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AntonioGramsci
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

AntonioGramsci( /antnjorami/22January
189127April1937)wasanItalianMarxist AntonioGramsci
theoreticianandpolitician.Hewroteonpolitical
theory,sociologyandlinguistics.Hewasafounding
memberandonetimeleaderoftheCommunistParty
ofItalyandwasimprisonedbyBenitoMussolini's
Fascistregime.Gramsciisbestknownforhistheory
ofculturalhegemony,whichdescribeshowstatesuse
culturalinstitutionstomaintainpowerincapitalist
societies.

Contents
1Life
1.1Earlylife
1.2Turin
1.3IntheCommunistPartyofItaly
1.4Imprisonmentanddeath Gramsciin1916
2Thought
2.1Hegemony Born 22January1891
2.2Intellectualsandeducation Ales,Sardinia(KingdomofItaly)
2.3Stateandcivilsociety Died 27April1937(aged46)
2.4Historicism Rome
2.5Critiqueof"economism"
2.6Critiqueofmaterialism Era 20thcenturyphilosophy
3Influence
Region WesternPhilosophy
3.1Inculture
4Bibliography School Marxism
5Seealso Main Politics,ideology,culture
6References interests
7Furtherreading
8Externallinks Notable Hegemony,warofposition,the
ideas distinctionbetween"traditional"and
"organic"intellectuals

Life
Earlylife

GramsciwasborninAles,ontheislandofSardinia,thefourthofsevensonsofFrancescoGramsci
(18601937).TheseniorGramsciwasalowlevelofficialfromGaeta,whomarriedGiuseppinaMarcias
(18611932).Gramsci'sfatherwasofArbreshdescent,[1]whilehismotherbelongedtoalocal
landowningfamily.TheseniorGramsci'sfinancialdifficultiesandtroubleswiththepoliceforcedthe
familytomoveaboutthroughseveralvillagesinSardiniauntiltheyfinallysettledinGhilarza.[2]

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In1898Francescowasconvictedofembezzlementandimprisoned,reducinghisfamilytodestitution.
TheyoungAntoniohadtoabandonschoolingandworkatvariouscasualjobsuntilhisfather'sreleasein
1904.[3]Asaboy,Gramscisufferedfromhealthproblems,particularlyamalformationofthespinethat
stuntedhisgrowth(hisadultheightwaslessthan5feet)[4]andlefthimseriouslyhunchbacked.For
decades,itwasreportedthathisconditionhadbeenduetoachildhoodaccidentspecifically,having
beendroppedbyanannybutmorerecentlyithasbeensuggestedthatitwasduetoPottdisease,[5]a
formoftuberculosisthatcancausedeformityofthespine.Gramsciwasalsoplaguedbyvariousinternal
disordersthroughouthislife.

GramscicompletedsecondaryschoolinCagliari,wherehelodgedwithhiselderbrotherGennaro,a
formersoldierwhosetimeonthemainlandhadmadehimamilitantsocialist.However,Gramsci's
sympathiesthendidnotliewithsocialism,butratherwiththegrievancesofimpoverishedSardinian
peasantsandminers.[6]Theyperceivedtheirneglectasaresultofprivilegesenjoyedbytherapidly
industrialisingNorth,andtheytendedtoturntoSardiniannationalismasaresponse.

Turin

In1911,GramsciwonascholarshiptostudyattheUniversityof
Turin,sittingtheexamatthesametimeasPalmiroTogliatti.[7]At
Turin,hereadliteratureandtookakeeninterestinlinguistics,
whichhestudiedunderMatteoBartoli.GramsciwasinTurinasit
wasgoingthroughindustrialization,withtheFiatandLancia
factoriesrecruitingworkersfrompoorerregions.Tradeunions
becameestablished,andthefirstindustrialsocialconflictsstartedto
emerge.[8]Gramscifrequentedsocialistcirclesaswellasassociating UniversityofTurin:theRectorate
withSardinianemigrants.Hisworldviewwasshapedbybothhis
earlierexperiencesinSardiniaandhisenvironmentonthemainland.
GramscijoinedtheItalianSocialistPartyinlate1913.

