CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction

Generation of power from waste and search for alternate fuels would be a great asset for the
humanity as it will lead to conservation of precious fossil fuels. C.I. Engine performance with
alternate fuels like Bakain Methyl Ester (Indraj Singh and V. Sahni. 2016), Methyl Ester of
Jatropha (Sivaganesan and,Chandrasekaran 2016) etc. has been successfully carried out with
satisfactory results. Along with engine performance close monitoring over emissions is also
essential. The emission levels have been found lesser with some blends such as Refined
Sunflower oil (Hemanandh J and Narayanan, 2013). A modification such as timed turbulence in
C.I. engine has led to Fuel economy and lesser emissions as well (Krishnaraj J 2016).
Improvement in engine design and methods to obtain maximum efficiency through alternate
fuels is the need of the hour. Analysis for improvement of power from the engines are also going
on at the same time (Lather RS et al 2015). Even improvement in different alloys at
microstructural level is helping this cause (Basu. R. et al, 2015). Continuing in this series
Pyrolysis has been identified as the best fit for this purpose. Pyrolysis basically a thermo-
chemical process is being used as a technology to manage wastes like plastic, tyres, biomass etc.
and at the same time utilizing its products to conserve fossil fuels. The technique of recycling
waste plastic and polythenes through pyrolysis started some 20 years back. Recycling of waste
plastic and polythenes has become very important as they are non-biodegradable and pose a
threat to our environment. The different types of plastics used are Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), High-density polyethylene (HDPE), Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC),Polypropylene (PP) and Polystyrene (PS). Among six main plastics, low density
polythene (LDPE) is used in various field such as grocery bags, water hoses, garbage cans, film,
containers etc. (Park JJ et al, 2002 ).LDPE consists of more branches which make it weaker in
intermolecular force, and as a result it has less hardness and tensile strength. LDPE is ductile as
compared to HDPE as it has side branching and a less crystalline structurewhich allows it to be
moulded easily. It is resistant to water, and thus can be usedin manufacturing of plastic bags,
foils etc. In contrast HDPE has less branching and thus has a higher strength (Demirbas A,
2004). Due to its good strength, HDPE is used in making oil containers, bottles, toys and more. It
is the third largest plastic type found in solid waste category. PVC is an exceptional plastic. PVC
is resistant to fire and is thus used in making electrical insulations. Some other applications of
PVC include packaging, credit cards, shoes, frames for windows, artificial leather, etc. PS is a
long chain of hydrocarbon attached with phenyl group. It is resistant to heat and is light and
durable. It is used in manufacturing of toys, electronic and medical items. PP has a higher
melting point and is more hard and rigid thus making it suitable for plastic industry. 24.3% waste
is generated by PP in plastic wastes category.
From the research carried out by various researchers and after carefully observing the various
properties of conventional fuels in comparison to plastic derived oil it is established that plastic
derived oil can be used as an alternate fuel to suffice our needs. Under pyrolysis conditions,
plastic wastes can be decomposed into three fractions: gas, liquid and solid residue (Anup TJ and
Watwe V, 2014). The liquid products are usually composed of higher boiling point
hydrocarbons. In order to obtain useful gasoline-range hydrocarbons from the pyrolytic oil,
fractional distillation is preferred for product separation. More valuable chemical raw materials
including benzene, toluene and other condensed aromatic hydrocarbons may be obtained by
refining the pyrolytic oil. Studies conducted on waste plastic pyrolytic oil have suggested that
this oil can be used as a substituent to both petrol and diesel (Abatneh Y and Sahu O, 2013).
Petrol engine could be run with 100% waste plastic oil and even the thermal efficiencies are
higher in comparison to Petrol and Diesel. Different types of plastics require different
temperatures for cracking down and to convert into oil. The yield of the different waste plastics
are 1.17% for the pyrolysis of low density polyethylene ,15% from the pyrolysis of polystyrene
,and 13.88% from the pyrolysis of high density polyethylene (Kumar SP et al, 2015). For
recovery of larger amount of oil from waste plastics addition of suitable catalyst is required. The
catalyst influences not only the structure of the products, but also their yield (Williams AE and
Williams PT, 1997). Hydrocarbon molecules from the basic materials are split under the impact
of catalyst inside the reactor in 70240 C. It was observed that the yield was better in the case
of individual plastic material as opposed to mixed feed in all cases except polypropylene under
non-catalyzed vacuum process. The impact of temperature on product yield and the composition
was studied under pyrolysis (Syamsiro M et al, 2014). Pyrolysis was performed at temperatures
between 500 and 700C. The yield of products obtained was totally different. 9.79 and 88.76%
gas and for other it was 18.44 and 57.11% of oil. From the tests conducted it was established that
as temperature increased the aromatic compounds in the oil also increased. The molecular weight
also gets affected. The feedstock types strongly affect the product yields and the quality of liquid
and solid products (Devraj J et al, 2015). HDPE waste produces the highest liquid fraction.
However, the heavy oil fraction is still high in the oil from HDPE waste pyrolysis with natural
zeolite catalyst can produce higher liquid product. Without any changes in the engine the
pyrolytic oil generated from waste plastic can be used as an alternate fuel (Patni N et al, 2013).

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The global concern for the environment requires, that waste management be given adequate
attention particular when it occurs on human environment where people inhabit this is of no
better reason that safeguarding the environment to serve the purpose of man existence and
securing his healthy safety. To some extend that has been successfully management in the
developed Nations of the world but in the contrary the situation is at the increase in some of the
developing Nations of the world in particular Nigeria where surface a sachet water business in
the twenty first century came with an uncontrollable sachet water refuse disposal behaviors,
where waster of the used package or container littered everywhere in the environment. The
volume of waste generated often constitute major environmental problem. The recycling of the
used pure water sachet leather is a very good alternative the need of the hour is to adopt some
measures which can help to manage wastes and at the same time to create some alternate fuels
out of the waste only to conserve the precious fossil fuels. Thus pyrolysis these days is catching
everybodys attention due to its potential to utilize variety of waste feedstocks to generate
combustible products and may prove to be potential technology for society in the times to come
to environmental pollution control and also an alternative to unemployment control.

