PARASITOLOGY 001
NOTE: This is an updated version of Maria Katrina Bernabes
Transcribed Notes
INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY
In any field of study, it is important that the learner is
presented with the basic terminology used as well as application
and limitation of the different terms used. This will enable the
reader an easier way of understanding matters the concerns a
particular subject matter.
Terminology
PARASITOLOGY
Is a branch of biology that deals with the phenomenon
of dependence of one living organism to another.
CLINICAL (OR MEDICAL) PARASITOLOGY
Primarily deals with animal parasites of man and their
medical significance and importance in human
communities.
PARASITES
Are organisms that depend onto another living creature,
referred to as the host, for survival.
Live at the expense of another organism
OBLIGATE PARASITES
Cannot survive without the assistance of the host.
Parasite is totally dependent and unable to multiply if
it is not in the body of a host.
FACULTATIVE PARASITES OR OPPORTUNISTS
Parasites that are able to adapt to a free-living or
parasitic existence depending upon the condition.
SPURIOUS PARASITES
Parasitic to other creatures but not to humans.
Man may ingest these organisms and they pass through
the alimentary canal, excreted in the feces, alive or dead, in the
unchanged state.
Parasites, like other living creatures, undergo different stages of
development before reaching full maturity. Each set of
metamorphosis results to a distinct stage of development. Some
parasites may need a particular kind of host for a particular stage
of development.
HOST SPECIFICITY
The transformation and survival of a certain stage of
development may not occur if the organism is in the body of
a non-appropriate host.
There are some parasites that do not inhabit only a single host
throughout their lifetime. Some organisms, while undergoing
development, inhabit a host different from the one where the
adult forms are found.
INTERMEDIATE HOST
o Harbors the immature or larval forms of the parasite. Some
parasites undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction.
o Where asexual process takes place
DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST
o Where mature or adult forms of the parasites are
found
o Where sexual cycle of some org. take place
RESERVOIR HOSTS
o Some animals, domestic or wild, may serve as
respiratory host to a parasite.
o Man, in this case, is only incidentally involved but not
a natural host.
o Are of epidemiologic importance in the spread of
some infection since they have served as the ready
and constant source of the infectious organisms to the
community.
TRANSPORT/PARATHENIC HOST
o Some parasites require passage through an
intermediate host before the infective stage (i.e. the
specific developmental form capable of causing
infection to man) is developed.
o The infective stage may not be transferred directly
from intermediate to definitive host.
o Instead, it may be passed to a transport host, whereby
no development or transformation of the parasite takes
place but infectivity is preserved.
o They are not essential in the life cycle of the parasite
but may serve as another source of infection to man
aside from the natural intermediate host of the
organism.
Interrelationship of Organisms
Different organism exhibit various kinds of association with one
another throughout their entire life
SYMBIOSIS Close association of two organisms,
whereby a give and take relationship
exist
MUTUALISM Relationship is beneficial to both
associates
COMMENSALISM Parasite derives benefits without
reciprocating and/or without causing
injury to the host
Some big animals attack, kill, and use smaller ones for food. In this
form of existence, the bigger animal is referred to as PREDATOR
while the smaller is called PREY.
SCAVENGERS
Animals that derive their nourishment from already dead
ones either by devouring those that died of natural causes or
taking the leftovers of the predators.
The Process of Infection
ECTOPARASITES
Parasites that live on the surface of the hosts body
their condition is referred to as INFESTATION
LUH! 1