Despiteshowingtalentforhisstudies,Gramscihadfinancialproblemsandpoorhealth.Togetherwith
hisgrowingpoliticalcommitment,theseledtohisabandoninghiseducationinearly1915.Bythistime,
hehadacquiredanextensiveknowledgeofhistoryandphilosophy.Atuniversity,hehadcomeinto
contactwiththethoughtofAntonioLabriola,RodolfoMondolfo,GiovanniGentile,andmost
importantly,BenedettoCroce,possiblythemostwidelyrespectedItalianintellectualofhisday.Such
thinkersespousedabrandofHegelianMarxismtowhichLabriolahadgiventhename"philosophyof
praxis".[9]ThoughGramsciwouldlaterusethisphrasetoescapetheprisoncensors,hisrelationshipwith
thiscurrentofthoughtwasambiguousthroughouthislife.

From1914onward,Gramsci'swritingsforsocialistnewspaperssuchasIlGridodelPopoloearnedhim
areputationasanotablejournalist.In1916hebecamecoeditorofthePiedmonteditionofAvanti!,the
SocialistPartyofficialorgan.Anarticulateandprolificwriterofpoliticaltheory,Gramsciproveda
formidablecommentator,writingonallaspectsofTurin'ssocialandpoliticallife.[10]

Gramsciwas,atthistime,alsoinvolvedintheeducationandorganisationofTurinworkershespokein
publicforthefirsttimein1916andgavetalksontopicssuchasRomainRolland,theFrench
Revolution,theParisCommune,andtheemancipationofwomen.InthewakeofthearrestofSocialist
PartyleadersthatfollowedtherevolutionaryriotsofAugust1917,GramscibecameoneofTurin's
leadingsocialistswhenhewasbothelectedtotheparty'sProvisionalCommitteeandmadeeditorofIl
GridodelPopolo.[11]

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InApril1919withTogliatti,AngeloTascaandUmbertoTerracini
GramscisetuptheweeklynewspaperL'OrdineNuovo(TheNew
Order).InOctoberofthesameyear,despitebeingdividedinto
varioushostilefactions,theSocialistPartymovedbyalarge
majoritytojointheThirdInternational.TheL'OrdineNuovogroup
wasseenbyVladimirLeninasclosestinorientationtothe
Bolsheviks,anditreceivedhisbackingagainsttheanti
parliamentaryprogrammeoftheextremeleftAmadeoBordiga.

Amongstthevarioustacticaldebatesthattookplacewithinthe L'OrdineNuovo(1920)
party,Gramsci'sgroupwasmainlydistinguishedbyitsadvocacyof
workers'councils,whichhadcomeintoexistenceinTurin
spontaneouslyduringthelargestrikesof1919and1920.ForGramscithesecouncilsweretheproper
meansofenablingworkerstotakecontrolofthetaskoforganisingproduction.Althoughhebelievedhis
positionatthistimetobeinkeepingwithLenin'spolicyof"AllpowertotheSoviets",hisstancewas
attackedbyBordigaforbetrayingasyndicalisttendencyinfluencedbythethoughtofGeorgesSoreland
DanielDeLeon.BythetimeofthedefeatoftheTurinworkersinspring1920,Gramsciwasalmost
aloneinhisdefenceofthecouncils.

IntheCommunistPartyofItaly

Thefailureoftheworkers'councilstodevelopintoanational
movementledGramscitobelievethataCommunistPartyinthe
Leninistsensewasneeded.ThegrouparoundL'OrdineNuovo
declaimedincessantlyagainsttheItalianSocialistParty'scentrist
leadershipandultimatelyalliedwithBordiga'sfarlarger
"abstentionist"faction.On21January1921,inthetownofLivorno
(Leghorn),theCommunistPartyofItaly(PartitoComunistad'Italia
PCI)wasfounded.GramscisupportedagainstBordigatheArditi
delPopolo,amilitantantifascistgroupwhichstruggledagainstthe
Blackshirts.

Gramsciwouldbealeaderofthepartyfromitsinceptionbutwas
subordinatetoBordiga,whoseemphasisondiscipline,centralism
andpurityofprinciplesdominatedtheparty'sprogrammeuntilthe
latterlosttheleadershipin1924.
AntonioGramsci(1922)
In1922GramscitravelledtoRussiaasarepresentativeofthenew
party.Here,hemetJuliaSchucht,ayoungviolinistwhomGramsci
marriedin1923andbywhomhehadtwosons,Delio(born1924)andGiuliano(born1926).[12]Gramsci
neversawhissecondson.[13]

TheRussianmissioncoincidedwiththeadventofFascisminItaly,andGramscireturnedwith
instructionstofoster,againstthewishesofthePCIleadership,aunitedfrontofleftistpartiesagainst
fascism.SuchafrontwouldideallyhavehadthePCIatitscentre,throughwhichMoscowwouldhave
controlledalltheleftistforces,butothersdisputedthispotentialsupremacy:socialistsdidhaveacertain
traditioninItalytoo,whilethecommunistpartyseemedrelativelyyoungandtooradical.Manybelieved
thataneventualcoalitionledbycommunistswouldhavefunctionedtooremotelyfrompoliticaldebate,
andthuswouldhaveruntheriskofisolation.

