.Thereneverwasanewprincewhohasdisarmedhis
subjects;rather
whenhehasfoundthemdisarmedhehasalwaysarmedthem,
because,by
armingthem,thosearmsbecomeyours,thosemenwhowere
distrusted
becomefaithful,andthosewhowerefaithfularekeptso,
andyour
subjectsbecomeyouradherents.Andwhereasallsubjects
cannotbe
armed,yetwhenthosewhomyoudoarmarebenefited,the
otherscanbe
handledmorefreely,andthisdifferenceintheir
treatment,whichthey
quiteunderstand,makestheformeryourdependents,and
thelatter,
consideringittobenecessarythatthosewhohavethe
mostdangerand
serviceshouldhavethemostreward,excuseyou.Butwhen
youdisarm
them,youatonceoffendthembyshowingthatyou
distrustthem,either
forcowardiceorforwantofloyalty,andeitherofthese
opinions
breedshatredagainstyou.Andbecauseyoucannotremain
unarmed,it
followsthatyouturntomercenaries,whichareofthe
characteralready
shown;eveniftheyshouldbegoodtheywouldnotbe
sufficientto
defendyouagainstpowerfulenemiesanddistrusted
subjects.Therefore,
asIhavesaid,anewprinceinanewprincipalityhas
always
distributedarms.Historiesarefullofexamples.But
whenaprince
acquiresanewstate,whichheaddsasaprovincetohis
oldone,then
itisnecessarytodisarmthemenofthatstate,except
thosewhohave
beenhisadherentsinacquiringit;andtheseagain,with
timeand
opportunity,shouldberenderedsoftandeffeminate;and
mattersshould
bemanagedinsuchawaythatallthearmedmeninthe
stateshallbe
yourownsoldierswhoinyouroldstatewerelivingnear
you.

3.Ourforefathers,andthosewhowerereckonedwise,
wereaccustomed
tosaythatitwasnecessarytoholdPistoiabyfactions
andPisaby
fortresses;andwiththisideatheyfosteredquarrelsin
someoftheir
tributarytownssoastokeeppossessionofthemthemore
easily.
ThismayhavebeenwellenoughinthosetimeswhenItaly
wasinaway
balanced,butIdonotbelievethatitcanbeacceptedas
aprecept
fortoday,becauseIdonotbelievethatfactionscan
everbeofuse;
ratheritiscertainthatwhentheenemycomesuponyou
individed
citiesyouarequicklylost,becausetheweakestparty
willalways
assisttheoutsideforcesandtheotherwillnotbeable
toresist.
TheVenetians,moved,asIbelieve,bytheabovereasons,
fosteredthe
GuelphandGhibellinefactionsintheirtributarycities;
andalthough
theyneverallowedthemtocometobloodshed,yetthey
nursedthese
disputesamongstthem,sothatthecitizens,distracted
bytheir
differences,shouldnotuniteagainstthem.Which,aswe
saw,didnot
afterwardsturnoutasexpected,because,aftertherout
atVaila,one
partyatoncetookcourageandseizedthestate.Such
methodsargue,
therefore,weaknessintheprince,becausethesefactions
willneverbe
permittedinavigorousprincipality;suchmethodsfor
enablingonethe
moreeasilytomanagesubjectsareonlyusefulintimes
ofpeace,butif
warcomesthispolicyprovesfallacious.

4.Withoutdoubtprincesbecomegreatwhentheyovercome
the
difficultiesandobstaclesbywhichtheyareconfronted,
andtherefore
fortune,especiallywhenshedesirestomakeanewprince
great,who
hasagreaternecessitytoearnrenownthananhereditary
one,causes
enemiestoariseandformdesignsagainsthim,inorder
thathemayhave
theopportunityofovercomingthem,andbythemtomount
higher,asbya
ladderwhichhisenemieshaveraised.Forthisreason
manyconsiderthat
awiseprince,whenhehastheopportunity,oughtwith
crafttofoster
someanimosityagainsthimself,sothat,havingcrushed
it,hisrenown
mayrisehigher.

5.Princes,especiallynewones,havefoundmorefidelity
andassistance
inthosemenwhointhebeginningoftheirrulewere
distrustedthan
amongthosewhointhebeginningweretrusted.Pandolfo
Petrucci,Prince
ofSiena,ruledhisstatemorebythosewhohadbeen
distrustedthanby
others.Butonthisquestiononecannotspeakgenerally,
foritvaries
somuchwiththeindividual;Iwillonlysaythis,that
thosemenwho
atthecommencementofaprincedomhavebeenhostile,if
theyareof
adescriptiontoneedassistancetosupportthemselves,
canalwaysbe
gainedoverwiththegreatestease,andtheywillbe
tightlyheldto
servetheprincewithfidelity,inasmuchastheyknowit
tobevery
necessaryforthemtocancelbydeedsthebadimpression
whichhehad
formedofthem;andthustheprincealwaysextractsmore
profitfrom
themthanfromthosewho,servinghimintoomuch
security,mayneglect
hisaffairs.Andsincethematterdemandsit,Imustnot
failtowarna
prince,whobymeansofsecretfavourshasacquiredanew
state,thathe
mustwellconsiderthereasonswhichinducedthoseto
favourhimwho
didso;andifitbenotanaturalaffectiontowardshim,
butonly
discontentwiththeirgovernment,thenhewillonlykeep
themfriendly
withgreattroubleanddifficulty,foritwillbe
impossibletosatisfy
them.Andweighingwellthereasonsforthisinthose
exampleswhich
canbetakenfromancientandmodernaffairs,weshall
findthatitis
easierfortheprincetomakefriendsofthosemenwho
werecontented
undertheformergovernment,andarethereforehis
enemies,thanof
thosewho,beingdiscontentedwithit,werefavourableto
himand
encouragedhimtoseizeit.

6.Ithasbeenacustomwithprinces,inordertohold
theirstates
moresecurely,tobuildfortressesthatmayserveasa
bridleandbit
tothosewhomightdesigntoworkagainstthem,andasa
placeofrefuge
fromafirstattack.Ipraisethissystembecauseithas
beenmadeuse
offormerly.Notwithstandingthat,MesserNicoloVitelli
inourtimes
hasbeenseentodemolishtwofortressesinCittadi
Castellosothathe
mightkeepthatstate;GuidoUbaldo,DukeofUrbino,on
returningto
hisdominion,whencehehadbeendrivenbyCesareBorgia,
razedtothe
foundationsallthefortressesinthatprovince,and
consideredthat
withoutthemitwouldbemoredifficulttoloseit;the
Bentivogli
returningtoBolognacametoasimilardecision.
Fortresses,therefore,
areusefulornotaccordingtocircumstances;iftheydo
yougoodinone
waytheyinjureyouinanother.Andthisquestioncanbe
reasonedthus:
theprincewhohasmoretofearfromthepeoplethanfrom
foreigners
oughttobuildfortresses,buthewhohasmoretofear
fromforeigners
thanfromthepeopleoughttoleavethemalone.The
castleofMilan,
builtbyFrancescoSforza,hasmade,andwillmake,more
troubleforthe
houseofSforzathananyotherdisorderinthestate.For
thisreason
thebestpossiblefortressisnottobehatedbythe
people,because,
althoughyoumayholdthefortresses,yettheywillnot
saveyouifthe
peoplehateyou,fortherewillneverbewanting
foreignerstoassist
apeoplewhohavetakenarmsagainstyou.Ithasnotbeen
seeninour
timesthatsuchfortresseshavebeenofusetoany
prince,unlesstothe
CountessofForli,(*)whentheCountGirolamo,her
consort,waskilled;
forbythatmeansshewasabletowithstandthepopular
attackandwait
forassistancefromMilan,andthusrecoverherstate;
andtheposture
ofaffairswassuchatthattimethattheforeigners
couldnotassist
thepeople.Butfortresseswereoflittlevaluetoher
afterwardswhen
CesareBorgiaattackedher,andwhenthepeople,her
enemy,wereallied
withforeigners.Therefore,itwouldhavebeensaferfor
her,boththen
andbefore,nottohavebeenhatedbythepeoplethanto
havehadthe
fortresses.Allthesethingsconsideredthen,Ishall
praisehim
whobuildsfortressesaswellashimwhodoesnot,andI
shallblame
whoever,trustinginthem,careslittleaboutbeinghated
bythepeople.

(*)CatherineSforza,adaughterofGaleazzoSforza
and
LucreziaLandriani,born1463,died1509.Itwasto
the
CountessofForlithatMachiavelliwassentasenvoy
on1499.
AletterfromFortunatitothecountessannounces
the
appointment:"Ihavebeenwiththesignori,"wrote
Fortunati,"tolearnwhomtheywouldsendandwhen.
They
tellmethatNicoloMachiavelli,alearnedyoung
Florentine
noble,secretarytomyLordsoftheTen,istoleave
withme
atonce."Cf."CatherineSforza,"byCountPasolini,
translatedbyP.Sylvester,1898.

CHAPTERXXIHOWAPRINCESHOULDCONDUCTHIMSELFSOAS
TOGAINRENOWN

Nothingmakesaprincesomuchesteemedasgreat
enterprisesandsetting
afineexample.WehaveinourtimeFerdinandofAragon,
thepresent
KingofSpain.Hecanalmostbecalledanewprince,
becausehehas
risen,byfameandglory,frombeinganinsignificant
kingtobethe
foremostkinginChristendom;andifyouwillconsider
hisdeeds
youwillfindthemallgreatandsomeofthem
extraordinary.Inthe
beginningofhisreignheattackedGranada,andthis
enterprisewasthe
foundationofhisdominions.Hedidthisquietlyatfirst
andwithout
anyfearofhindrance,forheheldthemindsofthe
baronsofCastile
occupiedinthinkingofthewarandnotanticipatingany
innovations;
thustheydidnotperceivethatbythesemeanshewas
acquiringpower
andauthorityoverthem.Hewasablewiththemoneyof
theChurchand
ofthepeopletosustainhisarmies,andbythatlongwar
tolaythe
foundationforthemilitaryskillwhichhassince
distinguishedhim.
Further,alwaysusingreligionasaplea,soasto
undertakegreater
schemes,hedevotedhimselfwithpiouscrueltytodriving
outand
clearinghiskingdomoftheMoors;norcouldtherebea
moreadmirable
example,noronemorerare.Underthissamecloakhe
assailedAfrica,
hecamedownonItaly,hehasfinallyattackedFrance;
andthushis
achievementsanddesignshavealwaysbeengreat,andhave
kepttheminds
ofhispeopleinsuspenseandadmirationandoccupied
withtheissueof
them.Andhisactionshaveariseninsuchaway,oneout
oftheother,
thatmenhaveneverbeengiventimetoworksteadily
againsthim.

Again,itmuchassistsaprincetosetunusualexamples
ininternal
affairs,similartothosewhicharerelatedofMesser
BernabodaMilano,
who,whenhehadtheopportunity,byanyoneincivil
lifedoingsome
extraordinarything,eithergoodorbad,wouldtakesome
methodof
rewardingorpunishinghim,whichwouldbemuchspoken
about.Anda
princeought,aboveallthings,alwaysendeavourinevery
actiontogain
forhimselfthereputationofbeingagreatand
remarkableman.
Aprinceisalsorespectedwhenheiseitheratrue
friendora
downrightenemy,thatistosay,when,withoutany
reservation,he
declareshimselfinfavourofonepartyagainstthe
other;whichcourse
willalwaysbemoreadvantageousthanstandingneutral;
becauseiftwo
ofyourpowerfulneighbourscometoblows,theyareof
suchacharacter
that,ifoneofthemconquers,youhaveeithertofear
himornot.
Ineithercaseitwillalwaysbemoreadvantageousfor
youtodeclare
yourselfandtomakewarstrenuously;because,inthe
firstcase,if
youdonotdeclareyourself,youwillinvariablyfalla
preyto
theconqueror,tothepleasureandsatisfactionofhim
whohasbeen
conquered,andyouwillhavenoreasonstooffer,nor
anythingto
protectortoshelteryou.Becausehewhoconquersdoes
notwant
doubtfulfriendswhowillnotaidhiminthetimeof
trial;andhewho
loseswillnotharbouryoubecauseyoudidnotwillingly,
swordinhand,
courthisfate.

AntiochuswentintoGreece,beingsentforbythe
Aetolianstodrive
outtheRomans.HesentenvoystotheAchaeans,whowere
friendsof
theRomans,exhortingthemtoremainneutral;andonthe
otherhandthe
Romansurgedthemtotakeuparms.Thisquestioncameto
bediscussedin
thecounciloftheAchaeans,wherethelegateof
Antiochusurgedthemto
standneutral.TothistheRomanlegateanswered:"Asfor
thatwhichhas
beensaid,thatitisbetterandmoreadvantageousfor
yourstatenot
tointerfereinourwar,nothingcanbemoreerroneous;
becauseby
notinterferingyouwillbeleft,withoutfavouror
consideration,the
guerdonoftheconqueror."Thusitwillalwayshappen
thathewhoisnot
yourfriendwilldemandyourneutrality,whilsthewhois
yourfriend
willentreatyoutodeclareyourselfwitharms.And
irresoluteprinces,
toavoidpresentdangers,generallyfollowtheneutral
path,andare
generallyruined.Butwhenaprincedeclareshimself
gallantlyinfavour
ofoneside,ifthepartywithwhomheallieshimself
conquers,although
thevictormaybepowerfulandmayhavehimathismercy,
yetheis
indebtedtohim,andthereisestablishedabondof
amity;andmenare
neversoshamelessastobecomeamonumentofingratitude
byoppressing
you.Victoriesafterallareneversocompletethatthe
victormustnot
showsomeregard,especiallytojustice.Butifhewith
whomyoually
yourselfloses,youmaybeshelteredbyhim,andwhilst
heisablehe
mayaidyou,andyoubecomecompanionsonafortunethat
mayriseagain.

Inthesecondcase,whenthosewhofightareofsucha
characterthat
youhavenoanxietyastowhomayconquer,somuchthe
moreisit
greaterprudencetobeallied,becauseyouassistatthe
destruction
ofonebytheaidofanotherwho,ifhehadbeenwise,
wouldhavesaved
him;andconquering,asitisimpossiblethatheshould
notdowithyour
assistance,heremainsatyourdiscretion.Andhereitis
tobenoted
thataprinceoughttotakecarenevertomakean
alliancewithone
morepowerfulthanhimselfforthepurposesofattacking
others,unless
necessitycompelshim,asissaidabove;becauseifhe
conquersyouare
athisdiscretion,andprincesoughttoavoidasmuchas
possiblebeing
atthediscretionofanyone.TheVenetiansjoinedwith
Franceagainst
theDukeofMilan,andthisalliance,whichcausedtheir
ruin,could
havebeenavoided.Butwhenitcannotbeavoided,as
happenedtothe
FlorentineswhenthePopeandSpainsentarmiestoattack
Lombardy,then
insuchacase,fortheabovereasons,theprinceought
tofavouroneof
theparties.

NeverletanyGovernmentimaginethatitcanchoose
perfectlysafe
courses;ratherletitexpecttohavetotakevery
doubtfulones,
becauseitisfoundinordinaryaffairsthatonenever
seekstoavoid
onetroublewithoutrunningintoanother;butprudence
consistsin
knowinghowtodistinguishthecharacteroftroubles,and
forchoiceto
takethelesserevil.