1.2 Aim and Objective of the Research

The aim of this study is to design a pilot plant to recycle waste plastics with low linear density
polyethylene specifically sachet water bags into fuel oil via pyrolysis.
The objectives of the research are:
a. To managed the waste in the environment constituted by packaged water sachet by way
of recycling.
b. To find an alternative fuel out of waste to conserve fossil fuels.
 c. To keep up with sanitary standards, by maintaining a clean and healthy environment.
d. To create wealth from waste.

1.3 Scope of Work

This study is focused on post-consumer, recyclable plastics from both residential and
commercial sources that have been used for their intended purposes and then discarded for
recycling or disposal. There are so many categories of post-consumer, recyclable plastics but
with respect to this research the scope is limited to: Film, including plastic bags (e.g., grocery,
sachet water and other consumer bags)
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Plastic
Plastic is a type of synthetic or non-synthetic polymer, similar in many ways to natural resins
found in trees and other plants. Polymers can be defined as any of various complex organic
compounds produced by polymerization, capable of being moulded, extruded, cast into various
shapes and films or drawn into filaments and can then be used for manufacturing textile fibres
[American Chemistry Council Life Cycle of a Plastic Product, 2013]. According to Fagbemiro,
describe plastics as polymers. Polymers can be defined as materials made from many units
[Fagbemiro SS, 2001]. Polymer is seen as a chain which is made up of various smaller units.
These units could be carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and silicon.

2.1.1 History of Plastics

History has it that, the development of plastics is regarded as one of the major technical
achievement of the twentieth century by mankind. Since, the development of the plastic, it has
been considered as the cheapest materials used in place of other materials such as metal, wood
and glass. The quest for plastic products in our everyday life necessitated for new development
to improve the quality and the strength of plastic. As the plastic material have some unique
properties comparable to other materials in regards to ability of forming into any desirable
shapes, resistance to moisture, resistance to tensile stress etc. [Plastic Part Technology; Edward
A. Muccio]. The discovery of plastic started long ago. It was in the late 1850s when the first
synthetic plastic was made by an English inventor called Alexander Parkesine. This achievement
was showcased in 1862 at Great International Exhibition in London. It was named after
Parkesine and this organic material was obtained from cellulose. Alexander Parkesine observed
that when the material was heated and cooled down it retained its shape. Between1930-1934,
witness the massive development of the most common thermoplastics used today by
manufacturing industries. These common thermoplastics for example are polystyrene, polyvinyl
chloride, polyolefins and polymethyl methacrylate. The development of plastics did not ceased at
that time rather lead to continuous research into plastics till date. [Plastic materials, J. A.
Brydson]
2.1.2 What are Plastics?
Plastics are synthetic or artificial materials made from the used of crude oil and natural gas as the
raw material. The raw material contains polymer molecules that are divided into simple
individual chemical constituents of a polymer. Plastics consist of several monomers that are
linked together in a chain-like form. Plastic material can exist as linear or branched polymers.
Plastics are produced by a process of joining one or more monomers such as ethylene, styrene
vinyl chloride together and this is called polymerization. In the process of polymerization of
polymers such as ethylene, vinyl chloride and styrene led to polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and polystyrene(PS) [Introduction to plastics, Hans-Georg Elias]. There are two
ways that plastics can be grouped depending on their chemical and physical properties. Plastic
can be either thermosets or thermoplastics. With the thermosets, they are plastic that are harden
by chemical cross-linking reaction involving polymer molecules. The chemical properties of
thermosets breaks down upon heating and thus weaken the bonds between the polymers
molecules. This weaken of the bonds is irreversible. On the part of thermoplastics, they are
softening by heating and harden upon cooling. There are no chemical bondings between the
polymer molecules as in the case of thermosets. Thermoplastics take their shape back when
heated and allow cooling. Thus the process is reversible. [Introduction to plastics, Hans-Georg
Elias]

2.1.3 Types of Plastics

There several types of plastics been produced by plastics manufacturing companies around the
world including the traditional plastics and modified plastics. In the developing countries
however, the traditional plastics are manufactured for use. In this study the writer is focusing on
the following five plastics, PET, PE, PVC, PS and PP. These plastics are used in our daily life in
ways such as food packing, storage containers, food containers etc. Below is the briefly
description of each of the above type of plastics according their properties, process of
manufacturing and uses.
2.1.4 Polyethylene
In its simplest form a polyethylene molecule consists of a long backbone of an even number of
covalently linked carbon atoms with a pair of hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon; chain
ends are terminated by methyl groups. Typically, the degree of polymerization is well in excess
of 100 and can be as high as 250,000 or more, equating to molecular weights varying from 1400
to more than 3,500,000. Polyethylene is created through polymerization of ethene. It can be
produced through free radical polymerization, anionic addition polymerization, ion co-ordination
polymerization or cationic addition polymerization. This is because ethene does not have any
substituent groups which influence the stability of the propagation head of the polymer. Each of
these methods results in a different type of polyethylene. The process requires a highly purified
ethylene feed and the operating pressure ranges from 1000 to 3000 atm and a temperature range
of 120-3000oC.Temperatures exceeding 3000oC cause ethylene to decompose and are not
recommended in practice [Dhib, 2002]. Polyethylene as contained in pure water sachet are low
linear density polyethylene materials which have as a result of their being cheap and convenient,
have become more popular in West Africa. On the average, Nigerians drink 2 sachets of water
every day. The material polyethylene is a non-biodegradable material. Some of the properties of
polyethylene as contained in pure water sachet include:
- coagulating on heat application whilst flowing in a solvent and heat

- good transparency and being colorless at very low temperature

- melting at a temperature of 115oC

- retention of its toughness and pliability over a wide temperature range

- flexible even before heat is applied

- not hard as a result of the irregular packing of the polymer chains

- Insoluble in most solvents but soluble on heat application in some solvents

- Low adhesive property

[Source: Shell Bitumen Handbook (1990)]

2.1.5 Types of Polyethylene
Polyethylene is classified into several different categories based mostly on the density and the
branching. Its mechanical properties depend significantly on variables such as the extent and
type of branching, the crystal structure and the molecular weight. With regard to volumes, the
most important polyethylene grades are high density polyethylene (HDPE), low linear density
polyethylene (LLDPE) and low density polyethylene (LDPE).

