SOIL MECHANICS

Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and engineering mechanics that describes
the behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils
consist of a heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay,
silt, sand, and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter. Soil mechanics
is also defined as the application of the laws and principles of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering material. Soil mechanics is used to
analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural and man-made structures that are
supported on or made of soil, or structures that are buried in soils. Example applications are
building and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and buried pipeline systems. Principles
of soil mechanics are also used in related disciplines such as engineering geology, geophysical
engineering, coastal engineering, agricultural engineering, hydrology and soil physics.

As the name Soil Mechanics implies the subject is concerned with the deformation and
strength of bodies of soil. It deals with the mechanical properties of the soil materials and with
the application of the knowledge of these properties to engineering problems. In particular, it
is concerned with the interaction of structures with their foundation material. This includes
both conventional structures and also structures such as earth dams, embankments and roads
which are their-selves made of soil.

SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil mineralogy

Silts, sands and gravels are classified by their size, and hence they may consist of a variety of
minerals. Owing to the stability of quartz compared to other rock minerals, quartz is the most
common constituent of sand and silt. Mica, and feldspar are other common minerals present in
sands and silts. The mineral constituents of gravel may be more similar to that of the parent
rock. The specific surface area (SSA) is defined as the ratio of the surface area of particles to
the mass of the particles. Clay minerals typically have specific surface areas in the range of 10
to 1,000 square meters per gram of solid. Due to the large surface area available for chemical,
electrostatic, and van der Waals interaction, the mechanical behavior of clay minerals is very
sensitive to the amount of pore fluid available and the type and amount of dissolved ions in the
pore fluid. To anticipate the effect of clay on the way a soil will behave, it is necessary to know
the kinds of clays as well as the amount present. As home builders and highway engineers

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know all too well, soils containing certain high-activity clays make very unstable material on
which to build because they swell when wet and shrink when dry. This shrink-and-swell action
can easily crack foundations and cause retaining walls to collapse. These clays also become
extremely sticky and difficult to work with when they are wet. In contrast, low-activity clays,
formed under different conditions, can be very stable and easy to work with.

Grain size distribution

Soils consist of a mixture of particles of different size, shape and mineralogy. Because
the size of the particles obviously has a significant effect on the soil behavior, the grain size
and grain size distribution are used to classify soils. The grain size distribution describes the
relative proportions of particles of various sizes. The grain size is often visualized in a
cumulative distribution graph which, for example, plots the percentage of particles finer than a
given size as a function of size. The median grain is the size for which 50% of the particle mass
consists of finer particles.

Sands and gravels that possess a wide range of particle sizes with a smooth distribution of
particle sizes are called well graded soils. If the soil particles in a sample are predominantly in
a relatively narrow range of sizes, the sample is uniformly graded. If a soil sample has distinct
gaps in the gradation curve, e.g., a mixture of gravel and fine sand, with no coarse sand, the
sample may be gap graded. Uniformly graded and gap graded soils are both considered to be
poorly graded. There are many methods for measuring particle size distribution. The two
traditional methods are sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis.

1. Sieve analysis

The size distribution of gravel and sand particles are typically measured using sieve
analysis. A stack of sieves with accurately dimensioned holes between a mesh of wires is used
to separate the particles into size bins. A known volume of dried soil, with clods broken down
to individual particles, is put into the top of a stack of sieves arranged from coarse to fine. The
stack of sieves is shaken for a standard period of time so that the particles are sorted into size
bins. This method works reasonably well for particles in the sand and gravel size range. Fine
particles tend to stick to each other, and hence the sieving process is not an effective method.
If there are a lot of fines (silt and clay) present in the soil it may be necessary to run water
through the sieves to wash the coarse particles and clods through.

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 2. Hydrometer analysis

The classification of fine-grained soils, i.e., soils that are finer than sand, is determined
primarily by their Atterberg limits, not by their grain size. If it is important to determine the
grain size distribution of fine-grained soils, the hydrometer test may be performed. In the
hydrometer tests, the soil particles are mixed with water and shaken to produce a dilute
suspension in a glass cylinder, and then the cylinder is left to sit. A hydrometer is used to
measure the density of the suspension as a function of time. Clay particles may take several
hours to settle past the depth of measurement of the hydrometer. Clay particles can be
sufficiently small that they never settle because they are kept in suspension by Brownian
motion, in which case they may be classified as colloids.

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 LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A SOIL

Load bearing capacity of a soil is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to
the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing
capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure;
allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety.
Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without
actual shear failure occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the
maximum allowable settlement.

There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity:

i. general shear failure

ii. local shear failure

iii. punching shear failure.

FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS

(i) Type of soil: The bearing capacity of soils depends upon the type of soil. Depending upon
the type of soil, the bearing capacity of soil is different which is clear from Terzaghi bearing
capacity equation.

(ii) Physical characteristics of foundation

(iii) Soil properties: Soil properties like shear strength, density, permeability etc., affect the
bearing capacity of soil. Dense sand will have more bearing capacity than loose sand as unit
weight of dense sand is more than loose sand.

(iv) Type of foundation: The type of foundation selected also affects the bearing capacity of
soils. Raft or mat foundation adopted supports the load of structure safely by spreading the load
to a wider area, even if the soil is having low bearing capacity.

