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The earth and other bodies in the solar system formed by condensation and
accretion from a solar nebula.
The composition of the sun roughly reflects the composition of this nebula.
Meteorite compositions and shock-wave experimental data provide the most
definitive information regarding the overall composition of the Earth.
Shock-wave data indicate that it is composed chiefly of iron, silicon, magnesium and
oxygen.
The origin of the Earth-Moon System is part of the general problem of the origin of
the solar system.
This can be considered in terms of three subproblems:
1. How the sun acquired the gaseous material from which the planets formed;
2. The history of condensation of the gaseous material;
3. The processes and history of planetary accretion
Regarding the first question, one viewpoint is that the sun, already in existence,
attracted material into a gaseous nebula about itself.
The collapse of the nebula results in a cold cloud (<0oC) except in the region near the
protosun within the orbit of Mercury.
Condensation (i.e., the formation of solid particles from gas) of the nebula begins
during collapse and continues thereafter.
Accretion is the process by which solid particles collide to form planetary bodies in
the disc around the sun.
Accretion models fall into two general categories.
1. Homogeneous accretion models call upon formation of the planets in a generally
cold (<0oC), well-mixed cloud,
2. Inhomogeneous accretion modes, involve progressive condensation and accretion
of compounds from an initially hot cloud as it cools.
The Planet Earth
Earth is the third planet from the sun at a distance of about 150 million km.
One day on Earth takes 24 hours (spin once). Earth makes a complete orbit around
the sun (a year in Earth time) in about 365 days.
Earth is a rocky planet, also known as a terrestrial planet, with a solid and dynamic
surface of mountains, valleys, canyons, plains and so much more.
What makes Earth different from the other terrestrial planets is that it is also an
ocean planet: 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered in oceans.
Earth is a terrestrial planet, meaning that it is a rocky body, rather than a gas giant
like Jupiter.
It is the largest of the four terrestrial planets in size and mass.
Of these four planets, Earth also has the highest density, the highest surface gravity,
the strongest magnetic field, and fastest rotation.
It is probably the only one planet with active plate tectonics.
The general shape of the earth is spheroidal but when the internal mass is excess the
spheroidal surface goes above the mean sea level, known as Geoid.
Geoid is an imaginary surface.
The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.981024 kg.
It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium
(13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%).
The remaining 1.2% consists of trace elements.
The interior of the Earth is divided into layers by their chemical or physical
(rheological) properties.
Unlike the other terrestrial planets, it has a distinct outer and inner core.
The outer layer of the Earth is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is
underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle.
A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon compound. The great majority
of the silicates are oxides.
A silicate is a compound containing an anionic silicon compound. The great majority
of the silicates are oxides.
On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur as a result of the processes that
form and re-work the crust.
These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism,
weathering and diagenesis.
Mineralogically, silicate minerals are divided according to structure of their silicate
anion:
olivine, epidot, tourmaline, pyroxene, amphibole, micas and clays, quartz, feldspars,
zeolites.
The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovicic discontinuity.
The thickness of the crust varies: averaging 6 km under the oceans and 30-50 km on
the continents.
The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the
lithosphere.
It is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are comprised.
Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on
which the lithosphere rides.
Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km
below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower
mantle.
Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid
inner core.
Internal Structure of the Earth based on various physical parameters. Preliminary Reference Earth
Model (PREM)
Atoms and Minerals
Atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by
a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
The atomic nucleus contains positively charged protons and electrically neutral
neutrons.
The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force.
An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral.
Otherwise it is positively or negatively charged and is known as an ion.
An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
Number of protons determines the chemical element.
Chemical element and the number of neutrons determines the isotope o of the
element.
Properties
Nuclear properties:
By definition, any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei
belong to the same chemical element.
Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are
different isotopes of the same element.
Mass:
The large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that
make it up.
The total number of these particles (called "nucleons") in a given atom is called the
mass number.
Radioactive decay:
Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to
radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation.
Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the
radius of the strong nuclear force.
Magnetic moment:
Elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as
spin.
This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its
center of mass.
The magnetic field produced by an atomits magnetic momentis determined by
these various forms of angular momentum.
States:
Quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the
physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure.
By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and
plasmas.
Earth:
Most of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their
current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar
System.
The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used
to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating.
The Earth contains approximately 1.331050 atoms.
Minerals
Formation of minerals
Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of magma.
Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things: composition (what they are
made of) and texture (how big the crystals are).
Composition relates to the mafic and felsic terms.
Ultramafic magmas
Olivine - Mg2SiO4 to Fe2SiO4
Pyroxene - Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6
Rocks include:
Intrusive: Dunite, Peridotites and pyroxenites.
Extrusive: Komatiite and Picritic basalt.
Intermediate magmas
Plagioclase - CaAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8
Amphibole - NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2
Muscovite/Biotite - KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2
Quartz - SiO2
Intermediate igneous rocks include:
Andesite, Dacite, Diorite and Granodiorite
Metamorphic rocks
Rocks
Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals. The
Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.