2.1.6 High Density Polyethylene

It is made from petroleum and it has a large strength to density ratio. It has little branching
giving it a stronger intermolecular force and tensile strength than LDPE. It is harder and can
withstand higher temperatures. It is commonly used in the production of plastic bottles. It is the
third largest commodity plastic material in the world after poly vinyl chloride and polypropylene
in terms of volume. It is a thermoplastic material composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms joined
together forming high molecular weight products. [Kumar and Singh, 2013]

2.1.7 Low Density Polyethylene

Low density polyethylene is a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. It is quite
flexible and tough but breakable. It can withstand temperatures of 80 oC continuously and 95oC
for a short time. It has more branching than HDPE thereby giving it weaker intermolecular
forces. It has a lower tensile strength and higher resilience. Its density is lower as a result of the
less tightly packed molecules and less crystalline molecules because of the side branches. Low
density polyethylene is so named because such polymers contain substantial concentrations of
branches that hinder the crystallization process, resulting in relatively low densities. The
numerous branches characteristic of low density polyethylene molecules inhibit their ability to
crystallize, reducing their resin density relative to high density polyethylene. [Peacock, 2000]
 Fig. 2.1 Structure of Polyethylene
2.1.8 Polystyrene
Polystyrene (PS) is a thermoplastic material that is obtained by polymerisation of monomer
styrene extracted as liquid from petroleum. It is a brittle, transparent material and it is solid at
room temperature and softens to liquid at temperature above 100oC. Polystyrene is produced in
the form of either as solid or foamed plastic and use in the application such as electrical thermal
insulation, window panels, food cutlery, battery case, food box etc. It is resistant to heat, oil,
acids, alcohols etc. [http://plastics.inwiki.org: Access date: 30.01.2012]

2.1.9 Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic material made from monomer propylene and properties
such as rigidity, chemical resistance, stiffness and excellent fatigue. In terms of its applications,
it is used to make pipes, crates, chairs, tool handles, TV cabinets, machine parts, carpets, bottles
etc.

2.1.10 Polyvinyl chloride

One of the most used plastic materials is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The plasticized and
unplasticised are the forms of polyvinylchloride. Polyvinyl chloride has flexibility rigidity,
resistance to weathering, hardness, toughness and electrical insulation as its properties depending
on the form of polyvinylchloride concern. Polyvinylchloride is used in applications such as floor
tiles, raincoats, water pipes, window frames, water hose, gloves, toy balls etc.

2.2 A Brief History of Sachet

In the 1970s and 1980s, it was common to be able to buy a cup of drinking water on the streets
by drinking directly from a metal cup or plastic cup. The vendor normally scooped the water out
of a larger storage vessel. Increased demand coupled with obvious sanitary shortcomings of such
a system led to the packaging of water in small plastic bags in the 1990s. (Olayemi (1999), Obiri
Danso et al (2003). In the late 1990s, new Chinese machinery that heat sealed water in a plastic
sleeve effectively created the modern polyethylene that is currently sold on the streets of several
West African nations. The advent and rapid spread of polyethylene drinking water in West
Africa presents a new challenge for providing sustainable access to global safe water. According
to Stoler (2012) polyethylene water sachets are an unsustainable water delivery vehicle due to
their overwhelming plastic waste burden. The discarded plastic sleeves have become a sanitation
menace in many cities. Plastic polyethylene wrappers litter the streets and clog drains and gutters
in the rainy season, increasing the likelihoods of floods and leading to subsequent public
exposure to untreated sewage and a mlange of health risks. Stoler concludes that without
renewed commitments to plastic recycling there will be no prognosis to how polyethylene water
sachets will improve sustainable access to safe drinking water. The popularity of polyethylene in
the packaging industry of the years is due to its favorable strength and thermal properties as well
as its ease in recycling into other types of plastic.

2.3 Recycling of plastics wastes

Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and refining the material
into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original state [An
Introduction to Plastics, 2001]. In years past, various works have been done on recycling of
plastic wastes by many researchers. According to Kalilu, attributed that large quantities of
horticultural, domestic and industrial wastes are generated and deposited in landfills [Kalilu RO
(2013) Art from art for art: Conceptualising existence in the space of the visual Arts. Lautech
Printing Press]. The horticultural wastes are biodegradable while a good number of the industrial
wastes are not and as thus, will pose threat to health, drainage and urban planning. Owing to the
rapid upsurge in the price of building materials, a young man from Kodungallur, in Thrissur
district in India devised a way of making floor tiles from plastic waste. First, the plastic waste is
being powdered in a machine after which it is mixed with liquid asphalt and chipped metal
before being heated. This type of tiles is seen to have numerous advantages over conventional
cement tiles. Some of the advantages are that the plastic tiles are relatively cheap, requires less
time for production and relatively lighter when compared to the cement tiles [Naryanan KS
2007, Making Floor Tiles from Plastic Wastes].

Advantages of recycling plastic wastes

Recycling of plastic wastes has so many advantages to human being and the ecosystem when
compared with all other methods of solid waste management adopted. Some of the numerous
advantages of recycling of plastic wastes are:
 Reduction of the use of fresh raw materials [An Introduction to Plastics, 2001].
Conservation of energy used for production of fresh products.
It creates job opportunities [Ugoamadi CC, Ihesiulor OK (2011) Optimization of the
development of a plastic recycling machine. Nigeria Journal of Technology 30: 67-81].
Emission of poisonous gases such as carbon-dioxide, carbonmonoxide, nitrogen-oxide and
sulphur-oxide are reduced [Sharma PD (2008) Plastic waste-reduce, reuse and recycle of plastic
wastes are essential to make the Environment Greener and Safer].
Conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels- plastic production uses 8% of the worlds oil
production, 4% as feedstock and 4% during manufacture [Sharma PD (2008) Plastic waste-
reduce, reuse and recycle of plastic wastes are essential to make the Environment Greener and
Safer].
As plastic wastes that litter the streets and choke drainages which serve as breeding ground for
mosquitoes and flies are reduced, diseases associated with these vectors will also reduce.
2.4 Plastic wastes recycling techniques:
There are basically two types of plastic wastes recycling techniques. They are:
Mechanical recycling techniques and
Chemical recycling techniques.

