Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: Introduction .........................................................................................................................................4

CHAPTER 2: Literature Survey .................................................................................................................................5

CHAPTER 3: Block Diagram ....................................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 4: Working Principle ...............................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 5: Flow Chart ...........................................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER 6: Component Description ................................................................................................................... 10

6.1 IR SENSOR UNIT ...................................................................................................................................... 21

6.2 WHEEL ....................................................................................................................................................... 22

6.3 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER ......................................................................................................................... 22

6.4 PISTON ....................................................................................................................................................... 30

6.5 PROXIMITY SENSOR............................................................................................................................... 30

6.6 SOLENOID VALVE................................................................................................................................... 32

6.7 FLOW CONTROL VALVE ....................................................................................................................... 37

6.8 POLYURETHENE TUBE .......................................................................................................................... 39

6.9 MOTOR........................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER 7: Application & Advantages ............................................................................................................... 40

7.1 APPLICATION ........................................................................................................................................... 40

7.2 ADVANTAGES .......................................................................................................................................... 40

7.3 DISADVANTAGES ................................................................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER 8: Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 40

CHAPTER 9: Reference.......................................................................................................................................... 40
 Table of Figures
Figure 1 : Block Diagram of automatic pneumatic bumper and brake actuation before collision .............................7
Figure 2 Flow Chart....................................................................................................................................................9
Figure 3 : Circuit Diagram for IR Sensor Unit ........................................................................................................ 21
Figure 4 : Pneumatic Cylinder ................................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 5: Piston ....................................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 6 : Proximity Sensor ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 7: Flow Control Valve .................................................................................................................................. 39
 AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC BUMPER AND BREAK ACTUATION
BEFORE COLLISION

Abstract

The technology of pneumatics has gained tremendous importance in the field of

workplace rationalization and automation from old-fashioned timber works and coal mines to
modern machine shops and space robots. It is therefore important that technicians and engineers
should have a good knowledge of pneumatic system, air operated valves and accessories.

The aim is to design and develop a control system based intelligent electronically
controlled automotive bumper activation and automatic braking system is called
AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC BUMPER AND BREAK ACTUATION BEFORE
COLLISION. This system is consists of IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit,
Pneumatic bumper system and pneumatic braking system. The IR sensor is used to detect the
obstacle. There is any obstacle closer to the vehicle (with in 3-4 feet), the control signal is given
to the bumper activation system and also pneumatic braking system simultaneously. The
pneumatic bumper and braking system is used to product the man and vehicle. This bumper and
braking activation system is only activated the vehicle speed above 30-40 km per hour. This
vehicle speed is sensed by the proximity sensor and this signal is given to the control unit and
pneumatic bumper and braking activation system.

Keywords: Proximity sensor, IR Sensor Unit, Pneumatic Bumper & Braking

CHAPTER 1: Introduction
We have pleasure in introducing our project AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC BUMPER
AND BREAK ACTUATION BEFORE COLLISION. Which is fully equipped by IR sensors
circuit and Pneumatic bumper and braking activation circuit? It is the project which has been
fully equipped and designed for auto vehicles. The technology of pneumatics plays a major role
in the field of automation and modern machine shops and space robots. The aim is to design and
develop a control system based on intelligent electronically controlled automotive bumper
activation system is called automatic pneumatic bumper and break actuation before collision.
The project consists of IR transmitter and Receiver circuit, Control Unit, Pneumatic bumper
system. The IR sensor senses the obstacle. There is any obstacle closer to the vehicle (within
1feet); the control signal is given to the bumper and break activation system.

This bumper activation system is activated when the vehicle speed above 40-50 km per
hour. The speed is sensed by the proximity sensor and this signal is transfer to the control unit
and pneumatic bumper activation system
CHAPTER 2: Literature Survey
Author: Erik Coelingh, etal,
Year: 2006
Title: Collision Warning with Auto Brake

DESCRIPTION
The area in front of the car is continuously monitored with the help of a long range radar
and a forward-sensing wide-angle camera fitted in front of the interior rear-view mirror. A
warning and brake support will be provided as above, both for moving and stationary vehicles.
Additionally, if the driver fails to intervene in spite of the warning and the possible collision is
about 0.7 seconds ahead, i.e. the collision threat becomes imminent; intervention braking is
automatically applied to slow down the car. In this way it may not be possible to avoid a
collision, but the main purpose here is to reduce impact speed and the risk of severe
consequences.

Author: Tejsinh Pisal1, Akshay Patil2, Sanyukta Chaudhari3, Utkarsha Khomane4, Ashish
Umbarkar5

Year: 2017
Title: Design and Development of Pneumatic Bumper with Automatic Braking System

DESCRIPTION
The aim is to design and develop a control system based an intelligent electronically
controlled automotive bumper activation system is called AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC
BUMPER. This system is consists of ultrasonic transmitter and Receiver ultrasonic circuit,
Control Unit, Pneumatic bumper system. The ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the obstacle.
There is any obstacle closer to the vehicle (with in 2 feet), the control signal is given to the
bumper activation system.

