TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

TYPES OF TRAFFIC FLOW

Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types.

1) UNINTERRUPTED FLOW- flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and

interactions between vehicles and the roadway.
-flow occurring at long sections of road where vehicles are NOT REQUIRED TO
STOP BY ANY CAUSE external to the traffic stream
Ex. vehicles traveling on an interstate highway are participating in uninterrupted
flow.

2) INTERRUPTED FLOW- flow regulated by an external means, such as a traffic

signal. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-
roadway interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

TRAFFIC FLOW PARAMETERS

speed (v)
- distance it travels per unit of time

in quantifying the traffic flow, the average speed of the traffic is the significant variable.
the average speed, called the space mean speed, can be found by averaging the
individual speeds of all of the vehicles in the study area.

volume
-the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway in a specified
period of time

by counting the number of vehicles that pass a point on the roadway during a 15-minute
period, you can arrive at the 15-minute volume. volume is commonly converted directly
to flow (q), which is a more useful parameter.

flow (q) (unit: vehicles/hr)

-flow is one of the most common traffic parameters
-rate at which vehicles pass a given point on the roadway, and is normally given
in terms of vehicles per hour.
the 15-minute volume can be converted to a flow by multiplying the volume by four. if
our 15-minute volume were 100 cars, we would report the flow as 400 vehicles per
hour. for that 15-minute interval of time, the vehicles were crossing our designated point
at a rate of 400 vehicles/hour.

peak hour factor (phf)

-the ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by the peak 15 minute rate of flow
expressed as an hourly flow (q15).
phf= q60/ q15

density (k) (unit: vehicles/mile or vehicles/km)

-number of vehicles present on a given length of roadway

high densities indicate that individual vehicles are very close together, while low
densities imply greater distances between vehicles.
HEADWAY, SPACING, GAP, AND CLEARANCE are all various measures for
describing the space between vehicles. these parameters are discussed in the
paragraphs below and are shown graphically in figure 1.0.

headway (h) (unit: seconds)

-measure of the temporal space between two vehicles
-specifically, the headway is the time that elapses between the arrival of the
leading vehicle and the following vehicle at the designated test point

you can measure the headway between two vehicles by starting a chronograph when
the front bumper of the first vehicle crosses the selected point, and subsequently
recording the time that the second vehicles front bumper crosses over the designated
point.

spacing (s)
-physical distance between the front bumper of the leading vehicle and the front
bumper of the following vehicle
Spacing= speed x headway

gap (g) (unit: seconds)

-gap is a measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the
front bumper of the second vehicle, where headway focuses on front-to-front
times

very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that elapses between
the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the designated test
point.

clearance (c) (unit: feet or meters)

- distance between the rear bumper of the leading vehicle and the front bumper of
the following vehicle

Clearance= spacing - length of vehicle

SPEED-FLOW-DENSITY RELATIONSHIP

Speed, flow, and density are all related to each other. The relationships between speed
and density are not difficult to observe in the real world, while the effects of speed and
density on flow are not quite as apparent.

Under uninterrupted flow conditions, speed, density, and flow are all related by the
following equation:

q = k*v

Where
q = Flow (vehicles/hour)
v = Speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
k = Density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Because flow is the product of speed and density, the flow is equal to zero when one or
both of these terms is zero. It is also possible to deduce that the flow is maximized at
some critical combination of speed and density.

Two common traffic conditions illustrate these points. The first is the MODERN
TRAFFIC JAM, where traffic densities are very high and speeds are very low. This
combination produces a very low flow. The second condition occurs when traffic
densities are very low and drivers can obtain FREE FLOW SPEED without any undue
stress caused by other vehicles on the roadway. The extremely low density
compensates for the high speeds, and the resulting flow is very low.
SPECIAL SPEED & DENSITY CONDITIONS

The discussion of the speed-flow-density relationship mentioned several speed-density

conditions. Two of these conditions are extremely significant and have been given
special names.

Free Flow Speed

This is the mean speed that vehicles will travel on a roadway when the density of
vehicles is low. Under low-density conditions, drivers no longer worry about other
vehicles. They subsequently proceed at speeds that are controlled by the performance
of their vehicles, the conditions of the roadway, and the posted speed limit.

Jam Density

Extremely high densities can bring traffic on a roadway to a complete stop. The density
at which traffic stops is called the jam density.

GREENSHIELDS MODEL

Greenshield was able to develop A MODEL OF UNINTERRUPTED TRAFFIC FLOW

that predicts and explains the trends that are observed in real traffic flows. While
Greenshields model is not perfect, it is fairly accurate and relatively simple.