2.4.1 Mechanical recycling techniques:

It comprises of some processes, which are shredding, melting and pelletizing of waste plastics.
Plastics must be sorted prior to mechanical recycling techniques. Mostly, sorting is done
manually. Advancements have been made in sorting plastics. The technology introduced in
sorting plastics automatically includes using X-ray fluorescence, infrared and near infrared
spectroscopy, electrostatics and flotation. These sorting techniques are used in large scale
recycling. Owing to the expensive nature of this sorting technology, sorting will be done
manually. After the sorting exercise, the plastics are shredded into smaller sizes (between 5
mm2 10 mm2). The shredded plastics are melted and moulded directly into a new product or
melted and formed into pellets or granules [Sharma PD (2008) Plastic waste-reduce, reuse and
recycle of plastic wastes are essential to make the Environment Greener and Safer].

2.4.2 Chemical or feedstock recycling techniques:

Feedstock recycling technique describes a range of plastic recovery procedures to make plastics,
which breaks down polymers into their constituent monomers, which in turn can be used again in
refineries, or petrochemical and chemical production. Some of the numerous ranges of feedstock
recycling techniques currently being explored include: (i) Pyrolysis, (ii) Hydrogenation, (iii)
Gasification and (iv) Thermal cracking. Feedstock recycling has a greater flexibility over
composition and is more tolerant to impurities than mechanical recycling. It is very expensive
and requires very large quantities of used plastic for reprocessing to be economically viable
[Sharma PD (2008) Plastic waste-reduce, reuse and recycle of plastic wastes are essential to
make the Environment Greener and Safer]

2.5 Sources of Plastic Wastes

Plastic has been considered as one the commonly used materials in our daily life due to its
unique properties such as light in weight, flexibility and durability. However, it has bad side; the
effect of plastic wastes on the environment is a huge problem that people face. The plastic wastes
generation in Nigeria comes from different ways or sources such as metropolitan, municipal,
district waste, commercial waste and industrial waste.

2.6 Metropolitan, Municipal, District waste

The manner in which people disposed plastic wastes is worrying. The amount of plastic wastes
keeps on increasing due to the increase of population and life style of the people. In Nigeria,
since the introduction of drinking water packaged in the sachet and bottle termed pure water and
the use of plastic as packaging material when you buy a product from the market or shops led to
the increase. Once the plastic sachets or bottles are empty of water, they are thrown away into
the streets with impunity. According to the estimation that there about 20 million people actively
involved in daily activities, out of this population each individual throw out one plastic sachet or
bottle , then there would be 20 million of plastic sachets or bottles per day, which is very huge.
All these indiscriminating disposal of plastic wastes find their way into gutters which then block
the flow of water whenever it rains which then causes flooding.

2.7 Hazards of Plastic Wastes

The plastic waste is one of the wastes that have negative impact to the environment. The plastic
wastes affect the environment in three ways; air, land and water pollutions.

2.7.1 Land
Plastic wastes litter the land and find their way in blocking the gutters and drains. The blocking
of the gutters and drains by plastic wastes causes flooding whenever it rains, because the rain
water cannot get access to flow and the stagnation of the rain water created by plastic wastes
provide breeding place for mosquitoes, which later cause malaria to the people. The plastic
wastes do not affect only the people but also animals such as sheep, goats, cows, fowls etc.
These animals die through the taking in of plastic waste along as they graze the field. Again,
when plastic waste litter the farm lands, they entangle the crops preventing them to grow and
also the plastic waste cover the soil then preventing air penetration into the soil , then killing the
soil organisms that help to tilt the farmlands.

2.8.2 Water
Plastic wastes find their way into the water bodies thus polluting the water. The plastics then
float on the surface of the water bodies, thus preventing direct sunlight for the water organisms.
Water animals are killed by plastic waste that finds their way in water bodies as they mistakenly
eat plastics as food. Since plastics are indigestive material and stay inside them, then cause pains
and this leads to death. After the decay of the animal, the ingested plastic is freed back to the
environment again to continue causing problems.

2.8.3 Air
Plastic wastes are non-degradable substances and made of toxic chemicals that pollute the air.
Poisonous substances such as toxins are release to the air when plastic wastes are burned are
harmful and these causes respiratory problems and cancer as they are inhaled.
[http://www.recycledplastic.ie/]

2.9 Recycling And Recovery Processes of Plastic Wastes

In the quest of finding ways to proper manage plastic waste aside landfilling and incinerating,
then recycling to come to the table. The plastic recycling process is referred to as the process of
collecting plastic waste materials and then separating or sorting and processed them into reuse
material again [Lanrdinois and Van de Klundert, 1995]. In recycling of plastic wastes, needs
certain stages or steps such as collection, sorting, chipping, washing or cleaning and pelleting to
achieve efficient and cost-effective process.

2.9.1 Collection of plastics

Effective collection of plastic waste can be done by identifying the sources of plastics wastes, the
contributors of the plastic wastes. There are two main sources in which plastic wastes find their
way to pollute the environment and these are post-consumer plastics (used by people) and post-
industrial plastics (from the industries). The plastic wastes can be collected for recycling from
people in residential areas by putting recycling plastic waste bins in vantage places for easy
collection later and also collecting from the roadside. With the industrial plastic wastes, these can
be collected from the industry the defects the plastic products and wastes. [Selinger, Ben;
Chemistry in the Marketplace (3rd edition); Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1986]