Author: Sanjiv K. Bhatia, George M. Lacy

Year: 2009
Title: INFRA-RED SENSOR SIMULATION
DESCRIPTION

This paper describes technical/mathematical solutions for simulating infra-red sensor

effects. We have implemented our simulation using a pc running Windows NT and o
-the-shelf image processing hardware and software. In particular, we describe the computation
of the dynamic characteristics of the actual sensor package within the constraints of hardware
and software environment. These characteristics can include video polarity, gain, contrast
enhancement, noise, blurring, AC coupling, sensor defects, as well as video overlays
(reticules/test patterns), and are applied in the post-processor phase. This paper describes the
research and development into the Infra-Red Post Processor (IRPP) algorithms needed to
support the sensor simulation. The system performs all the operations in real-time with a 30 Hz
refresh cycle. The IRPP is modular and can be easily changed by configuration data.
CHAPTER 3: Block Diagram

AUTOMATIC PNEUMATIC BUMPER AND BREAK ACTUATION

3 BEFORE COLLISION
6
12

8
COMPRESSED
AIR INLET

2 3 7
1.IR SENSOR UNIT
PISTON MOVEMENT
2.WHEEL
3.PNEUMATIC CYLINDER
4.PISTON
1 5.PROXIMITY SENSOR
6.SOLENOID VALVE
7.FLOW CONTROL VALVE
5 4 8.POLYURETHENE TUBE
11 9 9.FRAME STAND
10 10.MOTOR
11.BELT DRIVE
12.CONTROL UNIT

Figure 1 : Block Diagram of automatic pneumatic bumper and brake actuation before collision
CHAPTER 4: Working Principle
The vehicle speed is sensed by the proximity sensor. The vehicle speed is above the 30-40 Km
per hour, the control unit will activate the IR sensor Unit. The IR TRANSMITTER circuit is to
transmitter the Infra-Red rays. If any obstacle is there in a path, the Infra-Red rays reflected.
This reflected Infra-Red rays are received by the receiver circuit is called IR RECEIVER. The
IR receiver circuit receives the reflected IR rays and giving the control signal to the control
circuit. The control circuit is used to activate the solenoid valve. If the solenoid valve is
activated, the compressed air passes to the Pneumatic Cylinder. The compressed air activates the
pneumatic cylinder and moves the piston rod.

If the piston moves forward, then the bumper arrangement and braking arrangements are
activated. The piston speed is varied by adjusting the valve is called FLOW CONTROL
VALVE. In our project, we have to apply this arrangement in one wheel as a model. The
compressed air is drawn from the compressor in our project. The compressed air is flow through
the Polyurethane tube to the flow control valve. The flow control valve is connected to the
solenoid valve as mentioned in the diagram
CHAPTER 5: Flow Chart

Figure 2 Flow Chart

CHAPTER 6: Component Description
4.2.1 COMPRESSOR

Compressor is the air producing machine. They collect the airs from the atmosphere are
in the running of machine are engine. Air compressors are utilized to raise the pressure a volume
of air. Air compressors are available in many configurations and will operate over a very wide
range of flow rates and pressures. Compressed air was expelled by primitive man to give
glowing embers sufficient oxygen to allow them to flare up into a air. During the compression
process, the temperature increases as the pressure increases. This is known as polytypic
compression. The amount of compression power also increases the temperature increases.
compressors are staged thereby reducing the temperature and improving the compression
efficiency. The temperature of the air leaving each age is cooled prior to entering the next stage.
This cooling process is called inter cooling. Alumetric efficiency also increases with multi-stage
compression since the pressure ratio over the first stage will be decreased.

Selections of the air compressor are only the first step in designing an efficient and disable
compressed air system. The air exiting the compressor is saturated with moisture and will have
compressor lubricants (lubricated compressors only). Other chemicals that have been drawn into
the compressor intake may also be present. This contamination harmful to many processes,
pneumatic tools, instruments and equipment.

Fig 4.2 Compressor

Air purification equipment, filters, air dryers, breathing air purifiers, monitoring equipment,
used alone or in combination will remove these contaminants. Selection and purchase of the
compressor and necessary purification equipment can be easily done on compressed air site. Our
application engineers are ready to answer all of your questions and to assist you in placing your
order. And it works in the process of rotation fan and the piston movement with the help of
current supply.

2.1.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

The main types of compressors used in industrial refrigeration are screw, imprecating,
centrifugal, and rotary vane. Another type that is manufactured in large bombers is the scroll
compressor, but so far these compressors are not available in the size mally encountered in
industrial refrigeration. Rotary-vane compressors are still in use how-stage compressors, but
very few new ones are installed.

