International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116

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International Journal of Coal Geology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / i j c o a l g e o

Petrographic characteristics of coal from the Lati Formation, Tarakan basin,

East Kalimantan, Indonesia
Prakash K. Singh a,, M.P. Singh a, Alok K. Singh b, Mukesh Arora c
a
Coal & Organic Petrology Lab, Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, UP, India
b
R & D, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur-831001, India
c
Terra World Group, Habsiguda, Hyderabad-500007, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present paper entails the petrographic characterization on limited coal samples drawn from the Tarakan
Received 19 March 2009 basin, Eastern Kalimantan, Indonesia. These coals contain a high concentration of huminite which, in turn,
Received in revised form 12 November 2009 is dominated by telohuminite. As a result of telohuminite content they have high GI and TPI values.
Accepted 12 November 2009
They contain, low concentrations of liptinite and inertinite macerals. The dominant microlithotype is vitrite.
Available online 20 November 2009
Based on the macerals and microlithotypes of these coals, their paleodepositional environment has been
Keywords:
reconstructed. Accordingly it is deciphered that these coals have originated under telmatic condition. There
Macerals was predominance of wood derived tissues and increased subsidence rate prevailed in the basin. Moreover,
Microlithotypes during the time of their evolution, there were alternate phases of oxic and anoxic moor conditions with
Coals intermittent moderate to high ooding in the basin.
Lati Formation 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Tarakan basin
Evolution

1. Introduction
The Indonesian archipelago comprises of over 17,000 islands
stretching astride the equator for around 5200 km in SE Asia. It includes
Cenozoic volcanic plutonic arcs, active volcanics, and related offshore
and onshore basins. The history of coal mining in Indonesia began
in 1849 in the Mahakam coaleld near Pengaron, East Kalimantan
and subsequently other coal mines were opened in Sumatra and South
Sumatra. The exploration activities have picked up pace only in 1980 s
owing to a change in the Indonesian Government policy. Kalimantan has
a coal deposit of 21.1 billion Mt.
There are around 60 Tertiary sedimentary basins in Indonesia.
Several shallow basins were formed during Early Paleogene due to
rifting along the margins of Sundaland which is a back arc setting of
the Indian Ocean plate (Kusnama et al., 1993; Cole and Crittenden,
1997). The purpose of the present study is to assess the variations in
the microscopic constituents of coals of Tarakan basin and to know the
genetic reasons for the same.
2. Geological setting
shallow basins (Kusnama et al., 1993; Cole and Crittenden, 1997).
Friederich et al. (1999) have worked out, in detail, on the coal bearing
sequences of Indonesia. Eastern Kalimantan is one of the major coal
basins in Indonesia having economic coal deposits (Davis et al.,
2007) where the thickest coal seams are attributed to High stand
System Tracts (HST) and Transgressive System tracts (TST) owing to
the optimum preservation potential. The main basins bearing the coal
sequences, their Formations and age (Davis et al., 2007) have been
summarized in Table 1. According to Longley (1997), three major
episodes of peat formation took place within Tertiary of Indonesia.
The rst episode took place during Early to Middle Eocene. This
resulted in the rifting in Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. The second
episode began in the Late Oligocene in Sumatra and Java. This episode
was associated with thermal subsidence and transgression. The third
episode occurred during global high stand of Middle Miocene and
extended by Late Miocene to Pleistocene times over the whole region.
This episode is marked by the development of major prograding
deltas all along their margins. This can be seen in Tarakan basin in the
NE of Kalimantan (Fig. 1). It is from this basin that the coal samples
were collected for the present investigation. This coal bearing horizon
belongs to the Lati Formation of Late Miocene period (Table 1).