Greenshield made the assumption that, under uninterrupted flow conditions, SPEED
AND DENSITY ARE LINEARLY RELATED. This relationship is expressed
mathematically and graphically below. See figure 1.0.

v=A-B*k

Where:
v = speed (miles/hour, kilometers/hour)
A,B = constants determined from field observations
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

As noted above, you can determine the values of the constants A and B through field
observations. This is normally done by collecting velocity and density data in the field,
plotting the data, and then using linear regression to fit a line through the data points.
The constant A REPRESENTS THE FREE FLOW SPEED, WHILE A/B REPRESENTS
THE JAM DENSITY.

Figure 1.0: Speed vs. Density

Inserting Greenshields speed-density relationship into the general speed-flow-density
relationship yields the following equations:

q = (A-B*k)*k or q = A*k B*k2

Where:
q = flow (vehicles/hour)
A,B = constants
k = density (vehicles/mile, vehicles/kilometer)

Figure 2.0: Flow vs. Density

This new relationship between flow and density provides an avenue for finding the
density at which the flow is maximized.

dq/dk = A 2*B*k

setting dq/dK = 0 yields:

k = A/(2*B)

Therefore, at the density given above, the flow will be maximized. Substituting this
maximized value of k into the original speed-density relationship yields the speed at
which the flow is maximized.

v = A B*(A/(2*B)) or v = A/2
This indicates that the maximum flow occurs when traffic is flowing at half of free-flow
speed (A). Substituting the optimum speed and density into the speed-flow-density
relationship yields the maximum flow.

q = (A/2)*(A/(2*B)) or q = A2/(4*B)

Figure 3.0 shows the relationship between flow and speed graphically.

Figure 3.0: Flow vs. Speed

As you can see, Greenshields model is quite powerful. The following can be derived
from Greenshields model:

When the density is zero, the flow is zero because there are no vehicles on
the roadway.
As the density increases, the flow also increases to some maximum flow
conditions.
When the density reaches a maximum, generally called jam density, the
flow must be zero because the vehicles tend to line up end to end (parking
lot conditions).

As the density increases the flow increases to some maximum value, but a continual
increase in density will cause the flow to decrease until jam density and zero flow
conditions are reached.

TIME-SPACE DIAGRAMS

A timespace diagram is commonly USED TO SOLVE A NUMBER OF

TRANSPORTATION- RELATED PROBLEMS. Typically, time is drawn on the horizontal
axis and distance from a reference point on the vertical axis. The trajectories of
individual vehicles in motion are portrayed in this diagram by sloping lines, and
stationary vehicles are represented by horizontal lines. The slope of the line represents
the speed of the vehicle. Curved portions of the trajectories represent vehicles
undergoing speed changes such as deceleration.

Diagrams that show the position of individual vehicles in time and in space are very
useful for understanding traffic flow. These diagrams are especially useful for
discussions of shock waves and wave propagation.

The time-space diagram is a graph that describes the relationship between the location
of vehicles in a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway.
The following diagram is an example of a time-space diagram.

Time-space diagrams are created by plotting the position of each vehicle, given as a
distance from a reference point, against time. The first vehicle will probably start at the
origin, while the vehicles that follow wont reach the reference point until slightly later
times. Reductions in speed cause the slopes of the lines to flatten, while increases in
speed cause the slopes to become greater. Acceleration causes the time-space curve
for the accelerating vehicle to bend until the new speed is attained. Curves that cross
indicate that the vehicles both shared the same position at the same time. Unless
passing is permitted, CROSSED CURVES INDICATE COLLISIONS.

SHOCK WAVES

Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced by
dropping stones in water. A SHOCK WAVE PROPAGATES ALONG A LINE OF
VEHICLES IN RESPONSE TO CHANGING CONDITIONS AT THE FRONT OF THE
LINE.

Shock waves can be generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused by

entering free flow conditions, or by a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave
exists whenever the traffic conditions change.
The equation that is used to estimate the propagation velocity of shock waves is given
below.

vsw = (qb qa)/(kb ka)

Where
vsw = propagation velocity of shock wave (miles/hour)
qb = flow prior to change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
qa = flow after change in conditions (vehicles/hour)
kb = traffic density prior to change in conditions (vehicles/mile)
ka = traffic density after change in conditions (vehicles/mile)

Note the magnitude and direction of the shock wave.

(+) Shock wave is travelling in same direction as traffic stream.

(-) Shock wave is traveling upstream or against the traffic stream.

For example, lets assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after the
accident is reduced to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also, the
density is much greater after the accident. Substituting these values into the shock
wave equation yields a negative (-) propagation velocity. This means that the shock
wave is traveling against the traffic. If you could look down on this accident, you would
see a wave front, at which vehicles began to slow from their initial speed, passing from
vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic stream. The first car would notice the accident first,
followed an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle begins slowing after its driver
recognizes that the preceding vehicle is slowing.

QUEUING THEORY

Greenshields model was developed to aid our understanding of uninterrupted flow.

Unfortunately, Greenshields model is unable to cope with the added complexities that
are generated under interrupted flow conditions. Interrupted flow requires an
understanding of Queuing Theory, which is an entirely separate model of traffic flow.