Centrifugal compressors have been standard in large-capacity chemical and process industry
plants where they are driven by electric motors or by steam or gas turbines. Centrifugal
compressors are also widely used for chilling water in air-conditioning applications.
Manufacturers use such refrigerants as R-123 and R-134a in these packages. After condensing
the longer list of compressor types, the two that remain, are reciprocation and screw
compressors.

Two styles of construction of compressors are open and hermetically sealed. In the open-type
compressor, the shaft, extends out of the compressor and is connected externally to the electric
motor which drives the compressor. In the hermetically-sealed motor-compressor unit, the entire
assembly is encapsulated and only the refrigerant lines and electrical connections, and no
rotating shaft, penetrate the housing. These hermetically sealed units are always used for
domestic refrigerators, window-type air conditioners, and other small appliances. They are
expected to run for decades with no leaks of refrigerant.

4.2.2 NOZZLE
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow
(especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe an orifice.

A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area and it can be used to direct or
modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control he rate of flow,
speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them.

4.2.2.1 NOZZLE MATERIALS

Nozzles are made from several materials. The most common are brass, nylon, stainless steel,
hardened stainless steel, tungsten carbide, thermoplastic, and ceramic. Ceramic and tungsten-
carbide nozzles are very longwearing and extremely corrosion-resistant. Stain-less-steel nozzles
last longer than brass or nylon and generally produce a inform pattern over an extended time
period. Nylon nozzles with stainless steel or hard-ned stainless-steel inserts offer an alternative
to solid stainless-steel nozzles at a reduced. Thermoplastic nozzles have good abrasion
resistance, but swelling can occur with some chemicals, and they are easily dam-aged when
cleaned. Nozzles made from hard materials cost more initially, but in the and they pay for them-
selves because of their lasting properties.

4.2.2.2 NOZZLE SELECTION

It is important to select a nozzle that develops the desired spray pattern and spray volume. The
nozzles intended use whether for broadcast application of herbicides or insecticide spraying on
row crops determines the type of nozzle needed. Examine current and future application
requirements and be prepared to have several sets of nozzles for a variety of application needs.
In general, do not select a nozzle that requires a nozzle screen less than 50 mesh. Nozzles
requiring 80-100 mesh screens clog too easily. Follow the steps below to determine the correct
nozzle type and capacity needed.

STEP 1: CONSULT THE LABEL

The most important source of information is the pesticide label. Not only will the label specify
the application rates, controllable pests, and conditions needed to apply the pesticide, it often
will provide information concerning the GPA, droplet classification, nozzle type, and spacing as
well. Follow the guidelines outlined on the pesticide label. If nozzle recommendations are not
stated on the label.

STEP 2: SELECT OPERATING CONDITIONS

Select or measure ground speed in miles per hour (mph). Select the desired nozzle pacing and
spray volume. For most broadcast applications, 30-inch spacing is preferred. The label does not
recommend nozzle spacing or spray volume, follow university and medical-company
recommendations. Correct selection of a spray volume is important.

It will influence several spray characteristics such as drift potential, coverage, applet size, acres
per tank, and pesticide efficacy.

STEP 3: CALCULATE REQUIRED NOZZLE DISCHARGE

To select a specific orifice size, the spray volume, nozzle spacing, and travel speed are needed
for the following calculation:

Equation 1:

Nozzle discharge (GPM) = (travel speed x nozzle spacing x spray volume) / 5940

Where:

Travel speed = miles per hour

Nozzle spacing = inches

Spray volume = gallons per acre (GPA)

STEP 4: CONSULT A NOZZLE CATALOG

Once the nozzle discharge has been determined, consult a nozzle catalog for a specific nozzle
number or size. Using the nozzle type selected from the application guide review the
specification of these nozzles in the discharge-capacity column. Several consecutive nozzles
may meet your needs, but select a nozzle that operates at a low pressure and gives the desired
droplet classification that allows a range for fine-tuning. Remember, most nozzles only
perform well over a limited pressure range. Generally, the reader the operating pressure, the
smaller the droplets. Smaller droplets increase drift potential. Conversely, larger orifices
produce larger droplets.

A linear relationship does not exist between nozzle pressure and flow discharge. If discharge
rate is not found in the catalogs, calculate the operating pressure using blown catalog conditions.

Avoid high pressures for the nozzle used. Higher pressures increase the drift potential and put
strain on the sprayer components. Conversely, avoid pressures less than the recommended
minimum pressure, because spray patterns begin to distort and cause poor spray uniformity.

STEP 5: CALIBRATE THE SPRAYER

Once the nozzles are selected, purchased, installed, and flushed, calibrate the spray system.
Nozzle catalogs provide tables to show spray volumes for various nozzles, spacing, pressures,
and ground speeds. Use these tables initially to set up the sprayer, then use the ounce
calibration method (below) to evaluate and adjust the sprayer for accurate application.