The Early Paleogene rifting along the margins of Sundaland, which
is a back arc setting of the Indian Ocean plate, resulted a number of
Corresponding author. Tel.: +919935819700.
E-mail address: prakashbhu@rediffmail.com (P.K. Singh).
3. Materials and methods
Coal samples were collected from ve locations of the Lati
Formation of Tarakan basin. These coal outcrops are located in the
dense tropical rain forest regions and are yet to be explored in detail. It

0166-5162/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.coal.2009.11.006
110 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116

Table 1 maintained at 0.4 mm and for each sample more than 600 counts were
Summary of coal bearing sequences in Kalimantan region. taken. The methodology given by Stach's, 1982 was followed and
Province Basin Formation Age the terminologies for huminite macerals given by ICCP 2005 and that
of inertinite given by ICCP, 2001 have been used. The reectance
K Central Sunda Air Benakat Mid Late Miocene
A Talang Akar Oligo-Miocene measurement has been carried out in the R&D centre of Tata Steels P
L Ketunggau Kantu Eocene Ltd., Jamshedpur using J &M MSP 200 software developed by J&M
I Ketunggau Eocene Analytische Mess- und Regeltechnik GmbH, Robert-Bosch-Strasse 83,
M Northeast Tarakan Lati Late Miocene
D-73431 Aalen, Germany. The reectance measurements were taken
A Southeast Kutei Balikpapan Grp Mid- Late Miocene
N Kamboja Mid- Late Miocene on collotelinite grains and at least 30 counts were made on each
T Prangat Mid- Late Miocene sample.
A Barito Warukin Mid Miocene The proximate analysis was carried out in the same laboratory
N Asem-Asem Warukin Mid Miocene using oven and mufe furnace as per BIS, 2003. The elemental analysis
Tanjung Eocene
(C, H, N, and S) was performed by C.D.R.I, Lucknow on Vario EL-III
Analyzer. This works according to the principle of catalytic tube
is due to this reason; the samples were collected from the surface combustion in an oxygenated CO2 atmosphere and high temperature.
exposures in the present investigation. From each exposed locations The combustion gases are freed from foreign gases. The desired
of the Tarakan basin, about ve kg of coal samples were collected. measuring components are separated from each other with the help
They were crushed and, by quartering and coning, reduced in quantity of specic adsorption column and determined in succession with
to prepare composite samples. These samples were then subjected to thermal conductive detector. Helium serves as ushing and carrier gas.
petrographic and chemical analyses. The samples were crushed
to 18 mesh size for petrography and 70 mesh size for proximate 4. Results and discussion
analysis. The maceral and microlithotype analyses were simulta-
neously carried out on polished pellets using incident light Leitz 4.1. Megascopic characters
Orthoplan-Pol Microscope equipped with Wild Photoautomat MPS
45 in the Coal and Organic Petrology Laboratory, Department The coal seams cropout at various places in the area and have low
of Geology, BHU. The line to line and point to point spacing was to medium dip. In general, they have a shining luster and are attrital in

Fig. 1. Map showing location of studied coal samples. Major coal bearing sequence in Kalimantan island of Indonesia is after Hutton et al., 1994; surface geology after U.S.G.S., 1999
and modied by Davis et al., 2007.
 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116 111

Table 2
Summary showing location and megascopic characters of coal samples and the structural features of coal seams.

Sample No Location Basic features of coal sample Structural features

A-7 N 2o 09 57.3 E 117o 35 29.9 Only 1.5 m of coal seam exposed on the surface. Coal is attrital in Dip 11o due SE and strikes in NE SW direction.
nature, black and shining.
A-4 N 2o 10 1.9 E 117o 35 34.1 The exposed thickness is 3 m. Coal is attrital in nature, Dips 14o due SW and strikes in NWSE direction.
black and shining.
T-2 N 2o 10 21 E 117o 35 27.9 5 m of coal seam is exposed on the surface. Megascopically, Dip is 4o in south direction and strikes in EW
it is dull coal with few thin bright bands. to ESEWNW direction.
T-0 N 2o 10 26.9 E 117o 36 31.6 The exposed thickness is 5 m. Coal is attrital in nature, Dips 12o due SW and strikes in NWSE direction.
black and shining.
S-8 N 2o 17 49.3 E 117o 44 25.2 Only 2 m of the seam is exposed over the surface. Megascopically Dips around 7o due south and strikes almost EW.
it is matrix rich stratied coal and is black in colour.