2.9.2 Sorting
After collecting the plastic wastes from the various collections points and brought to the
recycling site, the next action is sorting. The plastic wastes are put on conveyor and here the
plastics are separated from other wastes such as metals, wood. And plastic wastes are sorted into
different types of plastic by using recycling code for plastics, for instance, code 3 for PVC
(polyvinyl chloride). This can be done by training the workers to identify the different type by
using the code, texture and appearance. Sorting of plastic waste can be done in either manual
sorting or mechanical sorting. 18 In manual sorting, it involves the use of hands to separate the
plastics waste into different plastics or separate the metals, wood etc from the in the case of
mixed waste recycling. With the mechanical or compressed air sorting, the sorting is done by
automatic separation by using magnet to attract metals and also blow air across the falling
plastics to separate wastes into different compartments depending on their weight [Recycling and
Recovery of plastics, Munich, Brandrup, Bittner, Menges, Michaeli]
2.9.3 Chipping or shredding
The sorted plastic waste is then sent to the chipper or the shredder to be cut into small plastic
flakes. In the case of big plastic bottles, it is important to cut the bottles into small sizes before
feeding them into the chipper or the shredder. This process is known as the size reduction. The
chipper is incorporated with rotating cutting blade or cutter in a cylinder. The plastic wastes are
feed into the chipper and the 19 rotary blade inside the chipper then cut the plastic into the
required small pieces (flakes) and these go through a passage with small holes into flakes
collector(collection bin). The rotary blade of the chipper or shredder can be powered by electric
motor or mechanical engine. The rotary blade is connected to the electric motor or the
mechanical engine by pulley belt with the pulleys of both rotary blade and electric motor or
engine. Through the transmission of power between the two, the blade of the chipper rotates then
initiates the cutting the process. The small pieces of plastic that comes out during the process are
collected. The product is either washed if not washed prior to the cutting and pack into bags for
selling the plastic plant or the flakes then go into another process of extrusion into granules.

2.9.4 Washing
In recycling of plastic wastes, one critical thing that must be done is washing of the recycled
plastic flakes or plastic waste materials before or after the process. The washing of the plastic
wastes can be done either manually or mechanically operated mechanism in a well-constructed
washing tank , where by the dirty water can be drain out easily. Since the plastic wastes are
already contaminated with a lot of dirty such as grease, oil, dust etc. it is important to use the
required surfactants (detergents) and water (cold or hot) to loosen and remove the contaminates
from the plastic materials. With the manual washing,

2.9.5 Pelletizing
The plastic flakes are feed into an extruder when then melt the flakes. The melted flakes are
extruded out of the extruder through a die of small holes. The plastic flakes in the hopper of the
extruder travels by the gravity into the feed rod and drops onto the rotating screw. The rotation of
the screw conveys the plastic forward through the heating barrel. As the plastic is convey
forward along the screw the channel depth decreases forcing the plastic to a smaller area. The
plastic is melted by heat generated from the friction by the combination of compression and
screw rotation and the heat from the barrel system. The plastic is well mixed when the melted
plastic reaches the end of the screw. At this point the screw acts as pump to force the melted
plastic out of the screw through the die and the melted plastic comes out as strands. The hot
plastic strands pass through a water tank to cool and solidify the strands. As the plastic strands
are cooled and solidifies, strands are conveyed towards a pelletizer which then cut the plastic
strands into pellets with in-built cutting blade.[Extrusion of Polymers Theory and Practices,
Chan I. Chung]

2.10 Methods of Recycling Plastic Wastes

The recycling of plastic wastes simply means turning the plastics wastes into a meaningful used
instead of becoming a problem to the environment. As plastic wastes have become
environmental problem that affect developing and developed countries. In solving the plastic
wastes, there is the need design and develop cost effective and efficient methods of recycling the
plastic waste materials in order to improve the environment and create employment. The plastic
waste materials could be recycled through the mechanical recycling, chemical or feed-stock
recycling and energy recovering.

2.10.1 Mechanical Recycling

Mechanical recycling is regarded as the best technology for recycling of conventional plastic
waste materials into new raw materials without the basic structure been changed. The mechanical
recycling involves crushing, washing and sorting operations and it is use for all types of plastic
waste materials. This process involves the assembly of mechanical products which includes
driven electrical motor, pulley, cutter and others. The collected, sorted and clean plastic waste
materials are put in the shredder or chipper to grind into the smaller pieces called flakes. The
flakes are then feed to the extruder machine through the hopper. The extruder is incorporated
with rotating single or double screw in heating barrel. When flakes are melted in the heated
barrel and force out through a die by the rotation of the screw. The melted flakes come out as hot
strands and passes through water to cool, which then are cut into pellets or granules by cutter.
The finished products (recycled granules) are put into bags for prospective buyers or plastics
manufacturing companies. The mechanical way of recycling plastic waste materials is quiet
simply to employ in Nigeria, since the mechanism is easy. For instead, in Gratis Foundation
Bolga, where the writer had worked as a national service personnel design and manufacture rice
tresher which uses the similar mechanisms.

2.10.2 Feedstock or chemical recycling

Here the plastic waste materials are broken down into smaller chemical form by chemical
process and reuse to produce raw material for manufacturing plastic products or different kinds
of products. The feedstock recycling is done by decomposition of the plastic waste materials
aided by the presence of heat, chemical agents and other catalysts in order to turn the plastic
waste materials as source of hydrocarbon chemicals or fuels. [Plastics waste feedstock recycling,
chemical recycling and incineration, A. Tukker, volume 13, November 4, 2002]. In feedstock
feeding, only specific plastic waste materials are used in this process such as PET, nylon etc. It
has limitation of not recycling mixed plastic waste material but only separate plastic waste.
There are several separation methods that need be carried out in order to completely recycle the
plastic waste materials by feedstock recycling. The separation methods must be followed
systemically and these are gasification, thermal treatment, hydrogenation, catalytic cracking and
chemical polymerisation. [Feedstock recycling of plastic wastes, J. Aguado and D. Serrano,
1999]

2.11 Benefits and Short Falls of Recycled Plastics

Recycling of plastic wastes in general has some benefits to the country if been done. These
benefits can be grouped into social, economic and environmental benefits and are shortly discuss
below.
2.11.1 Social benefits
Every society needs to be cleaner and healthier to live in. As plastic wastes that litter the streets
and choke gutters which causes breeding grounds for mosquitoes and flies, which then causes
malaria and cholera to the people. So recycling of plastic wastes will contribute to reducing or
preventing the diseases associated with the plastic wastes. Society with healthy people will
contribute to better development; since the people would be able to go on to do their work with
any problems.