4.2.2.3 SPECIFICATION

Diameter : 3.5 mm

Pressure at the nozzle : 1 bar

Stand of distance : 2 mm

Material : brass

Nozzle depth : 5 mm

4.2.2.4 NOZZLE PRESSURE CALCULATION

Nozzle Discharge (GPM) = 30xd2xNP

There NP = nozzle pressure

 = 30x(3.5)2 x 72.519

=3129.26

Nozzle number = gpm x 4000/pr

= 3129.26x 4000/72.519

= 23.02

Psi = 4000 x (gpm2 / nozzle no2)

= 4000 x (3129.262 / 23.022)

= 72.519 psi

6.1 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current

electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces produced
by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either
electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of
the motor.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing
direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a
wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its
field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor
can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and
appliances. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or
in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC
motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

ELECTROMAGNETIC MOTORS
 A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field
aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced
by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.

A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one
or more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the
magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors
there can be several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a
commutator. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the
rotating coils with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have
electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around
dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic
field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the
magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a
force on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use
electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor.

At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.

Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide
different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be
controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable
resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are
often controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC
current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often
used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the
mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-
cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an
electrical grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial
Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a
host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with
separately excited fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque
as well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.

If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This

feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric cars or to return
electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they
slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel
electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the
energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this
energy.

Brushed

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and
rotating electrical magnets.

Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple
control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity
uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the
electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are
necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings
of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.

Brushless
 Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor and
electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This
design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the
complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor
controller can sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar devices and can
precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize torque,
conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking. Advantages of brushless motors
include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high
initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are
sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to
be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

Homopolar motor A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation
and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The name
homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a
single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical
application of this type of motor.

Ball bearing motor A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of
two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive shaft, and
the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative
construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft
with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has the
advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is determined by the
initial spin which is usually required to get it going.

Permenant Magnet Startors

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to
provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve
commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM
fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the
field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings.
Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field
windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are
costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large
machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets
made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy.
With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive
with all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature
motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles
(to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that
magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Wound Starters

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for
DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and
shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading
torque profiles/signatures

Series connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common
D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature
current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2)
behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used
for starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque
characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves
rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.
 A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series
motor, the current is low, the counter-EMF produced by the field winding is weak, and so the
armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The
motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the
armature voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be
produced in the same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on AC
supply when compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not present in DC.
Since the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-
synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical
output. This is a valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for
commercial utility are usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However,
much larger universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency
traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a
common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load
varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[4] It is typically used for
industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines
and tensioners.

Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor.[5] This motor is
used when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be
connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less
speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are
typically operated at constant speed.
6.2 IR SENSOR UNIT
An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it is called as a
passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal
radiations. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes that can be detected by an infrared
sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR
photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED.
When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and these output voltages, change in
proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3 : Circuit Diagram for IR Sensor Unit

In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits continuous
IR rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the receiver varies
depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be analyzed as such,
therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational amplifier (op-amp)
of LM 339 is used as comparator circuit.

When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input goes
higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM339). Thus the output of the
comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives signal
to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM 339)
goes high and the LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are used to
ensure that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like Photodiode and
normal LEDs respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k) is used to adjust the output terminals.
Resistor VR1 (preset=10k) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit Diagram. Read more about
IR sensors.

6.3 WHEEL
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel
is one of the main components of the wheel and axle which is one of the six simple machines.
Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating
movement or transportation while supporting a load, or performing labor in machines. Wheels
are also used for other purposes, such as a ship's wheel, steering wheel, potter's wheel and
flywheel.

Common examples are found in transport applications. A wheel greatly reduces friction
by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a
moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, either by way of gravity or by the
application of another external force or torque.

6.4 PNEUMATIC CYLINDER

Figure 4 : Pneumatic Cylinder

 Pneumatic cylinder(s) (sometimes known as air cylinders) are mechanical devices which
use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion.

Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction. The
piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be
moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, and do
not require large amounts of space for fluid storage.

Because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out
and contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a
requirement. For example, in the mechanical puppets of the Disney Tiki Room, pneumatics are
used to prevent fluid from dripping onto people below the puppets.

Operation

General

Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence,
imparts force on the piston. Consequently, the piston becomes displaced.

Compressibility of gasses

One major issue engineers come across working with pneumatic cylinders has to do with
the compressibility of a gas. Many studies have been completed on how the precision of a
pneumatic cylinder can be affected as the load acting on the cylinder tries to further compress
the gas used. Under a vertical load, a case where the cylinder takes on the full load, the precision
of the cylinder is affected the most. A study at the National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan,
concluded that the accuracy is about 30 nm, which is still within a satisfactory range but
shows that the compressibility of air has an effect on the system.[2]

Fail safe mechanisms

Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and brief system failure is
unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes serve as a safety mechanism in case of loss
of air supply (or its pressure falling) and, thus remedy or abate any damage arising in such a
situation. Leakage of air from the input or output reduces the pressure and so the desired output.