nature. Megascopically these coals resemble the Tertiary coals of
North-Eastern India which are non-banded and attrital in nature. The
megascopic characteristics of coal samples along with their location
and structural details of the coal seams have been summarized in
Table 2.
4.2. Chemical composition
These Tarakan basin coals of E. Kalimantan region have high
moisture content which ranges from 13.5% to 19.1%. They also have
high volatile Matter content varying between 52.1% and 57.6%. The
ultimate analysis shows that these coals are low in carbon content but
have high sulphur content. The hydrogen content is moderately high
and ranges from 6.13% to 7.26%. The H/C and O/C atomic ratios have
been calculated. While the H/C varies between 1.02 and 1.36, the O/C
ranges from 0.15 to 0.26. The details of various proximate and
ultimate constituents have been summarized in Table 3.
The high volatile matter content of these coals is in agreement with
the fact established by Teichmller (1962) who demonstrated that
marine inuenced coals; being rich in sulphur, hydrogen and nitrogen;
yield volatile matter higher than expected. Under such situation the
hydrogen and nitrogen derived from the bacterial protein are retained
in humic materials and eventually appear as perhydrous vitrinite
(Taylor et al., 1998). Perhydrous coals have petrological and chemical
anomalies with regard to their composition and rank (Surez-Ruiz
et al., 1994). With variation in the hydrogen content of their vitrinite/
huminite, there is variation in the reectance values. These factors
appear to have made Tarakan coals perhydrous in nature and to exhibit
low or suppressed vitrinite/huminite reectance.
4.3. Petrographic composition
Indonesian coals, in general, are poor in liptinite macerals. Amijaya
and Littke (2005) carried out detailed study on the coals of Tanjung
Enim (South Sumatra) and reported a low concentration of liptinites
and inertinites while vitrinite is the most abundant maceral. Low
concentrations of inertinite group of macerals in these coals indicate a
lack of forest re (Davis et al., 2007). The present study also advocates
the same. The total liptinite content is also low and varies between 1
and 5 (mmf basis), while total inertinite ranges from 2% to 7% (mmf
basis). The huminite content, however, is substantially high and varies
between 91% and 98% (mmf basis). The huminite is dominated by
Telohuminite with 66% to 96% (mmf basis). Telovitrinite Telohuminite
is mainly represented by ulminite (Fig. 2c) while textinite occurs
only in small quantity and their cells are, at times, lled up with
argillaceous mineral matter. Some of the telohuminite grains are
characterized by prominent fractures and low reecting oxidation
rims. Such rims have also been reported in the Mesozoic coals of
Iran (Stasiuk et al., 2006). Detrohuminite is represented by attrinite
and densinite. Gelohuminite is, however, low in concentration and
constitute of corpohuminite (Fig. 2b, d, e) and gelinite. Though having
a low concentration of liptinite, it is represented by sporinite cutinite,
resinite and suberinite. The suberinite, at places, show well preserved
cortical cells (Fig. 2a, b). Similarly, inertinite occurs in low concen-
tration and constitutes of fusinite (Fig. 2c), semi-fusinite (Fig. 2c),
funginite (Fig. 2g, h), secretinite and inertodetrinite. The cell lumens
of fusinite and semi-fusinite are occasionally occupied by argillaceous
mineral matter. Among the funginite, a common feature is the occur-
rence of telutospore (Fig. 2f). Large sized funginites, up to 390 m
have also been observed.
The microlithotype is dominated by vitrite and vary between
86% and 99% (mmf basis). The details of the various macerals and
microlithotypes are summarized in the Tables 4 and 5 respectively.
These coals have only a little mineral matter. Among them, the
argillaceous mineral matter dominates (3% to 22%), and they occupy
the cell lumens and fractures. This is followed by suldes (b1% to 2%)
and carbonates (0% to 1%). Though the ultimate analysis indicated
high sulphur content, it is represented by pyrite in comparatively low
quantity under microscope which occurs as massive replacement,
framboidal pyrite and fracture llings. The pyrite framboids occur
both as individual grains as well as in clusters. The carbonates are
represented mainly by siderite.
4.4. Vitrinite reectance
The vitrinite random reectance (VRr) varies from 0.38 to 0.45.
The details of reectance analysis have been summarized in Table 4.
Based on reectance values, Tarakan coals can be classied as Sub
Bituminous/Low-rank A. Vtrinite reectance (VRr) has an ascend-
ing trend with carbon content (Cdaf) while VRmax has a decreasing

