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H.R. Pasindu
University of Moratuwa
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Chatti and Zaabar [2] applied HDM-4 model for U.S. PARTS = Standardized parts consumption as a fraction of the
conditions, and they found that for every 1m/km increase of replacement vehicle price per 1000 km
IRI, there is an increase of 1% in tire wear, at 88km/h. The K0pc = Rotational calibration factor (default=1.0)
results were obtained for heavy trucks and passenger cars [2]. CKM = Vehicle Cumulative Kilometer
a0, a1,kp = Model constants
Ability of concluding results as specific as above is a RI = Adjusted roughness
considerable advantage in using HDM-4. Thus it was selected IRI = Roughness in IRI (m/km)
as the model to calculate tire wear cost for this research. IRI0 = Limiting roughness for parts consumption in IRI
(3m/km)
The general form of the tire consumption model is as follows a2 to a5 = Model parameters
K1pc=Translational calibration factor (default = 0.0)
(3)
= CPCON=Congestion elasticity factor (default = 0.1)
dFUEL=Additional fuel consumption due to congestion as a
Where: decimal
=Tire consumption per vehicle (%km) LH = Number of labor hours per 1000km
=Number of wheels K0lh=Rotation calibration factor (default=1)
=Equivalent new tire (%km) K1lh=Translation calibration factor (default=0)
=Tire life modification factor a6,a7 =Model constants
At low IRI values, the effect of Roughness on parts
consumption is eliminated by the model using RI and a3. D. Results and Analysis
VOC (Rs)
B. Data Collection and Calibration
27
Data used for simulations were from HDM-4 Calibration data IRI =7
obtained from University of Moratuwa and verified by local IRI=6
dealers of parts, oil, fuel and other wearable parts. Tyre 26
replacement costs, labour costs, oil costs and other economic IRI=5
unit costs obtained from University of Moratuwa were used for IRI=4
calibration. Base characteristics such as EASL value, number 25
of axels, operating weight, and annual mileage were also
obtained from the same source.
24
C. Simulation 40 60 80
HDM-4 requires a defined vehicle fleet, and road sections. Data - --- Rolling terrain
Speed(km/h)
level road
obtained from University of Moratuwa was used to define the IRI values are in m/km
vehicle fleet. Road section was defined with starting IRI of
4m/km and going up to 7.5m/km. Simulations were run at
40km/h, 60km/h, and 80km/h for two terrain types, straight and Fig. 1. VOC of car for varying roughness values and speeds
level, and bendy and undulating. International roughness index
is a function of many variables. The model simulates the effect Fig. 1. displays the variation of vehicle operating cost against
of roughness accordingly. The Vehicle operating cost values the speed of the car. The dotted lines represent bendy and
obtained from the simulations are then plotted against undulating road section while the solid lines represent the
International Roughness Index (IRI) value. VOC value straight and level section. It is clear that VOC is slightly higher
calculated includes sensitivity for fuel, lubricating oil, tires, in bendy and undulating section, compared with the straight
spare parts, maintenance labor, and capital cost. road section. It is also clearly visible that the International
Roughness Index (IRI) value has a significant effect on the
TABLE 1 SIMULATION DATA VOC. At IRI=4m/km, the VOC values is around 25,000 LKR
while at IRI=7m/km, VOC reaches about 26,500 LKR at
Super-
60km/h per 1000 vehicle kilometres. Further, it can be observed
Rise & Rise & Horizontal that the VOC values are highest at 40km/h in the car and
Elevatio
Road Fall Fall Curvature
n decreases until 60km/h and again slightly increases up to
Geometry
(m/km) (m/km) (deg/km)
80km/h.
(%)
Fig. 2. shows high increment of VOC values from 40km/h up
Mostly to 80km/h. The gradient of the curve increases after 60km/h in
straight and
gently
10 2 15 2.5 straight and level section. The VOC increment is noticeably
undulating higher in the medium truck in bendy and undulating section,
compared to the car. Medium truck was not simulated at
80km/h in the bendy and undulating section due to the design
Rolling limitations of such roads in Sri Lanka. Also a slight increase of
25 3 150 5
terrain
VOC with speed can be seen here. In both cases, there is a
noticeable increase in VOC values with the increase in IRI depreciation. It was found that the mileage done per year by the
value. vehicle, and the roughness of the road directly affect both the
1. Medium Truck said parameters. Further, the cost of replacement, and vehicle
age are some other parameters that can be used to fine-tune the
results for Vehicle operating cost. Another aspect is the road
Vehicle Operating Cost vs SPEED (Medium terrain. Rise and fall, curvature etc. has a major effect on VOC,
Truck) which are reflected from the above results. All these factors can
41 be fed into HDM-4 to obtain accurate results.