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ALANO, ALDIN Z.
BAUTISTA, GIAN CARLO B.
MAGTIBAY, INGRID ANASHEL M.

Assessment of Green House Gases (GHG) Emitted by Public Utility Vehicles

(PUV) along Jose P. Laurel Highway, Tambo, Lipa City.
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction
In the Philippines, the implementation of Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749)
was a major step towards the control of Greenhouse Gases (GHG). It outlines the governments
measures to reduce air pollution and incorporate environmental protection into development
plans. It relies heavily on the polluter pays principle and other market-based instruments to
promote self-regulation among the population. It sets emission standards for all motors vehicles
and issues pollutant limitations for the industry. The Philippines was also a signatory on the Paris
Agreement (Accord de Paris) , an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCC) which deals with the emission of GHG mitigation. The Philippines
signed and agreed on 22nd of April, 2016 to ratify 0.34 percent of its GHG emissions.
It is necessary to study about the sources of these gases, how they interact with the
atmosphere, their effect on natural systems, and why controlling them is crucial to Earth's future
(Casper, 2009). According to United States Environmental Agency, 14 percent of the total
greenhouse gases emissions in 2010 was caused by the transportation sector. Reducing global
transport greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will be challenging since the continuing growth in
passenger and freight activity could outweigh all mitigation measures unless transport emissions
can be strongly decoupled from GDP growth (Edenhofer et al, 2014). Though it is very
challenging to deal with the GHG emissions, efforts from the government and different sectors
are done to reduce the GHG emissions. Improvement of mass transport and development of
electric cars and alternative fuel source are some efforts done mostly in highly-developed
countries.
A single car can emit four major pollutants in the air; carbon monoxide (CO) when the
combustion of fuel is incomplete, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx) and
particulate matters. Also, emissions from cars increase the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
other GHG in the atmosphere which makes the temperature of the world higher. According to
Department of Environmental and Natural Resources (DENR), the level of air pollution in Metro
Manila in the year 2010 is still higher than the acceptable levels of pollution despite the
improvements recorded in the past ten years.
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Background of the Study

The area of the study is the 6 lane 2-km stretch of J.P. Laurel Highway, Barangay Tambo,
Lipa City which holds to different establishments and institutions like De La Salle, STAR
Tollway, and different food establishments like Jollibee and McDonalds. The said barangay is
one of the largest barangays in Lipa City accommodating to almost 2000 households. It is a
major route for travellers from Manila who will be heading to Batangas Port and vice versa.
Being a major route for business makes the said area prone to congestions caused by huge
volume of vehicles.
As the barangay expands to more commercialized zone, it is estimated that the volume of
the vehicles that will pass through the area will be more which makes it more vulnerable to the
effects of GHG emissions from the vehicles.
Objectives
The main objective of this study is to determine the amount of GHG emitted by PUV
salong the National Highway, Tambo, Lipa City.
On the process of obtaining the objectives, the researchers may also come up of the
following:
- Average Daily Traffic on the said location
- To know the air quality on the said location
Significance of the Study
This study aims to inform the magnitude or impact of the PUVs as a contributing factor
in the process of global warming. The government will be more aware of what projects and laws
should be implemented to reduce the emission of GHG. For the public, this study will make them
informed on how alarming the levels of GHG produced everyday so that they can have their own
efforts to help and reduce the emission of GHG.
Scope and Delimitation
The main focus of the study is to determine the amount of GHG emitted by PUV along
J.P. Laurel Highway, Tambo, Lipa City since it is one of the busiest streets in Lipa City. The said
location is said to be a commercial zone which houses establishments like restaurants, banks,
auto shops and others.
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Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework shows the work flow that will be followed to complete the
study.