Table 3
Proximate and ultimate analyses data of Tarakan coals, East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Sample No Ash % VM (daf) FC (daf) C (daf) H (daf) N (daf) O (daf) St (d) H/C O/C

A-7 1.6 66.4 33.6 73.9 6.3 1.2 16.5 2.1 1.02 0.20
A-4 4.4 69.6 30.4 68.1 6.5 1.4 23.1 0.9 1.14 0.26
T-0 3.6 74.4 25.6 73.3 6.7 1.8 14.4 3.8 1.09 0.15
T-2 3.2 67.8 32.2 71.7 6.1 1.2 20.6 0.4 1.03 0.21
S-8 15.7 79.0 21.0 64.2 7.3 0.7 22.4 5.4 1.36 0.26
112 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116

Fig. 2. Representative photomicrographs of macerals of Tarakan coals: a) suberinite and ulminite; b) suberinite with corpohuminite; c) contact of fusinite ulminitesemifusinite;
d) corpohuminite cluster; e) corpohuminite; f) telutospore; g & h) funginite.

trend with volatile matter (VMdaf) in these coals. Though these
trends have gentle gradients but the present study is in agreement
with those of Amijaya and Littke (2006) carried out for the South
Sumatra coals of Indonesia. The H/C and O/C maintain a negative
trend with increase of vitrinite reectance which indicates that loss
of hydrogen and oxygen is characteristic for the coalication of
Tarakan coals.
4.5. Depositional environment
Depositional environments have a signicant role to play in
deciphering the composition and preservation of peat and coals. The
maceral compositions, obtained through petrographic analysis neces-
sarily characterize the paleo mires since they depend on plant as well
as the environment. Several researchers (Cohen and Spackman, 1972;
Cohen et al., 1987; Grady et al., 1993; Hawke et al., 1996; Hawke et al.,
1999; Shearer and Clarkson, 1998; Styan and Bustin, 1983) have
correlated the petrographic components of coal with the paleoecological
conditions. Teichmller, 1989 advocated that depositional environment
can be assessed through the presence or absence of certain macerals
and, thus, maceral indices are useful in order to depict some genetic
features of coals. For this purpose various maceral ratios are used.
The GI and TPI given by Diessel (1986) which was further modied
by Kalkreuth et al. (1991) and Flores (2002) for low rank coals has
 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116 113

Table 4
Petrographic analysis of coal samples from E. Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Sample Nos A-4 A-7 S-8 T-0 T-2 A-4 A-7 S -8 T-0 T-2

Huminite mmf basis

Textinite 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Ulminite 74 82 50 93 84 80 89 65 96 86
Attrinite 4 3 9 b1 1 4 4 12 b1 1
Densinite 3 3 9 1 2 3 3 12 1 2
Corpohuminite 3 1 5 0 1 4 1 6 0 1
Gelinite 1 0 0 1 0.0 1 0 0 1 0
Liptinite
Sporinite 1 b1 b1 b1 1 2 b1 b1 b1 1
Cutinite b1 0 0 0 b1 b1 0 0 0 b1
Resinite 1 b1 0 b1 b1 1 b1 0 b1 b1
Suberinite 1 b1 0 b1 b1 1 b1 0 b1 b1
Liptodetrinite 1 1 b1 b1 b1 1 1 b1 b1 b1
Inertinite
Semifusinite 1 b1 0 b1 b1 1 b1 0 b1 b1
Fusinite 2 b1 2 0 4 2 b1 2 0 4
Funginite 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Secretinite 0 b1 0 0 0 0 b1 0 0 0
Inertodetrinite 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
Mineral Matter
Sulphide b1 2 1 1 1
Carbonates b1 0 1 0 0
Argillaceous 7 6 22 3 3
VRmax Reectance 0.53 0.48 0.5 0.49 0.54
VRr 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.45
VRmin 0.34 0.32 0.35 0.28 0.34
SD 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.03
GI 26 80 25 146 14
TPI 20 23 5 97 22