ENDOPARASITES
Those parasites found inside the body of their host
the condition is called INFECTION
Prior to the development of an infection, a person must be in a
situation considered at risk of acquiring it.
Risk situation is called EXPOSURE
o Organism is given the chance to enter the body of
the individual.
The process of introducing the organism into the body of
the host (e.g. man) is called INOCULATION.
Parasites that successfully enter the body of a person may
establish a colony through reproduction. These organisms, inside
the persons body, may be recovered in body fluids like blood,
urine, CSF, or tissues at that times that the organisms are still unable
to produce signs and or/symptoms of the infection.
BIOLOGIC INCUBATION/PRE-PATENT PERIOD
o Period of time from entry of the organism until they
may be recovered in body fluids, tissues, or excreta,
without any manifestation yet
Disease producing organisms will be able to produce signs and/or
symptoms of the infection later after inoculation.
CLINICAL INCUBATION PERIOD
o Period of time from the entry of the organism into the
body of the host until the earliest sign and/or symptom
of the infection appear
Disease-producing organism (also called PATHOGEN or
pathogenic organism), in certain conditions may not be able to
cause damage to the host and therefore unable to produce signs
and/or symptoms of the infection. This condition is referred to as
INAPPARENT INFECTION, and the person who harbors such
pathogenic organism but without manifestation of the infection
(i.e. the person is asymptomatic) is called a CARRIER. Other
susceptible individuals, who later manifest the infection, may
acquire the infection from carriers.
Parasites have specific developmental forms with the ability to
enter the human body to initiate an infection process. The
developmental form of the parasite capable to doing so is called
INFECTIVE STAGE.
PATHOGENIC STAGE is the developmental form may or may not
be able to cause pathologic damage but is the only stage that
can enter the body of the host.
There are some parasites whose infective form, as well as their
mature stages, can cause pathologic damage or disease to man.
In certain species, the infective stage may also be the pathogenic
form and vice versa.
Some animals serve to transfer the infective stage of an organism
from one source to another. The transfer may be from one person
to another, from an animal to a human being, or from inanimate
objects into a person. Commonly, the animals that transfer the
organism or parasite are various kinds of insects.
VECTOR/TRANSMITTERS
These animals that transfer the infective form
PARASITOLOGY 001
BIOLOGIC VECTORS
Essential or needed in the life cycle of the parasite
The life cycle of some parasites will not be completed
without the participation or involvement of a particular
biologic vector
PHORETIC/MECHANICAL VECTORS
Not necessarily needed in the life cycle
Act as mechanical transmitters of the organism
HORIZONTAL TRANSMISSION
An organism coming from the body of a person and
transferred to another individual
Man acquires many parasites, pathogenic and
commensal ones, through horizontal transmission.
VERTICAL TRANSMISSION
An unborn baby may be infected with a parasite that
came from the mother via placental transfer
This process is responsible for congenital infection.
Most parasites that cause infection to man originated from
animals thus, commonly referred to as ZOONOTIC INFECTIONS.
A person may excrete the infective form of an organism and this
stage of development may re-enter the persons body in the
process of AUTOINFECTION.
Autoinfection may occur via:
o retrograde migration of the infective form
(retroinfection)
o outside part of body (external autoinfection).
This process may lead to a severe type of infection in an
individual without necessarily acquiring infective forms from
another person or other sources.
HETEROINFECTION Infective stages coming from another
source of the same species
SUPERINFECTION An already infected individual and has
been re-infected with the same species of
the parasite
MIXED INFECTION A person may be harboring more than one
species of organism at the same time.
DELUSIONAL PARASITOSIS
There are some individuals who may think they are
infected with some bizarre parasite but in reality, no such
parasite exists in their bodies.
Sources of Parasitic Infection
Contaminated soil
Ascaris lumbricoides Embryonated Egg
Necator americanus Filariform Larva
Ancylostoma duodenale Filariform Larva
Strongyloides stercoralis Filariform Larva
Cause soil transmitted infections
Contaminated water
Pathogenic amoeba
LUH! 2
 PARASITOLOGY 001

