Selecting efficient fans.

Subject:
Fans (Energy use)
Fans (Design and construction)
Energy efficiency (Management)
Author:
Murphy, John
Pub Date:
04/01/2010
Publication:
Name: ASHRAE Journal Publisher: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal
Subject: Construction and materials industries
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2010 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engine
ers, Inc. ISSN: 0001-2491
Issue:
Date: April, 2010 Source Volume: 52 Source Issue: 4
Topic:
Event Code: 470 Use of energy; 200 Management dynamics Computer Subject: Company business
management
Geographic:
Geographic Scope: United States Geographic Code: 1USA United States

Accession Number:
238178371
Full Text:
For much of the past 50 years, HVAC system design and fan selection decisions were driven more often
by first, rather than life-cycle, cost. This was due primarily to the low price of energy. Even when life-
cycle cost comparisons were made, the projected energy costs were artificially low by today's standards.
The large number of speculative buildings constructed heightened the trend. Recent events have shown the
need to rethink our philosophy about using first cost as the deciding factor for system design and fan
selection.

Because the need to supply ventilation will not disappear, the required ventilation will need to be supplied
at the lowest possible total cost, accounting for the impact of lower velocities on duct (and, therefore,
building) size, the initial cost of the fan and associated components and the power consumed over the life
of the system. It is clear that there must be significant pressure to use the most efficient components,
especially the fans and motors.

High efficiency motors are already being required by most building authorities. Improving the efficiency
of fans is now the focus of a concerted effort, both in the United States and worldwide. Standards are
being written defining fan efficiency grades (FEG) and fan/motor efficiency grades (FMEG). Although
these efforts are not yet complete, it is clear that these definitions will soon become available to aid in
selecting high efficiency fans.

The Air Movement and Control Association International (AMCA) has developed a standard (AMCA
205-10) that defines fan efficiency grades (FEG) based on the peak value of total efficiency of the fan
without consideration of the motor/drive. This standard also recommends that any specification or code
that sets a minimum acceptable FEG also include a requirement that the efficiency at the actual operating
point(s) be within 10 points of the peak value.
The next revision of Standard 90.1 is expected to set a minimum FEG grade for fans used in non-
residential buildings. It is clear that the current direction is toward setting minimum fan efficiency levels.
Before discussing the impact this may have on fan manufacturers, let us look at some performance data.

The peak efficiency that can be achieved in any fan is a function of fan type and size. Table 1 shows
values of peak total efficiency achievable by production units with diameters of 24 in. (600 mm) or
greater. The values in this table were generated from a thorough review of published catalogs from many
U.S. and European Union manufacturers. Although the reduction in efficiency at smaller sizes is
significant, the relative ordering by fan type is basically unchanged. There may be fans produced that
exceed the values in Table 1 by a small margin (one or two points of efficiency) in any fan type. The
variation in peak efficiency with fan type can be understood by considering the differences in the details
of the various designs. In general, the more efficient fan types are more expensive to manufacture than the
lower efficiency types.

The factors that affect efficiency of centrifugal fans are blade profile, wheel width, inlet to wheel
clearance and cutoff height. For axial fans, the important factors are blade profile, tip clearance and swirl
recovery. Some fan types have inherent advantages or disadvantages due to their configuration.

As an example, a forward-curved centrifugal fan cannot achieve peak efficiencies close to those achieved
by any backward-oriented blade design because the forward-curved blade guarantees separated flow
(locally) downstream of the blade, and this separation causes a loss of energy. The backward-oriented
designs rank in efficiency order according to the aerodynamic quality of the airflow passage through the
impeller; curved blades are better than flat blades and airfoil shapes are better than single thickness. For
axial fan types, propeller fans suffer from larger tip clearances and the absence of turning vanes and tube
axial fans suffer from the lack of turning vanes.

The values in Table 1 suggest that as minimum FEG grades are specified there will be considerable
pressure to restrict the use of (at least) forward-curved and propeller fans.

[FIGURE 1-2 OMITTED]

The operating point(s) of the fan must also be kept close to the peak efficiency point if the power
consumed is to be kept to minimum values. Unfortunately, past practices often have been to use a small
fan running at a higher speed due to cost pressures, both in the building and the fan. This usually means
the fan is operated far to the right of peak efficiency. Figure 1 illustrates the portion of the fan curve where
all operating points should be located. Unfortunately, not all fans have a continuously rising pressure
curve at all flows between peak efficiency and peak efficiency less 10%. Figure 2 depicts such a case.
Some (and probably most) fan types exhibit instability when operated in this region of positive slope in
the pressure-volume curve.