Aprinceoughtalsotoshowhimselfapatronofability,
andtohonour
theproficientineveryart.Atthesametimeheshould
encouragehis
citizenstopractisetheircallingspeaceably,bothin
commerceand
agriculture,andineveryotherfollowing,sothatthe
oneshouldnotbe
deterredfromimprovinghispossessionsforfearlest
theybetakenaway
fromhimoranotherfromopeninguptradeforfearof
taxes;butthe
princeoughttoofferrewardstowhoeverwishestodo
thesethingsand
designsinanywaytohonourhiscityorstate.

Further,heoughttoentertainthepeoplewithfestivals
andspectacles
atconvenientseasonsoftheyear;andaseverycityis
dividedinto
guildsorintosocieties,(*)heoughttoholdsuchbodies
inesteem,and
associatewiththemsometimes,andshowhimselfan
exampleofcourtesy
andliberality;nevertheless,alwaysmaintainingthe
majestyofhis
rank,forthishemustneverconsenttoabatein
anything.

(*)"Guildsorsocieties,""inartiointribu."
"Arti"were
craftortradeguilds,cf.Florio:"Arte...a
whole
companyofanytradeinanycityorcorporation
town."The
guildsofFlorencearemostadmirablydescribedby
Mr
EdgcumbeStaleyinhisworkonthesubject(Methuen,
1906).
Institutionsofasomewhatsimilarcharacter,called
"artel,"existinRussiatoday,cf.SirMackenzie
Wallace's
"Russia,"ed.1905:"Thesons...werealways
duringthe
workingseasonmembersofanartel.Insomeofthe
larger
townsthereareartelsofamuchmorecomplexkind
permanentassociations,possessinglargecapital,
and
pecuniarilyresponsiblefortheactsofthe
individual
members."Theword"artel,"despiteitsapparent
similarity,
has,MrAylmerMaudeassuresme,noconnectionwith
"ars"or
"arte."Itsrootisthatoftheverb"rotisya,"to
bind
oneselfbyanoath;anditisgenerallyadmittedto
beonly
anotherformof"rota,"whichnowsignifiesa
"regimental
company."Inbothwordstheunderlyingideaisthat
ofa
bodyofmenunitedbyanoath."Tribu"werepossibly
gentile
groups,unitedbycommondescent,andincluded
individuals
connectedbymarriage.Perhapsourwords"sects"or
"clans"
wouldbemostappropriate.

CHAPTERXXIICONCERNINGTHESECRETARIESOFPRINCES

Thechoiceofservantsisofnolittleimportancetoa
prince,andthey
aregoodornotaccordingtothediscriminationofthe
prince.Andthe
firstopinionwhichoneformsofaprince,andofhis
understanding,is
byobservingthemenhehasaroundhim;andwhentheyare
capableand
faithfulhemayalwaysbeconsideredwise,becausehehas
knownhow
torecognizethecapableandtokeepthemfaithful.But
whentheyare
otherwiseonecannotformagoodopinionofhim,forthe
primeerror
whichhemadewasinchoosingthem.

TherewerenonewhoknewMesserAntoniodaVenafroasthe
servantof
PandolfoPetrucci,PrinceofSiena,whowouldnot
considerPandolfoto
beaveryclevermaninhavingVenafroforhisservant.
Becausethere
arethreeclassesofintellects:onewhichcomprehendsby
itself;
anotherwhichappreciateswhatotherscomprehended;anda
thirdwhich
neithercomprehendsbyitselfnorbytheshowingof
others;thefirstis
themostexcellent,thesecondisgood,thethirdis
useless.Therefore,
itfollowsnecessarilythat,ifPandolfowasnotinthe
firstrank,he
wasinthesecond,forwheneveronehasjudgmenttoknow
goodand
badwhenitissaidanddone,althoughhehimselfmaynot
havethe
initiative,yethecanrecognizethegoodandthebadin
hisservant,
andtheonehecanpraiseandtheothercorrect;thusthe
servantcannot
hopetodeceivehim,andiskepthonest.

Buttoenableaprincetoformanopinionofhisservant
thereisone
testwhichneverfails;whenyouseetheservantthinking
moreofhis
ownintereststhanofyours,andseekinginwardlyhisown
profitin
everything,suchamanwillnevermakeagoodservant,
norwillyouever
beabletotrusthim;becausehewhohasthestateof
anotherinhis
handsoughtnevertothinkofhimself,butalwaysofhis
prince,and
neverpayanyattentiontomattersinwhichtheprinceis
notconcerned.

Ontheotherhand,tokeephisservanthonesttheprince
oughttostudy
him,honouringhim,enrichinghim,doinghimkindnesses,
sharingwith
himthehonoursandcares;andatthesametimelethim
seethathe
cannotstandalone,sothatmanyhonoursmaynotmakehim
desiremore,
manyrichesmakehimwishformore,andthatmanycares
maymakehim
dreadchances.When,therefore,servants,andprinces
towardsservants,
arethusdisposed,theycantrusteachother,butwhenit
isotherwise,
theendwillalwaysbedisastrousforeitheroneorthe
other.

CHAPTERXXIIIHOWFLATTERERSSHOULDBEAVOIDED

Idonotwishtoleaveoutanimportantbranchofthis
subject,forit
isadangerfromwhichprincesarewithdifficulty
preserved,unless
theyareverycarefulanddiscriminating.Itisthatof
flatterers,of
whomcourtsarefull,becausemenaresoselfcomplacent
intheirown
affairs,andinawaysodeceivedinthem,thattheyare
preservedwith
difficultyfromthispest,andiftheywishtodefend
themselvesthey
runthedangeroffallingintocontempt.Becausethereis
nootherway
ofguardingoneselffromflatterersexceptlettingmen
understandthat
totellyouthetruthdoesnotoffendyou;butwhenevery
onemaytell
youthetruth,respectforyouabates.

Thereforeawiseprinceoughttoholdathirdcourseby
choosingthe
wisemeninhisstate,andgivingtothemonlythe
libertyofspeaking
thetruthtohim,andthenonlyofthosethingsofwhich
heinquires,
andofnoneothers;butheoughttoquestionthemupon
everything,and
listentotheiropinions,andafterwardsformhisown
conclusions.
Withthesecouncillors,separatelyandcollectively,he
oughttocarry
himselfinsuchawaythateachofthemshouldknowthat,
themore
freelyheshallspeak,themoreheshallbepreferred;
outsideof
these,heshouldlistentonoone,pursuethething
resolvedon,andbe
steadfastinhisresolutions.Hewhodoesotherwiseis
eitheroverthrown
byflatterers,orissooftenchangedbyvaryingopinions
thathefalls
intocontempt.

Iwishonthissubjecttoadduceamodernexample.Fra
Luca,themanof
affairstoMaximilian,(*)thepresentemperor,speaking
ofhismajesty,
said:Heconsultedwithnoone,yetnevergothisownway
inanything.
Thisarosebecauseofhisfollowingapracticethe
oppositetothe
above;fortheemperorisasecretivemanhedoesnot
communicatehis
designstoanyone,nordoeshereceiveopinionsonthem.
Butasin
carryingthemintoeffecttheybecomerevealedandknown,
theyare
atonceobstructedbythosemenwhomhehasaroundhim,
andhe,being
pliant,isdivertedfromthem.Henceitfollowsthat
thosethingshe
doesonedayheundoesthenext,andnooneever
understandswhathe
wishesorintendstodo,andnoonecanrelyonhis
resolutions.

(*)MaximilianI,bornin1459,died1519,Emperor
ofthe
HolyRomanEmpire.Hemarried,first,Mary,daughter
of
CharlestheBold;afterherdeath,BiancaSforza;
andthus
becameinvolvedinItalianpolitics.

Aprince,therefore,oughtalwaystotakecounsel,but
onlywhenhe
wishesandnotwhenotherswish;heoughtratherto
discourageeveryone
fromofferingadviceunlessheasksit;but,however,he
oughttobe
aconstantinquirer,andafterwardsapatientlistener
concerningthe
thingsofwhichheinquired;also,onlearningthatany
one,onany
consideration,hasnottoldhimthetruth,heshouldlet
hisangerbe
felt.

Andiftherearesomewhothinkthataprincewhoconveys
animpression
ofhiswisdomisnotsothroughhisownability,but
throughthegood
advisersthathehasaroundhim,beyonddoubttheyare
deceived,because
thisisanaxiomwhichneverfails:thataprincewhois
notwise
himselfwillnevertakegoodadvice,unlessbychancehe
hasyieldedhis
affairsentirelytoonepersonwhohappenstobeavery
prudentman.In
thiscaseindeedhemaybewellgoverned,butitwould
notbeforlong,
becausesuchagovernorwouldinashorttimetakeaway
hisstatefrom
him.

Butifaprincewhoisnotinexperiencedshouldtake
counselfrommore
thanonehewillnevergetunitedcounsels,norwillhe
knowhowto
unitethem.Eachofthecounsellorswillthinkofhisown
interests,and
theprincewillnotknowhowtocontrolthemortosee
throughthem.And
theyarenottobefoundotherwise,becausemenwill
alwaysproveuntrue
toyouunlesstheyarekepthonestbyconstraint.
Thereforeitmustbe
inferredthatgoodcounsels,whencesoevertheycome,are
bornof
thewisdomoftheprince,andnotthewisdomofthe
princefromgood
counsels.

CHAPTERXXIVWHYTHEPRINCESOFITALYHAVELOSTTHEIR
STATES

Theprevioussuggestions,carefullyobserved,willenable
anewprince
toappearwellestablished,andrenderhimatoncemore
secureandfixed
inthestatethanifhehadbeenlongseatedthere.For
theactionsof
anewprincearemorenarrowlyobservedthanthoseofan
hereditary
one,andwhentheyareseentobeabletheygainmoremen
andbind
fartighterthanancientblood;becausemenareattracted
morebythe
presentthanbythepast,andwhentheyfindthepresent
goodtheyenjoy
itandseeknofurther;theywillalsomaketheutmost
defenceofa
princeifhefailsthemnotinotherthings.Thusitwill
beadouble
gloryforhimtohaveestablishedanewprincipality,and
adornedand
strengtheneditwithgoodlaws,goodarms,goodallies,
andwithagood
example;sowillitbeadoubledisgracetohimwho,born
aprince,
shalllosehisstatebywantofwisdom.

Andifthoseseigniorsareconsideredwhohavelosttheir
statesin
Italyinourtimes,suchastheKingofNaples,theDuke
ofMilan,
andothers,therewillbefoundinthem,firstly,one
commondefectin
regardtoarmsfromthecauseswhichhavebeendiscussed
atlength;in
thenextplace,someoneofthemwillbeseen,eitherto
havehadthe
peoplehostile,orifhehashadthepeoplefriendly,he
hasnotknown
howtosecurethenobles.Intheabsenceofthesedefects
statesthat
havepowerenoughtokeepanarmyinthefieldcannotbe
lost.

PhilipofMacedon,notthefatherofAlexandertheGreat,
buthewho
wasconqueredbyTitusQuintius,hadnotmuchterritory
comparedto
thegreatnessoftheRomansandofGreecewhoattacked
him,yetbeinga
warlikemanwhoknewhowtoattractthepeopleandsecure
thenobles,he
sustainedthewaragainsthisenemiesformanyyears,and
ifinthe
endhelostthedominionofsomecities,neverthelesshe
retainedthe
kingdom.

Therefore,donotletourprincesaccusefortuneforthe
lossoftheir
principalitiesaftersomanyyears'possession,but
rathertheirown
sloth,becauseinquiettimestheyneverthoughtthere
couldbeachange
(itisacommondefectinmannottomakeanyprovision
inthecalm
againstthetempest),andwhenafterwardsthebadtimes
camethey
thoughtofflightandnotofdefendingthemselves,and
theyhopedthat
thepeople,disgustedwiththeinsolenceofthe
conquerors,wouldrecall
them.Thiscourse,whenothersfail,maybegood,butit
isverybadto
haveneglectedallotherexpedientsforthat,sinceyou
wouldnever
wishtofallbecauseyoutrustedtobeabletofind
someonelateronto
restoreyou.Thisagaineitherdoesnothappen,or,ifit
does,itwill
notbeforyoursecurity,becausethatdeliveranceisof
noavailwhich
doesnotdependuponyourself;thoseonlyarereliable,
certain,and
durablethatdependonyourselfandyourvalour.

CHAPTERXXVWHATFORTUNECANEFFECTINHUMANAFFAIRS
ANDHOWTO
WITHSTANDHER

Itisnotunknowntomehowmanymenhavehad,andstill
have,the
opinionthattheaffairsoftheworldareinsuchwise
governedby
fortuneandbyGodthatmenwiththeirwisdomcannot
directthemand
thatnoonecanevenhelpthem;andbecauseofthisthey
wouldhaveus
believethatitisnotnecessarytolabourmuchin
affairs,buttolet
chancegovernthem.Thisopinionhasbeenmorecredited
inourtimes
becauseofthegreatchangesinaffairswhichhavebeen
seen,and
maystillbeseen,everyday,beyondallhuman
conjecture.Sometimes
ponderingoverthis,Iaminsomedegreeinclinedto
theiropinion.
Nevertheless,nottoextinguishourfreewill,Iholdit
tobetruethat
Fortuneisthearbiterofonehalfofouractions,(*)but
thatshestill
leavesustodirecttheotherhalf,orperhapsalittle
less.

(*)FredericktheGreatwasaccustomedtosay:"The
older
onegetsthemoreconvincedonebecomesthathis
Majesty
KingChancedoesthreequartersofthebusinessof
this
miserableuniverse."Sorel's"EasternQuestion."

Icomparehertooneofthoseragingrivers,whichwhen
inflood
overflowstheplains,sweepingawaytreesandbuildings,
bearingaway
thesoilfromplacetoplace;everythingfliesbeforeit,
allyieldto
itsviolence,withoutbeingableinanywaytowithstand
it;andyet,
thoughitsnaturebesuch,itdoesnotfollowtherefore
thatmen,when
theweatherbecomesfair,shallnotmakeprovision,both
withdefences
andbarriers,insuchamannerthat,risingagain,the
watersmay
passawaybycanal,andtheirforcebeneitherso
unrestrainednorso
dangerous.Soithappenswithfortune,whoshowsher
powerwherevalour
hasnotpreparedtoresisther,andthithersheturnsher
forceswhere
sheknowsthatbarriersanddefenceshavenotbeenraised
toconstrain
her.

AndifyouwillconsiderItaly,whichistheseatof
thesechanges,and
whichhasgiventothemtheirimpulse,youwillseeitto
beanopen
countrywithoutbarriersandwithoutanydefence.Forif
ithadbeen
defendedbypropervalour,asareGermany,Spain,and
France,either
thisinvasionwouldnothavemadethegreatchangesit
hasmadeorit
wouldnothavecomeatall.AndthisIconsiderenoughto
sayconcerning
resistancetofortuneingeneral.