Cercariae of Schistosoma (larval stage) which Capillaria philippinensis

penetrates the skin of the individual Trichuris trichiuria
Echinostoma ilocanum
CONTAMINATED FOOD Trichinella spiralis
Fish Diphylobotrium latum
Capillaria philippinensis Fasciolopsis buski
Diphylobotrium latum Fasciola hepatica
Crab Paragonimus westermani
Paragonimus westermani Necator americanus (pwede daw sabi ni doc)
Opisthorchis viverrini
Pork
Taenia solium HINT: Foods go through the mouth
Trichinella spiralis
Skin by arthropod vector like insects (mosquitoes, bugs)
Beef or penetration.
Taenia saginata Hookworm
Necator americanus
Vegetables Ancylostoma duodenale
Fasciola hepatica Threadworm
Fasciolopsis buski Strongyloides stercoralis
Bloodfluke
Snail Schistosoma japonicum
Echinostoma ilocanum
Nose
BLOOD SUCKING INSECTS Enterobius vernicularis (Embryonated egg) aside
Mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles serve as from entering the mouth as portal of entry, may also
vectors for malaria Plasmodium enter through the nose via inhalation
Wuchereria bancrofti causes lymphatic filariasis
Leishmana donovani cases Leishmaniasis Placenta Trans-placental transfer
Trypanosoma Trypanosomiasis Toxoplasma gondii

DOMESTIC ANIMALS Milk Trans-mammary transfer

Cat toxocara cati some species of Strongyloides
Dog toxocara canis Trematodes
Pig (Ano sa tagalog ang pig? Baboy) balintidium Ancylostoma
coli The infective larvae of Strongyloides and species of
Wild animals like tiger, lion gnathostoma Ancylostoma may cause infection among babies
spinigerium of infected mothers through the milk

ANOTHER PERSON Sexual Organ

Entamoeba histolytica Trichomonas vaginalis enters the body of an
Enterobius vermicularis individual through genital organs during
Giardia lamblia unprotected sexual intercourse
Trichomonas vaginalis
Pathogenesis of Parasitic Infections
AUTOINFECTION IN MAN
Capillaria philippinensis Each pathogenic parasite utilizes different mechanisms
Strongyloides stercoralis (pathogenesis) of causing damage among humans or other
Enterobius vermicularis animals. These mechanisms maybe one or a combination of the
Taenia solium following:

Portals of Entry 1. Trauma or physical damage

Specific site in the human body where parasites enter 2. Lytic (liquefaction) necrosis
Some species of organisms may not be able to effectively 3. Stimulation of the hosts tissue reaction (cellular or
cause infection if they enter the wrong portals thus in most immunologic)
instances each species has its own entry point in the hosts body. 4. Toxic and/or allergic phenomenon

Mouth (Most common portal of entry) TRAUMA

Ascaris lumbricoides Filariform Larva they penetrate the skin and produce
Entamoeba histolytica puncture wounds.
Taenia solium Necator americanus
Taenia saginata Ancylostoma duodenale
Giardia lamblia Strongyloides stercoralis