Rock has been used by mankind throughout history. The minerals and metals found
in rocks have been essential to human civilization.
The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of
geology.
Classification of rocks
Rocks on earth are classified according to the way they were formed.
Igneous rocks come from magma or lava.
Sedimentary rocks are made from sediments.
Metamorphic rocks are the result of great heat and pressure that have changed
existing rocks into new rocks.
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks form when molten materials (magma) originating from deep within
the Earth solidifies.
The chemical composition of the magma and its cooling rate determine the final
igneous rock type.
Two types of igneous rocks form in nature:
1. Intrusive (plutonic)
2. Extrusive (volcanic)
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies deep
beneath the Earths surface.
The insulating effect of the surrounding rock allows the magma to solidify very
slowly.
Slow cooling means the individual mineral grains have a long time to grow, so they
grow to a relatively large size.
Intrusive rocks have a characteristically coarse grain size.
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies at or near
the Earths surface.
Exposure to the relatively cool temperature of the atmosphere or water makes the
erupted magma solidify very quickly.
Rapid cooling means the individual mineral grains have only a short time to grow, so
their final size is very tiny, or fine-grained.
Sometimes the magma is quenched so rapidly that individual minerals have no time
to grow. This is how volcanic glass forms.
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms.
They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface.
Three major types of sedimentary rocks occur in nature.
1. Clastic; 2. Chemical; 3. Biological
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been substantially changed from their
original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot,
mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.
Two types i.e., foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks occur.
Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals within a rock
so they become aligned.
These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that
pressure was applied.
Rocks are made of one or more minerals. Minerals are pure, solid, inorganic
(nonliving) materials found in Earth's crust.
Mineral is used for many of different things like copper. Some minerals are mined for
their beautiful properties, such as diamonds and other gems.
Some are so valuable they are used for jewelry or decorations, like gold and
platinum.
In general, rock and rock mass properties can be divided into five groups:
physical properties (durability, hardness, porosity, etc.),
mechanical properties (deformability, strength),
hydraulic properties (permeability, storativity),
thermal properties (thermal expansion, conductivity), and
in situ stresses.
Physical properties
physical properties such as weathering potential, slaking potential, swelling potential,
hardness, abrasiveness, and other properties such as porosity, density, water
content, etc.
Most of those properties are intact rock properties.
When exposed to atmospheric conditions, rocks slowly break down. This process is
called weathering.
Can be separated into mechanical (also called physical) weathering and chemical
weathering.
The chemical composition of the parent rock is not or is only slightly altered.
Mechanical weathering can result from the action of agents such as frost action, salt
crystallization, temperature changes (freezing and thawing), moisture changes
(cycles of wetting and drying), wind, glaciers, streams, unloading of rock masses
(sheet jointing), and biogenic processes (plants, animals, etc.).
Chemical Weathering
This type of weathering creates new minerals in place of the ones it destroys in the
parent rock.
As rocks are exposed to atmospheric conditions at or near the ground surface, they
react with components of the atmosphere to form new minerals.
The most important atmospheric reactants are oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water.
Solution is a reaction whereby a mineral completely dissolves during weathering.
Slaking
Since rocks change properties with time, a problem of interest is to assess their
weatherability or its inverse their durability.
Slake durability index is applied for for clay-bearing rocks (shales, claystones,
mudstones, etc.)
Swelling potential:
Chemical weathering reactions are usually accompanied with an increase in volume
such as in the transformation of anhydrite into gypsum.
For this reaction, increases in volumes ranging between 30 and 58% and swelling
pressures as high as 10,000 psi (70 MPa).
The term swelling rock (or soil) implies not only the tendency of a material to
increase in volume when water is available but also to decrease in volume and shrink
if water is removed.
Degree of fissuring
The degree of intact rock fissuring can be characterized through direct observation
using the microscope.
It can also be characterized through simple tests such as measurement of sonic
velocity or permeability.
The sonic velocity method (or pulse method) consists of propagating waves in intact
samples of rock.
Transmitters and receivers transducers and an oscilloscope are used to measure the
time that longitudinal and transverse elastic waves propagate through an intact rock
sample.
Phase relationships
Rocks like soils are three phase materials.
They consist of solid particles such as grains and crystals with void space in between.
The void space can be occupied by air or water or both.
Several parameters can be defined such as porosity, specific gravity, water
content,degree of saturation and density.
Porosity
The porosity is defined as the relative proportion of solid grains and voids in the
rock.
It is also a measure of the interconnected pore space.
The pore phase may not be completely continuous in a rock and fluid may not
permeate to all the pores.
The apparent porosity is the measure of the volume of interconnected pores and
cracks linked to the external surface of the rock.
The total porosity is a measure of the volume of all the cracks and pores and includes
those interconnected to the external surface and those having no connection to the
external surface of the rock.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the solid phase of a rock, Gs, is defined as follows
Gs = s /w
where s and w are the density of the solid particles and water (at 20C),
respectively.