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(v) Water table: When the water is above the base of the footing, the submerged unit weight of
soil is used to calculate the overburden pressure and the bearing capacity of the soil reduces by
50%.

(vi) Amount of settlement: The amount of settlement of the structure also affects the bearing
capacity of soil. If the settlement exceeds the possible settlement, the bearing capacity of soil
is reduced.

(vii) Eccentricity of loading.

The vertical stress distribution in a soil mass depends upon:

(i) The nature of loading i.e., the manner of load placement, load distribution and shape of the
loaded area

(ii) Physical properties of soil like Poissons ratio, modulus of elasticity, compressibility etc.

In determining the stresses below a foundation, it is generally assumed that the soil behaves as
an elastic medium with identical properties at all points and in all directions. Many formulae
based on theory of elasticity have been used to compute stresses in soils. One such formula
was first developed by Boussinesq (1885) for the stresses and deformation in the interior of a
soil mass due to vertical point load. A British scientist Westergaard in 1938 also proposed a
formula for computation of vertical stress in the soil mass due to vertical point load.

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 SETTLEMENT

Settlement is the tendency of soil under load to react to the load or weight of the building and
tend to a new state of equilibrium.

Consolidation

It is a process by which soil decrease in volume According to Karl von Terzaghi "consolidation
is any process which involves a decrease in water content of saturated soil without replacement
of water by air." In general, it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by
expulsion of water under long term static loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that
causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume.
When this occurs in a soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil.
The magnitude of consolidation can be predicted by many different methods. In the Classical
Method, developed by Terzaghi, soils are tested with an oedometer test to determine their
compression index. This can be used to predict the amount of consolidation.

Compaction

In sedimentology compaction refers to the process by which a sediment progressively loses its
porosity due to the effects of loading. This forms part of the process of lithification. When a
layer of sediment is originally deposited, it contains an open framework of particles with the
pore space being usually filled with water. As more sediment is deposited above the layer, the
effect of the increased loading is to increase the particle-to-particle stresses resulting in porosity
reduction primarily through a more efficient packing of the particles and to a lesser extent
through elastic compression and pressure solution.

Compaction is the process of forcing air from the spaces between soil particles. Compaction
with a jumping jack tamper is somewhat inexact. In determining the point at which soil is
adequately compacted, the operator listens to the tone of the tamper impacting the soil. When
soil is adequately compacted, the tone will have a ringing quality which will not change. A
change in tone indicates that compaction is still taking place.

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Compaction increases the density of the soil and improves its ability to bear a load. Compaction
is affected by a number of factors:

Soil type (clay, sand, silt, level of organic matter, etc.)

Soil characteristics (uniformity, gradient, plasticity, etc.)
Soil thickness
Method of compaction
Moisture content at the time of compaction.

During secondary consolidation, the weight placed on soil slowly forces water out of the spaces
between soil particles. As this happens, soil particles will move close together and settling will
occur.The source of the weight would be both the structure and the overlying soil.
The amount of secondary consolidation which can be expected increases with the depth of the
affected area. An excavation with backfill 15 feet deep would experience more secondary
consolidation than an excavation with backfill 8 feet deep.
A common scenario is when a structure is built partially on undisturbed soil and partially on
compacted fill. Soil in these two areas will consolidate at different rates as the weight of the
newly-built structure forces water from between soil particles. This is called differential
settlement

Settling will be reflected in any part of structure bearing upon the settled soil. In adequately-
compacted soil, settling will be so minor that evidence wont be visible. Extreme differential
settlement will create stresses which are relieved by cracking.
Which materials crack depends on the properties of the material and the rate of settling. More
brittle materials will crack first. The effects of soil movement are most often seen as cracks in
interior and exterior wall coverings like drywall and plaster and in masonry foundation walls.
Even concrete, which most people think of as brittle, can bend if pressure is applied slowly
over a long time period. If pressure is applied over a shorter time period, concrete will crack.
Compaction and consolidation are affected by the composition of the soil. Fine-grained soils
have more interior surface area and can hold more air and water than course-grained soils.
The rate of consolidation is affected by the soil composition, levels of moisture saturation, the
amount and nature of the load on the soil and state of consolidation of the soil.
Another moisture-related problem is the addition of excessive moisture to the soil. This can
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create a condition in which water is absorbed into spaces between soil particles. Soil becomes
less dense, which reduces its ability to support a load.

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 REFERENCES

A Guide to Soil Mechanics, Bolton, Malcolm,Macmillan Press, 1979.

"Built Environment - Routledge". Routledge.com. Retrieved 2017-01-14.

http://www.aboutcivil.org/types-of-soil-settlement.html

https://www.nachi.org/soils-settlement.htm

Nick Gromicko and Kenton Shepard Soils and Settlement, InterNACHI's Director of Green
Building

Powrie, W., Spon Press, 2004, Soil Mechanics 2nd ed

Smith, I. (2013) Smith's elements of soil mechanics, 8th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. 1996. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Third
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Article 18, page 135.

Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., Mesri, G. (1996) Soil mechanics in Engineering Practice, Third
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,

Wood, David Muir, Soil Behavior and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Cambridge University
Press, 1990.