LUH! 3

Some parasites can enter a tissue cell, grow and
develop inside the cell, then rupture the infected cell
producing trauma or physical damage.
Plasmodium enter RBC (Note: Plasmodium is
smaller than the RBC)
Parasites with blood-lung phase in their life cycle they
pass from the blood to the lungs before they can
become an adult. (Note: it is the larva which is
migrating)
Ascaris lumbricoides
Necator americanus
Ancylostoma duodenale
Strongyloides stercoralis
When we inhale, the alveolus expands. When we
exhale, it contracts. Nakadikit yung pulmonary
capillaries dito. Ano dumadaan sa capillaries? Blood
para merong exchange of gases. Now yung larva ng
apat na ito pass from blood through the lungs via
capillaries. They then break the pulmonary capillaries,
goes to the air sac, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea,
hanggang epiglottis tapos swallow. Pupunta sa GI tract
mo and that larva becomes adult. GG .
When they break the pulmonary capillaries, they
produce trauma
Ano yung nagmimigrate? Larvae
Ascaris lumbricoides - They can destroy an organ by
obstruction, perforation and occlusion. (OPO)
Obstruction: They can entangle each other forming a
bolus obstructing the intestines. Intestinal obstruction
Perforation: Even a single Ascaris adult can perforate the
intestine. This then goes out and travels to the liver,
causing trauma.
Occlusion: A single worm can occlude the alveoli or can
go down and occlude the appendix. An occlusion can
cause trauma
LYTIC NECROSIS
Amoeba histolytica they invade the tissue causing
necrosis.
Balantidium coli they have hyaluronidase which lyse
the tissue causing necrosis.
STIMULATION OF HOSTS TISSUE REACTION
An indirect way of producing disease. This process stimulates
the host tissue to react. The response is to destroy this parasite
or prevent further migration. There will be cellular
proliferation, cellular infiltration, granuloma formation, and
lastly, fibrosis. The function of the affected organ will be
impaired.
Example: Eggs of Schistosoma
In the liver, the eggs stimulate the liver tissue to react in
order to prevent migration or destruction of the parasite.
Then the tissue reacts causing cellular proliferation,
PARASITOLOGY 001
infiltration, granuloma formation, and fibrosis. There will
be diffuse fibrosis in the liver. Continuous flow of blood in
a fibrotic liver will result to an increase in pressure of the
portal system (portal hypertension). Because of this,
there will be fluid escaping the portal system and goes
to the abdomen resulting to ascites.
Aside of the increase in pressure of the portal system,
there will be an increase in pressure of the anus,
ballooning the vessels causing hemorrhoids.
Esophagus is also affected resulting to esophageal
varices. Rupture of the varices will result to death.
There will also be dilation of the veins of the abdomen
(caput medusa)
TOXIC AND ALLERGIC PHENOMENON
The parasite and its metabolic waste product can serve as
an antigen or allergen which is stimulates the production of
specific antibodies. Succeeding exposure to the same
antigen will produce an antigen-antibody reaction resulting
to an immune response. This can either be beneficial
(immunizations) or harmful (hypersensitivity reactions).
Allergy (Type 1 hypersensitivity) activates IgE that may result
to anaphylactic shock (fatal outcome).
COATING
Example: Giardia lamblia
The trophozoite will carpet the intestinal mucosa, serving as
barrier for absorption. This will result to malabsorption.
RECRUITEMENT OF MICROORGANISMS
Example: Filariform larva
Puncture wounds will make the area affected susceptible to
microorganisms. This may result to bacteremia or septicemia.
Diagnosis of Parasitic Infections
The medical technologist plays a very important role in the
diagnosis of infections with parasites. Diagnosis of parasitic
infection is, oftentimes, based on identification of organism in
specimen submitted to the laboratory. The technologist,
therefore, should be very accurate in the identification of the
organisms.
Different diagnostic tests in Parasitology may be classified as
either direct or indirect.
DIRECT APPROACH
Is to demonstrate the organisms where they can be
recovered.
Feces:
o Eggs of:
Ascaris lumbricoides
Trichuris trichiura
Capillaria philippinensis
Taenia saginata
Taenia solium
Schistosoma japonicum
LUH! 4