Seismic velocity
The speed with which an elastic wave propagates through a medium.
The degree to which a specified material conducts electricity, calculated as the ratio
of the current density in the material to the electric field that causes the flow of
current. It is the reciprocal of the resistivity.
Rock texture
Texture (or rock microstructure) in geology refers to the relationship between the
materials of which a rock is composed.
The broadest textural classes are:
# crystalline (in which the components are intergrown and interlocking crystals),
# fragmental (in which there is an accumulation of fragments by some physical
process),
# aphanitic (in which crystals are not visible to the unaided eye), and,
# glassy (in which the particles are too small to be seen and amorphously arranged).
In geology bioclasts are used for such things relative dating purposes can be whole
fossils or broken fragments of organisms.
They can be used to study the age of the formation, environment of the rocks.
One of the major contributions of bioclasts is that they form in regions where
organisms lived and eventually died, over time.
This is important because with the right conditions (pressure and temperature) there is
a high possibility for hydrocarbon potential.
This is due to the fact that hydrocarbons will eventually form due to the rich organic
matter that has died and enriches the sediments.
Rock structures are related to rock's formational environment: whether it's igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic.
There are hundreds of distinct rock structures.
Geologists find it convenient to divide them into 'primary' and 'secondary' structures.
Sedimentary rock
Metamorphic rock
Igneous Rock
Secondary rock structures are imposed on rocks by events (such as compression or
stretching) experienced by rocks after their original formational.
The structures are most easily observed if the rocks have obvious primary structures,
such as layering formed by successive episodes of deposition.
Anticline
Syncline
Classification of structures
1. Folds, 2. Faults, 3. Unconformities
Types of folds
Folds are formed due to deformation of ductile rock materials.
Faults are formed due to deformation of brittle rock materials
Unconformities are non-deformational geologic features occur in the surface of
erosion or non-deposition.
Anticline
Syncline
Monocline
Chevron fold
Recumbent fold
Isoclinal fold
Plunging fold
Natural resources like petroleum, coal and many metallic minerals are the backbone
of nations industrial growth and economic emancipation.
To understand properly the genesis of petroleum it is customary to know better the
geological state of art.
A successful exploration and exploitation strategy largely depends on proper
understanding of geological conditions of a region.
Hence, the region must not be defined as a politically demarcated area rather
geologically demarcated one.
Geologically newly developed marginal sea basin and ocean basin where sediments
have been deposited under a conducive geological environment for organic matter
enrichment, cooking, maturation, migration and entrapment.
From the earliest days of scientific investigation the formation of petroleum had been
attributed to two origins: inorganic and organic.
Most petroleum geologists believe that petroleum forms from the diagenesis of buried
organic matter which is indigenous to sedimentary rocks rather than igneous and
metamorphic ones.
Inorganic theory states that hydrogen and carbon came together under great
temperature and pressure from below the earths surface and formed oil and gas
where chemical reactions have occurred.
Oil and gas then seeped through porous rock to deposit in various natural
underground traps.
Metal carbide theory of inorganic origin is developed by a Russian chemist and states
that the deposition of petroleum is controlled by tectonic activities occurred during the
life of sedimentary rock.
Metal carbides deep in Earth reacted with water at high pressure and temperature to
form acetylene which condenses to heavier hydrocarbons.
Reaction equation is: Cac2+H2O= C2H2+Ca(OH)2
Over a few milion years, the layers of the organic material were compressed under the
weight of the sediments above them. The increase in pressure and temperature with
the absence of oxygen changed the mud, sand, slit or sediments into rock and organic
matter into Kerogen. After further burial and heating, the kerogen transformed via
cracking into petroleum and natural gas.
Geological concepts are applied in the interpretation of the geophysical data once they
have been acquired and processed.
As soon as an oil well is drilled, the engineering aspects of the discovery need
appraisal.
Petroleum engineering is concerned with establishing the reserves of a field, the
distribution of petroleum within the reservoir, and the most effective way of
producing it.
Thus petroleum geology lies within a continuum of disciplines, beginning with
geophysics and ending with petroleum engineering. However, overlapping both in
time and subject matter exists
Lecture June 10
Anticlinal theory
Geological contribution in oil finding was based on the anticlinal theory.
Oil and gas accumulate as high in the reservoir. Because they are lighter than water,
this is their position of least potential energy. This elementary principle was put
forward at the very beginning of the petroleum era, in 1861, and it quickly became the
basis for exploration as the anticlinal theory.
An anticline is simply a geometric arrangement of strata such that they dip away from
a central area which is relatively high.
It is certain that a majority of known oil and gas fields are in anticlinal traps.
Closure is the height to the crest of the structure above the lowest structural contour
which closes.
It is the effective depth of the structure that can contain oil or/and gas above the spill
point (figure).