GI: Gelication Index, TPI: Tissue Preservation Index.

been followed to decipher the paleodepositional conditions of these
low rank coals. The indices are as follows:
GI = ulminite + corpohuminite + gelinite + macrinite = semifusinite
+ fusinite + inertodetrinite + textinite + attrinite + densinite
TPI = textinite + corpohuminite + fusinite + semifusinite
ulminite + gelinite + macrinite + attrinite + densinite
Continuous presence of water is basic requirement for gelication
of the tissues. Very high GI values (14 to 146) in Tarakan coals of
E. Kalimantan are indicative of a high water table in the area. This view
is supported by a high TPI (5 to 97) in these coals. Predominance of
wood derived tissues and increased rate of subsidence would result in
the preservation of the maceral structures and thus will be indicated
by high TPI values. Davis et al., 2007 opine that the E. Kalimantan
region experienced a regional regression where Late Miocene Peats
were restricted to subsiding depocentres. This would subsequently
slow down the humication process so that complete decomposition
of the plant material could not happen (Diessel, 1992). While working
on the coals of South Sumatra basin of Indonesia, Amiyaja and Littke
(2005) used TPI and GI indices but they feel that the related inter-
pretation scheme does not t to these coals as the indices were
initially developed for the Permian coals of Australia. The values of TPI
and GI indices calculated for Tarakan coals (East Kalimantan) in the
present study, however, ts better to the facies interpretation. The TPI
vs. GI plot (Fig. 3), suggests that Tarakan basin coals evolved under
telmatic environment. According to Lamberson et al. (1991) high GI
and TPI values in which the content of vitrinite N inertinite and
structured vitrinite N degraded vitrinite occur in wet forest swamp of
telmatic zone with rapid burial. This is in agreement with the
microlithotype composition of these coals which has been plotted in a
facies diagram (Fig. 4) proposed by Hacquebard and Donaldson
(1969) and modied by Marchioni (1980). They demonstrated that
depth of water controls the environment of peat deposition, the
development of ora, their mode of preservation, and subsequently
the formation of different macerals and microlithotype. The upper
triangle of this double diamond diagram represents bright coal
triangle (Marchioni, 1980) and is suitable for coals with less than
20% dull component. The plots indicate a telmatic condition of peat
formation with vegetation characteristics of forest moor type. Another
facies model which is modied from Mukhopadhyay (1986) takes

Table 5
Microlithotype analysis (vol %) of coal samples from East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Microlithotypes A-4 A-7 S-8 T-0 T-2 A-4 A-7 S -8 T-0 T-2

mmf basis
Vitrite 80 49 57 93 86 92 86 95 99 92
Inertite 1 1 b1 0 b1 1 2 b1 0 b1
Clarite-V 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 1
Vitrinertite-V 5 6 3 1 7 6 11 5 1 7
Vitrinertite-I b1 0 b1 0 0 1 0 b1 0 0
Durite-I b1 0 0 0 0 b1 0 0 0 0
Carbominerite
Carbargilite 10 27 37 4 5
Carbopyrite b1 6 b1 1 0
Carbankerite 1 1 0 0 0
Carbopolyminerite 2 9 3 1 1
114 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116

Fig. 3. Coal facies deciphered from Gelication Index (GI) and Tissue Preservation Index (TPI) in relation to depositional setting and type of mire (after Diessel, 1986).