o Larval forms of:
Threadworm
Some species of hookworm.
o Tapeworms may evacuate segments of the worms in
their feces. The segments may be examined and
identified with or without stain.
Muscle Tissues:
o Patients infected with Trichinella spiralis are diagnosed
through recovery of the larval stage in biopsy material of
muscle tissues
Blood Films
o Malaria, filariasis
o Trypanosomiasis
Urine
o Trichomonas vaginalis infection is easily diagnosed by
finding the trophozoites of the parasite in the patients
urine.
CSF
o Examination of CSF will also be of great help in the
diagnosis of Naegleria fowleri and Acanthamoeba
culbertsoni infections.
INDIRECT APPROACH
In quite a number of instances, recovery of parasites in
body fluids may not be that easy or impractical. Also, there
are some conditions whereby the location of the organism is
quite inaccessible or trying to get them, such as in biopsy,
may entail more damages that benefits. In such situations,
the indirect approach may be resorted to instead.
These diagnostic procedures, however, are not readily
available, more likely to be less accurate, and are of limited
application.
Circumoval Precipitin Test (COPT)
If the organism is able to stimulate the immune system of
the host, antibodies may be detected in the blood such as in
the case of schistosomiasis, where the patients blood will
contain antibodies against the eggs of the parasite.
May be used in the diagnosis of schistosomiasis.
Serologic tests
are also available, although expensive, for the diagnosis
of human infections with:
o Echinococcus granulosus
o Trichinella spiralis
o Leishmania donovani, etc.
Xenodiagnosis
May be used to diagnose infection with some parasites
such as Trypanosoma cruzi.
In this method, a laboratory-bred insect, the one that
serves as vector to the organisms, is allowed to feed on the
blood of individuals suspected to be infected with the
parasite.
The feces of the insect is then examined for the presence
of the organism after sometime.
PARASITOLOGY 001
Coproculture
Some parasites may also be grown in artificial culture
media such as rice-starch agar for Entamoeba histolytica, as
well as other protozoa parasites.
Coproculture (i.e. stool or soil culture) will enable the
recovery of the larval forms of hookworms and threadworms.
Animals such as rabbits, hamsters, and monkeys may also be used
to grow parasites in the laboratory to produce more parasites and
therefore, make the diagnosis easier, more accurate, and to have
high yield of positive result.
Treatment of Parasitic Infections
Infections with parasites may be treated with:
Chemotherapy (use of commercially available drugs)
Infections with organisms that are effectively treated
through the administration of specific drug for the particular
organism:
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Ascaris lumbricoides
o Trichuris trichiura
o Giardia lamblia
o Trichomonas vaginalis
Surgical intervention
o Hydatid disease due to the larvae of Echinococcus
granulosus is treated by surgical removal of the cyst.
o Cysticorcus larvae of Taenia solium located in the eye
of a patient are also removed through surgical
procedure.
Combination of the both
Vaccination against parasite infection is not yet perfect at the
present time. Researchers are still ongoing for the development of
vaccine that may effectively protect humans from acquiring
infection with some parasites. At the present time, vaccines are
being developed and tested for organisms such as:
Plasmodium species (causing malaria)
Schistosoma japonicum
Entamoeba histolytica, etc.
BREAK!
LUH! 5