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Inlate1922andearly1923,BenitoMussolini'sgovernmentembarkedonacampaignofrepression
againsttheoppositionparties,arrestingmostofthePCIleadership,includingBordiga.Attheendof
1923,GramscitravelledfromMoscowtoVienna,wherehetriedtoreviveapartytornbyfactional
strife.

In1924Gramsci,nowrecognisedasheadofthePCI,gainedelectionasadeputyfortheVeneto.He
startedorganizingthelaunchoftheofficialnewspaperoftheparty,calledL'Unit(Unity),livingin
RomewhilehisfamilystayedinMoscow.AtitsLyonCongressinJanuary1926,Gramsci'stheses
callingforaunitedfronttorestoredemocracytoItalywereadoptedbytheparty.

In1926JosephStalin'smanoeuvresinsidetheBolshevikparty
movedGramscitowritealettertotheComintern,inwhichhe
deploredtheoppositionledbyLeonTrotsky,butalsounderlined
somepresumedfaultsoftheleader.Togliatti,inMoscowasa
representativeoftheparty,receivedtheletter,openedit,readit,and
decidednottodeliverit.Thiscausedadifficultconflictbetween
GramsciandTogliattiwhichtheynevercompletelyresolved.[14]

AntonioGramscicommemorative
plaque,MokhovayaStreet16,
Moscow.Theinscriptionreads
"Inthisbuildingin19221923
workedtheeminentfigureof
internationalcommunismandthe
labormovementandfounderof
theItalianCommunistParty
ANTONIOGRAMSCI."
Imprisonmentanddeath
On9November1926theFascist
governmentenactedanewwaveof
emergencylaws,takingasa
pretextanallegedattempton
Mussolini'slifeseveraldays
earlier.Thefascistpolicearrested
Gramsci,despitehisparliamentary
immunity,andbroughthimtothe
RomanprisonReginaCoeli.

Athistrial,Gramsci'sprosecutorstated,"Fortwentyyearswemust
stopthisbrainfromfunctioning".[15]Hereceivedanimmediate
sentenceof5yearsinconfinementontheislandofUsticaandthe
followingyearhereceivedasentenceof20yearsofprisoninTuri,
Gramsci'sgraveatthe
nearBari.Inprisonhishealthdeteriorated.In1932,aprojectfor
ProtestantCemeteryinRome
exchangingpoliticalprisoners(includingGramsci)betweenItalyand
theSovietUnionfailed.In1934hegainedconditionalfreedomon
healthgrounds,aftervisitinghospitalsinCivitavecchia,FormiaandRome.Hediedin1937,atthe
"Quisisana"HospitalinRomeattheageof46.HisashesareburiedintheProtestantCemeterythere.

InaninterviewarchbishopLuigideMagistris,formerheadoftheApostolicPenitentiaryoftheHolySee
statedthatduringGramsci'sfinalillness,he"returnedtothefaithofhisinfancy"and"diedtakingthe
sacraments."[16]However,ItalianStatedocumentsonhisdeathshowthatnoreligiousofficialwassent
fororreceivedbyGramsci.Otherwitnessaccountsofhisdeathalsodonotmentionanyconversionto
CatholicismorrecantationbyGramsciofhisatheism.[17]Cremation,whichwasbannedforCatholics,
andhisashesbeingburiedinaProtestantcemetery,wouldbothbefurtherevidencethathehadno
deathbedconversion.

Thought

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GramsciwasoneofthemostimportantMarxistthinkersofthetwentiethcentury,andaparticularlykey
thinkerinthedevelopmentofWesternMarxism.Hewrotemorethan30notebooksand3000pagesof
historyandanalysisduringhisimprisonment.Thesewritings,knownasthePrisonNotebooks,contain
Gramsci'stracingofItalianhistoryandnationalism,aswellassomeideasinMarxisttheory,critical
theoryandeducationaltheoryassociatedwithhisname,suchas:

Culturalhegemonyasameansofmaintainingandlegitimisingthecapitaliststate.
Theneedforpopularworkers'educationtoencouragedevelopmentofintellectualsfromthe
workingclass.
Ananalysisofthemoderncapitaliststatethatdistinguishesbetweenpoliticalsociety,which
dominatesdirectlyandcoercively,andcivilsociety,whereleadershipisconstitutedbymeansof
consent.
"Absolutehistoricism".
AcritiqueofeconomicdeterminismthatopposesfatalisticinterpretationsofMarxism.
Acritiqueofphilosophicalmaterialism.