2.11.2 Environmental benefits

Recycling of plastic wastes protect the environment in a considerable way. Plastic is
manufactured from crude oil and as the demand for plastic increases; considerable amount of
energy resources is put on drilling and refining the crude oil. The energy used in recycling of
plastic waste for reuse is less as compare to that of the energy in the production virgin plastics. In
attempt of getting virgin plastics from the crude oil contribute to the emission of carbon dioxide
CO2, sulphur dioxide SO2 into the atmosphere thus causing global warming. Recycling of plastic
wastes for reuse will reduce the dependence on the natural plastic raw material, thus preserve the
raw material for long. Recycling plastic waste will reduce the amount of the plastics that litter
the gutters and streets. Again recycling of plastic waste will help to keep the water bodies clean,
since the wastes in the landfills can leach dangerous chemical into both surface and underground
water.

2.11.3 Economic benefits

As the plastic product manufacturing companies depend on the virgin raw material importation
from other countries to Nigeria, the reuse of recycled plastic pellets would reduce the
dependency on the virgin material. The cost of recycled plastic is less cheap than the virgin
plastic, therefore reducing the cost purchasing the raw materials. Recycling of plastic wastes in
Nigeria would help to create employment for the citizens right from the collection point to the
end product. For instance in Nigeria in Kano State, some companies buys plastic wastes from
people and recycle them for reuse create employment for people to earn an income.

2.11.4 Short falls of Recycling of Plastic Wastes

Recycling of plastic wastes seems to be the best solution for plastic wastes and a way of
providing raw materials for the manufacturing companies. However, there are certain needs that
plastic recycling industry has to consideration when purchasing recycled plastic pellets. These
considerations could be the health safety, manufacturing processing and the quality of the
recycled product. The demand of recycled plastics is increasing but there are some factors that go
against the product. The manufacturers have to decide whether the recycled plastic is safe for a
particular product in terms of health in food packaging, for instance recycled PET cannot be used
in food packaging again. Since recycled plastics are gotten from waste been contaminated and if
not properly sorted and washed well, there would be still some traces of contaminates in the final
recycled.

2.12 Pyrolysis
It is thermal degradation process in the absence of oxygen. It prevent of formation of C0X, NOX,
SOX due to absence of oxygen. It breaks large hydrocarbon chain into smaller ones, but this type
of pyrolysis requires higher temperature and high reaction time. Also resulting fluid have low
octane value, higher pour point of diesel and high residue content.

2.12.1 Catalytic Pryolysis

Pyrolysis of waste plastics in presence of catalyst lower the pyrolysis temp and reaction time,
increase conversion rate of waste plastics into fuel, increase the yield of fuel and satisfying
diesel, petrol quality of fuel by increase octane value of petrol and decrease pour point of diesel.
Catalyst use for this purpose is solid acids such as silica, alumina, zeolite, zeoliteY, mordenite,
HZSM-5, MCM-41. Acidic catalysts (HZSM-5, Zeolitey, mordenite and so on) have greater
efficiency than less acidic ones, for example amorphous alumina silicate. The pore size and
structure of catalyst determine their performance on cracking reaction as well as production, for
example mordenite size( about 7x8) larger give large product molecules while HZSM-5 have
smaller pore size(5x5) give small product molecules.(P.A. Parikh and Y.C. Rotliwala, 2008)

2.12.2 Process of formation

Collect waste plastics and separate that clean and recyclable. Store the waste plastics that cant
separate. Shredding of waste plastics to reduce volume of its. Shredded plastics is treated in a
cylindrical reactor at temperature of 300C 350C (Pawar harshal and Lawankar Shailendra,
2013).Plastics waste further cracked with catalyst and resulting hydrocarbons are condensed
from water cool condenser and collected in receiver. Then liquid fuel fractionates to get diesel,
kerosene, petrol etc. Gases produced are toxic, corrosive with non toxic gases. For example
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide etc is toxic and non toxic is butanes, methane, ethane and
propylene. So all the gases are treated from this process before it discharge into atmosphere.
Therefore flue gas treated through scrubbers and water/ chemical treatment for neutralization i.e.
Solution of methanol amine is use in hydrogen sulfide absorption. Treated flue gas can incinerate
use in dual Fuel diesel-generator set for generation of electricity. After process remove the
formed carbonous substance or residue in reactor to work as insulator for maintaining the
efficiency of process.

2.12.3 Yield
The average percentage yield of various fuel fractions by fraction distillation depending on
composition of waste plastics are Gasoline (60%) and Diesel (30%). The percentage of liquid
distillate is mentioned in terms of weight by volume (Antony Raja and Advaith Murali 2011).

Table 1: Properties of Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oil and Diesel.

Properties Waste Plastic Diesel

1 Density(kg/m2) 793 850

2 Ash content (%) <1.01%wt 0.045

3 Calorific value(kJ/kg) 41,800 42,000

4 Kinematic viscosity @ 40oC (cst) 2.149 3.05

5 Cetane number 51 55

6 Flash point oC 40 50

7 Fire point oC 45 56

8 Carbon residue (%) 0.01%wt 0.20%

 9 Sulphur content (%) <0.002 <0.035

10 Pour point oC -4 3-15

(Pawar Harshal and Lawankar, 2013)

2.12.4 Feasibility

Process of conversion of waste plastics into liquid fuels is feasible. Also the rate of fuel does
not vary widely along the period. The cost for per kg of input and related output in table 1.6 is below.

Table 2: cost for 1 kg of input and the yield, cost of output.

Input Qty Kg Rate per Kg Amount (Rs) Amount (Rs) Output Qty (l) Rate per liter
Plastic 1.00 12.00 12.00 Petrol 0.600 37.50 22.50
Labour 5.00 Diesel 0.300 25.50 7.65
Service
Charge 2.50 Lube oil 0.100 15.00 1.50
Total 1.00 19.50 1.00 31.65
(Antony Raja and Advaith Murali, 2011)

2.12.4 Good performance

Liquid fuels from petroleum is diesel, petrol, kerosene require to mix various additives for improving
burner and engine performance but fuel from waste plastics does not require to add these additives
for work on burner and engines. Tarry waste or residue in reactor can use as solid fuel.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 PROCESS SELECTION

A Semi Continuous process was chosen for the treatment of Waste sachet water recycling.
Technological methods and means of recycling waste sachet water are very vast. Hence selecting
the appropriate process among alternatives becomes an important factor in the design. Factors
that were considered during process selection include;

Profitability of the process

Impact of the process on the environment
Fixed capital investment and operating cost
Hazard associated to the process
Many years of technological development now allow plastic waste to be recycled by a number of
methods. They can be grouped into three main categories.*

(1) Mechanical recycling

(2) Feedstock recycling (monomerization, blast furnace reducing agent, coke oven chemical
feedstock recycling, liquefaction, etc.)

