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Downloaded by [University of Leeds] at 20:09 05 July 2015
The Role of Hypermedia
in Education:
A Look at the Research Issues
Rachelle S. Heller
The George Washington University
Abstract
Hypertext and its extension, hypermedia, are being used to create new forms of educational
Downloaded by [University of Leeds] at 20:09 05 July 2015
software: hwermedia assisted instruction (HAl). In order to create classroom material that is
both instructional and motivating, educators and designers must confront a variety of
educational issues and problems endemic to hypermedia itself, as well as problems related to
education in an unstructured environment. Using techniques usually associated with
metastudies. this paper looks at the research in discovery and incidental learning as well as
hypermedia environments in order to distill those findings that can inform the development of
HAl. (Keywords: computer assisted instruction, hypermedia, instructional design.)
More than 40 years ago Vannevar Bush, director of the Office of Scientific
Research and Development for most of the 1940s and the Science Advisor to
President Roosevelt, described a hypothetical Memex machine (Bush, 1945)
that would allow a user to browse through untold amounts of library-like infor-
mation, using and making associative links between any two points. The
hypothetical, in time, became real. Hypertext, the phrase coined years later by
Ted Nelson (1967) to refer to this type of information, came into existence as a
nonlinear database with tools for selecting information from the database and
presenting the information to the user. In the 1960s Douglas Engelhart, influ-
enced by Bush's writings and using computers unknown to Bush, began to
develop NLS (oN Line System) at Stanford Research Institute in which any
number of reference links could be established between statements within and
between files. In the years since, a variety of software products have been de-
veloped based on hypertext.
Many of these products have gone beyond hypertext to incorporate more than
just databases of textual information. Hypermedia, a term created to describe
these new products, is defined by Halasz and Conklin ( 1989) to be an informa-
tion representation and management system built around a network of multi-
media nodes connected by links. One accesses the system by navigating or
following the predefined links through the network of information. In practice,
Halasz suggests that it is an absolute necessity that this navigation be aided by
some structural overview.
The confluence of a number of factors has brought hypermedia to attention of
educators. These factors include the improvement or refinement of software
products based on early hypermedia concepts, such as Intermedia at Brown
University and Notecards at Xerox PARC; the development of PC-based soft-
ware such as Guide and Hyperties; the investigations of application areas for
HYPERMEDIA-RELATED ISSUES
In his seminal paper, Conklin (1987) outlined both the advantages and
disadvantages of hypermedia. While the advantages are many-the ease of
creating and tracing references, the support for structuring and modularizing
information, and the ability to keep many threads of inquiry alive at once-it is
the disadvantages that are more informative to the educator as he or she goes
about designing HAL
Problems endemic to hypermedia are disorientation, cognitive overload
(Conklin, 1987), flagging commitment, and unmotivated rambling (Hammond,
Discovery learning can be defined as arr activity of the learner (Evans, 1969)
in which the learning environment provides opportunities for the exploration of
alternatives and results in the understanding of relationships that were previ-
ously unrecognized (Singer, 1977). IncidentzJ learning is usually reserved to
selves and learn more actively (Ray, 1966). The results mentioned in the
literature fall into areas related to the age and cognitive style of the learner, the
specific educational discipline and organization, and the impact of this type of
environment on retention, mterest in education, and motivation to learn.
When studies were made to pinpoint the age at which children are more able
to ignore nonessential information, they suggested that the skill appears in
early adolescence. Kline ( 1971) concluded that eighth-grade students are ca-
pable of self-directed study in the area of earth science. In their study, Carnine,
Kameeniu, and Coyle (1984) pointed out that older students use context clues
more frequently and effectively than younger students and that the closer the
contextual aid is to the word, the more likely the learner is to use that aid. They
also suggest that intermediate grade students, preadolescent, cannot be as-
sumed to have adequate contextual skills. In some studies meant to track the
effect of discovery learning on retention, it is noted that age is probably more
important in considering retention than learning mode (Jamieson, 1971; O'Brien
& Shapiro, 1977).
In addition to age, researchers have pointed to environment as playing a part
in the child's ability to work independently. A very interesting study by Smith
( 1972) suggested that children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds did
better in orienting themselves to new, unfamiliar material. In a similar study,
Taiwo (1976) pointed out that urban children were better able to function in
incidental learning situations.
Many studies investigated the relationship of cognitive style to the ability to
function in an unstructured, discovery based learning situation. Moore (1982)
noted that creative students were more open to new and unusual situations.