The method used to provide part-load performance is critical for any application where the system
resistance varies significantly. The most commonly used method is adjustable frequency drives, which
allow fan speed variation. The turndown available may be limited because the system resistance is not a
constant orifice (i.e., the pressure varies as the flow is squared) since the VAV boxes require a minimum
pressure to operate, and there is a minimum speed, which must be achieved to satisfy the boxes. Variable
inlet vanes can also be used but there will be an efficiency penalty and turndown will be limited. Axial
fans with variable geometry (blade angle change during rotation) are also available, and may be the
solution of choice for systems with wide diversity (pressure does not follow flow squared).

Retrofits present a more difficult problem than new construction since space may not be available to use
fans of higher efficiency without major modifications.
Although widespread agreement exists that energy use must be reduced, it is still unclear whether the
architects, mechanical designers and building operators will make energy reduction the primary
consideration in design, selection and operation. In this writer's opinion, it may be necessary for code
authorities to take the lead in reducing energy use.

John Murphy, Ph.D., is a principal of JOGRAM, Inc., in New Philadelphia, Ohio. He retired as
engineering manager of Joy Technologies (formerly Joy Manufacturing) Fan Division.
Table 1: Peak total efficiency by fan type.

Fan Type Peak Total Efficiency %

Airfoil 88
Backward Curved 84
Centrifugal Backward Inclined 80
Forward Curved 70

Vane Axial 86
Axial Tube Axial 75
Propeller 55

Mixed Flow 75
Tangential 25
Gale Copyright:
Copyright 2010 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Previous Article: Variable frequency drives, part 1: the technology: this five-part series will cover
variable frequen...

Next Article: Dual-capacity heat pumps.

Variable frequency drives, part 1: the technology: this five-part series will cover variable
frequency drives and their applications in air conditioning and refrigeration in
residential and commercial buildings. The first article will cover general variable
frequency drive technology. The remaining articles will cover major applications.
Subject:
Electric driving, Variable speed (Design and construction)
Electric driving, Variable speed (Usage)
Variable speed drives (Design and construction)
Variable speed drives (Usage)
Authors:
Dieckmann, John
McKenney, Kurtis
Brodrick, James
Pub Date:
04/01/2010
Publication:
Name: ASHRAE Journal Publisher: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal
Subject: Construction and materials industries
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2010 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engine
ers, Inc. ISSN: 0001-2491
Issue:
Date: April, 2010 Source Volume: 52 Source Issue: 4
Product:
Product Code: 3566010 Variable Speed Transmissions NAICS Code: 333612 Speed Changer, Industrial
High-Speed Drive, and Gear Manufacturing SIC Code: 3566 Speed changers, drives, and gears
Geographic:
Geographic Scope: United States Geographic Code: 1USA United States

Accession Number:
238178370
Full Text:
A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a power electronic device that drives the common "squirrel cage"
induction motor over a range of speeds by converting standard frequency and voltage ac power from the
electric utility to variable frequency, variable voltage power to energize the motor. Over the years,
improvements have been made to VFDs' effiency and reliabilty. They are now viable alternatives to other
motor technologies.

Induction motors operate at a speed that is proportional to the frequency of the input power (minus a small
amount of slip that varies with the torque load on the motor). In HVAC&R, the common motor loads are
refrigerant compressors, fans, blowers and pumps. By varying the speed of a motor and its driven load, the
capacity can be varied to meet the real-time cooling, heating or ventilation load. As a result, significant
energy savings can be realized, along with better comfort control. Other advantages include quieter
operation and longer equipment life as a result of reduced average speed and soft starting of motors, which
reduces the in-rush current and impact loading on equipment at startup.

VFDs are alternately called variable speed drives, inverters, adjustable speed drives, or adjustable
frequency drives. The focus of this article is on VFDs for induction motors. However, it is important to
note that brushless dc motors, sometimes called permanent magnet rotor motors or electronically
commutated motors, are another important class of electronically driven variable speed motors, used in
applications such as blower motors and refrigerant compressors.

Figure 1 is a simplified block diagram of a typical VFD. It has four basic subsystems: an ac/dc converter,
a dc bus (also called the dc link), an inverter, and a control system. Alternating current from the electric
utility is converted to dc in the ac/dc converter, generally a full wave rectifier bridge. The dc link
maintains a steady dc voltage level using a capacitor upstream of the inverter. The inverter converts the dc
back to ac at the frequency and voltage level needed to drive the motor at the desired speed.

In most instances of VFD-driven motors, the ac output is three-phase to drive a three-phase motor. The
control system manages the inverter so that it produces the desired voltage and frequency, and generally
includes fault monitoring features.

Figure 2 shows the elements of the inverter in detail. The diode bridge shown is for three-phase ac input.
The inverter section consists of six pairs of power transistors and freewheeling diodes.

While there are various ways to synthesize a three-phase ac output from a dc source, the most commonly
used method is pulse width modulation (PWM).

As shown in Figure 3, the transistors are switched on and off rapidly (pulsed), at a carrier frequency that is
much higher than the desired output frequency.