Hegemony

HegemonywasatermpreviouslyusedbyMarxistssuchasVladimirIlyichLenintodenotethepolitical
leadershipoftheworkingclassinademocraticrevolution.[18]Gramscigreatlyexpandedthisconcept,
developinganacuteanalysisofhowtherulingcapitalistclassthebourgeoisieestablishesand
maintainsitscontrol.[19]

OrthodoxMarxismhadpredictedthatsocialistrevolutionwasinevitableincapitalistsocieties.Bythe
early20thcentury,nosuchrevolutionhadoccurredinthemostadvancednations.Capitalism,itseemed,
wasevenmoreentrenchedthanever.Capitalism,Gramscisuggested,maintainedcontrolnotjust
throughviolenceandpoliticalandeconomiccoercion,butalsothroughideology.Thebourgeoisie
developedahegemonicculture,whichpropagateditsownvaluesandnormssothattheybecamethe
"commonsense"valuesofall.Peopleintheworkingclass(andotherclasses)identifiedtheirowngood
withthegoodofthebourgeoisie,andhelpedtomaintainthestatusquoratherthanrevolting.

Tocounterthenotionthatbourgeoisvaluesrepresented"natural"or"normal"valuesforsociety,the
workingclassneededtodevelopacultureofitsown.Leninheldthatculturewas"ancillary"topolitical
objectives,butforGramsciitwasfundamentaltotheattainmentofpowerthatculturalhegemonybe
achievedfirst.InGramsci'sview,aclasscannotdominateinmodernconditionsbymerelyadvancingits
ownnarroweconomicinterests.Neithercanitdominatepurelythroughforceandcoercion.Rather,it
mustexertintellectualandmoralleadership,andmakealliancesandcompromiseswithavarietyof
forces.Gramscicallsthisunionofsocialforcesa"historicbloc",takingatermfromGeorgesSorel.This
blocformsthebasisofconsenttoacertainsocialorder,whichproducesandreproducesthehegemony
ofthedominantclassthroughanexusofinstitutions,socialrelations,andideas.Inthismanner,Gramsci
developedatheorythatemphasizedtheimportanceofthepoliticalandideologicalsuperstructureinboth
maintainingandfracturingrelationsoftheeconomicbase.

Gramscistatedthatbourgeoisculturalvaluesweretiedtofolklore,popularcultureandreligion,and
thereforemuchofhisanalysisofhegemoniccultureisaimedatthese.Hewasalsoimpressedbythe
influenceRomanCatholicismhadandthecaretheChurchhadtakentopreventanexcessivegap
developingbetweenthereligionofthelearnedandthatofthelesseducated.GramscisawMarxismasa
marriageofthepurelyintellectualcritiqueofreligionfoundinRenaissancehumanismandtheelements
oftheReformationthathadappealedtothemasses.ForGramsci,Marxismcouldsupersedereligion
onlyifitmetpeople'sspiritualneeds,andtodosopeoplewouldhavetothinkofitasanexpressionof
theirownexperience.

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ForGramsci,hegemonicdominanceultimatelyreliedona"consented"coercion,andina"crisisof
authority"the"masksofconsent"slipaway,revealingthefistofforce.

Intellectualsandeducation

Gramscigavemuchthoughttotheroleofintellectualsinsociety.Famously,hestatedthatallmenare
intellectuals,inthatallhaveintellectualandrationalfaculties,butnotallmenhavethesocialfunctionof
intellectuals.[20]Hesawmodernintellectualsnotastalkers,butaspracticallymindeddirectorsand
organiserswhoproducedhegemonythroughideologicalapparatusessuchaseducationandthemedia.
Furthermore,hedistinguishedbetweena"traditional"intelligentsiawhichseesitself(wrongly)asaclass
apartfromsociety,andthethinkinggroupswhicheveryclassproducesfromitsownranks"organically".
Such"organic"intellectualsdonotsimplydescribesociallifeinaccordancewithscientificrules,but
insteadarticulate,throughthelanguageofculture,thefeelingsandexperienceswhichthemassescould
notexpressforthemselves.TheneedtocreateaworkingclassculturerelatestoGramsci'scallforakind
ofeducationthatcoulddevelopworkingclassintellectuals,whosetaskwasnottointroduceMarxist
ideologyfromwithouttheproletariat,buttorenovateandmakecriticalofthestatusquothealready
existingintellectualactivityofthemasses.Hisideasaboutaneducationsystemforthispurpose
correspondwiththenotionofcriticalpedagogyandpopulareducationastheorizedandpractisedinlater
decadesbyPauloFreireinBrazil,andhavemuchincommonwiththethoughtofFrantzFanon.Forthis
reason,partisansofadultandpopulareducationconsiderGramscianimportantvoicetothisday.