(3) Thermal recycling (cement kilns, waste power generation, RDF, RPF) recycling technology
has advanced tremendously and its use is spreading, but recycling is not an end in itself.

As the Basic Law for Promoting the Creation of a Recycling oriented Society enacted in 2000
made explicit, the purpose of recycling is to curb consumption of finite natural resources such as
oil and minimize the burden on the environment through the cyclical use of resources. This
means it is necessary to carefully consider whether the method used reduces inputs of new
resources or limits the burden on the environment when promoting recycling. It is important to
select the recycling method for plastics that imposes the least social cost as well as limiting
environmental impact given the situation of the plastic waste to be recycled.
MECHANICAL RECYCLING

Consists of melting the plastics under controlled conditions, reshaping, shredding and
granulating the waste plastics. Simple and comparatively low cost technologies can be used in
the mechanical recycling process and it is this process which is explained in this brief.
Mechanical recycling is a way of making new products out of unmodified plastic waste. It was
developed in the 1970s, and is now used by several hundred manufacturers around the world.
Mechanically recycled waste has until now consisted largely of industrial plastic waste.
Industrial plastic waste generated in the manufacture, processing and distribution of plastic
products is well suited for use as the raw material for mechanical recycling thanks to clear
separation of different types of resins, a low level of dirt and impurities and availability in large
quantities. Used plastics from households, stores and offices are now being mechanically
recycled as a result of the entry into effect of the Container and Packaging Recycling Law and
the Home Appliance Recycling Law. All kinds of recycled products are made from industrial
plastic, including containers, benches and fences, children's play equipment, construction
sheeting, products for packaging, transportation, construction, homes, parks, roads, railways, and
other goods and facilities for agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Recycled products have a
number of attractive characteristics: they are durable, light, easy to process and easy to cut and
join, just like wood. We can expect greater adoption of recycled products with these features
being used in place of other materials, such as steel, concrete and wood. Central reservation
blocks were added to the list of items covered by the Green Purchasing Law in 2008. Used
plastics emitted from the home, such as PET bottles and expanded polystyrene, are turned into
textile products, packaging materials, bottles, stationery, daily necessities, video cassettes and
similar products.

CHEMICAL RECYCLING

Chemical recycling is the breaking down of the plastic polymers again into monomers and
rearranging them to produce new material using different technologies. Chemical recycling is
very capital intensive and needs large quantities of plastics to make it a financially viable
process. Chemical recycling of plastics in chemical or feedstock recycling, depolymerization of
long polymer chains into monomers is triggered by heat in the presence of a catalyst. PET, for
example, can be broken down to the intermediate monomer bis (2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate
(BHET) by microwave irradiation in the presence of (di) ethylene glycol and metal salt catalyst.
BHET is used to produce PET with the release of ethylene glycol under high vacuum. Chemical
recycling of PET is carried out commercially by companies such as Teijin (ECOPET) or the
non-profit trade association Petcore. Another class of plastics that can be depolymerized
efficiently is poly (amides) (PA). Nylon-6 (PA-6) can be converted to caprolactam with a
conversion of 86 % after 6 hours at 300 C in the presence of a catalyst. This process is carried
out commercially for post-consumer nylon-6 carpets at the Shaw Evergreen facility in Augusta,
USA. On laboratory scale, fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is a commonly used technique to
chemically recycle LDPE, HDPE and i-PP. Sometimes, solvents like toluene and phenol are
used. At temperatures between 360 and 500 C, the polymer chains break up into smaller chains
which evaporate and fluidize the powdered catalyst, which in turn converts them into olefins
within seconds. Selectivity has been improved by the use of a (zeolitic) catalyst, but still remains
an issue. It was demonstrated that the chemical recycling of polyolefins on an industrial scale
was not commercially viable in Germany due to the high price of the monomer obtained via this
process.
Based on the two process discussed it is clearly noticed that the mechanical recycling process is
the best method adopted due to some certain factor which are cost effectiveness, Industrial
plastic waste generated in the manufacture, processing and distribution of plastic products is well
suited for use as the raw material for mechanical recycling thanks to clear separation of different
types of resins, a low level of dirt and impurities and availability in large quantities.

PROCESS SELECTION SUMMARY

(a) Feed Waste sachet water bag
(b) Process operation Semi Continues
(c) Method adopted Mechanical recycling process
(d) Retention time
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The mechanical recycling process consists of melting the plastics under controlled conditions,
reshaping, shredding and granulating the waste plastics and pelletizing. Figure 4.1. Shows the
step by step process of a plastic recycling process. The complete process is described the context.

Figure 4.1. Plastic Recycling Process of Waste sachet water bag.

Recovery of Plastic Material

In the normal waste stream the plastics are mixed with other waste. This hinders the extraction of
plastics for recycling purposes. The plastics need to be recovered from the main waste stream. It
is highly desirable to recover plastics at their source. Promotion of source separation of waste
would be beneficial at this point. Collection systems are also important in the recovery stage as
the lack of waste material would hinder the continuation of the process. It is advisable that a
target group is identified and their awareness be raised on source separation and plastic recycling
prior to initiating plastic recycling.
Sorting
Sorting needs to be done based on the physical and chemical properties of the plastics. Hand-
sorting can be done by skilled or unskilled labour. For unskilled labourers, the skill of identifying
plastics and polythene can be learned within a very short period of time. Hand sorting can be
done based on the physical and chemical properties of the plastics.

First the waste plastics needs to be sorted into two broad categories as plastic (cans, large
pieces, boxes, etc.) and polythene (sheet/film types).