PROTOZOOLOGY
All living organisms may be classified according to either:
PROTOZOA
o Unicellular
o Although looking very simple, is capable of the various
processes of life
o Subkingdom of Animalia
METAZOA
o Have numerous cells, tissues, and organs.
o Have organ systems that perform the complex
processes of life
Stages of Development of Parasites
Parasites under Protozoa, generally, undergo different stages of
development throughout their life. In most instances, these
developmental forms will include:
1. Trophozoite
2. Cyst
TROPHOZOITE
Also called trophic form
Is the VEGETATIVE STAGE
referred to as the pathogenic stage
o Among the pathogenic species, it is also the stage
capable of producing pathology
Also referred to as the MOTILE STAGE because of the
organelles of locomotion
Organelles of locomotion, generally, are present in the
trophic forms. In general, different group of protozoa has their
own type of locomotion organelles:
o Pseudopodia (fingerlike) Entamoeba histolytica
o Flagella (hair like) Giardia lamblia
o Cilia (thread like) Balantidium coli
Surrounded by plasma membrane. They acquire
nutrients through a semi-permeable membrane. FEEDING
STAGE
Easily destroyed by adverse condition in the environment
such as strong chemicals, urine, changes in temperature,
presence of other organisms, and other physical, chemical,
and biologic factors.
Easily destroyed and quite fragile as compared to cyst
Stool samples suspected to contain trophozoites must be
examined within 30 minutes after collection of such sample,
lest the organism will disintegrate and making identification
rather difficult if not impossible.
If the examination of specimen suspected to contain
trophozoites is to be delayed or cannot be done at once,
preservatives may be used but the parasite becomes
immotile.
Has 1 nucleus except:
o Balantidium coli
o Giardia lamblia
o Dientamoeba fragilis
Which has 2 nuclei in the trophozoite stage. A
macronucleus and a micronucleus
CYST
Dormant or the non-motile form of the parasite. Has no
organ of locomotion.
Referred to as the INFECTIVE STAGE.
PARASITOLOGY 001
Also called NON FEEDING STAGE because it is
surrounded by a tough cyst wall (because of this they cant
get nourishment
They use stored food in the form of chromatoidal bodies
and glycogen vacuoules or mass.
Most are more resistant than the trophozoite forms
Likely to be found in:
o formed stool samples
o water fecal specimen
Being more resistant than the trophozoite, the cyst may
easily be preserved using chemical agents such as 5 10%
formalin solutions.
The cyst may also be maintained, for a definite period of
time, in the laboratory or longer in refrigerator temperature.
There are times that the motility of the organism in the living state
is quite helpful in the identification of the parasite because there
are parasites whose motility is quite characteristic
The most widely used preservative for trophozoites is
POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVA).
A long time ago, MERTHIOLATE-FORMALDEHYDE solution
was being used to preserve trophozoite forms but because
of the harmful effects of some of its ingredients its use was
halted.
Stool sample preserved with PVA, whether it contains cyst or
trophozoite, may be kept for quite a long time. They may also be
smeared later and stained permanent stains and be kept as
permanent record or for teaching purposes, or even in research.
However, about 5 years or a little more, the quality of stain color
tends to be lesser and lesser through passage of time.
Structures and Organelles (Protozoa)
1. NUCLEUS
Has the chromosomes which is essential for:
o Life
o Reproduction
o Transmission of the composition of the organism
Inside the nucleus, an aggregate mass of granules is
present and referred to as the karyosome (also called
endosome or nucleolus). SI KEN yung boypren ni Barbie.
The nucleus may either be:
o Vesicular
o Compact
Vesicular Nucleus
Has the karyosome suspended in a large amount of
nucleoplasm
May be provided with chromatin particles arranged on
an achromatic network or the chromatin granules may line
the inner part of the nuclear membrane.
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Entamoeba coli
o Endolimax nana
Compact Nucleus
Has a very large granular chromatin filled karyosome
and a very scanty nucleoplasm. Vesicular nucleus
LUH! 6
 PARASITOLOGY 001

Not have space anymore between the nuclear It is more likely that these inclusion bodies are observed in
membrane and the karyosome. the cyst form of the parasite.
o Balantidium coli