Stateandcivilsociety

Gramsci'stheoryofhegemonyistiedtohisconceptionofthecapitaliststate.Gramscidoesnot
understandthe'state'inthenarrowsenseofthegovernment.Instead,hedividesitbetween'political
society'(thepolice,thearmy,legalsystem,etc.)thearenaofpoliticalinstitutionsandlegal
constitutionalcontroland'civilsociety'(thefamily,theeducationsystem,tradeunions,etc.)
commonlyseenasthe'private'or'nonstate'sphere,mediatingbetweenthestateandtheeconomy.He
stresses,however,thatthedivisionispurelyconceptualandthatthetwo,inreality,oftenoverlap.[21]
Thecapitaliststate,Gramsciclaims,rulesthroughforceplusconsent:politicalsocietyistherealmof
forceandcivilsocietyistherealmofconsent.

Gramsciproffersthatundermoderncapitalism,thebourgeoisiecanmaintainitseconomiccontrolby
allowingcertaindemandsmadebytradeunionsandmasspoliticalpartieswithincivilsocietytobemet
bythepoliticalsphere.Thus,thebourgeoisieengagesinpassiverevolutionbygoingbeyondits
immediateeconomicinterestsandallowingtheformsofitshegemonytochange.Gramscipositsthat
movementssuchasreformismandfascism,aswellasthe'scientificmanagement'andassemblyline
methodsofFrederickTaylorandHenryFordrespectively,areexamplesofthis.

DrawingfromMachiavelli,hearguesthat'TheModernPrince'therevolutionarypartyistheforce
thatwillallowtheworkingclasstodeveloporganicintellectualsandanalternativehegemonywithin
civilsociety.ForGramsci,thecomplexnatureofmoderncivilsocietymeansthata'warofposition',
carriedoutbyrevolutionariesthroughpoliticalagitation,thetradeunions,advancementofproletarian
culture,andotherwaystocreateanopposingcivilsocietywasnecessaryalongsidea'warofmaneuver'
adirectrevolutioninordertohaveasuccessfulrevolutionwithoutadangerofacounterrevolution
ordegeneration.

Despitehisclaimthatthelinesbetweenthetwomaybeblurred,Gramscirejectsthestateworshipthat
resultsfromidentifyingpoliticalsocietywithcivilsociety,aswasdonebytheJacobinsandFascists.He
believestheproletariat'shistoricaltaskistocreatea'regulatedsociety'anddefinesthe'witheringaway
ofthestate'asthefulldevelopmentofcivilsociety'sabilitytoregulateitself.
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Historicism

Gramsci,liketheearlyMarx,wasanemphaticproponentofhistoricism.[22]InGramsci'sview,all
meaningderivesfromtherelationbetweenhumanpracticalactivity(or"praxis")andthe"objective"
historicalandsocialprocessesofwhichitisapart.Ideascannotbeunderstoodoutsidetheirsocialand
historicalcontext,apartfromtheirfunctionandorigin.Theconceptsbywhichweorganiseour
knowledgeoftheworlddonotderiveprimarilyfromourrelationtothings(toanobjectivereality),but
ratherfromthesocial(economic,forMarx)relationsbetweenthebearersofthoseconcepts.Asaresult,
thereisnosuchthingasanunchanging"humannature".Furthermore,philosophyandsciencedonot
"reflect"arealityindependentofman.Rather,atheorycanbesaidtobe"true"when,inanygiven
historicalsituation,itexpressestherealdevelopmentaltrendofthatsituation.

ForthemajorityofMarxists,truthwastruthnomatterwhenandwhereitisknown,andscientific
knowledge(whichincludedMarxism)accumulatedhistoricallyastheadvanceoftruthinthiseveryday
sense.Onthisview,Marxism(ortheMarxisttheoryofhistoryandeconomics)couldnotbesaidtonot
belongtothe(largely)illusoryrealmofthesuperstructurebecauseitisascience.Incontrast,Gramsci
believedMarxismwas"true"inasociallypragmaticsense:byarticulatingtheclassconsciousnessofthe
proletariat,Marxismexpressedthe"truth"ofitstimesbetterthananyothertheory.Thisantiscientistic
andantipositiviststancewasindebtedtotheinfluenceofBenedettoCroce.However,itshouldbe
underlinedthatGramsci's"absolutehistoricism"brokewithCroce'stendencytosecureametaphysical
synthesisinhistorical"destiny".ThoughGramscirepudiatesthecharge,hishistoricalaccountoftruth
hasbeencriticisedasaformofrelativism.