Types

Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, they generally
fall into one of the specific categories shown below. However, there are also numerous other
types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of which are designed to fulfill specific and
specialized functions.

Single-acting cylinders

Single-acting cylinders (SAC) use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a
driving force in one direction (usually out), and a spring to return to the "home" position. More
often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the compressed spring
takes up. Another downside to SACs is that part of the force produced by the cylinder is lost as
it tries to push against the spring

Double-acting cylinders

Double-acting cylinders (DAC) use the force of air to move in both extend and retract
strokes. They have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for instroke. Stroke
length for this design is not limited, however, the piston rod is more vulnerable to buckling and
bending. Additional calculations should be performed as well.[1] :89

Multi-stage, telescoping cylinder

pneumatic telescoping cylinder, 8-stages, single-acting, retracted and extended

Telescoping cylinders, also known as telescopic cylinders can be either single or double-
acting. The telescoping cylinder incorporates a piston rod nested within a series of hollow stages
of increasing diameter. Upon actuation, the piston rod and each succeeding stage "telescopes"
out as a segmented piston. The main benefit of this design is the allowance for a notably longer
stroke than would be achieved with a single-stage cylinder of the same collapsed (retracted)
length. One cited drawback to telescoping cylinders is the increased potential for piston flexion
due to the segmented piston design. Consequently, telescoping cylinders are primarily utilized in
applications where the piston bears minimal side loading.[3]

Other types

Although SACs and DACs are the most common types of pneumatic cylinder, the
following types are not particularly rare

Through rod air cylinders: piston rod extends through both sides of the cylinder, allowing
for equal forces and speeds on either side.

Cushion end air cylinders: cylinders with regulated air exhaust to avoid impacts between
the piston rod and the cylinder end cover.

Rotary air cylinders: actuators that use air to impart a rotary motion.

Rodless air cylinders: These have no piston rod. They are actuators that use a mechanical
or magnetic coupling to impart force, typically to a table or other body that moves along the
length of the cylinder body, but does not extend beyond it.

Tandem air cylinder: two cylinders assembled in series

Impact air cylinder: high velocity cylinders with specially designed end covers that
withstand the impact of extending or retracting piston rods.

Rodless cylinders

Some rodless types have a slot in the wall of the cylinder that is closed off for much of its
length by two flexible metal sealing bands. The inner one prevents air from escaping, while the
outer one protects the slot and inner band. The piston is actually a pair of them, part of a
comparatively long assembly. They seal to the bore and inner band at both ends of the assembly.
Between the individual pistons, however, are camming surfaces that "peel off" the bands as the
whole sliding assembly moves toward the sealed volume, and "replace" them as the assembly
moves away from the other end. Between the camming surfaces is part of the moving assembly
that protrudes through the slot to move the load. Of course, this means that the region where the
sealing bands are not in contact is at atmospheric pressure.
 Another type has cables (or a single cable) extending from both (or one) end[s] of the
cylinder. The cables are jacketed in plastic (nylon, in those referred to), which provides a
smooth surface that permits sealing the cables where they pass through the ends of the cylinder.
Of course, a single cable has to be kept in tension.

Still others have magnets inside the cylinder, part of the piston assembly, that pull along
magnets outside the cylinder wall. The latter are carried by the actuator that moves the load. The
cylinder wall is thin, to ensure that the inner and outer magnets are near each other. Multiple
modern high-flux magnet groups transmit force without disengaging or excessive resilience.

Design

Construction

Depending on the job specification, there are multiple forms of body constructions
available

Tie rod cylinders: The most common cylinder constructions that can be used in many
types of loads. Has been proven to be the safest form.

Flanged-type cylinders: Fixed flanges are added to the ends of cylinder, however, this
form of construction is more common in hydraulic cylinder construction.

One-piece welded cylinders: Ends are welded or crimped to the tube, this form is
inexpensive but makes the cylinder non-serviceable.

Threaded end cylinders: Ends are screwed onto the tube body. The reduction of material
can weaken the tube and may introduce thread concentricity problems to the system.

Material

Upon job specification, the material may be chosen. Material range from nickel-plated
brass to aluminum, and even steel and stainless steel. Depending on the level of loads, humidity,
temperature, and stroke lengths specified, the appropriate material may be selected.
Mounts

Depending on the location of the application and machinability, there exist different
kinds of mounts for attaching pneumatic cylinders:[1]:95

Sizes

Air cylinders are available in a variety of sizes and can typically range from a small 2.5
mm (110 in) air cylinder, which might be used for picking up a small transistor or other
electronic component, to 400 mm (16 in) diameter air cylinders which would impart enough
force to lift a car. Some pneumatic cylinders reach 1,000 mm (39 in) in diameter, and are used in
place of hydraulic cylinders for special circumstances where leaking hydraulic oil could impose
an extreme hazard.