Input Process Output

Average Daily Quantification Identification

Traffic Tabulation and of AIr
Air Quality Analysis and Quality
Testing Estimation Environment
Statistical al
Treatment Management
Plan

Figure 1. Conceptual Paradigm of the study

Definition of Terms
Greenhouse Gas gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. (EPA.gov)
Air Pollution contamination of air by noxious gases and minute particles of solid and
liquid matter in concentrations that endanger health (Columbia Encyclopedia, 2017)
Annual Average Daily Traffic The total volume of traffic on a highway segment for
one year divided by the number of days in the year (Traffic Monitoring Handbook,
Florida Department of Transportation)
Public Utility Vehicle shall refer to public motor vehicle or vehicle for hire (Republic
Act No. 8750, 1999)
Emission is something that has been released or emitted to the world.
(Vocalbulary.com)
Acronyms
AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
ADT Average Daily Traffic
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
GHG Greenhouse Gases
PUV Public Utility Vehicle
TSP Total Suspended Particulate
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in the air that
interfere with human health or welfare, or produce other harmful environmental effect. This
could be caused by natural activities like volcanic eruptions. Today, the main reason of air
pollution were human activities like burning of fossil fuels, using pesticides in crops, and
manufacturing of goods in industries. The undesirable materials in the air may cause damage to
human health. It is known to contribute to cardiovascular and lung disease, increasing the risk of
heart attacks and a heart related death. It can also cause damage to human property and global
environment. It can also turn clean air into dark-colored air with unpleasant smell.
The occurrence of air pollution was not totally a major problem in most countries until
the late 1950s and 1960s. It was just seen as a local problem in industrial and urban areas. It
was only then recognized as a global problem in the past few years.

Greenhouse Gases (GHG)

Greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing
infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere.(Lallanilla, 2015). The
principal emissions from motor vehicles are greenhouse gases, which contributes to climate
change. The major greenhouse gas produced by vehicles is carbon dioxide, but it also produce
nitrous oxide and methane. The level of CO2 emissions depends on the type of fuel used.
According to Environmental Protection Agency, diesel fueled vehicles releases 15% more
carbon imprints than those vehicles using gasoline.

Sources of GHG
In the Philippines, transportation contributes 13% in the emission of carbon dioxide. As
of 2012, there were 7,463,293 motor vehicles. Most of this is public transportation including
tricycles, jeepneys and buses since it still remains as the dominant mode of travel. A typical
passenger vehicle emits about 4.7 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. This depends upon the
fuel used and distance travelled.

Vehicles
A vehicle is a machine or device that transfer people and goods from one place to
another. Typical vehicles includes wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles such as motorcycles, trucks
and buses, railed vehicles (trains), watercraft (ships, boats), aircraft and spacecraft.

Public Utility Vehicles in the Philippines

According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, there are 969,784 vehicles which are for
public use as of 2012. These includes cars and utility vehicles. Among them, Jeepneys are the
most popular mode of public transportation and has the biggest number among all the PUVs in
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the transportation system. As of now, there are many plans to improve the transportation here in
the Philippines. One of this includes phasing-out old models of jeepney and replacing them with
E-jeepney which is more economic and environmental friendly.
Some other PUVs existing in the Philippines are tricycles, multicabs, taxis, buses, and
trains which are both present in urban and rural areas. Since many Filipinos are in a middle class
economic status, PUVs play a vital role in their lives since they are used to transport themselves
to go on their daily job or transport their goods from farm to market.
As an archipelago, travel by sea was also common. Small fishing vessels and bancas are
used. The introduction of RORO System is said to have the greatest impact in transport by means
of sea. It opened an easy way for the goods from the provinces to be sold in urban cities which
has a great impact in the economy.

RESEARCH AND RELATED LITERATURES

Foreign Literature
Several literatures have been written and published in relation to this study. A study
conducted by Greene for Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (2011) reported the
background of Greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector by the United States, and
its country-wide and global impact. This study also focused on the likely feasibility of cutting
GHG emissions through policies and improved technologies.
The study of Corrine Reich-Weiser (2010) follows earlier studies regarding the
importance of transportation to the total greenhouse gas footprint of wine and discusses the
change in transportation emissions depending on the specific type of transportation utilized. The
work also represents opportunities for the wine industry to reduce their GHG emissions by
influencing the GHG efficiency of their distribution networks, reducing the packaging weights,
and selecting the appropriate freight mode.
Another study conducted to reduce the GHG emissions and energy consumption for
transportation in the United States and in the world have concluded that there are several aspects
that is needed to be changed like vehicle improvements, low carbon fuels, and other sets of
strategies (Burbank and Brinckerhoff, 2009)
An in-depth analysis of GHG and air pollutant emissions from EU transport by Thomas
(2015) has revealed that though transportation has significantly reduced its emissions of
atmospheric pollutants in the past two decades, it is still the major cause of pollution. Transport
demand, energy consumption, Greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollutant emissions are the
areas that were given focus.
Local Literature
The Philippines had pledged to reduce GHG emissions even if it is not mandated by the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to limit its anthropogenic emissions
of GHG. Merilo (2001) noted that the transport sector is the second highest energy consumer
next to industrial sector. There is also a National Action Plan on Climate Change that demands
traffic improvement scheme and travel demand management for transportation.
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SYNTHESIS