Critiqueof"economism"

Inanotablepreprisonarticleentitled"TheRevolutionagainstDasKapital",Gramsciclaimedthatthe
OctoberRevolutioninRussiahadinvalidatedtheideathatsocialistrevolutionhadtoawaitthefull
developmentofcapitalistforcesofproduction.ThisreflectedhisviewthatMarxismwasnota
deterministphilosophy.Theprincipleofthecausal"primacy"oftheforcesofproduction,heheld,wasa
misconceptionofMarxism.Botheconomicchangesandculturalchangesareexpressionsofa"basic
historicalprocess",anditisdifficulttosaywhichspherehasprimacyovertheother.Thebelief,
widespreadwithintheworkers'movementinitsearliestyears,thatitwouldinevitablytriumphdueto
"historicallaws",was,inGramsci'sview,aproductofthehistoricalcircumstancesofanoppressedclass
restrictedmainlytodefensiveaction.Suchafatalisticdoctrinewastobeabandonedasahindranceonce
theworkingclassbecameabletotaketheinitiative.BecauseMarxismisa"philosophyofpraxis",it
cannotrelyonunseen"historicallaws"astheagentsofsocialchange.Historyisdefinedbyhuman
praxisandthereforeincludeshumanwill.Nonetheless,willpowercannotachieveanythingitlikesin
anygivensituation:whentheconsciousnessoftheworkingclassreachesthestageofdevelopment
necessaryforaction,itwillencounterhistoricalcircumstancesthatcannotbearbitrarilyaltered.
However,itisnotpredeterminedbyhistoricalinevitabilityor"destiny"astowhichofseveralpossible
developmentswilltakeplaceasaresult.

HiscritiqueofeconomismalsoextendedtothatpracticedbythesyndicalistsoftheItaliantradeunions.
Hebelievedthatmanytradeunionistshadsettledforareformist,gradualistapproachinthattheyhad
refusedtostruggleonthepoliticalfrontinadditiontotheeconomicfront.ForGramsci,muchasthe
rulingclasscanlookbeyonditsownimmediateeconomicintereststoreorganisetheformsofitsown
hegemony,somusttheworkingclasspresentitsowninterestsascongruouswiththeuniversal
advancementofsociety.WhileGramscienvisionedthetradeunionsasoneorganofacounter
hegemonicforceincapitalistsociety,thetradeunionleaderssimplysawtheseorganizationsasameans
toimproveconditionswithintheexistingstructure.Gramscireferredtotheviewsofthesetrade
unionistsas"vulgareconomism",whichheequatedtocovertreformismandevenliberalism.
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Critiqueofmaterialism

Byvirtueofhisbeliefthathumanhistoryandcollectivepraxisdeterminewhetheranyphilosophical
questionismeaningfulornot,Gramsci'sviewsruncontrarytothemetaphysicalmaterialismand'copy'
theoryofperceptionadvancedbyEngels[23][24]andLenin,[25]thoughhedoesnotexplicitlystatethis.
ForGramsci,Marxismdoesnotdealwitharealitythatexistsinandforitself,independentofhumanity.
[26]Theconceptofanobjectiveuniverseoutsideofhumanhistoryandhumanpraxiswas,inhisview,

analogoustobeliefinGod.[27]Gramscidefinedobjectivityintermsofauniversalintersubjectivitytobe
establishedinafuturecommunistsociety.[27]Naturalhistorywasthusonlymeaningfulinrelationto
humanhistory.Inhisviewphilosophicalmaterialismresultedfromalackofcriticalthought,[28]and
couldnotbesaidtoopposereligiousdogmaandsuperstition.[29]Despitethis,Gramsciresignedhimself
totheexistenceofthisarguablycruderformofMarxism.Marxismwasaphilosophyfortheproletariat,
asubalternclass,andthuscouldoftenonlybeexpressedintheformofpopularsuperstitionandcommon
sense.[30]Nonetheless,itwasnecessarytoeffectivelychallengetheideologiesoftheeducatedclasses,
andtodosoMarxistsmustpresenttheirphilosophyinamoresophisticatedguise,andattemptto
genuinelyunderstandtheiropponentsviews.