Each category needs to be sorted into other sub-types based on their chemical properties (as
listed in the table above). Identification of polythene and plastic types, and segregation into
colors are helpful to maintain final quality. The chemical properties need to be identified in the
following ways:

The standard symbol

in most plastic products the relevant standard symbol is printed/embossed

Flexibility
e.g.: HDPE plastics are relatively flexible and without breaking

Sound
The sound created when crushing film plastics vary with the type. For e.g., crushing of the
HDPE films gives a unique sound (like the sound emitted when crushing a normal grocery bag).
Such identification can be done with little practice.

Reaction to fire
e.g.: PVC burns with a greenish blue colour flame without dropping
 Floating in water

Some materials float on water while some sink

However, with little experience, even a lay person can identify the type of plastic very quickly by
its look and feel.

Cleaning of Plastics
This is the most important stage in the mechanical waste plastic recycling process. The value of
the recycled plastic relies greatly on its purity. Even small dust particles can reduce the quality of
the material drastically as it will disturb the polymer arrangement and later the quality of the
final product. Therefore, thorough washing of the plastic material and drying should be done
prior to processing. In washing, a diluted detergent can be used and precautions should be taken
to remove the detergent from the material on completion of the process. Oil contaminants should
be removed using an appropriate solvent, followed by a detergent and water. Maintaining a clean
working environment is an important aspect of the process. Maximum care should be taken to
prevent sand and dust coming into the processing plant. Dust and sand particles can easily come
in contact with the recycled plastic pellets which reduces the quality of plastic products. The
behaviour of the workers in the recycling plant should be adjusted accordingly such as to
maintain a clean work area, for example be wearing clean shoes, etc. A considerable quantity of
water will be required for the washing of raw material (waste plastics). Therefore, water
treatment and reusing is important to reduce the cost of production and environmental pollution.
Moisture in the raw material should be removed prior to the processing of plastics and therefore,
reserving area for drying is equally important.

Crushing/Shredding
The large particles of plastic need to be broken down into small pieces to reduce storage and
transportation space requirement. Such broken down HDPE, PP, and LDPE plastics can be sold
as raw material for plastic production without any further processing. On the other hand, it can
be re-extruded (the process is explained below) to produce pellets for plastic manufacturing. For
PETE crushing can also be done to reduce the storage space requirement and easy transportation
for further processing. A crusher should be used for this purpose and the resultant broken pieces
of plastics should be the size of 2 0.5 cm. It is important to prevent mixing of plastic types to
maintain the quality and value of the plastic. Mixed crushed plastics can be used only for low
value and low quality products such as junction boxes used in electrical work or plastic lumbers.
The crusher should comprise of a rotating set of blades, feeding hopper, and motor. The size of
the feeder depends on the maximum size of plastic that needs to be crushed. A cross section of a
crusher is shown below. This size of crusher can be fabricated for a cost of Rs. 250,000/- in
SrinLanka. Operating a crusher is easy and the sorted and cleaned plastics can be fed into the
feeding hopper manually and the crushed material should be collected and stored to prevent
contamination with sand, dust, and moisture.
Agglomeration
The term agglomeration itself provides an idea of forming a crumb out of smaller material.
Agglomeration is done for film plastics (polythene) instead of crushing. Film plastics cannot be
crushed due to its properties. Agglomeration can be performed on LDPE and PP type film
plastics. An equipment call the Agglomerator is used for agglomeration.The Agglomerator is
simply a metal drum in which a set of blades are rotating at high rpm (rotations per minute).
When the film plastics are fed into the agglomerator it cuts into small pieces by the blades inside.
Consequently the heat generated due to the high rotation speed, it makes the pieces of film
partially melt and bind into a small crumb. This crumb can be fed to the extruder easily to ensure
smooth functioning in extrusion.

Extruding
Extruding is a mechanism used to obtain plastic material in a required shape and size. In
recycling, the plastic pellets are the most common final product obtained through extruding. An
extruder is used in this process. An Extruder is simply a screw rotating in a zone which is heated
under controlled conditions. The Thermoplastics (includes HDPE, LDPE and PP) will melt under
specific temperatures and can be remoulded into a required shape. Extruding can be done either
to produce plastic pellets (used as raw material in plastic goods production) or to produce plastic
goods. In the recycling process of waste plastics the final product in extruding is plastic pellets.
An Extruder machine contains following components:
Motor,
Screw,
Heating elements (1500W),
Feeding hopper,
Control panel,
Die head with sieving net,

Generally the motor used in the extruding machine is 7.5 HP x 1440 rpm motor. The motor
rotates the screw inside the extruder which is mounted on a horizontal barrel. There are three
main areas in the extruder - feeding zone, compression zone and metering zone - as depicted in
the diagrams below. A feeding hopper is fixed in the feeding zone through which the crushed
plastics or polythene crumb is fed. In the compression zone the plastic material is melted and
compressed. In the metering zone the compressed melted plastics is pressed through a sieving
mesh and die head. A 0.5mm2 Sieving mesh is fixed before the die head to extract any sand, dust
and other particles from the recycled pellets. The number of strands extruded is equal to the
number of holes on the die head. Within the extruder there are six 1000W bend heating elements.
Five of them are mounted around the screw and one is located on the die head. Based on the
heating pattern there are four heating zones. Zone 1 is located at the starting point of
compression zone and the 4th zone is the die head. Each zone has J type heat sensors. With the
control panel the temperatures at different zones are maintained at required levels by coarse and
fineadjustments. The required levels of temperatures in each zone (in Co) vary with the type of
plastics, as mentioned in the table below. The temperature of each zone can be read in digital
screens. When the extruder machine is operated melted plastic strands will come out from the die
head and pass through a cooling tank and then through the pelletizer. The extruded plastic
strands are in semi-liquid form. They should be cooled to make them hard. Therefore, the
extruded stands are sent through a water tank to stabilize them. The length of the water tank
should be about 10 feet. The Pelletizer is a rotating blade by which the stands are cut into small
pieces (pellets). The length of the pellets can be changed by adjusting the speed of the motor
which is done by changing the pulleys.
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