Pressure, radius, area and force relationships

Rod stresses

Due to the forces acting on the cylinder, the piston rod is the most stressed component
and has to be designed to withstand high amounts of bending, tensile and compressive forces.
Depending on how long the piston rod is, stresses can be calculated differently. If the rods
length is less than 10 times the diameter, then it may be treated as a rigid body which has
compressive or tensile forces acting on it. In which case the relationship is:

F=A\sigma

F = A \sigma

Where:

F is the compressive or tensile force

A is the cross-sectional area of the piston rod

 sigma is the stress

However, if the length of the rod exceeds the 10 times the value of the diameter, then the
rod needs to be treated as a column and buckling needs to be calculated as well.[1] :92

Instroke and outstroke

Although the diameter of the piston and the force exerted by a cylinder are related, they
are not directly proportional to one another. Additionally, the typical mathematical relationship
between the two assumes that the air supply does not become saturated. Due to the effective
cross sectional area reduced by the area of the piston rod, the instroke force is less than the
outstroke force when both are powered pneumatically and by same supply of compressed gas.

The relationship between the force, radius, and pressure can derived from simple
distributed load equation

F_{r}=PA_{e}}

F_r = P A_e

Where:

F_{r}} F_r is the resultant force

P is the pressure or distributed load on the surface

A_{e} is the effective cross sectional area the load is acting on

Outstroke
 Using the distributed load equation provided the {\displaystyle A_{e}} A_{e} can be
replaced with area of the piston surface where the pressure is acting on.

{\displaystyle F_{r}=P(\pi r^{2})}

F_r = P ( \pi r^2 )

Where:

{\displaystyle F_{r}} F_r represents the resultant force

{\displaystyle r} r represents the radius of the piston

{\displaystyle \pi } \pi is pi, approximately equal to 3.14159.

Instroke

On instroke, the same relationship between force exerted, pressure and effective cross
sectional area applies as discussed above for outstroke. However, since the cross sectional area
is less than the piston area the relationship between force, pressure and radius is different. The
calculation isn't more complicated though, since the effective cross sectional area is merely that
of the piston surface minus the cross sectional area of the piston rod.

For instroke, therefore, the relationship between force exerted, pressure, radius of the
piston, and radius of the piston rod, is as follows:

{\displaystyle F_{r}=P(\pi r_{1}^{2}-\pi r_{2}^{2})=P\pi (r_{1}^{2}-r_{2}^{2})}

F_r = P (\pi r_1^2 - \pi r_2^2) = P \pi (r_1^2 - r_2^2)

6.5 PISTON

Figure 5: Piston

Pistons can be found in reciprocating engines, pumps, compressors, and other

mechanisms. Inserted into the cylinder and made gas-tight (similar to air-tight) by piston rings, a
Pistons primary job is to transfer force from ignited gas in the cylinder to a crankshaft. The
crankshaft is then attached to an axle or another component to convert movement from the
crankshaft to movement or force in the system. In other applications like pumps, instead of
creating or causing the force, crankshafts will attach to pistons so they can use their motion to
compress or expel fluid from a cylinder.

6.6 PROXIMITY SENSOR

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a
metal target.
 The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some
sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection
distance. Some know these processes as "thermosensation".

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the
absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are commonly used on mobile devices to detect if someone is in

nominal range. When the target is detected, the device lockscreen UI will appear, thus emerging
from what is known as sleep mode. Once the device has awoken from sleep mode, if the
proximity sensor's target is still for an extended period of time, the sensor will then ignore it, and
the device will eventually revert into sleep mode. For example, during a telephone call,
proximity sensors play a role in detecting (and skipping) accidental touchscreen taps when held
to the ear.[1] They are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in
distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60947-5-2 defines the technical details

of proximity sensors.

A proximity sensor adjusted to a very short range is often used as a touch switch

Air touch and gesture

Proximity sensors can be used to recognise air gestures and hover-manipulations. An

array of proximity sensing elements can replace vision-camera or depth camera based solutions
for the hand gesture detection. In particular, a car infotainment system (7 inch - 14 inch) in
vehicle can employ the proximity sensors to cover the sensing area over the screen. For
example, LG Electronics has recently filed several patents addressing this advanced technology.