Influence
Gramsci'sthoughtemanatesfromtheorganizedleft,buthehasalsobecomeanimportantfigurein
currentacademicdiscussionswithinculturalstudiesandcriticaltheory.Politicaltheoristsfromthe
centerandtherighthavealsofoundinsightinhisconceptshisideaofhegemony,forexample,has
becomewidelycited.Hisinfluenceisparticularlystrongincontemporarypoliticalscience(seeNeo
gramscianism).Hisworkalsoheavilyinfluencedintellectualdiscourseonpopularcultureandscholarly
popularculturestudiesinwhichmanyhavefoundthepotentialforpoliticalorideologicalresistanceto
dominantgovernmentandbusinessinterests.

Hiscriticschargehimwithfosteringanotionofpowerstrugglethroughideas.TheyfindtheGramscian
approachtophilosophicalanalysis,reflectedincurrentacademiccontroversies,tobeinconflictwith
openended,liberalinquirygroundedinapoliticalreadingsoftheclassicsofWesternculture.
Gramscianswouldcounterthatthoughtsof"liberalinquiry"and"apoliticalreading"areutterlynaive
fortheGramscians,theseareintellectualdevicesusedtomaintainthehegemonyofthecapitalistclass.
TocreditorblameGramsciforthetravailsofcurrentacademicpoliticsisanoddturnofhistory,since
Gramscihimselfwasneveranacademic,andwasinfactdeeplyintellectuallyengagedwithItalian
culture,history,andcurrentliberalthought.

Asasocialist,Gramsci'slegacyhasbeendisputed.[31]Togliatti,wholedtheParty(renamedasItalian
CommunistParty,PCI)afterWorldWarIIandwhosegradualistapproachwasaforerunnerto
Eurocommunism,claimedthatthePCI'spracticesduringthisperiodwerecongruentwithGramscian
thought.Others,however,havearguedthatGramsciwasaLeftCommunist,whowouldlikelyhavebeen
expelledfromhisPartyifprisonhadnotpreventedhimfromregularcontactwithMoscowduringthe
leadershipofJosephStalin.

Inculture

OccupationsGramsciisacentralcharacterinTrevorGriffiths's1970playOccupationsaboutworkers
takingovercarfactoriesinTurinin1920.

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AmajorroadgoingthroughthelowerportionofGenoa,alongthecoast,isnamedafterAntonio
Gramsci.

Bibliography
PrePrisonWritings(CambridgeUniversityPress)
ThePrisonNotebooks(threevolumes)(ColumbiaUniversityPress)
SelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooks(InternationalPublishers)

Seealso
Category:Italiananarchists
Culturalhegemony
SubalternStudies
Reformism
Articulation
Risorgimento
PraxisSchool
Liberationtheology
AntonioGramsciBattalion

References
1. DanteL.Germino(1990).AntonioGramsci:ArchitectofaNewPolitics(http://books.google.com/?
id=kBmXoVa9HaYC&pg=PA157&dq=Antonio+Gramsci+albanian).LouisianaPressUniversity.p.157.
ISBN0807115533.
2. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xviii.
3. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xviiixix.
4. Crehan,Kate.Gramsci,Culture,andAnthropology.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.2002.page14.
5. DanielM.Markowicz,"Gramsci,Antonio,"TheEncyclopediaofLiteraryandCulturalTheory,Editedby:
MichaelRyan,eISBN9781405183123,Printpublicationdate:2011[1]
(http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405183123_chunk_g97814051831239_ss15)
6. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xix.
7. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xx.
8. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xxv.
9. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xxi.
10. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xxx.
11. Hoare,Quentin&Smith,GeoffreyNowell,(1971)."Introduction".InAntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe
PrisonNotebooks,pp.xviixcvi.NewYork:InternationalPublishers,p.xxxxxxi.
12. Picture(http://www.antoniogramsci.com/moglie_figli.htm)ofGramsci'swifeandtheirtwosonsattheItalian
languageAntonioGramsciWebsite(http://www.antoniogramsci.com).
13. Crehan,Kate.Gramsci,Culture,andAnthropology.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.2002.page17.
14. GiuseppeVacca.VitaePensieriDiAntonioGramsci.Einaudi.Torino2012
15. AntonioGramsci,SelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooks,LawrenceandWishart,1971,ISBN0853152802,
p.lxxxix.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci 9/11
8/11/2015 AntonioGramsciWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