into account the maceral composition of these coals. It indicates high GI and TPI. Hoekel (1989) reveals that the intensive gelication
the origin of the Tarakan basin coals in a forest swamp, under mildly of the plants tissues indicate a relatively acid ground water, possibly
oxic to anoxic condition with good tissue preservation (Fig. 5). This with brackish or marine inuences in SE Asian coals and the detrital
contention again supports the interpretations earlier drawn in view of vitrinite would indicate decay of plant material under limnotelmatic

Fig. 4. Microlithotype composition of Tarakan coals of E. Kalimantan plotted on a facies diagram proposed by Hacquebard and Donaldson (1969) and modied by Marchioni (1980).
 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116 115

Fig. 5. Ternary diagram illustrating facies critical maceral associations in Tarakan coals of East Kalimantan and suggested peat forming environment (modied from Mukhopadhyay,
1986).

and open marsh environments. Moreover, the high sulphur content
indicates that either the peat had an access of more brackish water
(Bustin and Lowe, 1987; Casagrande, 1987) or it was overlain by
marine sediments (Cohen et al., 1984). The positive relation between
sulphur and ash further indicates that pH of the paleomire was raised
due to inlling water, thus, diluting the humic acids. The carbonate
rich surface waters further raised the pH and were thus responsible
for higher sulphur content.
Mineral matter has also been used to relate the dry and wet
conditions of the peat deposition and the rate of subsidence of the
basin. Though the mineral matter concentration is low in the Tarakan
basin coals, yet one model developed by Singh and Singh (1996) has

Fig. 6. Depositional condition of Tarakan coals of E. Kalimantan based on maceral and mineral matter content (after Singh and Singh, 1996).
116 P.K. Singh et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 81 (2010) 109116
been used to decipher the evolution of these coals in relation to the
mineral matter content. The ternary plot (Fig. 6) supports the earlier
contention and indicates that these coals evolved under alternate
oxic to anoxic moor condition with intermittent moderate to high
ooding. This contention gets support from the evidence of uc-
tuation in the eustatic sea level during the entire Miocene period
which is well documented by Haq et al. (1987).
5. Conclusion
The study reveals that Tarakan basin coals of E. Kalimantan region
of Indonesia are high moisture, high volatile matter containing Sub
Bituminous / Low-rank A coal. Telohuminite is the most dominant
maceral with subordinate quantities of liptinite and inertinite
macerals. Telohuminite is represented mainly by ulminite and some
of the grains are characterized by fractures and low reecting
oxidation rims. Textinite occurs in very small concentration and
their cells are, sometimes, seen lled with argillaceous mineral matter.
Gelohuminite is represented by corpohuminite and gelinite and
occurs in low concentration. The liptinite macerals are represented
by sporinite, cutinite, resinite and suberinite. Well preserved cortical
cells are seen in suberinite. The inertinite macerals are represented by
fusinite, semifusinite, funginite, secretinite and inertodetrinite. The
microlithotype is dominated by vitrite. Mineral matter though occurs
in small concentration, is dominated by argillaceous one which is seen
to occupy cell lumens and fractures. Pyrite is seen to occur as massive
replacement, fracture llings and framboids.
High TPI values indicate predominance of wood derived tissues and
increased rate of subsidence that result in the preservation of the
maceral structures. The organic facies, gained from the maceral and
microlithotype analyses, tend to show that these coals evolved in
a telmatic environment. High telo-vitrinite concentration, supported
by low inertinite content, indicates the absence of severe oxidation/
dehydration during peat accumulation. However, there were periods
of alternate oxic to anoxic moor conditions with phases of intermittent
moderate to high ooding in the basin.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Head, Department of Geology, for
extending the laboratory facilities to work. The nancial support received
from SAP, UGC, Government of India, to carryout ultimate analysis, is
thankfully acknowledged which is carried out at CDRI, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh. The authors are thankful to the unknown reviewers for their
critical comments and to Dr. R. Littke, editor, for his support.
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