Butconfiningmyselfmoretotheparticular,Isaythata
princemaybe
seenhappytodayandruinedtomorrowwithouthaving
shownanychange
ofdispositionorcharacter.This,Ibelieve,arises
firstlyfromcauses
thathavealreadybeendiscussedatlength,namely,that
theprincewho
reliesentirelyonfortuneislostwhenitchanges.I
believealsothat
hewillbesuccessfulwhodirectshisactionsaccording
tothespiritof
thetimes,andthathewhoseactionsdonotaccordwith
thetimeswill
notbesuccessful.Becausemenareseen,inaffairsthat
leadtotheend
whicheverymanhasbeforehim,namely,gloryandriches,
togetthere
byvariousmethods;onewithcaution,anotherwithhaste;
onebyforce,
anotherbyskill;onebypatience,anotherbyits
opposite;andeachone
succeedsinreachingthegoalbyadifferentmethod.One
canalsoseeof
twocautiousmentheoneattainhisend,theotherfail;
andsimilarly,
twomenbydifferentobservancesareequallysuccessful,
theonebeing
cautious,theotherimpetuous;allthisarisesfrom
nothingelsethan
whetherornottheyconformintheirmethodstothe
spiritofthetimes.
ThisfollowsfromwhatIhavesaid,thattwomenworking
differently
bringaboutthesameeffect,andoftwoworking
similarly,oneattains
hisobjectandtheotherdoesnot.

Changesinestatealsoissuefromthis,forif,toone
whogoverns
himselfwithcautionandpatience,timesandaffairs
convergeinsucha
waythathisadministrationissuccessful,hisfortuneis
made;butif
timesandaffairschange,heisruinedifhedoesnot
changehiscourse
ofaction.Butamanisnotoftenfoundsufficiently
circumspecttoknow
howtoaccommodatehimselftothechange,bothbecausehe
cannotdeviate
fromwhatnatureinclineshimtodo,andalsobecause,
havingalways
prosperedbyactinginoneway,hecannotbepersuaded
thatitiswell
toleaveit;and,therefore,thecautiousman,whenitis
timetoturn
adventurous,doesnotknowhowtodoit,henceheis
ruined;buthadhe
changedhisconductwiththetimesfortunewouldnothave
changed.

PopeJuliustheSecondwenttoworkimpetuouslyinall
hisaffairs,and
foundthetimesandcircumstancesconformsowelltothat
lineofaction
thathealwaysmetwithsuccess.Considerhisfirst
enterpriseagainst
Bologna,MesserGiovanniBentivoglibeingstillalive.
TheVenetians
werenotagreeabletoit,norwastheKingofSpain,and
hehadthe
enterprisestillunderdiscussionwiththeKingof
France;nevertheless
hepersonallyenteredupontheexpeditionwithhis
accustomedboldness
andenergy,amovewhichmadeSpainandtheVenetians
standirresolute
andpassive,thelatterfromfear,theformerfromdesire
torecover
thekingdomofNaples;ontheotherhand,hedrewafter
himtheKingof
France,becausethatking,havingobservedthemovement,
anddesiring
tomakethePopehisfriendsoastohumblethe
Venetians,foundit
impossibletorefusehim.ThereforeJuliuswithhis
impetuousaction
accomplishedwhatnootherpontiffwithsimplehuman
wisdomcouldhave
done;forifhehadwaitedinRomeuntilhecouldget
away,withhis
plansarrangedandeverythingfixed,asanyotherpontiff
wouldhave
done,hewouldneverhavesucceeded.BecausetheKingof
Francewould
havemadeathousandexcuses,andtheotherswouldhave
raiseda
thousandfears.

Iwillleavehisotheractionsalone,astheywereall
alike,andthey
allsucceeded,fortheshortnessofhislifedidnotlet
himexperience
thecontrary;butifcircumstanceshadarisenwhich
requiredhimtogo
cautiously,hisruinwouldhavefollowed,becausehe
wouldneverhave
deviatedfromthosewaystowhichnatureinclinedhim.

Iconclude,thereforethat,fortunebeingchangefuland
mankind
steadfastintheirways,solongasthetwoarein
agreementmenare
successful,butunsuccessfulwhentheyfallout.Formy
partIconsider
thatitisbettertobeadventurousthancautious,
becausefortuneis
awoman,andifyouwishtokeepherunderitis
necessarytobeatand
illuseher;anditisseenthatsheallowsherselftobe
masteredby
theadventurousratherthanbythosewhogotoworkmore
coldly.Sheis,
therefore,always,womanlike,aloverofyoungmen,
becausetheyare
lesscautious,moreviolent,andwithmoreaudacity
commandher.

CHAPTERXXVIANEXHORTATIONTOLIBERATEITALYFROMTHE
BARBARIANS

Havingcarefullyconsideredthesubjectoftheabove
discourses,and
wonderingwithinmyselfwhetherthepresenttimeswere
propitiousto
anewprince,andwhethertherewereelementsthatwould
givean
opportunitytoawiseandvirtuousonetointroduceanew
orderof
thingswhichwoulddohonourtohimandgoodtothe
peopleofthis
country,itappearstomethatsomanythingsconcurto
favouranew
princethatIneverknewatimemorefitthanthe
present.

Andif,asIsaid,itwasnecessarythatthepeopleof
Israelshouldbe
captivesoastomakemanifesttheabilityofMoses;that
thePersians
shouldbeoppressedbytheMedessoastodiscoverthe
greatnessofthe
soulofCyrus;andthattheAtheniansshouldbedispersed
toillustrate
thecapabilitiesofTheseus:thenatthepresenttime,in
orderto
discoverthevirtueofanItalianspirit,itwas
necessarythatItaly
shouldbereducedtotheextremitythatsheisnowin,
thatsheshould
bemoreenslavedthantheHebrews,moreoppressedthan
thePersians,
morescatteredthantheAthenians;withouthead,without
order,beaten,
despoiled,torn,overrun;andtohaveenduredeverykind
ofdesolation.

Althoughlatelysomesparkmayhavebeenshownbyone,
whichmadeus
thinkhewasordainedbyGodforourredemption,
neverthelessitwas
afterwardsseen,intheheightofhiscareer,that
fortunerejectedhim;
sothatItaly,leftaswithoutlife,waitsforhimwho
shallyetheal
herwoundsandputanendtotheravagingandplundering
ofLombardy,
totheswindlingandtaxingofthekingdomandof
Tuscany,andcleanse
thosesoresthatforlonghavefestered.Itisseenhow
sheentreatsGod
tosendsomeonewhoshalldeliverherfromthesewrongs
andbarbarous
insolencies.Itisseenalsothatsheisreadyand
willingtofollowa
bannerifonlysomeonewillraiseit.

Noristheretobeseenatpresentoneinwhomshecan
placemorehope
thaninyourillustrioushouse,(*)withitsvalourand
fortune,favoured
byGodandbytheChurchofwhichitisnowthechief,
andwhichcould
bemadetheheadofthisredemption.Thiswillnotbe
difficultifyou
willrecalltoyourselftheactionsandlivesofthemen
Ihavenamed.
Andalthoughtheyweregreatandwonderfulmen,yetthey
weremen,and
eachoneofthemhadnomoreopportunitythanthepresent
offers,for
theirenterpriseswereneithermorejustnoreasierthan
this,norwas
GodmoretheirfriendthanHeisyours.

(*)GiulianodeMedici.Hehadjustbeencreateda
cardinal
byLeoX.In1523GiulianowaselectedPope,and
tookthe
titleofClementVII.

Withusthereisgreatjustice,becausethatwarisjust
whichis
necessary,andarmsarehallowedwhenthereisnoother
hopebutin
them.Herethereisthegreatestwillingness,andwhere
thewillingness
isgreatthedifficultiescannotbegreatifyouwill
onlyfollowthose
mentowhomIhavedirectedyourattention.Furtherthan
this,how
extraordinarilythewaysofGodhavebeenmanifested
beyondexample:
theseaisdivided,acloudhasledtheway,therockhas
poured
forthwater,ithasrainedmanna,everythinghas
contributedto
yourgreatness;yououghttodotherest.Godisnot
willingtodo
everything,andthustakeawayourfreewillandthat
shareofglory
whichbelongstous.

Anditisnottobewonderedatifnoneoftheabove
namedItalians
havebeenabletoaccomplishallthatisexpectedfrom
yourillustrious
house;andifinsomanyrevolutionsinItaly,andinso
manycampaigns,
ithasalwaysappearedasifmilitaryvirtuewere
exhausted,thishas
happenedbecausetheoldorderofthingswasnotgood,
andnoneofus
haveknownhowtofindanewone.Andnothinghonoursa
manmorethanto
establishnewlawsandnewordinanceswhenhehimselfwas
newlyrisen.
Suchthingswhentheyarewellfoundedanddignifiedwill
makehim
reveredandadmired,andinItalytherearenotwanting
opportunitiesto
bringsuchintouseineveryform.

Herethereisgreatvalourinthelimbswhilstitfails
inthehead.
Lookattentivelyattheduelsandthehandtohand
combats,howsuperior
theItaliansareinstrength,dexterity,andsubtlety.
Butwhenitcomes
toarmiestheydonotbearcomparison,andthissprings
entirelyfrom
theinsufficiencyoftheleaders,sincethosewhoare
capablearenot
obedient,andeachoneseemstohimselftoknow,there
havingneverbeen
anyonesodistinguishedabovetherest,eitherbyvalour
orfortune,
thatotherswouldyieldtohim.Henceitisthatforso
longatime,
andduringsomuchfightinginthepasttwentyyears,
wheneverthere
hasbeenanarmywhollyItalian,ithasalwaysgivena
pooraccountof
itself;thefirstwitnesstothisisIlTaro,afterwards
Allesandria,
Capua,Genoa,Vaila,Bologna,Mestri.(*)

(*)ThebattlesofIlTaro,1495;Alessandria,1499;
Capua,
1501;Genoa,1507;Vaila,1509;Bologna,1511;
Mestri,1513.

If,therefore,yourillustrioushousewishestofollow
theseremarkable
menwhohaveredeemedtheircountry,itisnecessary
beforeallthings,
asatruefoundationforeveryenterprise,tobeprovided
withyour
ownforces,becausetherecanbenomorefaithful,truer,
orbetter
soldiers.Andalthoughsinglytheyaregood,altogether
theywill
bemuchbetterwhentheyfindthemselvescommandedby
theirprince,
honouredbyhim,andmaintainedathisexpense.Therefore
itis
necessarytobepreparedwithsucharms,sothatyoucan
bedefended
againstforeignersbyItalianvalour.

AndalthoughSwissandSpanishinfantrymaybeconsidered
very
formidable,neverthelessthereisadefectinboth,by
reasonofwhich
athirdorderwouldnotonlybeabletoopposethem,but
mightberelied
upontooverthrowthem.FortheSpaniardscannotresist
cavalry,andthe
Switzersareafraidofinfantrywhenevertheyencounter
theminclose
combat.Owingtothis,ashasbeenandmayagainbeseen,
theSpaniards
areunabletoresistFrenchcavalry,andtheSwitzersare
overthrownby
Spanishinfantry.Andalthoughacompleteproofofthis
lattercannot
beshown,neverthelesstherewassomeevidenceofitat
thebattleof
Ravenna,whentheSpanishinfantrywereconfrontedby
Germanbattalions,
whofollowthesametacticsastheSwiss;whenthe
Spaniards,byagility
ofbodyandwiththeaidoftheirshields,gotinunder
thepikesofthe
Germansandstoodoutofdanger,abletoattack,while
theGermansstood
helpless,and,ifthecavalryhadnotdashedup,all
wouldhavebeen
overwiththem.Itispossible,therefore,knowingthe
defectsofboth
theseinfantries,toinventanewone,whichwillresist
cavalryandnot
beafraidofinfantry;thisneednotcreateaneworder
ofarms,but
avariationupontheold.Andthesearethekindof
improvementswhich
conferreputationandpoweruponanewprince.

Thisopportunity,therefore,oughtnottobeallowedto
passforletting
Italyatlastseeherliberatorappear.Norcanone
expressthelove
withwhichhewouldbereceivedinallthoseprovinces
whichhave
sufferedsomuchfromtheseforeignscourings,withwhat
thirstfor
revenge,withwhatstubbornfaith,withwhatdevotion,
withwhattears.
Whatdoorwouldbeclosedtohim?Whowouldrefuse
obediencetohim?
Whatenvywouldhinderhim?WhatItalianwouldrefusehim
homage?Toall
ofusthisbarbarousdominionstinks.Let,therefore,
yourillustrious
housetakeupthischargewiththatcourageandhopewith
whichall
justenterprisesareundertaken,sothatunderits
standardournative
countrymaybeennobled,andunderitsauspicesmaybe
verifiedthat
sayingofPetrarch:

VirtucontroalFurore
Prenderal'arme,efiailcombattercorto:
Chel'anticovalore
Negliitalicicuornoneancormorto.

Virtueagainstfuryshalladvancethefight,
Anditi'th'combatsoonshallputtoflight:
FortheoldRomanvalourisnotdead,
Norinth'Italians'brestsextinguished.

EdwardDacre,1640.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMETHODSADOPTEDBYTHEDUKEVALENTINO
WHENMURDERING
VITELLOZZOVITELLI,OLIVEROTTODAFERMO,THESIGNOR
PAGOLO,ANDTHEDUKE
DIGRAVINAORSINI

BY

NICOLOMACHIAVELLI

TheDukeValentinohadreturnedfromLombardy,wherehe
hadbeento
clearhimselfwiththeKingofFrancefromthecalumnies
whichhadbeen
raisedagainsthimbytheFlorentinesconcerningthe
rebellionofArezzo
andothertownsintheValdiChiana,andhadarrivedat
Imola,whence
heintendedwithhisarmytoenteruponthecampaign
againstGiovanni
Bentivogli,thetyrantofBologna:forheintendedto
bringthatcity
underhisdomination,andtomakeittheheadofhis
Romagnianduchy.

ThesematterscomingtotheknowledgeoftheVitelliand
Orsiniand
theirfollowing,itappearedtothemthatthedukewould
becometoo
powerful,anditwasfearedthat,havingseizedBologna,
hewouldseek
todestroytheminorderthathemightbecomesupremein
Italy.Upon
thisameetingwascalledatMagioneinthedistrictof
Perugia,
towhichcamethecardinal,Pagolo,andtheDukedi
GravinaOrsini,
VitellozzoVitelli,OliverottodaFermo,Gianpagolo
Baglioni,thetyrant
ofPerugia,andMesserAntoniodaVenafro,sentby
PandolfoPetrucci,
thePrinceofSiena.Herewerediscussedthepowerand
courageofthe
dukeandthenecessityofcurbinghisambitions,which
mightotherwise
bringdangertotherestofbeingruined.Andthey
decidednotto
abandontheBentivogli,buttostrivetowinoverthe
Florentines;and
theysenttheirmentooneplaceandanother,promising
tooneparty
assistanceandtoanotherencouragementtounitewith
themagainstthe
commonenemy.Thismeetingwasatoncereported
throughoutallItaly,
andthosewhowerediscontentedundertheduke,among
whomwerethe
peopleofUrbino,tookhopeofeffectingarevolution.