The on-time of each pulse is varied to generate an approximation of a sinusoidal wave form. During the
off-time of the pulse, the inductance of the motor winding draws current flow through the freewheeling
diode such that the current flow is continuous and close to being sinusoidal.

Applications for VFDs are sometimes classified as "variable torque" or "constant torque." Variable torque
does not mean randomly variable torque and constant torque does not mean that the torque is fixed under
all conditions.

Variable torque refers to applications where the maximum torque load on the motor decreases as the speed
decreases from the maximum speed to lower speeds. Centrifugal pumps, axial fans and centrifugal
blowers are examples of variable torque applications in HVAC.

Constant torque refers to applications where the maximum required torque does not fall off appreciably as
the speed decreases from the maximum. Positive displacement compressors and pumps are examples of
constant torque applications in HVAC.

As a general rule, a given VFD will have a higher motor power rating for a variable torque application
than for a constant torque application.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

There are numerous technical considerations and potential pitfalls in applying VFDs, including damage
from reflected voltage waves, higher peak voltages within the motor windings, motor noise, increased
motor heating, unwanted harmonics on the ac input line, and induced currents in the motor bearings.
ASHRAE TC 1.11, Motors and Motor Control, maintains a chapter called "Motors, Motor Controls, and
Variable-Speed Drives" in the HVAC Systems and Equipment volume of the ASHRAE Handbook
(Chapter 44 in the 2008 edition). Technical considerations of VFDs are discussed in this chapter.

In many instances in HVAC equipment, the variable frequency drive is applied in a packaged system (e.g.,
a variable air volume air handling unit, a variable air-volume packaged rooftop unitary air conditioning
system, or a large chiller with a variable speed compressor), and the manufacturer of the system has
engineered the drive-motor-load-control system so that these pitfalls are avoided.

Energy Saving Potential

According to the DOE Buildings Energy Data Book1 space cooling, ventilation, and refrigeration in
residential and commercial buildings consumed 8.2 quadrillion Btus (quads) of primary electric energy in
2006, the bulk of which is consumed by refrigerant compressors, fans, blowers, and pumps, and therefore
can be reduced by implementing VFD technology.

Additionally, space heating in buildings consumed 1.7 quads of primary electric energy in 2006, a
percentage of which (with the notable exception of electric resistance heating) can be reduced by applying
VFDs as well.

In the next four articles, covering the major potential applications of VFDs in HVAC&R, we will break
down the potential for energy savings in each of these areas. Here, we provide a brief overview of three of
the major ways that efficient, variable speed operation of motors can save substantial amounts of energy in
HVAC&R applications.

* The speed cubed fan and pump power law dictates that for propeller fans, centrifugal blowers and
centrifugal pumps in systems with fixed-flow resistance, the air or water flow rate will vary with the
rotational speed (RPM) while the power will vary with the cube of the speed, as shown in Figure 4. For
example at 50% of maximum speed and flow, the power input drops to only 1/8 of the power at maximum
speed. HVAC systems operate at part load most of the time, so modulating the flow, rather operating
cyclically at full flow, can save significant amounts of energy.

* Continuous operation of cooling equipment at reduced capacity, instead of on-off operation at full
capacity, results in less temperature lift, and hence increased compressor COP, as shown in Figure 5.

* Continuous operation of cooling equipment at reduced capacity, instead of on-off operation at full
capacity, eliminates on-off cycling losses.

Market Factors

Acceptance of variable frequency drives was slow initially (going back 20 or 30 years) because of three
basic factors: high cost, questionable reliability, and limited experience in properly applying VFDs.

Over time, all of these factors have been mitigated substantially. Costs of full-featured, general-purpose
drives and of drives tailored for specific applications have fallen significantly.

The reliability of VFDs has improved significantly at the component, system, and application levels, and
OEMs have become more expert in applying drives cost-effectively, while staying within reliability
parameters.
As with any energy-saving technology, the added cost must be offset by energy cost savings in an
acceptable period of time to be attractive in the market. With simple payback periods often less than a few
years, VFDs are now in widespread use for variable speed blower drives, for compressor drives in large
chillers, and for chiller auxiliaries.

The next column will discuss the application of VFDs to blowers in commercial building air-conditioning
and ventilation systems.

[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]

References

1. EERE. 2009. "Buildings Energy Data Book." U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, Building Technologies Program. http://buildingsdatabook.eere.energy.gov/.

2. 2008ASHRAEHandbook--HVACSystems and Equipment, Chap. 44.

John Dieckmann, Member ASHRAE; Kurtis McKenney; and James Brodrick, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE

John Dieckmann is a director in the Mechanical Systems Group of TIAX LLC, Cambridge, Mass. Kurtis
McKenney is a senior technologist with TIAX, and James Brodrick, Ph.D., is a project manager with the
Building Technologies Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
Gale Copyright:
Copyright 2010 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.