Figure 6 : Proximity Sensor

An Inductive Proximity Sensor consists of an oscillator, a ferrite core with coil, a detector
circuit, an output circuit, housing, and a cable or connector. The oscillator generates a sine wave
of a fixed frequency. This signal is used to drive the coil. The coil in conjunction with ferrite
core induces a electromagnetic field. When the field lines are interrupted by a metal object, the
oscillator voltage is reduced, proportional to the size and distance of the object from the coil.
The reduction in the oscillator voltage is caused by eddy currents induced in the metal
interrupting the field lines. This reduction in voltage of the oscillator is detected by the detecting
circuit

6.7 SOLENOID VALVE

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve. The valve is controlled by an
electric current through a solenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off;
in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple
solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are
to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.
 Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature
actuators and rocker actuators are also used.

Operation

There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valves can have many ports and fluid
paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is open, then the two ports are
connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is closed, then ports are isolated. If
the valve is open when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termed normally open
(N.O.). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is
termed normally closed.[1] There are also 3-way and more complicated designs.[2] A 3-way
valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports (typically a supply port
and an exhaust port).

Solenoid valves are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can
generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve, then a direct
acting solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship between the required solenoid
force Fs, the fluid pressure P, and the orifice area A for a direct acting solenoid value is:[3]

F_{s}=PA=P\pi d^{2}/4} F_{s}=PA=P\pi d^{2}/4

Where d is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15 N (3.4 lbf). An
application might be a low pressure (e.g., 10 psi (69 kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter
(e.g., 38 in (9.5 mm) for an orifice area of 0.11 in2 (7.1105 m2) and approximate force of 1.1
lbf (4.9 N)).
 The solenoid valve (small black box at the top of the photo) with input air line (small
green tube) used to actuate a larger rack and pinion actuator (gray box) which controls the water
pipe valve.

When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required. To
generate those forces, an internally piloted solenoid valve design may be possible.[1] In such a
design, the line pressure is used to generate the high valve forces; a small solenoid controls how
the line pressure is used. Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems
where the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 psi (550 kPa) and the orifice diameter might
be 34 in (19 mm).

In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use a small,
complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve. While the second type is
actually a solenoid valve combined with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and
packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid valve. Piloted valves require much less power
to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full power at all times
to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full power for a short
period of time to open it, and only low power to hold it.

A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The operation

time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150 milliseconds.[4]

Power consumption and supply requirements of the solenoid vary with application, being
primarily determined by fluid pressure and line diameter. For example, a popular 3/4" 150 psi
sprinkler valve, intended for 24 VAC (50 - 60 Hz) residential systems, has a momentary inrush
of 7.2 VA, and a holding power requirement of 4.6 VA.[5] Comparatively, an industrial 1/2"
10000 psi valve, intended for 12, 24, or 120 VAC systems in high pressure fluid and cryogenic
applications, has an inrush of 300 VA and a holding power of 22 VA.[6] Neither valve lists a
minimum pressure required to remain closed in the un-powered state.

Internally piloted

While there are multiple design variants, the following is a detailed breakdown of a
typical solenoid valve design.

A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve mechanically.
A direct acting valve has only a small flow circuit, shown within section E of this diagram (this
section is mentioned below as a pilot valve). In this example, a diaphragm piloted valve
multiplies this small pilot flow, by using it to control the flow through a much larger orifice.

Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical
interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the valve opened (normally
open) or closed (normally closed) while the valve is not activated.
A- Input side

B- Diaphragm

C- Pressure chamber

D- Pressure relief passage

E- Electro Mechanical Solenoid

F- Output side
 The diagram to the right shows the design of a basic valve, controlling the flow of water
in this example. At the top figure is the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters
at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it down. The diaphragm
has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it.
This water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both
sides of the diaphragm, however the compressed spring supplies a net downward force. The
spring is weak and is only able to close the inlet because water pressure is equalized on both
sides of the diaphragm.

Once the diaphragm closes the valve, the pressure on the outlet side of its bottom is
reduced, and the greater pressure above holds it even more firmly closed. Thus, the spring is
irrelevant to holding the valve closed.

The above all works because the small drain passage D was blocked by a pin which is the
armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring. If current is passed through
the solenoid, the pin is withdrawn via magnetic force, and the water in chamber C drains out the
passage D faster than the pinhole can refill it. The pressure in chamber C drops and the
incoming pressure lifts the diaphragm, thus opening the main valve. Water now flows directly
from A to F.

When the solenoid is again deactivated and the passage D is closed again, the spring
needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main valve closes. In practice
there is often no separate spring; the elastomer diaphragm is molded so that it functions as its
own spring, preferring to be in the closed shape.

From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a differential of
pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input must always be greater than the
pressure at the output for it to work. Should the pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above
that of the input then the valve would open regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot valve.