Thusitarosethat,men'smindsbeingthusunsettled,it
wasdecidedby
certainmenofUrbinotoseizethefortressofSanLeo,
whichwas
heldfortheduke,andwhichtheycapturedbythe
followingmeans.The
castellanwasfortifyingtherockandcausingtimberto
betakenthere;
sotheconspiratorswatched,andwhencertainbeamswhich
werebeing
carriedtotherockwereuponthebridge,sothatitwas
preventedfrom
beingdrawnupbythoseinside,theytooktheopportunity
ofleaping
uponthebridgeandthenceintothefortress.Uponthis
capturebeing
effected,thewholestaterebelledandrecalledtheold
duke,being
encouragedinthis,notsomuchbythecaptureofthe
fort,asbythe
DietatMagione,fromwhomtheyexpectedtoget
assistance.

ThosewhoheardoftherebellionatUrbinothoughtthey
wouldnotlose
theopportunity,andatonceassembledtheirmensoasto
takeanytown,
shouldanyremaininthehandsofthedukeinthatstate;
andtheysent
againtoFlorencetobegthatrepublictojoinwiththem
indestroying
thecommonfirebrand,showingthattheriskwaslessened
andthatthey
oughtnottowaitforanotheropportunity.

ButtheFlorentines,fromhatred,forsundryreasons,of
theVitelliand
Orsini,notonlywouldnotallythemselves,butsent
NicoloMachiavelli,
theirsecretary,tooffershelterandassistancetothe
dukeagainst
hisenemies.ThedukewasfoundfulloffearatImola,
because,against
everybody'sexpectation,hissoldiershadatoncegone
overtothe
enemyandhefoundhimselfdisarmedandwarathisdoor.
Butrecovering
couragefromtheoffersoftheFlorentines,hedecidedto
temporize
beforefightingwiththefewsoldiersthatremainedto
him,andto
negotiateforareconciliation,andalsotoget
assistance.Thislatter
heobtainedintwoways,bysendingtotheKingofFrance
formenandby
enlistingmenatarmsandotherswhomheturnedinto
cavalryofasort:
toallhegavemoney.

Notwithstandingthis,hisenemiesdrewneartohim,and
approached
Fossombrone,wheretheyencounteredsomemenoftheduke
and,withthe
aidoftheOrsiniandVitelli,routedthem.Whenthis
happened,theduke
resolvedatoncetoseeifhecouldnotclosethetrouble
withoffersof
reconciliation,andbeingamostperfectdissemblerhe
didnotfailin
anypracticestomaketheinsurgentsunderstandthathe
wishedeveryman
whohadacquiredanythingtokeepit,asitwasenough
forhimtohave
thetitleofprince,whilstothersmighthavethe
principality.

Andthedukesucceededsowellinthisthattheysent
SignorPagoloto
himtonegotiateforareconciliation,andtheybrought
theirarmytoa
standstill.Butthedukedidnotstophispreparations,
andtook
everycaretoprovidehimselfwithcavalryandinfantry,
andthatsuch
preparationsmightnotbeapparenttotheothers,hesent
histroopsin
separatepartiestoeverypartoftheRomagna.Inthe
meanwhilethere
camealsotohimfivehundredFrenchlancers,and
althoughhefound
himselfsufficientlystrongtotakevengeanceonhis
enemiesinopen
war,heconsideredthatitwouldbesaferandmore
advantageous
tooutwitthem,andforthisreasonhedidnotstopthe
workof
reconciliation.

Andthatthismightbeeffectedthedukeconcludeda
peacewiththemin
whichheconfirmedtheirformercovenants;hegavethem
fourthousand
ducatsatonce;hepromisednottoinjuretheBentivogli;
andheformed
analliancewithGiovanni;andmoreoverhewouldnot
forcethemtocome
personallyintohispresenceunlessitpleasedthemtodo
so.Onthe
otherhand,theypromisedtorestoretohimtheduchyof
Urbinoand
otherplacesseizedbythem,toservehiminallhis
expeditions,and
nottomakewaragainstorallythemselveswithanyone
withouthis
permission.

Thisreconciliationbeingcompleted,GuidoUbaldo,the
DukeofUrbino,
againfledtoVenice,havingfirstdestroyedallthe
fortressesin
hisstate;because,trustinginthepeople,hedidnot
wishthatthe
fortresses,whichhedidnotthinkhecoulddefend,
shouldbeheldby
theenemy,sincebythesemeansacheckwouldbekept
uponhisfriends.
ButtheDukeValentino,havingcompletedthisconvention,
anddispersed
hismenthroughouttheRomagna,setoutforImolaatthe
endofNovember
togetherwithhisFrenchmenatarms:thencehewentto
Cesena,wherehe
stayedsometimetonegotiatewiththeenvoysofthe
VitelliandOrsini,
whohadassembledwiththeirmenintheduchyofUrbino,
astothe
enterpriseinwhichtheyshouldnowtakepart;but
nothingbeing
concluded,OliverottodaFermowassenttoproposethat
iftheduke
wishedtoundertakeanexpeditionagainstTuscanythey
wereready;if
hedidnotwishit,thentheywouldbesiegeSinigalia.To
thistheduke
repliedthathedidnotwishtoenterintowarwith
Tuscany,andthus
becomehostiletotheFlorentines,butthathewasvery
willingto
proceedagainstSinigalia.

Ithappenedthatnotlongafterwardsthetown
surrendered,butthe
fortresswouldnotyieldtothembecausethecastellan
wouldnotgive
ituptoanyonebutthedukeinperson;thereforethey
exhortedhim
tocomethere.Thisappearedagoodopportunitytothe
duke,as,being
invitedbythem,andnotgoingofhisownwill,hewould
awakenno
suspicions.Andthemoretoreassurethem,heallowedall
theFrench
menatarmswhowerewithhiminLombardytodepart,
exceptthehundred
lancersunderMons.diCandales,hisbrotherinlaw.He
leftCesena
aboutthemiddleofDecember,andwenttoFano,andwith
theutmost
cunningandclevernesshepersuadedtheVitelliand
Orsinitowaitfor
himatSinigalia,pointingouttothemthatanylackof
compliancewould
castadoubtuponthesincerityandpermanencyofthe
reconciliation,
andthathewasamanwhowishedtomakeuseofthearms
andcouncilsof
hisfriends.ButVitellozzoremainedverystubborn,for
thedeathof
hisbrotherwarnedhimthatheshouldnotoffendaprince
andafterwards
trusthim;nevertheless,persuadedbyPagoloOrsini,whom
thedukehad
corruptedwithgiftsandpromises,heagreedtowait.

Uponthistheduke,beforehisdeparturefromFano,which
wastobe
on30thDecember1502,communicatedhisdesignstoeight
ofhismost
trustedfollowers,amongwhomwereDonMicheleandthe
Monsignord'Euna,
whowasafterwardscardinal;andheorderedthat,assoon
asVitellozzo,
PagoloOrsini,theDukediGravina,andOliverottoshould
arrive,his
followersinpairsshouldtakethemonebyone,
entrustingcertain
mentocertainpairs,whoshouldentertainthemuntil
theyreached
Sinigalia;norshouldtheybepermittedtoleaveuntil
theycametothe
duke'squarters,wheretheyshouldbeseized.

Thedukeafterwardsorderedallhishorsemenand
infantry,ofwhich
thereweremorethantwothousandcavalryandten
thousandfootmen,to
assemblebydaybreakattheMetauro,ariverfivemiles
distantfrom
Fano,andawaithimthere.Hefoundhimself,therefore,
onthelastday
ofDecemberattheMetaurowithhismen,andhavingsent
acavalcade
ofabouttwohundredhorsemenbeforehim,hethenmoved
forwardthe
infantry,whomheaccompaniedwiththerestofthemen
atarms.

FanoandSinigaliaaretwocitiesofLaMarcasituatedon
theshoreof
theAdriaticSea,fifteenmilesdistantfromeachother,
sothathewho
goestowardsSinigaliahasthemountainsonhisright
hand,thebases
ofwhicharetouchedbytheseainsomeplaces.Thecity
ofSinigaliais
distantfromthefootofthemountainsalittlemorethan
abowshot
andfromtheshoreaboutamile.Onthesideoppositeto
thecityruns
alittleriverwhichbathesthatpartofthewalls
lookingtowardsFano,
facingthehighroad.ThushewhodrawsneartoSinigalia
comesfor
agoodspacebyroadalongthemountains,andreachesthe
riverwhich
passesbySinigalia.Ifheturnstohislefthandalong
thebankofit,
andgoesforthedistanceofabowshot,hearrivesata
bridgewhich
crossestheriver;heisthenalmostabreastofthegate
thatleadsinto
Sinigalia,notbyastraightline,buttransversely.
Beforethisgate
therestandsacollectionofhouseswithasquareto
whichthebankof
theriverformsoneside.

TheVitelliandOrsinihavingreceivedorderstowaitfor
theduke,and
tohonourhiminperson,sentawaytheirmentoseveral
castlesdistant
fromSinigaliaaboutsixmiles,sothatroomcouldbe
madeforthemen
oftheduke;andtheyleftinSinigaliaonlyOliverotto
andhisband,
whichconsistedofonethousandinfantryandonehundred
andfifty
horsemen,whowerequarteredinthesuburbmentioned
above.Matters
havingbeenthusarranged,theDukeValentinoleftfor
Sinigalia,and
whentheleadersofthecavalryreachedthebridgethey
didnotpass
over,buthavingopenedit,oneportionwheeledtowards
theriverand
theothertowardsthecountry,andawaywasleftinthe
middlethrough
whichtheinfantrypassed,withoutstopping,intothe
town.

Vitellozzo,Pagolo,andtheDukediGravinaonmules,
accompaniedbya
fewhorsemen,wenttowardstheduke;Vitellozo,unarmed
andwearinga
capelinedwithgreen,appearedverydejected,asif
consciousofhis
approachingdeathacircumstancewhich,inviewofthe
abilityofthe
manandhisformerfortune,causedsomeamazement.Andit
issaidthat
whenhepartedfromhismenbeforesettingoutfor
Sinigaliatomeetthe
dukeheactedasifitwerehislastpartingfromthem.
Herecommended
hishouseanditsfortunestohiscaptains,andadvised
hisnephewsthat
itwasnotthefortuneoftheirhouse,butthevirtuesof
theirfathers
thatshouldbekeptinmind.Thesethree,therefore,came
before
thedukeandsalutedhimrespectfully,andwerereceived
byhimwith
goodwill;theywereatonceplacedbetweenthosewhowere
commissioned
tolookafterthem.

ButthedukenoticingthatOliverotto,whohadremained
withhisbandin
Sinigalia,wasmissingforOliverottowaswaitinginthe
squarebefore
hisquartersneartheriver,keepinghismeninorderand
drilling
themsignalledwithhiseyetoDonMichelle,towhomthe
careof
Oliverottohadbeencommitted,thatheshouldtake
measuresthat
Oliverottoshouldnotescape.ThereforeDonMichelerode
offandjoined
Oliverotto,tellinghimthatitwasnotrighttokeephis
menoutof
theirquarters,becausethesemightbetakenupbythe
menoftheduke;
andheadvisedhimtosendthematoncetotheirquarters
andtocome
himselftomeettheduke.AndOliverotto,havingtaken
thisadvice,came
beforetheduke,who,whenhesawhim,calledtohim;and
Oliverotto,
havingmadehisobeisance,joinedtheothers.

SothewholepartyenteredSinigalia,dismountedatthe
duke'squarters,
andwentwithhimintoasecretchamber,wheretheduke
madethem
prisoners;hethenmountedonhorseback,andissued
ordersthatthemen
ofOliverottoandtheOrsinishouldbestrippedoftheir
arms.Thoseof
Oliverotto,beingathand,werequicklysettled,but
thoseoftheOrsini
andVitelli,beingatadistance,andhavinga
presentimentofthe
destructionoftheirmasters,hadtimetoprepare
themselves,and
bearinginmindthevalouranddisciplineoftheOrsinian
andVitellian
houses,theystoodtogetheragainstthehostileforcesof
thecountry
andsavedthemselves.

Buttheduke'ssoldiers,notbeingcontentwithhaving
pillagedthe
menofOliverotto,begantosackSinigalia,andifthe
dukehad
notrepressedthisoutragebykillingsomeofthemthey
wouldhave
completelysackedit.Nighthavingcomeandthetumult
beingsilenced,
thedukepreparedtokillVitellozzoandOliverotto;he
ledtheminto
aroomandcausedthemtobestrangled.Neitherofthem
usedwordsin
keepingwiththeirpastlives:Vitellozzoprayedthathe
mightaskof
thepopefullpardonforhissins;Oliverottocringedand
laidtheblame
forallinjuriesagainstthedukeonVitellozzo.Pagolo
andtheDukedi
GravinaOrsiniwerekeptaliveuntilthedukeheardfrom
Romethatthe
popehadtakentheCardinalOrsino,theArchbishopof
Florence,and
MesserJacopodaSantaCroce.Afterwhichnews,on18th
January1502,in
thecastleofPieve,theyalsowerestrangledinthesame
way.

THELIFEOFCASTRUCCIOCASTRACANIOFLUCCA

WRITTENBYNICOLOMACHIAVELLI

AndsenttohisfriendsZANOBIBUONDELMONTIAndLUIGI
ALAMANNI

CASTRUCCIOCASTRACANI12841328

Itappears,dearestZanobiandLuigi,awonderfulthing
tothosewho
haveconsideredthematter,thatallmen,orthelarger
numberofthem,
whohaveperformedgreatdeedsintheworld,andexcelled
allothersin
theirday,havehadtheirbirthandbeginninginbaseness
andobscurity;
orhavebeenaggrievedbyFortuneinsomeoutrageousway.
Theyhave
eitherbeenexposedtothemercyofwildbeasts,orthey
havehadso
meanaparentagethatinshametheyhavegiventhemselves
outtobe
sonsofJoveorofsomeotherdeity.Itwouldbe
wearisometorelatewho
thesepersonsmayhavebeenbecausetheyarewellknown
toeverybody,
and,assuchtaleswouldnotbeparticularlyedifyingto
thosewhoread
them,theyareomitted.Ibelievethattheselowly
beginningsofgreat
menoccurbecauseFortuneisdesirousofshowingtothe
worldthatsuch
menowemuchtoherandlittletowisdom,becauseshe
beginstoshow
herhandwhenwisdomcanreallytakenopartintheir
career:thusall
successmustbeattributedtoher.CastruccioCastracani
ofLuccawas
oneofthosemenwhodidgreatdeeds,ifheismeasured
bythetimesin
whichhelivedandthecityinwhichhewasborn;but,
likemanyothers,
hewasneitherfortunatenordistinguishedinhisbirth,
asthecourse
ofthishistorywillshow.Itappearedtobedesirableto
recallhis
memory,becauseIhavediscernedinhimsuchindications
ofvalourand
fortuneasshouldmakehimagreatexemplartomen.I
thinkalsothat
Ioughttocallyourattentiontohisactions,because
youofallmenI
knowdelightmostinnobledeeds.