2. CYTOPLASM 7. CYTOSTOME AND CYTOPYGE

Is the interior of the cell where the different organelles are Some species of protozoa have a specialized:
found. o cell mouth called CYTOSTOME
The cytoplasm has, more or less, two distinct portions, o cell anus termed CYTOPYGE
namely: Pag ilalabas mo sa mouth sasabihin nung partner mo
o Endoplasm give it to me CYTOSTOME
o Ectoplasm Pag ipapasok mo sa anus sasabihin ng baby mo wag!
Pipigilan ka nya CYTOPYGE
Endoplasm BTW: Sabi ni doc mas madami daw hair structures sa
Dense granular part/Less homogenous bibig
Surrounding the nucleus Ciliates commonly have these structures and are mostly
Synthesis of food occurs and is stored as chromatoidal found in the trophozoite form.
bodies found in cyst form
Located here are the: 8. LOCOMOTION ORGANELLES
o Stored food May be classified as:
o Mitochondria o Pseudopodia
o Golgi apparatus o Flagella
o Microsomes o Cilia
o Endoplasmic reticulum
Pseudopodia
In some species, like the amoeba, the plasma
Ectoplasm
membrane has no constant shape. Its form changes by
Less granular and more homogenous part
means of extension and retraction of temporary, finger-like
Envelopes the endoplasm
structures called pseudopodia.
Functions
Its active protrusion & retraction enables the amoeba
o Locomotion
trophozoite to move from one place to another.
o Procurement of food May aid the organism to obtain particles of food from
o Respiration the environment.
o Excretion
o Protection of the organism Flagella
Member species of Zoomastigophora, mostly in the
3. PLASMA MEMBRANE trophic forms, possess hair-like projections of the cytoplasm
Is the semi-permeable, limiting boundary of the called flagella.
trophozoite stage. Arise from kinetoplast (consisting of parabasal bodies
Functions: and blepharoplast) within the cytoplasm
o Controls: Constant whipping movement enables the parasite
Intake and output of nutrients move.
secretion and excretion A small portion of the flagellum, within the cell wall, that
o Maintains the normal concentration of the plasma is connected to the kinetoplast is called axoneme.
substance.
Cilia
4. CYST WALL In Ciliophora, there are numerous short, threadlike
Relatively tough membrane secreted by the ectoplasm structures called cilia.
Envelopes and protects the cyst form. Arise from the basal granules within the ectoplasm
Are distributed throughout the entire body surface of the
5. CONTRACTILE VACUOLES parasite.
Are pulsating vacuoles of various sizes
Seen in the endoplasm of some organisms like Encystation and Excystation
Balantidium coli.
Act as osmoregulators Protozoa parasites transform from trophozoite to cyst, and vice
versa, during their existence.
6. FOOD INCLUSION BODIES
Are structures present in the endoplasm of some ENCYSTATION
protozoa, which serve as foods to the parasite. Is the formation of cyst from trophozoite form.
Synthesis of foods takes place in the endoplasm and may This process occurs when the organism is subjected to
be stored in the form of: conditions, which are unsuitable for continued existence in
o Chromatoidal bodies consist of proteins the trophic forms. Conditions believed to favor encystations
o Glycogen mass composed of CHO include:

LUH! 7
 PARASITOLOGY 001

1. Deficiency or overabundance of foods in the

environment,
2. Accumulation of excessive waste products of
metabolism produced by the parasite or other
associated organisms such as bacteria around
3. Significant changes in the pH of the surrounding
medium,
4. Loss of water or desiccation of the medium,
5. Diminished or too much supply of the oxygen, and
6. Overpopulation

In most situations, encystations will involve two or more of

these factors.
In the process, the ectoplasm secretes a thick cyst wall,
which will enable the organism to be more resistant to the
adverse changes in the environment that the trophozoite
may be unable to adapt to.
two types of encystations, namely
o protective
o reproductive

Protective Encystation
Parasite undergoes encystation without significant
changes in the morphology
Aimed to protect the organism
happens, for example, when the parasite is about to be
excreted and transferred into a new host
Example: Balantidium coli

Reproductive Encystations
Is characterized with multiplication of the nucleus in the
cyst form thus resulting to numerous daughter organisms
when the parasite later transforms into the trophozoite form.
Organisms include:
o Entamoeba histolytica
o Entamoeba coli
o Giardia lamblia, etc.

EXCYSTATION
Cyst stage of parasite undergoes excystation to produce
trophozoites. The process is, probably, favored by the
following factors:

1. Osmotic changes in the surrounding medium

2. Enzymatic action of the enclosed organism on the inner surface
of the cyst wall
3. Favorable pH of the environment
4. Enzymatic action of the tissues to the parasite

The last two items are affecting most of the protozoa,

which are parasitic to man (e.g. the amoeba).

It is noteworthy that the two processes do not necessarily happen

outside of the outside of the body of the host that supports the
existence of the parasite.

LUH! 8