6.8 FLOW CONTROL VALVE

Flow control valves are used in constant-flow (fixed displacement pump) circuits to
control actuator speed. The simplest type of flow control valve is a needle valve. Another name
for a needle valve is a non-pressure-compensated flow control valve. Turning the manual
adjustment on a needle valve causes the needle to move down into the orifice, thus reducing the
orifice area. Pressure drop across the valve (Pfc) is increased by continuously restricting the
orifice until enough pressure is produced to cause the relief valve to crack open. At this point,
extra turns will further reduce the orifice, increase the? PFC increases the pressure at the relief
valve, dump more fluid to the reservoir, and thus slow the actuator. The sequence of events is
exactly the same as using a DCV to control actuator speed. If load pressure changes over a
narrow range, the needle valve will give fairly good flow control. Again, a reminder is given.
Flow across the relief valve represents an energy loss. A needle valve is inexpensive, but the
operating cost is high because of the energy loss.

A pressure-compensated flow control valve has a provision for changing the ?Pfc as the
load pressure changes. Total pressure at the relief valve,

Pr = ?Pfc + ?PL

is maintained nearly constant. As ?PL increases, ?Pfc decreases, and vice versa. A
constant Pr means a constant load on the pump (leakage is constant) and a constant flow across
the relief valve.

A partial schematic of a flow control valve is shown in Fig. 4.31a, and the full schematic
in Fig. 4.31b. It is instructive to first do a force balance on the spool of the valve shown in Fig.
4.31a. Suppose the spring is a 100 psi spring, meaning that it produces a force equivalent to a
100 psi pressure. The force balance on the spool is

(PcAc PcAr + PcAr 100Ac)= 0

where Ac = area of spool cap end (in2)

Ar = area of spool rod end (in2)

Pc = pressure in the cavity between the two spool ends

The pressure Pc must equal 100 psi for the spool to be in force balance. The spool finds
the position that maintains 100 psi in the center cavity. If the inlet pressure is 500 psi, this means
that the pressure drop across the orifice shown in Fig. 4.31a is? Po = 400 psi. This pressure drop
represents an energy loss that is characteristic of this type of valve. The pressure drop between
the center cavity and the outlet to the valve is 100 psi. This pressure drop sets the flow through
the orifice created by the position of the hand wheel adjustment.

Figure 7: Flow Control Valve

6.9 POLYURETHENE TUBE

Polyurethane combines the best properties of both plastic and rubber. It offers abrasion
and tear resistance, high tensile and elongation values, and low compression set. Polyurethane is
naturally flexible and exhibits virtually unlimited flexural abilities.

Combining good chemical resistance with excellent weathering characteristics sets

polyurethane apart from most other thermoplastics. It has exceptional resistance to most
gasolines, oils, kerosene, and other petroleum-based chemicals, making PU tubing and hose,
also known as PUR tubing and hose, an ideal choice for fuel lines (although additives in todays
gasoline and petroleum products warrant field testing).

The two basic formulations of urethane, ester and ether, have some important differences.
Water attacks ester-based urethane, causing a significant reduction in physical properties. Ether
urethanes exhibit far superior hydrolytic stability, especially in humid environments. Ether-
based materials also resist fungus growth better than ester-based materials.
CHAPTER 7: Application & Advantages
7.1 APPLICATION
For automobile application
Industrial application
Four wheeler application
Two wheeler applications

7.2 ADVANTAGES
Free from wear adjustment.
Less power consumption
It gives simplified very operation.
Installation is simplified very much.
To minimize the accident
Safe the vehicle and human being

7.3 DISADVANTAGES
Additional cost is required to install this arrangement in the vehicle.

CHAPTER 8: Conclusion
This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use our
limited knowledge. We are feeling that we have completed the work within time successfully.
The PNEUMATIC BUMPER & BRAKE FOR FOUR WHEELER is working with
satisfactory conditions. Thus we have prepared a PNEUMATIC BUMPER & BRAKE FOR
FOUR WHEELER which helps to know the how to achieve low cost product.

CHAPTER 9: Reference
1. G.B.S. Narang, Automobile Engineering, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 1991, pp 671.
2. William H. Crowse, Automobile Engineering.
3. Donald. L. Anglin, Automobile Engineering.
4. Pneumatic Control System----Stroll & Bernaud, Tata Mc Graw Hill Publications, 1999.
5. Pneumatic System----Majumdhar, New Age India International (P) Ltd Publishers, 1997.
6. Erik Coelingh, etal, Collision Warning with Auto Brake, Sweden, ppn: 07-0450.
7. Dr. Kripal Singh, Automobile Engineering Vol.1, Standard Publishers Distributors New
Delhi- 110 006.
8. S. P. Patil, Mechanical System Design, Second Edition, JAICO Publishing House,
Mumbai 400001.
9. Dr.Sanjiy.K.Bhatia, Dr.George.M.Lacy, InfraRed Sensor Simulation, Missouri,(2009)
10. Dr.Eung Soo Kim,Fabrication of Auto Braking System Using Sensor, International
Journal Of control And Automation, Vol-2, and no1.