ThefamilyofCastracaniwasformerlynumberedamongthe
noblefamilies
ofLucca,butinthedaysofwhichIspeakithad
somewhatfallenin
estate,assooftenhappensinthisworld.Tothisfamily
wasbornason
Antonio,whobecameapriestoftheorderofSanMichele
ofLucca,and
forthisreasonwashonouredwiththetitleofMesser
Antonio.Hehadan
onlysister,whohadbeenmarriedtoBuonaccorsoCenami,
butBuonaccorso
dyingshebecameawidow,andnotwishingtomarryagain
wenttolive
withherbrother.MesserAntoniohadavineyardbehind
thehousewhere
heresided,andasitwasboundedonallsidesby
gardens,anyperson
couldhaveaccesstoitwithoutdifficulty.Onemorning,
shortlyafter
sunrise,MadonnaDianora,asthesisterofMesserAntonio
wascalled,
hadoccasiontogointothevineyardasusualtogather
herbsfor
seasoningthedinner,andhearingaslightrustlingamong
theleaves
ofavinesheturnedhereyesinthatdirection,and
heardsomething
resemblingthecryofaninfant.Whereuponshewent
towardsit,andsaw
thehandsandfaceofababywhowaslyingenvelopedin
theleavesand
whoseemedtobecryingforitsmother.Partlywondering
andpartly
fearing,yetfullofcompassion,shelifteditupand
carrieditto
thehouse,whereshewasheditandclotheditwithclean
linenasis
customary,andshowedittoMesserAntoniowhenhe
returnedhome.When
heheardwhathadhappenedandsawthechildhewasnot
lesssurprised
orcompassionatethanhissister.Theydiscussedbetween
themselves
whatshouldbedone,andseeingthathewaspriestand
thatshehadno
children,theyfinallydeterminedtobringitup.They
hadanursefor
it,anditwasrearedandlovedasifitweretheirown
child.They
baptizedit,andgaveitthenameofCastruccioafter
theirfather.As
theyearspassedCastrucciogrewveryhandsome,andgave
evidenceof
witanddiscretion,andlearntwithaquicknessbeyond
hisyearsthose
lessonswhichMesserAntonioimpartedtohim.Messer
Antoniointended
tomakeapriestofhim,andintimewouldhaveinducted
himintohis
canonryandotherbenefices,andallhisinstructionwas
givenwith
thisobject;butAntoniodiscoveredthatthecharacterof
Castrucciowas
quiteunfittedforthepriesthood.AssoonasCastruccio
reachedthe
ageoffourteenhebegantotakelessnoticeofthe
chidingofMesser
AntonioandMadonnaDianoraandnolongertofearthem;
heleft
offreadingecclesiasticalbooks,andturnedtoplaying
witharms,
delightinginnothingsomuchasinlearningtheiruses,
andinrunning,
leaping,andwrestlingwithotherboys.Inallexercises
hefarexcelled
hiscompanionsincourageandbodilystrength,andifat
anytimehedid
turntobooks,onlythosepleasedhimwhichtoldofwars
andthemighty
deedsofmen.MesserAntoniobeheldallthiswith
vexationandsorrow.

TherelivedinthecityofLuccaagentlemanofthe
Guinigifamily,
namedMesserFrancesco,whoseprofessionwasarmsandwho
inriches,
bodilystrength,andvalourexcelledallothermenin
Lucca.Hehad
oftenfoughtunderthecommandoftheViscontiofMilan,
andasa
GhibellinewasthevaluedleaderofthatpartyinLucca.
Thisgentleman
residedinLuccaandwasaccustomedtoassemblewith
othersmost
morningsandeveningsunderthebalconyofthePodesta,
whichisatthe
topofthesquareofSanMichele,thefinestsquarein
Lucca,andhehad
oftenseenCastrucciotakingpartwithotherchildrenof
thestreet
inthosegamesofwhichIhavespoken.Noticingthat
Castrucciofar
excelledtheotherboys,andthatheappearedtoexercise
aroyal
authorityoverthem,andthattheylovedandobeyedhim,
Messer
Francescobecamegreatlydesirousoflearningwhohewas.
Beinginformed
ofthecircumstancesofthebringingupofCastrucciohe
feltagreater
desiretohavehimneartohim.Thereforehecalledhim
onedayand
askedhimwhetherhewouldmorewillinglyliveinthe
houseofa
gentleman,wherehewouldlearntoridehorsesanduse
arms,orin
thehouseofapriest,wherehewouldlearnnothingbut
massesand
theservicesoftheChurch.MesserFrancescocouldsee
thatitpleased
Castrucciogreatlytohearhorsesandarmsspokenof,
eventhough
hestoodsilent,blushingmodestly;butbeingencouraged
byMesser
Francescotospeak,heansweredthat,ifhismasterwere
agreeable,
nothingwouldpleasehimmorethantogiveuphis
priestlystudiesand
takeupthoseofasoldier.ThisreplydelightedMesser
Francesco,and
inaveryshorttimeheobtainedtheconsentofMesser
Antonio,whowas
driventoyieldbyhisknowledgeofthenatureofthe
lad,andthefear
thathewouldnotbeabletoholdhimmuchlonger.

ThusCastrucciopassedfromthehouseofMesserAntonio
thepriest
tothehouseofMesserFrancescoGuinigithesoldier,and
itwas
astonishingtofindthatinaveryshorttimehe
manifestedallthat
virtueandbearingwhichweareaccustomedtoassociate
withatrue
gentleman.Inthefirstplacehebecameanaccomplished
horseman,and
couldmanagewitheasethemostfierycharger,andinall
joustsand
tournaments,althoughstillayouth,hewasobserved
beyondallothers,
andheexcelledinallexercisesofstrengthand
dexterity.Butwhat
enhancedsomuchthecharmoftheseaccomplishments,was
thedelightful
modestywhichenabledhimtoavoidoffenceineitheract
orwordto
others,forhewasdeferentialtothegreatmen,modest
withhisequals,
andcourteoustohisinferiors.Thesegiftsmadehim
beloved,notonly
byalltheGuinigifamily,butbyallLucca.When
Castrucciohadreached
hiseighteenthyear,theGhibellinesweredrivenfrom
Paviabythe
Guelphs,andMesserFrancescowassentbytheViscontito
assistthe
Ghibellines,andwithhimwentCastruccio,inchargeof
hisforces.
Castrucciogaveampleproofofhisprudenceandcourage
inthis
expedition,acquiringgreaterreputationthananyother
captain,and
hisnameandfamewereknown,notonlyinPavia,but
throughoutall
Lombardy.

Castruccio,havingreturnedtoLuccainfarhigher
estimationthanhe
leftit,didnotomittouseallthemeansinhispower
togainasmany
friendsashecould,neglectingnoneofthoseartswhich
arenecessary
forthatpurpose.AboutthistimeMesserFrancescodied,
leavingason
thirteenyearsofagenamedPagolo,andhavingappointed
Castruccio
tobehisson'stutorandadministratorofhisestate.
Beforehedied
FrancescocalledCastrucciotohim,andprayedhimto
showPagolothat
goodwillwhichhe(Francesco)hadalwaysshowntoHIM,
andtorenderto
thesonthegratitudewhichhehadnotbeenabletorepay
tothefather.
UponthedeathofFrancesco,Castrucciobecamethe
governorandtutorof
Pagolo,whichincreasedenormouslyhispowerand
position,andcreated
acertainamountofenvyagainsthiminLuccainplaceof
theformer
universalgoodwill,formanymensuspectedhimof
harbouringtyrannical
intentions.AmongthesetheleadingmanwasGiorgiodegli
Opizi,the
headoftheGuelphparty.Thismanhopedafterthedeath
ofMesser
FrancescotobecomethechiefmaninLucca,butitseemed
tohimthat
Castruccio,withthegreatabilitieswhichhealready
showed,and
holdingthepositionofgovernor,deprivedhimofhis
opportunity;
thereforehebegantosowthoseseedswhichshouldrob
Castruccioofhis
eminence.Castruccioatfirsttreatedthiswithscorn,
butafterwards
hegrewalarmed,thinkingthatMesserGiorgiomightbe
abletobring
himintodisgracewiththedeputyofKingRubertoof
Naplesandhavehim
drivenoutofLucca.

TheLordofPisaatthattimewasUguccioneofthe
FaggiuolaofArezzo,
whobeinginthefirstplaceelectedtheircaptain
afterwardsbecame
theirlord.ThereresidedinParissomeexiled
GhibellinesfromLucca,
withwhomCastruccioheldcommunicationswiththeobject
ofeffecting
theirrestorationbythehelpofUguccione.Castruccio
alsobroughtinto
hisplansfriendsfromLuccawhowouldnotendurethe
authorityofthe
Opizi.Havingfixeduponaplantobefollowed,
Castrucciocautiously
fortifiedthetoweroftheOnesti,fillingitwith
suppliesand
munitionsofwar,inorderthatitmightstandasiege
forafewdays
incaseofneed.Whenthenightcamewhichhadbeen
agreeduponwith
Uguccione,whohadoccupiedtheplainbetweenthe
mountainsand
Pisawithmanymen,thesignalwasgiven,andwithout
beingobserved
UguccioneapproachedthegateofSanPieroandsetfire
tothe
portcullis.Castruccioraisedagreatuproarwithinthe
city,calling
thepeopletoarmsandforcingopenthegatefromhis
side.Uguccione
enteredwithhismen,pouredthroughthetown,andkilled
MesserGiorgio
withallhisfamilyandmanyofhisfriendsand
supporters.Thegovernor
wasdrivenout,andthegovernmentreformedaccordingto
thewishesof
Uguccione,tothedetrimentofthecity,becauseitwas
foundthatmore
thanonehundredfamilieswereexiledatthattime.Of
thosewho
fled,partwenttoFlorenceandparttoPistoia,which
citywasthe
headquartersoftheGuelphparty,andforthisreasonit
becamemost
hostiletoUguccioneandtheLucchese.

AsitnowappearedtotheFlorentinesandothersofthe
Guelphparty
thattheGhibellinesabsorbedtoomuchpowerinTuscany,
theydetermined
torestoretheexiledGuelphstoLucca.Theyassembleda
largearmyin
theValdiNievole,andseizedMontecatini;fromthence
theymarchedto
Montecarlo,inordertosecurethefreepassageinto
Lucca.Uponthis
UguccioneassembledhisPisanandLuccheseforces,and
withanumber
ofGermancavalrywhichhedrewoutofLombardy,hemoved
against
thequartersoftheFlorentines,whoupontheappearance
oftheenemy
withdrewfromMontecarlo,andpostedthemselvesbetween
Montecatiniand
Pescia.Uguccionenowtookupapositionnearto
Montecarlo,andwithin
abouttwomilesoftheenemy,andslightskirmishes
betweenthehorse
ofbothpartieswereofdailyoccurrence.Owingtothe
illnessof
Uguccione,thePisansandLucchesedelayedcomingto
battlewiththe
enemy.Uguccione,findinghimselfgrowingworse,wentto
Montecarloto
becured,andleftthecommandofthearmyinthehands
ofCastruccio.
ThischangebroughtabouttheruinoftheGuelphs,who,
thinking
thatthehostilearmyhavinglostitscaptainhadlost
itshead,grew
overconfident.Castruccioobservedthis,andallowed
somedaystopass
inordertoencouragethisbelief;healsoshowedsigns
offear,and
didnotallowanyofthemunitionsofthecamptobe
used.Ontheother
side,theGuelphsgrewmoreinsolentthemoretheysaw
theseevidences
offear,andeverydaytheydrewoutintheorderof
battleinfront
ofthearmyofCastruccio.Presently,deemingthatthe
enemywas
sufficientlyemboldened,andhavingmasteredtheir
tactics,hedecided
tojoinbattlewiththem.Firsthespokeafewwordsof
encouragementto
hissoldiers,andpointedouttothemthecertaintyof
victoryifthey
wouldbutobeyhiscommands.Castrucciohadnoticedhow
theenemyhad
placedallhisbesttroopsinthecentreofthelineof
battle,andhis
lessreliablemenonthewingsofthearmy;whereuponhe
didexactly
theopposite,puttinghismostvaliantmenontheflanks,
whilethose
onwhomhecouldnotsostronglyrelyhemovedtothe
centre.Observing
thisorderofbattle,hedrewoutofhislinesand
quicklycameinsight
ofthehostilearmy,who,asusual,hadcomeintheir
insolencetodefy
him.Hethencommandedhiscentresquadronstomarch
slowly,whilst
hemovedrapidlyforwardthoseonthewings.Thus,when
theycameinto
contactwiththeenemy,onlythewingsofthetwoarmies
becameengaged,
whilstthecenterbattalionsremainedoutofaction,for
thesetwo
portionsofthelineofbattlewereseparatedfromeach
otherbyalong
intervalandthusunabletoreacheachother.Bythis
expedientthemore
valiantpartofCastruccio'smenwereopposedtothe
weakerpartofthe
enemy'stroops,andthemostefficientmenoftheenemy
weredisengaged;
andthustheFlorentineswereunabletofightwiththose
whowere
arrayedoppositetothem,ortogiveanyassistanceto
theirownflanks.
So,withoutmuchdifficulty,Castruccioputtheenemyto
flighton
bothflanks,andthecentrebattalionstooktoflight
whentheyfound
themselvesexposedtoattack,withouthavingachanceof
displaying
theirvalour.Thedefeatwascomplete,andthelossin
menveryheavy,
therebeingmorethantenthousandmenkilledwithmany
officersand
knightsoftheGuelphpartyinTuscany,andalsomany
princeswhohad
cometohelpthem,amongwhomwerePiero,thebrotherof
KingRuberto,
andCarlo,hisnephew,andFilippo,thelordofTaranto.
Onthepartof
Castrucciothelossdidnotamounttomorethanthree
hundredmen,among
whomwasFrancesco,thesonofUguccione,who,being
youngandrash,was
killedinthefirstonset.

Thisvictorysogreatlyincreasedthereputationof
Castrucciothat
Uguccioneconceivedsomejealousyandsuspicionofhim,
becauseit
appearedtoUguccionethatthisvictoryhadgivenhimno
increaseof
power,butratherthandiminishedit.Beingofthismind,
heonlywaited
foranopportunitytogiveeffecttoit.Thisoccurredon
thedeathof
PierAgnoloMicheli,amanofgreatreputeandabilities
inLucca,the
murdererofwhomfledtothehouseofCastrucciofor
refuge.Onthe
sergeantsofthecaptaingoingtoarrestthemurderer,
theyweredriven
offbyCastruccio,andthemurdererescaped.Thisaffair
comingto
theknowledgeofUguccione,whowasthenatPisa,it
appearedtohima
properopportunitytopunishCastruccio.Hetherefore
sentforhis
sonNeri,whowasthegovernorofLucca,andcommissioned
himtotake
Castruccioprisoneratabanquetandputhimtodeath.
Castruccio,
fearingnoevil,wenttothegovernorinafriendlyway,
wasentertained
atsupper,andthenthrownintoprison.ButNeri,fearing
toputhimto
deathlestthepeopleshouldbeincensed,kepthimalive,
inorderto
hearfurtherfromhisfatherconcerninghisintentions.
Ugucionnecursed
thehesitationandcowardiceofhisson,andatonceset
outfromPisa
toLuccawithfourhundredhorsementofinishthe
businessinhisown
way;buthehadnotyetreachedthebathswhenthePisans
rebelledand
puthisdeputytodeathandcreatedCountGaddodella
Gherardescatheir
lord.BeforeUguccionereachedLuccaheheardofthe
occurrencesat
Pisa,butitdidnotappearwisetohimtoturnback,
lesttheLucchese
withtheexampleofPisabeforethemshouldclosetheir
gatesagainst
him.ButtheLucchese,havingheardofwhathadhappened
atPisa,
availedthemselvesofthisopportunitytodemandthe
liberationof
Castruccio,notwithstandingthatUguccionehadarrivedin
theircity.
Theyfirstbegantospeakofitinprivatecircles,
afterwardsopenly
inthesquaresandstreets;thentheyraisedatumult,
andwitharmsin
theirhandswenttoUguccioneanddemandedthat
Castruccioshouldbe
setatliberty.Uguccione,fearingthatworsemight
happen,releasedhim
fromprison.WhereuponCastrucciogatheredhisfriends
aroundhim,and
withthehelpofthepeopleattackedUguccione;who,
findinghehadno
resourcebutinflight,rodeawaywithhisfriendsto
Lombardy,tothe
lordsofScale,wherehediedinpoverty.

