Development of frog

By Umanga Chapagain
Development of frog

An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of development, from the
time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or germination.

Embryogenesis is the process of development of embryo.

Embryology is the science which deals with study of early developmental stages of
organisms. Father of modern embryology is Von Baer.

Embryonic development in all sexually reproducing metazoans begins from a single cell
called zygote and follows similar sequence. The sequence of events before and during the
embryonic development of frog is listed below.

i. Gametogenesis formation and differentiation of sex cells or gametes.

ii. Copulation- union of male and female for exchange of gamete.
iii. Fertilization fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.
iv. Blastulation formation of segmentation cavity called Blastula.
v. Gastrulation movement and arrangement of embryonic cells to form primary layers.
vi. Organogenesis differentiation and formation of organ system from primary germ
layers.
vii. Morphogenesis acquisition of characteristic morphological features of organism.
viii. Growth increase in size through development.

Figure : Development of frog

Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis takes place little before the commencement of breeding season. The
gametogenesis in male frog is called spermatogenesis in which sperms are developed
inside the testis. Similarly gametogenesis in female frog is called oogenesis in which eggs
are developed inside the ovary.

Structure of egg

The egg of frog is about 1.8mm in diameter and oval in shape. It is covered by double
layered vitelline membrane. The egg is half black (pigmented) and half white. The black half
is known as animal pole and white half is known as vegetal pole. The animal pole contains
cytoplasm and nucleus and vegetal pole yolk. Yolk is found only in the vegetal pole, so it is
called telolecithal egg or polar egg. There is moderate amount of yolk, so the egg of frog is
called mesolecithal egg. In the freshly laid egg, under the vitelline membrane there is
presence of the first polar body.

Figure : Structure of egg

Structure of sperm
Sperm has head, middle piece and a long, flagellated tail. In the head, there is large nucleus
and at the tip, there is acrosome with sperm lysine. It swims in water to reach to the egg of
its kind. It is always attracted toward the egg of frog.

Figure : Structure of sperm

Copulation

During the rainy season which is the breeding season, male frogs croak and large number of
frogs accumulated near the shallow water. In the water, male frog mounts upon the female
frog and copulation takes place. At the time of copulation, female frog discharges number of
eggs and near eggs male discharges even large number of sperms. Along with eggs, wall of
ovisac secretes albuminous fluid. The albuminous fluid absorbs water and swells up. Then it
becomes sticky. It binds large number about 40 to 50 eggs in a group. This group of eggs is
called frog spawn. The jelly like substance is formed from the albuminous fluid. It is mainly
protective in function. Bacteria and fungi spores cannot grow on jelly. So eggs are protected
from bacteria and fungi. Jelly is distasteful. Birds also do not feed on distasteful eggs.
Due to swelling of jelly eggs are moved apart and eggs are protected from friction. Algae can
grow in the space which can provide oxygen by photosynthesis. Jelly can act as peculiar
condenser which can absorb heat from sunlight. The temperature is increased. Higher
temperature is needed for development of egg.
Fertilization

Fertilization takes place in water outside the body of frog. It is called the external fertilization.
Large number of sperms remains attached to one egg. All sperms break their tip and release
the sperm lysine. The change in the sperm to release the sperm lysine is called
capacitation. These changes take place due to the activation of sperms. Sperm lysine
contains the enzyme hyaluronidase. It dissolves the vitelline membrane of egg. The egg
also produces a small outgrowth towards the animal pole. It is called the reception cone.
With this change, the egg is also activated to take part in the fertilization.

Now, one of the sperms attached to the reception cone pierces the vitelline membrane of
egg and enters into it. The tail is left behind. Through the puncture, water oozes out and fills
the space in between vitelline membrane and plasma membrane. It becomes thick and hard.
It is known as fertilization membrane. Its function is to prevent the entry of other sperms.
As the sperm head moves, it carries the pigment granules. It is marked by dark streak and
known as the penetration path (Sperm path). The sperm nucleus is now known as male
pronucleus. The egg nucleus undergoes the second meiotic division. As a result of this,
second polar body is extruded. The egg completes the meiotic division only after the entry of
sperm. The egg nucleus moves toward the male pronucleus. Just behind the male
pronucleus, there is the centrosome. Due to the approaching egg nucleus, the male
pronucleus rotates so that the centrosome lies in the middle of male pronucleus and egg
nucleus. The nuclear membrane of both nuclei disappears. The chromosomes are set free.
Spindle fibers are formed between the chromosomes. One chromosome from the male
pronucleus and one similar chromosome from egg nucleus come closer and make
homologous pair. Similarly several pairs of homologous chromosomes are formed. This
restoration of diploid number of chromosomes is called the fertilization. At the end of
fertilization, single celled zygote is formed.

Cleavage
After about three hours of fertilization, the fertilized egg starts to divide. The rapid and
repeated divisions of fertilized egg are called cleavage. All these divisions are mitotic.
During the cleavage, all substances present in the egg are divided. There is complete
division. So, the cleavage in frog is holoblastic.
First cleavage

It is vertical division from animal pole to vegetal pole. A small depression appears at the
animal pole. It becomes deeper and deeper and goes toward vegetal. The fertilized egg is
divided into two equal cells. So, the first cleavage is vertical and equal.

Second cleavage

This is also vertical and equal but at right angle to the first. Two cells are divided into four
quarter cells. Each cell contains a small portion of animal pole and a small portion of vegetal
pole. These cells can be called as blastomeres. Both of these divisions are along meridian
also.