The study will provide informations for better understanding of which taken mainly from
unpublished thesis, journals and GHG inventory report of some private entities.
The report made by Greene, 2011 is almost the same with the current study because it
both focuses on the emission of GHG due to transportation. The only difference is the proposed
study will focus on more particular area and vehicle.
On the other hand, the study by Corinne Reich-Weiser, 2010 was slightly different from
the present study because they centered on the emission of GHG caused by their vehicle in
vineyard business.
Also in the report made by Burbank and Bricker Hoff in 2009, they focused on the
reduction of emission of GHG caused by transportation in which the proposed study aims on
determining the air quality of the area of study to provide an environmental management plan
which the authority can rely in making-up decisions or putting-up projects for the betterment of
the community.
The study made by Merilo,2001, somehow differs from the proposed study since the
procedures done are different from the researchers procedures. Instead of rating, testing and
measuring the fuel consumed. Traffic count will be done to determine the volume of the PUVs
that passes through the area of study. A coefficient factor will then be used to determine the
emitted GHG by the PUVs.
The studies above will help in gathering data and conducting experiments for a more
accurate result to come up with a feasible solution to the problem.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY

Research Method
In line with the objectives, qualitative and quantitative methods will be used.
Experiments and field work will be done to determine the air quality and average daily traffic in
the said location. On the other hand, descriptive survey method will be done to determine the
health impact of the air quality in the community by the use of modified self-constructed
questionnaire to substantiate the data.

Sources of Information
Other information relevant to the study will be gathered in these institutions and
agencies; Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) has data about the Average Daily
Traffic (ADT) and Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) to be compared to the conducted
ADT in this study. Department of Natural Resources (DPWH) has guidelines for the Total
Suspended Particles (TSP) acceptable for the air quality. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has the standards for GHG emissions from typical passenger vehicles. Lipa City
Environmental and Natural Resources Office (Lipa-CENRO) for existing studies related to this
research.

Data Gathering Procedures

For determining the air quality at the area of study, the De La Salle University-Lipa area,
STAR Tollway Exit 1, and Star Tollway Exit 2 will be subjected for test since the said locations
have the heaviest concentration of vehicles during peak hours. The particle counter Dusstrak
Environmental Enclosure 8535 will be used.
Knowing the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) will determine the number of Public Utility
Vehicles that travels in the area of study. The number of specific PUVs (jeepney, tricycles,
buses, etc.) will be undergoing computations to determine the emitted CO2 of a specific vehicle.
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Methods of Analysis
The results of the air quality test in three strategic locations by Dusstrak Environmental
Enclosure 8535 will be compared to the standards of National Ambient Air Quality Guideline
Value of DENR. 90g/Ncm is the annual air quality guideline value for Total Suspended
Particulates (TSP)
For the computation of GHG emission of PUVs, values below will be used:
eCO2 = Vt x ef x D Equation 1
Where eCO2 is the total carbon dioxide emission, Vt is the number of vehicles, ef is the
coefficient factor and D is the distance traveled.
Table 1. Emitted CO2 per Gallon of Diesel and Gasoline
CO2 emission from a gallon of gasoline 8887 grams of CO2/gallon
CO2 emission from a gallon of diesel 10180 grans if CO2 gallon
GHG emissions from a TPV by EPA

Table 2. Miles Per Gallon of Diesel and Gasoline

Gasoline 40 miles per gallon
Diesel 35 miles per gallon
Miles traveled for every gallon of fuel: https://dothemath.ucsd.edu/2011/08/mpg-for-electric-cars/
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Bibliography
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