ButCastrucciofrombeingaprisonerbecamealmosta
princeinLucca,
andhecarriedhimselfsodiscreetlywithhisfriendsand
thepeople
thattheyappointedhimcaptainoftheirarmyforone
year.Having
obtainedthis,andwishingtogainrenowninwar,he
plannedthe
recoveryofthemanytownswhichhadrebelledafterthe
departureof
Uguccione,andwiththehelpofthePisans,withwhomhe
hadconcludeda
treaty,hemarchedtoSerezzana.Tocapturethisplacehe
constructeda
fortagainstit,whichiscalledtodayZerezzanello;in
thecourseof
twomonthsCastrucciocapturedthetown.Withthe
reputationgained
atthatsiege,herapidlyseizedMassa,Carrara,and
Lavenza,andin
ashorttimehadoverrunthewholeofLunigiana.Inorder
toclosethe
passwhichleadsfromLombardytoLunigiana,hebesieged
Pontremoliand
wresteditfromthehandsofMesserAnastagioPalavicini,
whowasthe
lordofit.AfterthisvictoryhereturnedtoLucca,and
waswelcomedby
thewholepeople.AndnowCastruccio,deemingit
imprudentanylongerto
defermakinghimselfaprince,gothimselfcreatedthe
lordofLucca
bythehelpofPazzinodelPoggio,Puccinellodal
Portico,Francesco
Boccansacchi,andCeccoGuinigi,allofwhomhehad
corrupted;andhe
wasafterwardssolemnlyanddeliberatelyelectedprince
bythepeople.
AtthistimeFrederickofBavaria,theKingofthe
Romans,cameinto
ItalytoassumetheImperialcrown,andCastruccio,in
orderthat
hemightmakefriendswithhim,methimattheheadof
fivehundred
horsemen.CastrucciohadleftashisdeputyinLucca,
PagoloGuinigi,
whowasheldinhighestimation,becauseofthepeople's
lovefor
thememoryofhisfather.Castrucciowasreceivedin
greathonourby
Frederick,andmanyprivilegeswereconferreduponhim,
andhewas
appointedtheemperor'slieutenantinTuscany.Atthis
timethePisans
wereingreatfearofGaddodellaGherardesca,whomthey
haddrivenout
ofPisa,andtheyhadrecourseforassistanceto
Frederick.Frederick
createdCastrucciothelordofPisa,andthePisans,in
dreadofthe
Guelphparty,andparticularlyoftheFlorentines,were
constrainedto
accepthimastheirlord.

Frederick,havingappointedagovernorinRometowatch
hisItalian
affairs,returnedtoGermany.AlltheTuscanand
LombardianGhibellines,
whofollowedtheimperiallead,hadrecourseto
Castruccioforhelp
andcounsel,andallpromisedhimthegovernorshipofhis
country,
ifenabledtorecoveritwithhisassistance.Amongthese
exileswere
MatteoGuidi,NardoScolari,LapoUberti,GerozzoNardi,
andPiero
Buonaccorsi,allexiledFlorentinesandGhibellines.
Castrucciohadthe
secretintentionofbecomingthemasterofallTuscanyby
theaidof
thesemenandofhisownforces;andinordertogain
greaterweight
inaffairs,heenteredintoaleaguewithMesserMatteo
Visconti,the
PrinceofMilan,andorganizedforhimtheforcesofhis
cityandthe
countrydistricts.AsLuccahadfivegates,hedivided
hisowncountry
districtsintofiveparts,whichhesuppliedwitharms,
andenrolledthe
menundercaptainsandensigns,sothathecouldquickly
bringintothe
fieldtwentythousandsoldiers,withoutthosewhomhe
couldsummonto
hisassistancefromPisa.Whilehesurroundedhimself
withtheseforces
andallies,ithappenedatMesserMatteoViscontiwas
attackedby
theGuelphsofPiacenza,whohaddrivenoutthe
Ghibellineswiththe
assistanceofaFlorentinearmyandtheKingRuberto.
MesserMatteo
calleduponCastrucciotoinvadetheFlorentinesintheir
own
territories,sothat,beingattackedathome,theyshould
becompelled
todrawtheirarmyoutofLombardyinordertodefend
themselves.
CastruccioinvadedtheValdarno,andseizedFucecchioand
SanMiniato,
inflictingimmensedamageuponthecountry.Whereuponthe
Florentines
recalledtheirarmy,whichhadscarcelyreachedTuscany,
whenCastruccio
wasforcedbyothernecessitiestoreturntoLucca.

ThereresidedinthecityofLuccathePoggiofamily,who
wereso
powerfulthattheycouldnotonlyelevateCastruccio,but
evenadvance
himtothedignityofprince;anditappearingtothem
theyhadnot
receivedsuchrewardsfortheirservicesasthey
deserved,theyincited
otherfamiliestorebelandtodriveCastrucciooutof
Lucca.Theyfound
theiropportunityonemorning,andarmingthemselves,
theysetuponthe
lieutenantwhomCastrucciohadlefttomaintainorderand
killedhim.
Theyendeavouredtoraisethepeopleinrevolt,but
StefanodiPoggio,a
peaceableoldmanwhohadtakennohandintherebellion,
intervenedand
compelledthembyhisauthoritytolaydowntheirarms;
andheoffered
tobetheirmediatorwithCastrucciotoobtainfromhim
what
theydesired.Thereforetheylaiddowntheirarmswithno
greater
intelligencethantheyhadtakenthemup.Castruccio,
havingheard
thenewsofwhathadhappenedatLucca,atonceput
PagoloGuinigi
incommandofthearmy,andwithatroopofcavalryset
outforhome.
Contrarytohisexpectations,hefoundtherebellionat
anend,yethe
postedhismeninthemostadvantageousplacesthroughout
thecity.As
itappearedtoStefanothatCastrucciooughttobevery
muchobligedto
him,hesoughthimout,andwithoutsayinganythingon
hisownbehalf,
forhedidnotrecognizeanyneedfordoingso,hebegged
Castruccioto
pardontheothermembersofhisfamilybyreasonoftheir
youth,their
formerfriendships,andtheobligationswhichCastruccio
wasunderto
theirhouse.TothisCastrucciograciouslyresponded,and
beggedStefano
toreassurehimself,declaringthatitgavehimmore
pleasuretofind
thetumultatanendthanithadevercausedhimanxiety
tohearofits
inception.HeencouragedStefanotobringhisfamilyto
him,saying
thathethankedGodforhavinggivenhimtheopportunity
ofshowinghis
clemencyandliberality.UponthewordofStefanoand
Castrucciothey
surrendered,andwithStefanowereimmediatelythrown
intoprisonand
puttodeath.MeanwhiletheFlorentineshadrecoveredSan
Miniato,
whereuponitseemedadvisabletoCastrucciotomake
peace,asitdidnot
appeartohimthathewassufficientlysecureatLuccato
leavehim.
HeapproachedtheFlorentineswiththeproposalofa
truce,whichthey
readilyentertained,fortheywerewearyofthewar,and
desirousof
gettingridoftheexpensesofit.Atreatywasconcluded
withthemfor
twoyears,bywhichbothpartiesagreedtokeepthe
conqueststheyhad
made.Castrucciothusreleasedfromthistrouble,turned
hisattention
toaffairsinLucca,andinorderthatheshouldnot
againbesubjectto
theperilsfromwhichhehadjustescaped,he,under
variouspretences
andreasons,firstwipedoutallthosewhobytheir
ambitionmight
aspiretotheprincipality;notsparingoneofthem,but
deprivingthem
ofcountryandproperty,andthosewhomhehadinhis
handsoflife
also,statingthathehadfoundbyexperiencethatnone
ofthemwereto
betrusted.Thenforhisfurthersecurityheraiseda
fortressinLucca
withthestonesofthetowersofthosewhomhehadkilled
orhuntedout
ofthestate.

WhilstCastrucciomadepeacewiththeFlorentines,and
strengthenedhis
positioninLucca,heneglectednoopportunity,shortof
openwar,of
increasinghisimportanceelsewhere.Itappearedtohim
thatifhecould
getpossessionofPistoia,hewouldhaveonefootin
Florence,whichwas
hisgreatdesire.He,therefore,invariouswaysmade
friendswith
themountaineers,andworkedmatterssoinPistoiathat
bothparties
confidedtheirsecretstohim.Pistoiawasdivided,asit
alwayshad
been,intotheBianchiandNeriparties;theheadofthe
Bianchiwas
BastianodiPossente,andoftheNeri,JacopodaGia.
Eachofthesemen
heldsecretcommunicationswithCastruccio,andeach
desiredtodrive
theotheroutofthecity;and,aftermanythreatenings,
theycameto
blows.JacopofortifiedhimselfattheFlorentinegate,
Bastianoatthat
oftheLucchesesideofthecity;bothtrustedmorein
Castrucciothan
intheFlorentines,becausetheybelievedthatCastruccio
wasfarmore
readyandwillingtofightthantheFlorentines,andthey
bothsentto
himforassistance.Hegavepromisestoboth,sayingto
Bastianothathe
wouldcomeinperson,andtoJacopothathewouldsend
hispupil,Pagolo
Guinigi.AttheappointedtimehesentforwardPagoloby
wayofPisa,
andwenthimselfdirecttoPistoia;atmidnightbothof
themmetoutside
thecity,andbothwereadmittedasfriends.Thusthetwo
leaders
entered,andatasignalgivenbyCastruccio,onekilled
JacopodaGia,
andtheotherBastianodiPossente,andbothtook
prisonersorkilled
thepartisansofeitherfaction.Withoutfurther
oppositionPistoia
passedintothehandsofCastruccio,who,havingforced
theSignoriato
leavethepalace,compelledthepeopletoyieldobedience
tohim,
makingthemmanypromisesandremittingtheirolddebts.
Thecountryside
flockedtothecitytoseethenewprince,andallwere
filledwithhope
andquicklysettleddown,influencedinagreatmeasure
byhisgreat
valour.

AboutthistimegreatdisturbancesaroseinRome,owing
tothedearness
oflivingwhichwascausedbytheabsenceofthepontiff
atAvignon.The
Germangovernor,Enrico,wasmuchblamedforwhat
happenedmurdersand
tumultsfollowingeachotherdaily,withouthisbeing
abletoputanend
tothem.ThiscausedEnricomuchanxietylesttheRomans
shouldcall
inRuberto,theKingofNaples,whowoulddrivethe
Germansoutofthe
city,andbringbackthePope.Havingnonearerfriendto
whomhecould
applyforhelpthanCastruccio,hesenttohim,begging
himnotonly
togivehimassistance,butalsotocomeinpersonto
Rome.Castruccio
consideredthatheoughtnottohesitatetorenderthe
emperorthis
service,becausehebelievedthathehimselfwouldnotbe
safeifatany
timetheemperorceasedtoholdRome.LeavingPagolo
Guinigiincommand
atLucca,CastrucciosetoutforRomewithsixhundred
horsemen,where
hewasreceivedbyEnricowiththegreatestdistinction.
Inashorttime
thepresenceofCastruccioobtainedsuchrespectforthe
emperorthat,
withoutbloodshedorviolence,goodorderwasrestored,
chieflyby
reasonofCastrucciohavingsentbyseafromthecountry
roundPisa
largequantitiesofcorn,andthusremovedthesourceof
thetrouble.
WhenhehadchastisedsomeoftheRomanleaders,and
admonishedothers,
voluntaryobediencewasrenderedtoEnrico.Castruccio
receivedmany
honours,andwasmadeaRomansenator.Thisdignitywas
assumedwiththe
greatestpomp,Castrucciobeingclothedinabrocaded
toga,whichhad
thefollowingwordsembroideredonitsfront:"Iamwhat
Godwills."
Whilstonthebackwas:"WhatGoddesiresshallbe."

DuringthistimetheFlorentines,whoweremuchenraged
thatCastruccio
shouldhaveseizedPistoiaduringthetruce,considered
howtheycould
temptthecitytorebel,todowhichtheythoughtwould
notbedifficult
inhisabsence.AmongtheexiledPistoiansinFlorence
wereBaldoCecchi
andJacopoBaldini,bothmenofleadingandreadytoface
danger.These
menkeptupcommunicationswiththeirfriendsinPistoia,
andwiththe
aidoftheFlorentinesenteredthecitybynight,and
afterdrivingout
someofCastruccio'sofficialsandpartisans,andkilling
others,they
restoredthecitytoitsfreedom.Thenewsofthis
greatlyangered
Castruccio,andtakingleaveofEnrico,hepressedonin
greathasteto
Pistoia.WhentheFlorentinesheardofhisreturn,
knowingthathewould
losenotime,theydecidedtointercepthimwiththeir
forcesinthe
ValdiNievole,underthebeliefthatbydoingsothey
wouldcutoffhis
roadtoPistoia.Assemblingagreatarmyofthe
supportersoftheGuelph
cause,theFlorentinesenteredthePistoianterritories.
Ontheother
hand,CastruccioreachedMontecarlowithhisarmy;and
havingheard
wheretheFlorentines'lay,hedecidednottoencounter
itintheplains
ofPistoia,nortoawaititintheplainsofPescia,but,
asfaras
hepossiblycould,toattackitboldlyinthePassof
Serravalle.He
believedthatifhesucceededinthisdesign,victorywas
assured,
althoughhewasinformedthattheFlorentineshadthirty
thousandmen,
whilsthehadonlytwelvethousand.Althoughhehadevery
confidence
inhisownabilitiesandthevalourofhistroops,yethe
hesitatedto
attackhisenemyintheopenlestheshouldbe
overwhelmedbynumbers.
SerravalleisacastlebetweenPesciaandPistoia,
situatedonahill
whichblockstheValdiNievole,notintheexactpass,
butabouta
bowshotbeyond;thepassitselfisinplacesnarrowand
steep,whilstin
generalitascendsgently,butisstillnarrow,
especiallyatthesummit
wherethewatersdivide,sothattwentymensidebyside
couldholdit.
ThelordofSerravallewasManfred,aGerman,who,before
Castruccio
becamelordofPistoia,hadbeenallowedtoremainin
possessionofthe
castle,itbeingcommontotheLuccheseandthe
Pistoians,andunclaimed
byeitherneitherofthemwishingtodisplaceManfredas
longashe
kepthispromiseofneutrality,andcameunder
obligationstonoone.
Forthesereasons,andalsobecausethecastlewaswell
fortified,
hehadalwaysbeenabletomaintainhisposition.Itwas
herethat
Castrucciohaddeterminedtofalluponhisenemy,for
herehisfewmen
wouldhavetheadvantage,andtherewasnofearlest,
seeingthelarge
massesofthehostileforcebeforetheybecameengaged,
theyshouldnot
stand.AssoonasthistroublewithFlorencearose,
Castrucciosawthe
immenseadvantagewhichpossessionofthiscastlewould
givehim,and
havinganintimatefriendshipwitharesidentinthe
castle,hemanaged
matterssowithhimthatfourhundredofhismenwereto
beadmitted
intothecastlethenightbeforetheattackonthe
Florentines,andthe
castellanputtodeath.