Third cleavage

This division is horizontal and unequal. It takes place little above the equator and toward the
animal pole. The four cells are divided into eight cells. The upper four cells are smaller and
also known as micromeres or epiblasts. The lower four cells are bigger and also known
as macromeres or megameres or hypoblasts.

Fourth cleavage

It is again vertical. Two furrows appear at the same time dividing all eight cells into 16
cells.

Fifth cleavage

It is also horizontal. In this case also two furrows appear at the same time, one above and
one below the previous division. All sixteen cells are divided into thirty two cells.

The sixth division onward, all divisions are haphazard.

Morulation

The micromeres divide much faster than the megameres due to the large quantity of non-
living inert yolk present in the vegetal hemisphere. Due to this irregular division of cells, the
dividing zygote appears like a mulberry shaped solid ball with number of smaller cells. The
animal pole contains many smaller black cells and the vegetal pole contains many bigger
white cells. This stage is very short

Blastulation

The macromeres due to the presence of inactive yolk, divide slowly whereas micromeres
divide rapidly. As the division continues, the blastomeres arrange at the periphery and a
small central fluid appears within the embryo. This is called segmentation cavity or
blastocoel. This stage is known as blastula and the process is Blastulation. The roof of
blastocoel is made of micromeres and floor is of megameres. It is comparable to one
layered stage.

Presumptive areas

The smaller pigmented cells of animal pole represent the prospective ectoderm. It further
divides into prospective epidermis and prospective neural plate. Near the vegetal pole, there
is prospective notochord. On either side of which there are two lateral plates (mesoderm).
The rest of the cells of vegetal pole represent the prospective endoderm.

Gastrulation

It is the process of rearrangement prospective areas so that these different areas occupy
definite position and proportion. Gastrulation in frog is completed in three steps.

Epiboly

The micromeres can divide rapidly. These cells migrate and spread over those of vegetal
pole. The migration of these cells may be termed as formative movement. These cells cover
the megameres leaving a small opening. At this time also these cells are dividing rapidly.
These cells now move in between outer smaller cells and inner bigger cells. These cells
make the chordamesoderm.

Imboly or invagination

The overgrowing blastomeres start to move inwards at the lower margins of the grey
crescent. Thus, a small depression appears which is called blastospore. This groove is the
beginning of second cavity, the archenteron. It lies above the megameres. The margin
above blastopore is dorsal lip. On the sides of blastopore there are lateral lips.
Migration of micromeres

As there is more invagination, the lips of blastopore become wide. The archenteron
increases in size and blastocoels becomes reduced and crescentic in shape due to more
inward pushing. The migration of micromeres also takes place on the sides and on the
ventral surface, pulling a layer of megameres with it. Thus, lateral and ventral lips are
formed.

Rotation of gastrula

Due to the enlargement of archenteron, the blastocoel reduces and shifts towards the
vegetal pole due to which the center of gravity is also shifted. So the embryo rotates now.

The complete disappearance of blastocoel cavity marks the end of gastrulation. The
gastrula stage is comparable to two layered stage.

Fate of three primary germinal layers

All three layers are primary means they are equally important. They are germinal because
they can be changed from one form to another form.

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epidermis of skin, Dermis of skin, Alimentary canal,

Epithelia lining of Bones and cartilage, associated glands, liver
olfactory and auditory Muscles , and pancreas,
organs, Circulatory system, Respiratory tract, larynx,
Brain and spinal cord heart, vessels, blood, trachea, bronchioles,
(CNS), lymph, alveoli,
Pituitary gland, Spleen, Lungs,
Sclera and retina of eye, Excretory system, Thyroid and parathyroid
Enamel of tooth. kidney, glands.
Reproductive system,
testis, ovary.
Organogenesis

The process of formation of different organs from ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm

is called organogenesis. It is studied under following heading.

Neurulation
Due to rotation of embryo, the neural plate comes to lie at the dorsal surface. The neural
plate becomes stiff and hard a little bit. It sinks down in the middle. The edges of neural
plate come up. These edges are now known as neural folds. The depression in the middle
forms the neural groove. These neural folds increase in height. They come closer to each
other. These folds meet and fuse in the middle. The fusion proceeds anteriorly and
posteriorly. Anteriorly it remains open by neuropore. Posteriorly it communicates with
archenteron by neurenteric canal. Later on both of these are closed. A completely closed
neural tube is formed having a swollen portion anteriorly. This stage is now known as
neurula. It is little bit elongated and oval in shape.

Notogenesis
During neurulation, some important changes occur at the roof of archenteron. Just below the
place where neural tube is being formed, some cells of chordamesoderm separate. It
becomes vacuolated and become hard and stiff. These cells make a rod like structure. It is
known as notochord. The process of notochord formation form chord mesoderm is known
notogenesis. The main function of notochord is to support the neural tube. Later on the
swollen part of neural tube forms the different parts of brain. And tubular part forms the
spinal cord. The notochord is replaced by backbone or vertebral column.

Coelom formation
The rest of cells of chordamesoderm forms two lateral plates. Both of these lateral plates
split into outer somatic or parietal layer and inner visceral or splanchnic layer. In between
outer and inner layer, these develop a gap called splanchnocoel. Later splanchnocoel is
filled with fluid and gives rise to the formation of coelom. The fluid inside is called coelomic
fluid. The coelom thus formed is said to be schizocoel.

By this time, the chordamesoderm has been separated from the endoderm. The roof of
archenteron is formed by endoderm. Now the embryo has three primary germinal layers
namely ectoderm mesoderm and endoderm.