16. Owen,Richard(25November2008)."ThefounderofItalianCommunismhaddeathbedconversion"
(http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article5232492.ece).TheSundayTimes.Retrieved
4December2010.
17. AllenJr.,JohnL.(25November2008)."FounderofItalianCommunismdiedagoodCatholic,Vatican
prelatesays"(http://web.archive.org/web/20081219143748/http://ncrcafe.org/node/2300).NationalCatholic
ReporterConversationCafe.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://ncronline.org/news/founderitalian
communismdiedgoodcatholicvaticanprelatesays)on19December2008.Retrieved22March2014.
18. PerryAnderson,1976.TheAntinomiesofAntonioGramsci.NewLeftReview.,p.1517.
19. PerryAnderson,1976.TheAntinomiesofAntonioGramsci.NewLeftReview.,p.20.
20. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.9.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN085315280
2.
21. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.160.InternationalPublishers:1992.ISBN07178
0397X.
22. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.404407.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN0
853152802.
23. FriedrichEngels:AntiDuehring(http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/antiduhring/index.htm)
24. FriedrichEngels:DialecticsofNature(http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/index.htm)
25. Lenin:MaterialismandEmpirioCriticism
(http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/index.htm).
26. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.440448.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN0
853152802.
27. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.445.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN085315
2802.
28. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.444445.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN0
853152802.
29. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.420.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN085315
2802.
30. Gramsci,Antonio.SelectionsfromthePrisonBooks,p.419425.LawrenceandWishart:1982.ISBN0
853152802.
31. PerryAnderson,1976.TheAntinomiesofAntonioGramsci.NewLeftReview.,p.67.

Furtherreading
Anderson,Perry(1976).TheAntinomiesofAntonioGramsci.London:NewLeftReview.
Boggs,Carl(1984).TheTwoRevolutions:GramsciandtheDilemmasofWesternMarxism.
London:SouthEndPress.ISBN0896082261.
Bottomore,Tom(1992).TheDictionaryofMarxistThought.BlackwellPublishers.ISBN0631
180826.
Gramsci,Antonio(1971).SelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooks.InternationalPublishers.ISBN0
71780397X.
HarmanChrisGramsci,thePrisonNotebooksandPhilosophy(http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?
id=308&issue=114)
Jay,Martin(1986).MarxismandTotality:TheAdventuresofaConceptfromLukacsto
Habermas.UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ISBN0520057422.
Joll,James(1977).AntonioGramsci.NewYork:VikingPress.ISBN0670129429.
Kolakowski,Leszek(1981).MainCurrentsofMarxism,Vol.III:TheBreakdown.NewYork:
OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0192851098.
Maitan,Livio(1978).IlmarxismorivoluzionariodiAntonioGramsci.Milano:Nuoveedizioni
internazionali.
Pastore,Gerardo(2011),AntonioGramsci.Questionesocialeequestionesociologica.Livorno:
Belforte.ISBN9788874670598.
Santucci,AntonioA.(2010).AntonioGramsci.MonthlyReviewPress.ISBN9781583672105.

Externallinks
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci 10/11
8/11/2015 AntonioGramsciWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Gramsci'swritingsatMIA
(http://www.marxists.org/archive/gramsci/index.htm) Wikiquotehasquotations
TheInternationalGramsciSociety relatedto:AntonioGramsci
(http://www.internationalgramscisociety.org/)
"NotesonLanguage"(http://journal.telospress.com/). WikimediaCommonshas
TELOS mediarelatedtoAntonio
FondazioneInstitutoGramsci Gramsci.
(http://www.fondazionegramsci.org/)
SpecialissueofInternationalSocialismjournalwithacollectiononGramsci'slegacy
(http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?s=contents&issue=114)
RobertoRobaina:Gramsciandrevolution:anecessaryclarification
(http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=162&issue=109)
DanJakopovich:RevolutionandthePartyinGramsci'sThought:AModernApplication
(http://internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1555)
Gramsci'scontributiontothefieldofadultandpopulareducation
(http://www.infed.org/thinkers/etgram.htm)
ThelifeandworkofAntonioGramsci(http://www.theory.org.uk/ctrgram.htm)
(Italian)AntonioGramsci,18911937(http://www.antoniogramsci.com/)
TheWholePictureGramscianEpistemologythroughthePraxisPrism
(http://corkonlinelawreview.com/editions/2003/2003ix.pdf)
GramsciLinksArchive(http://www.victoryiscertain.com/gramsci/)
BobJessop'slecturesonGramsci(http://bobjessop.org/2014/04/21/lecturesongramsci/)

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