Castruccio,havingpreparedeverything,hadnowto
encouragethe
Florentinestopersistintheirdesiretocarrytheseat
ofwaraway
fromPistoiaintotheValdiNievole,thereforehedid
notmovehis
armyfromMontecarlo.ThustheFlorentineshurriedon
untiltheyreached
theirencampmentunderSerravalle,intendingtocrossthe
hillonthe
followingmorning.Inthemeantime,Castrucciohadseized
thecastleat
night,hadalsomovedhisarmyfromMontecarlo,and
marchingfromthence
atmidnightindeadsilence,hadreachedthefootof
Serravalle:thushe
andtheFlorentinescommencedtheascentofthehillat
thesametimein
themorning.Castrucciosentforwardhisinfantrybythe
mainroad,
andatroopoffourhundredhorsemenbyapathonthe
lefttowardsthe
castle.TheFlorentinessentforwardfourhundredcavalry
aheadof
theirarmywhichwasfollowing,neverexpectingtofind
Castruccioin
possessionofthehill,norweretheyawareofhishaving
seizedthe
castle.ThusithappenedthattheFlorentinehorsemen
mountingthehill
werecompletelytakenbysurprisewhentheydiscovered
theinfantryof
Castruccio,andsocloseweretheyuponittheyhad
scarcelytimeto
pulldowntheirvisors.Itwasacaseofunreadysoldiers
beingattacked
byready,andtheywereassailedwithsuchvigourthat
withdifficulty
theycouldholdtheirown,althoughsomefewofthemgot
through.When
thenoiseofthefightingreachedtheFlorentinecamp
below,itwas
filledwithconfusion.Thecavalryandinfantrybecame
inextricably
mixed:thecaptainswereunabletogettheirmeneither
backwardor
forward,owingtothenarrownessofthepass,andamid
allthistumult
nooneknewwhatoughttobedoneorwhatcouldbedone.
Inashorttime
thecavalrywhowereengagedwiththeenemy'sinfantry
werescattered
orkilledwithouthavingmadeanyeffectivedefence
becauseoftheir
unfortunateposition,althoughinsheerdesperationthey
hadoffered
astoutresistance.Retreathadbeenimpossible,withthe
mountainson
bothflanks,whilstinfrontweretheirenemies,andin
thereartheir
friends.WhenCastrucciosawthathismenwereunableto
strikea
decisiveblowattheenemyandputthemtoflight,he
sentonethousand
infantrymenroundbythecastle,withorderstojointhe
fourhundred
horsemenhehadpreviouslydispatchedthere,and
commandedthewhole
forcetofallupontheflankoftheenemy.Theseorders
theycarriedout
withsuchfurythattheFlorentinescouldnotsustainthe
attack,
butgaveway,andweresooninfullretreatconquered
morebytheir
unfortunatepositionthanbythevalouroftheirenemy.
Thoseinthe
rearturnedtowardsPistoia,andspreadthroughthe
plains,each
manseekingonlyhisownsafety.Thedefeatwascomplete
andvery
sanguinary.Manycaptainsweretakenprisoners,among
whomwere
BandinideiRossi,FrancescoBrunelleschi,andGiovanni
dellaTosa,all
Florentinenoblemen,withmanyTuscansandNeapolitans
whofoughtonthe
Florentineside,havingbeensentbyKingRubertoto
assisttheGuelphs.
ImmediatelythePistoiansheardofthisdefeattheydrove
outthe
friendsoftheGuelphs,andsurrenderedtoCastruccio.He
wasnot
contentwithoccupyingPratoandallthecastlesonthe
plainsonboth
sidesoftheArno,butmarchedhisarmyintotheplainof
Peretola,
abouttwomilesfromFlorence.Hereheremainedmany
days,dividingthe
spoils,andcelebratinghisvictorywithfeastsand
games,holding
horseraces,andfootracesformenandwomen.Healso
struckmedals
incommemorationofthedefeatoftheFlorentines.He
endeavouredto
corruptsomeofthecitizensofFlorence,whowereto
openthecity
gatesatnight;buttheconspiracywasdiscovered,and
theparticipators
inittakenandbeheaded,amongwhomwereTommasoLupacci
and
LambertuccioFrescobaldi.Thisdefeatcausedthe
Florentinesgreat
anxiety,anddespairingofpreservingtheirliberty,they
sentenvoysto
KingRubertoofNaples,offeringhimthedominionof
theircity;andhe,
knowingofwhatimmenseimportancethemaintenanceofthe
Guelphcause
wastohim,acceptedit.HeagreedwiththeFlorentines
toreceivefrom
themayearlytributeoftwohundredthousandflorins,
andhesenthis
sonCarlotoFlorencewithfourthousandhorsemen.

ShortlyafterthistheFlorentineswererelievedinsome
degreeofthe
pressureofCastruccio'sarmy,owingtohisbeing
compelledtoleave
hispositionsbeforeFlorenceandmarchonPisa,inorder
tosuppressa
conspiracythathadbeenraisedagainsthimbyBenedetto
Lanfranchi,
oneofthefirstmeninPisa,whocouldnotendurethat
hisfatherland
shouldbeunderthedominionoftheLucchese.Hehad
formedthis
conspiracy,intendingtoseizethecitadel,killthe
partisansof
Castruccio,anddriveoutthegarrison.As,however,ina
conspiracy
paucityofnumbersisessentialtosecrecy,soforits
executionafew
arenotsufficient,andinseekingmoreadherentstohis
conspiracy
Lanfranchiencounteredapersonwhorevealedthedesign
toCastruccio.
Thisbetrayalcannotbepassedbywithoutseverereproach
toBonifacio
CerchiandGiovanniGuidi,twoFlorentineexileswhowere
suffering
theirbanishmentinPisa.ThereuponCastruccioseized
Benedettoandput
himtodeath,andbeheadedmanyothernoblecitizens,and
drovetheir
familiesintoexile.ItnowappearedtoCastrucciothat
bothPisaand
Pistoiawerethoroughlydisaffected;heemployedmuch
thoughtandenergy
uponsecuringhispositionthere,andthisgavethe
Florentinestheir
opportunitytoreorganizetheirarmy,andtoawaitthe
comingofCarlo,
thesonoftheKingofNaples.WhenCarloarrivedthey
decidedtolose
nomoretime,andassembledagreatarmyofmorethan
thirtythousand
infantryandtenthousandcavalryhavingcalledtotheir
aidevery
GuelphtherewasinItaly.Theyconsultedwhetherthey
shouldattack
PistoiaorPisafirst,anddecidedthatitwouldbe
bettertomarchon
thelatteracourse,owingtotherecentconspiracy,
morelikelyto
succeed,andofmoreadvantagetothem,becausethey
believedthatthe
surrenderofPistoiawouldfollowtheacquisitionof
Pisa.
IntheearlypartofMay1328,theFlorentinesputin
motionthisarmy
andquicklyoccupiedLastra,Signa,Montelupo,and
Empoli,passingfrom
thenceontoSanMiniato.WhenCastruccioheardofthe
enormousarmy
whichtheFlorentinesweresendingagainsthim,hewasin
nodegree
alarmed,believingthatthetimehadnowarrivedwhen
Fortunewould
delivertheempireofTuscanyintohishands,forhehad
noreasonto
thinkthathisenemywouldmakeabetterfight,orhad
betterprospects
ofsuccess,thanatPisaorSerravalle.Heassembled
twentythousand
footsoldiersandfourthousandhorsemen,andwiththis
armywentto
Fucecchio,whilsthesentPagoloGuinigitoPisawith
fivethousand
infantry.Fucecchiohasastrongerpositionthanany
othertownin
thePisandistrict,owingtoitssituationbetweenthe
riversArnoand
Guscianaanditsslightelevationabovethesurrounding
plain.Moreover,
theenemycouldnothinderitsbeingvictualledunless
theydivided
theirforces,norcouldtheyapproachiteitherfromthe
direction
ofLuccaorPisa,norcouldtheygetthroughtoPisa,or
attack
Castruccio'sforcesexceptatadisadvantage.Inonecase
theywould
findthemselvesplacedbetweenhistwoarmies,theone
underhisown
commandandtheotherunderPagolo,andintheothercase
theywould
havetocrosstheArnotogettoclosequarterswiththe
enemy,an
undertakingofgreathazard.Inordertotemptthe
Florentinestotake
thislattercourse,Castrucciowithdrewhismenfromthe
banksofthe
riverandplacedthemunderthewallsofFucecchio,
leavingawide
expanseoflandbetweenthemandtheriver.

TheFlorentines,havingoccupiedSanMiniato,helda
councilofwarto
decidewhethertheyshouldattackPisaorthearmyof
Castruccio,and,
havingweighedthedifficultiesofbothcourses,they
decideduponthe
latter.TheriverArnowasatthattimelowenoughtobe
fordable,yet
thewaterreachedtotheshouldersoftheinfantrymenand
tothe
saddlesofthehorsemen.Onthemorningof10June1328,
theFlorentines
commencedthebattlebyorderingforwardanumberof
cavalryandten
thousandinfantry.Castruccio,whoseplanofactionwas
fixed,and
whowellknewwhattodo,atonceattackedthe
Florentineswithfive
thousandinfantryandthreethousandhorsemen,not
allowingthemto
issuefromtheriverbeforehechargedthem;healsosent
onethousand
lightinfantryuptheriverbank,andthesamenumber
downtheArno.The
infantryoftheFlorentinesweresomuchimpededbytheir
armsandthe
waterthattheywerenotabletomountthebanksofthe
river,whilst
thecavalryhadmadethepassageoftherivermore
difficultforthe
others,byreasonofthefewwhohadcrossedhaving
brokenupthebedof
theriver,andthisbeingdeepwithmud,manyofthe
horsesrolledover
withtheirridersandmanyofthemhadstucksofastthat
theycouldnot
move.WhentheFlorentinecaptainssawthedifficulties
theirmenwere
meeting,theywithdrewthemandmovedhigherupthe
river,hopingto
findtheriverbedlesstreacherousandthebanksmore
adaptedfor
landing.Thesemenweremetatthebankbytheforces
whichCastruccio
hadalreadysentforward,who,beinglightarmedwith
bucklersand
javelinsintheirhands,letflywithtremendousshouts
intothefaces
andbodiesofthecavalry.Thehorses,alarmedbythe
noiseandthe
wounds,wouldnotmoveforward,andtrampledeachother
ingreat
confusion.ThefightbetweenthemenofCastruccioand
thoseofthe
enemywhosucceededincrossingwassharpandterrible;
bothsides
foughtwiththeutmostdesperationandneitherwould
yield.Thesoldiers
ofCastrucciofoughttodrivetheothersbackintothe
river,whilstthe
Florentinesstrovetogetafootingonlandinorderto
makeroomfor
theotherspressingforward,whoiftheycouldbutget
outofthewater
wouldbeabletofight,andinthisobstinateconflict
theywereurged
onbytheircaptains.Castruccioshoutedtohismenthat
thesewerethe
sameenemieswhomtheyhadbeforeconqueredat
Serravalle,whilstthe
Florentinesreproachedeachotherthatthemanyshouldbe
overcomeby
thefew.AtlengthCastruccio,seeinghowlongthebattle
hadlasted,
andthatbothhismenandtheenemywereutterly
exhausted,andthat
bothsideshadmanykilledandwounded,pushedforward
anotherbodyof
infantrytotakeupapositionattherearofthosewho
werefighting;
hethencommandedtheselattertoopentheirranksasif
theyintended
toretreat,andonepartofthemtoturntotherightand
anotherto
theleft.ThisclearedaspaceofwhichtheFlorentines
atoncetook
advantage,andthusgainedpossessionofaportionofthe
battlefield.
Butwhenthesetiredsoldiersfoundthemselvesatclose
quarterswith
Castruccio'sreservestheycouldnotstandagainstthem
andatoncefell
backintotheriver.Thecavalryofeithersidehadnot
asyetgained
anydecisiveadvantageovertheother,because
Castruccio,knowinghis
inferiorityinthisarm,hadcommandedhisleadersonly
tostandonthe
defensiveagainsttheattacksoftheiradversaries,ashe
hopedthat
whenhehadovercometheinfantryhewouldbeableto
makeshortwork
ofthecavalry.Thisfelloutashehadhoped,forwhen
hesawthe
Florentinearmydrivenbackacrosstheriverheordered
theremainder
ofhisinfantrytoattackthecavalryoftheenemy.This
theydidwith
lanceandjavelin,and,joinedbytheirowncavalry,fell
uponthe
enemywiththegreatestfuryandsoonputhimtoflight.
TheFlorentine
captains,havingseenthedifficultytheircavalryhad
metwithin
crossingtheriver,hadattemptedtomaketheirinfantry
crosslower
downtheriver,inordertoattacktheflanksof
Castruccio'sarmy.
Buthere,also,thebanksweresteepandalreadylinedby
themenof
Castruccio,andthismovementwasquiteuseless.Thusthe
Florentines
weresocompletelydefeatedatallpointsthatscarcelya
thirdofthem
escaped,andCastrucciowasagaincoveredwithglory.
Manycaptainswere
takenprisoners,andCarlo,thesonofKingRuberto,with
Michelagnolo
FalconiandTaddeodegliAlbizzi,theFlorentine
commissioners,fledto
Empoli.Ifthespoilsweregreat,theslaughterwas
infinitelygreater,
asmightbeexpectedinsuchabattle.OftheFlorentines
therefell
twentythousandtwohundredandthirtyonemen,whilst
Castrucciolost
onethousandfivehundredandseventymen.