Queuing Theory can be USED TO ANALYZE THE FLOW OF TRAFFIC ON THE

APPROACH TO AND THROUGH AN INTERSECTION CONTROLLED BY A TRAFFIC
SIGNAL.

This is accomplished by analyzing the cumulative passage of vehicles as a function of

time. The queuing diagram for interrupted flow shows the flow on one intersection
approach. Traffic is stopped from time t1 to t2 during the red signal interval. At the start of
the green interval (t2), traffic begins to leave the intersection at the saturation flow rate
(qG), and continues until the queue is exhausted. Thereafter, the departure rate D(t),
equals the arrival rate, A(t), until t3, which is the beginning of the next red signal. At this
point, the process starts over.

For further information on Queing Theory, consult the chapter entitled "Signal Timing
Design."

Queuing Diagram for Interrupted Flow

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Greenshield's Model

Inspection of a freeway data set reveals a free flow speed of 60 mph, a jam density of
180 vehicles per mile per lane, and an observed maximum flow of 2000 vehicles per
hour. Determine the linear equation for velocity for these conditions, and determine the
speed and density at maximum flow conditions. How do the theoretical and observed
conditions compare?

Solution
vs= vf vf/kj k (mph)
vs = 60 60/180 k = 60 0.333k
q = vsk
q = 60k-0.333k2
dq/dk = 60 2(0.333)k
60 = 2(0.333)k
k= 90. 0 = kj/2 half of jam density
vm= 60-60/180 (90) = 30 mph = vf/2 = half of free flow speed
q= vs k
q = 30 (90) = 2700vph > 2000 vph
The theoretical value does not account for the field conditions that influence maximum
flow.

Shock Waves

A slow moving truck drives along the roadway at 10 MPH. The existing conditions on
the roadway before the truck enters are shown at point 1 below: 40 mph, flow of 1000
vehicles per hour, and density of 25 vehicles per mile. The truck enters the roadway and
causes a queue of vehicles to build, giving the characteristics of point 2 below: flow of
1200 vehicles per hour and a density of 120 vehicles per mile. Using the information
provided below, find the velocity of the shockwave at the front and back of the platoon.

Point 1: Normal flow ( us = 40 MPH, k=25 veh/mi, q= 1000 vph.

Point 2: Slow Truck: ( us = 10 MPH, k=120 veh/mi, q= 1200 vph.

[Solution Shown Below]

Solution

Figures 3.6.2 and 3.6.3, shown below, illustrate the behavior of the vehicles that are
impacted by the shockwave.

The speed of the shockwave in front of the truck at point A-A ( qb= 0, kb = 0) can be
found by substituting the correct values into the general shockwave equation. Upon
substitution, as shown below, we find that the shockwave is moving at the same speed
as the truck, or 10 MPH downstream with reference to a stationary point on the
roadway.

Solving for the speed of the shockwave at the end of the platoon (B-B) is accomplished
by substituting the correct values into the general shockwave equation.

qa= 1000 vph, ka=25 vpm

qb= 1200 vph, kb =120 vpm

The (+) sign indicates that the shockwave is moving downstream with respect to a fixed
observer.

A-A moves forward relative to the roadway at 10 MPH

B-B moves forward relative to the roadway at 2.1 MPH

Platoon Growth: 10-2.1 = 7.9 MPH

Traffic Flow Model

A study of freeway flow at a particular site has resulted in a calibrated speed-density

relationship, as follows:

Us= 57.5(1-0.008k)

From this relationship:

a. Find the free-flow speed and jam density

b. Derive the equations describing flow versus speed and flow versus density.
c. Determine the capacity of the site mathematically

Solution

A.) To solve for free-flow speed and jam density:

us = 57.5 0.46k. Notice that this equation is linear with respect to space mean speed
and density and is of the form of Greenshields equation.

Greenshields equation: us= uf- (uf/kj)k

Free flow speed uf = 57.5 MPH

To calculate jam density: uf/kj = 0.46 gives kj = 125 vpm

B.) To derive the equations for flow as a function of density:

q= usk

q = 57.5k-0.46k2 vph gives flow as a function of density ( note that it is a quadratic in k)

To derive flow as a function of speed:

0.46k=57.5-us

k=(57.5-us)/0.46 = 125-(us/0.46)

q = us(125-(us/0.46)) = 125us- us2/0.46 vph ( note that it is a quadratic in us)

C.) To determine the capacity of the site:

Need to determine the maximum flow:

dq/dk = 57.5 0.46(2)k =0

57.5=0.46(2)k

k = 57.5/(0.46(2)) = 62.5 veh per mile = km=density at maximum flow

q = 57.5k-0.46k2

q=57.5(62.5) 0.46(62.5)2

q=3593.75 1796.875

q = 1796.875 veh/hour = qm

speed at maxium flow = um = 57.5 0.46(62.5) =28.75 mph