Furthermore, students with a lower anxiety about learning were well served by
a discovery approach. Students with high anxiety toward learning benefited
more from an expository or lecture approach, according to research by Clute
( 1984). Segal and Chapman ( 1984) pointed out that less competent learners
require more complete instructions. They need to be told how, where, and when
to use learning strategies.
Finally, some mention should be made of the effect of discovery learning on
interest and motivation toward education and studies in general. One of the
most proved results of discovery learning is the stimulation of motivation to
pursue the learning task (Vidder & Levine, 1979). There seems to be natural,
spontaneous human desire to explore derived from a need to deal with the
environment. In a study relating students' desire to achieve and learning envi-
ronments, students who scored low on desire to achieve did better in a discov-
Many studies were undertaken to establish which content areas are better
suited to discovery learning. Mathematics and science were most often exam-
Downloaded by [University of Leeds] at 20:09 05 July 2015
ined as candidates for the discovery process. Some studies report no difference
(AI big, 1973; Becker, 1978; Kline, 1971; Kuhfittig, 1972)., some reported
structured situations to be better (Leggette, 1973), and some suggested di-
rected, or guided, discovery (Hirsch, 1977; Ivins, 1985; Lahnston, 1973; Okpala
& Onocho, 1988; Peters, ] 970; Zabulake, 1970). In mathematics, Maynard and
Strickland ( 1969) suggested that presentation does not matter for boys, but that
girls did significantly better under directed methods. In areas of English and
social studies the results are even less well formed and reports tend to describe
discovery learning environments in these content areas rather than to measure
the results of teaching presentation on learning (Forsyth, 1988; Geller, 1978;
Hawke, 1975).
Discovery learning and incidental learning have been an area of study since
they were made popular in the late 50s and early 60s. The findings just
reviewed, combined with the technical issues relating to hypermedia, can act as
catalysts for design metaphors and research into the new area of hypermedia
assisted instruction. The research imperatives fall into two areas: those studies
focusing on the techniques of the media such as information presentation and
navigational aids that will help to refine the technical presentation of HAl, and
those studies that will identify the educational setting, types of students, and the
areas of education that will benefit from HAL
The problem areas within hypermedia and HAl are well documented but
there needs to be more research done on how one comes to understand the
extent and interconnections of the material represented in a hypermedia sys-
tem. Questions that combine technical feasibility with cognitive research must
be addressed. This requires the researcher to determine which of the following
tools:
buttons to click and to link from information node to information node,
which offer a nanuw view of the system, but which give the user control.
maps or indexes that give a broader view of the topology of the hyperspace
and still give the user control to go from node to node or concept area to
concept area.
additional concept map tools, it seems clear that HAl should be accompanied
with clearly stated learning objectives to make the learning event more worth-
while for the student. Some of the problems of HAl disorientation can be
resolved by carefully organizing the material and its presentation. The findings
in discovery learning concerning organizational schemes should encourage
educators to research and design HAl in which the structure of the material is
not just available to the learner through the use of a tool such as browser or
concept map, but is also clearly presented to the learner before the learner
begins to use the system, perhaps as part of introductory material.
Developmental studies need to be performed to evaluate and categorize the
experiences of students with various profiles as they use HAL The profiles
should include age and maturity of the learners, their attitudes toward learning,
their cognitive style, and their intellectual strengths. As Tsai (1988-89) sug-
gested, we must examine how learners orient themselves to new material.
Building on the research in discovery learning we must design ways to see the
relationship between the type of material studies, its structural complexity, and
users' ability to navigate the material. While the aforementioned research
should not preclude the use of HAl with young students, it seems that the first
fruitful areas of research should be with students of at least junior high age. In
the light of what we know about locus of control in learning situations, we need
to determine whether it is possible or necessary to make HAl useful or
available to all types of learners. Research is also required to assess the value
to, and attitudes of, high and low achievers as they use hypermedia assisted
instruction.
The discovery learning research results are encouraging in support of a
positive relationship between independent learning situations such as HAl and
motivation to learn. This should be explored and exploited in further studies.
Because the research gives no clear guidance as to which content areas might
be fruitful areas in which to use HAl, the field is open for discussion. Perhaps
the potential motivational benefits of HAl should be harnesses to "turn a
learner on" to a subject or subjects.
Simply converting traditional forms of CAl into HAl modes does not make
use of the richness of the hypermedia environment We, as educators, must
begin to address the use of HAl in our instructional systems in radically new
co-author of many articles and textbooks including Bits 'n Bytes About Com-
puting: A Computer Literacy Primer. (Address: Department of Electrical Engi-
neering and Computer Science, The George Washington University, Washing-
ton DC 20052. Email S43@GWUVM.BITNET)
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