ButFortunegrowingenviousofthegloryofCastruccio
tookawayhis
lifejustatthetimewhensheshouldhavepreservedit,
andthusruined
allthoseplanswhichforsolongatimehehadworkedto
carryinto
effect,andinthesuccessfulprosecutionofwhich
nothingbutdeath
couldhavestoppedhim.Castrucciowasinthethickof
thebattlethe
wholeoftheday;andwhentheendofitcame,although
fatiguedand
overheated,hestoodatthegateofFucecchiotowelcome
hismenon
theirreturnfromvictoryandpersonallythankthem.He
wasalsoonthe
watchforanyattemptoftheenemytoretrievethe
fortunesoftheday;
hebeingoftheopinionthatitwasthedutyofagood
generaltobethe
firstmaninthesaddleandthelastoutofit.Here
Castrucciostood
exposedtoawindwhichoftenrisesatmiddayonthe
banksoftheArno,
andwhichisoftenveryunhealthy;fromthishetooka
chill,ofwhich
hethoughtnothing,ashewasaccustomedtosuch
troubles;butitwas
thecauseofhisdeath.Onthefollowingnighthewas
attackedwithhigh
fever,whichincreasedsorapidlythatthedoctorssawit
mustprove
fatal.Castruccio,therefore,calledPagoloGuinigito
him,and
addressedhimasfollows:

"IfIcouldhavebelievedthatFortunewouldhavecutme
offinthe
midstofthecareerwhichwasleadingtothatglorywhich
allmy
successespromised,Ishouldhavelabouredless,andI
shouldhave
leftthee,ifasmallerstate,atleastwithfewer
enemiesandperils,
becauseIshouldhavebeencontentwiththegovernorships
ofLuccaand
Pisa.IshouldneitherhavesubjugatedthePistoians,nor
outragedthe
Florentineswithsomanyinjuries.ButIwouldhavemade
boththese
peoplesmyfriends,andIshouldhavelived,ifno
longer,atleastmore
peacefully,andhaveleftyouastatewithoutadoubt
smaller,butone
moresecureandestablishedonasurerfoundation.But
Fortune,who
insistsuponhavingthearbitramentofhumanaffairs,did
notendowme
withsufficientjudgmenttorecognizethisfromthe
first,northetime
tosurmountit.Thouhastheard,formanyhavetoldthee,
andIhave
neverconcealedit,howIenteredthehouseofthyfather
whilstyeta
boyastrangertoallthoseambitionswhichevery
generoussoulshould
feelandhowIwasbroughtupbyhim,andlovedas
thoughIhadbeen
bornofhisblood;howunderhisgovernanceIlearnedto
bevaliantand
capableofavailingmyselfofallthatfortune,ofwhich
thouhastbeen
witness.Whenthygoodfathercametodie,hecommitted
theeandallhis
possessionstomycare,andIhavebroughttheeupwith
thatlove,and
increasedthyestatewiththatcare,whichIwasboundto
show.Andin
orderthatthoushouldstnotonlypossesstheestate
whichthyfather
left,butalsothatwhichmyfortuneandabilitieshave
gained,Ihave
nevermarried,sothattheloveofchildrenshouldnever
deflectmymind
fromthatgratitudewhichIowedtothechildrenofthy
father.ThusI
leavetheeavastestate,ofwhichIamwellcontent,but
Iamdeeply
concerned,inasmuchasIleaveittheeunsettledand
insecure.Thouhast
thecityofLuccaonthyhands,whichwillneverrest
contentedunder
thygovernment.ThouhastalsoPisa,wherethemenareof
nature
changeableandunreliable,who,althoughtheymaybe
sometimesheld
insubjection,yettheywilleverdisdaintoserveunder
aLucchese.
Pistoiaisalsodisloyaltothee,shebeingeatenupwith
factionsand
deeplyincensedagainstthyfamilybyreasonofthe
wrongsrecently
inflicteduponthem.Thouhastforneighboursthe
offendedFlorentines,
injuredbyusinathousandways,butnotutterly
destroyed,who
willhailthenewsofmydeathwithmoredelightthan
theywouldthe
acquisitionofallTuscany.IntheEmperorandinthe
princesofMilan
thoucanstplacenoreliance,fortheyarefardistant,
slow,andtheir
helpisverylongincoming.Therefore,thouhastnohope
inanything
butinthineownabilities,andinthememoryofmy
valour,andinthe
prestigewhichthislatestvictoryhasbroughtthee;
which,asthou
knowesthowtouseitwithprudence,willassisttheeto
cometoterms
withtheFlorentines,who,astheyaresufferingunder
thisgreat
defeat,shouldbeinclinedtolistentothee.Andwhereas
Ihavesought
tomakethemmyenemies,becauseIbelievedthatwarwith
themwould
conducetomypowerandglory,thouhasteveryinducement
tomake
friendsofthem,becausetheiralliancewillbringthee
advantages
andsecurity.Itisofthegreatestimportantinthis
worldthataman
shouldknowhimself,andthemeasureofhisownstrength
andmeans;and
hewhoknowsthathehasnotageniusforfightingmust
learnhowto
governbytheartsofpeace.Anditwillbewellforthee
torule
thyconductbymycounsel,andtolearninthiswayto
enjoywhatmy
lifeworkanddangershavegained;andinthisthouwilt
easilysucceed
whenthouhastlearnttobelievethatwhatIhavetold
theeistrue.And
thouwiltbedoublyindebtedtome,inthatIhaveleft
theethisrealm
andhavetaughttheehowtokeepit."

AfterthistherecametoCastrucciothosecitizensof
Pisa,Pistoia,and
Lucca,whohadbeenfightingathisside,andwhilst
recommendingPagolo
tothem,andmakingthemswearobediencetohimashis
successor,he
died.Heleftahappymemorytothosewhohadknownhim,
andno
princeofthosetimeswaseverlovedwithsuchdevotion
ashewas.His
obsequieswerecelebratedwitheverysignofmourning,
andhewasburied
inSanFrancescoatLucca.Fortunewasnotsofriendlyto
PagoloGuinigi
asshehadbeentoCastruccio,forhehadnotthe
abilities.Notlong
afterthedeathofCastruccio,PagololostPisa,andthen
Pistoia,and
onlywithdifficultyheldontoLucca.Thislattercity
continuedinthe
familyofGuinigiuntilthetimeofthegreatgrandsonof
Pagolo.

Fromwhathasbeenrelatedhereitwillbeseenthat
Castrucciowasa
manofexceptionalabilities,notonlymeasuredbymenof
hisown
time,butalsobythoseofanearlierdate.Instaturehe
wasabove
theordinaryheight,andperfectlyproportioned.Hewas
ofagracious
presence,andhewelcomedmenwithsuchurbanitythat
thosewhospoke
withhimrarelylefthimdispleased.Hishairwas
inclinedtobered,
andheworeitcutshortabovetheears,and,whetherit
rainedor
snowed,healwayswentwithoutahat.Hewasdelightful
amongfriends,
butterribletohisenemies;justtohissubjects;ready
toplayfalse
withtheunfaithful,andwillingtoovercomebyfraud
thosewhomhe
desiredtosubdue,becausehewaswonttosaythatitwas
thevictory
thatbroughttheglory,notthemethodsofachievingit.
Noonewas
bolderinfacingdanger,nonemoreprudentinextricating
himself.He
wasaccustomedtosaythatmenoughttoattempt
everythingandfear
nothing;thatGodisaloverofstrongmen,becauseone
alwaysseesthat
theweakarechastisedbythestrong.Hewasalso
wonderfullysharpor
bitingthoughcourteousinhisanswers;andashedidnot
lookforany
indulgenceinthiswayofspeakingfromothers,sohewas
notangered
withothersdidnotshowittohim.Ithasoftenhappened
thathehas
listenedquietlywhenothershavespokensharplytohim,
asonthe
followingoccasions.Hehadcausedaducattobegiven
forapartridge,
andwastakentotaskfordoingsobyafriend,towhom
Castrucciohad
said:"Youwouldnothavegivenmorethanapenny.""That
istrue,"
answeredthefriend.ThensaidCastrucciotohim:"A
ducatismuchless
tome."Havingabouthimaflattereronwhomhehadspat
toshowthat
hescornedhim,theflatterersaidtohim:"Fishermanare
willingtolet
thewatersoftheseasaturatetheminorderthatthey
maytakeafew
littlefishes,andIallowmyselftobewettedbyspittle
thatImay
catchawhale";andthiswasnotonlyheardbyCastruccio
withpatience
butrewarded.Whentoldbyapriestthatitwaswicked
forhimtolive
sosumptuously,Castrucciosaid:"Ifthatbeavicethen
youshould
notfaresosplendidlyatthefeastsofoursaints."
Passingthrougha
streethesawayoungmanashecameoutofahouseof
illfameblushat
beingseenbyCastruccio,andsaidtohim:"Thoushouldst
notbeashamed
whenthoucomestout,butwhenthougoestintosuch
places."Afriend
gavehimaverycuriouslytiedknottoundoandwastold:
"Fool,do
youthinkthatIwishtountieathingwhichgavesomuch
troubleto
fasten."Castrucciosaidtoonewhoprofessedtobea
philosopher:"You
arelikethedogswhoalwaysrunafterthosewhowill
givethemthebest
toeat,"andwasanswered:"Weareratherlikethe
doctorswhogotothe
housesofthosewhohavethegreatestneedofthem."
Goingbywaterfrom
PisatoLeghorn,Castrucciowasmuchdisturbedbya
dangerousstormthat
sprangup,andwasreproachedforcowardicebyoneof
thosewithhim,
whosaidthathedidnotfearanything.Castruccio
answeredthathe
didnotwonderatthat,sinceeverymanvaluedhissoul
forwhatiswas
worth.Beingaskedbyonewhatheoughttodotogain
estimation,he
said:"Whenthougoesttoabanquettakecarethatthou
dostnotseat
onepieceofwooduponanother."Toapersonwhowas
boastingthathe
hadreadmanythings,Castrucciosaid:"Heknowsbetter
thantoboast
ofrememberingmanythings."Someonebraggedthathe
coulddrinkmuch
withoutbecomingintoxicated.Castruccioreplied:"Anox
doesthe
same."Castrucciowasacquaintedwithagirlwithwhomhe
hadintimate
relations,andbeingblamedbyafriendwhotoldhimthat
itwas
undignifiedforhimtobetakeninbyawoman,hesaid:
"Shehasnot
takenmein,Ihavetakenher."Beingalsoblamedfor
eatingverydainty
foods,heanswered:"ThoudostnotspendasmuchasI
do?"andbeing
toldthatitwastrue,hecontinued:"Thenthouartmore
avaricious
thanIamgluttonous."BeinginvitedbyTaddeoBernardi,
averyrichand
splendidcitizenofLuca,tosupper,hewenttothehouse
andwasshown
byTaddeointoachamberhungwithsilkandpavedwith
finestones
representingflowersandfoliageofthemostbeautiful
colouring.
Castrucciogatheredsomesalivainhismouthandspatit
outupon
Taddeo,andseeinghimmuchdisturbedbythis,saidto
him:"Iknewnot
wheretospitinordertooffendtheeless."Beingasked
howCaesar
diedhesaid:"GodwillingIwilldieashedid."Being
onenightinthe
houseofoneofhisgentlemenwheremanyladieswere
assembled,hewas
reprovedbyoneofhisfriendsfordancingandamusing
himselfwith
themmorethanwasusualinoneofhisstation,sohe
said:"Hewhois
consideredwisebydaywillnotbeconsideredafoolat
night."Aperson
cametodemandafavourofCastruccio,andthinkinghe
wasnotlistening
tohispleathrewhimselfonhiskneestotheground,and
beingsharply
reprovedbyCastruccio,said:"Thouartthereasonofmy
actingthusfor
thouhastthyearsinthyfeet,"whereuponheobtained
doublethefavour
hehadasked.Castrucciousedtosaythatthewaytohell
wasaneasy
one,seeingthatitwasinadownwarddirectionandyou
travelled
blindfolded.Beingaskedafavourbyonewhousedmany
superfluous
words,hesaidtohim:"Whenyouhaveanotherrequestto
make,send
someoneelsetomakeit."Havingbeenweariedbya
similarmanwitha
longorationwhowoundupbysaying:"PerhapsIhave
fatiguedyouby
speakingsolong,"Castrucciosaid:"Youhavenot,
becauseIhavenot
listenedtoawordyousaid."Heusedtosayofonewho
hadbeena
beautifulchildandwhoafterwardsbecameafineman,
thathewas
dangerous,becausehefirsttookthehusbandsfromthe
wivesandnowhe
tookthewivesfromtheirhusbands.Toanenviousmanwho
laughed,he
said:"Doyoulaughbecauseyouaresuccessfulorbecause
anotheris
unfortunate?"WhilsthewasstillinthechargeofMesser
Francesco
Guinigi,oneofhiscompanionssaidtohim:"WhatshallI
giveyouif
youwillletmegiveyouablowonthenose?"Castruccio
answered:
"Ahelmet."HavingputtodeathacitizenofLuccawho
hadbeen
instrumentalinraisinghimtopower,andbeingtoldthat
hehaddone
wrongtokilloneofhisoldfriends,heansweredthat
peopledeceived
themselves;hehadonlykilledanewenemy.Castruccio
praisedgreatly
thosemenwhointendedtotakeawifeandthendidnotdo
so,saying
thattheywerelikemenwhosaidtheywouldgotosea,
andthenrefused
whenthetimecame.Hesaidthatitalwaysstruckhim
withsurprisethat
whilstmeninbuyinganearthenorglassvasewouldsound
itfirstto
learnifitweregood,yetinchoosingawifetheywere
contentwith
onlylookingather.Hewasonceaskedinwhatmannerhe
wouldwishto
beburiedwhenhedied,andanswered:"Withtheface
turneddownwards,
forIknowwhenIamgonethiscountrywillbeturned
upsidedown."On
beingaskedifithadeveroccurredtohimtobecomea
friarinorderto
savehissoul,heansweredthatithadnot,becauseit
appearedstrange
tohimthatFraLazeroneshouldgotoParadiseand
Uguccionedella
FaggiuolatotheInferno.Hewasonceaskedwhenshoulda
maneatto
preservehishealth,andreplied:"Ifthemanberichlet
himeat
whenheishungry;ifhebepoor,thenwhenhecan."
Seeingoneofhis
gentlemenmakeamemberofhisfamilylacehimup,he
saidtohim:"I
prayGodthatyouwilllethimfeedyoualso."Seeing
thatsomeonehad
writtenuponhishouseinLatinthewords:"MayGod
preservethishouse
fromthewicked,"hesaid,"Theownermustnevergoin."
Passingthrough
oneofthestreetshesawasmallhousewithaverylarge
door,and
remarked:"Thathousewillflythroughthedoor."Hewas
havinga
discussionwiththeambassadoroftheKingofNaples
concerningthe
propertyofsomebanishednobles,whenadisputearose
betweenthem,and
theambassadoraskedhimifhehadnofearoftheking.
"Isthiskingof
yoursabadmanoragoodone?"askedCastruccio,andwas
toldthathe
wasagoodone,whereuponhesaid,"Whyshouldyou
suggestthatIshould
beafraidofagoodman?"

Icouldrecountmanyotherstoriesofhissayingsboth
wittyand
weighty,butIthinkthattheabovewillbesufficient
testimonyto
hishighqualities.Helivedfortyfouryears,andwasin
everywaya
prince.Andashewassurroundedbymanyevidencesofhis
goodfortune,
sohealsodesiredtohavenearhimsomememorialsofhis
badfortune;
thereforethemanacleswithwhichhewaschainedin
prisonaretobe
seentothisdayfixedupinthetowerofhisresidence,
wheretheywere
placedbyhimtotestifyforevertohisdaysof
adversity.Asin
hislifehewasinferiorneithertoPhilipofMacedon,
thefatherof
Alexander,nortoScipioofRome,sohediedinthesame
yearofhis
ageastheydid,andhewoulddoubtlesshaveexcelled
bothofthemhad
Fortunedecreedthatheshouldbeborn,notinLucca,but
inMacedonia
orRome.

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