MODULE 3

Degradation and
Loss of Freshwater
Resources

Global Environmental Studies (GES) Course

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
a. What are the goals, objectives and teaching methods of the class?

The module is designed to focus on freshwater. It explores critical water

management issues as well as different water systems, water needs,
water pollution, water scarcity and the effects of water privatization.

The Freshwater Resources Module consists of four (4) contact lectures

with participants over a two (2) week period.

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
b. What problem set are we going to tackle and how?

Lecture 1 introduces the freshwaters resources module and defines

international waters.

Lecture 2 highlights the fact that everything works with water, the
hydrological cycle and freshwater ecosystems.

Lecture 3 directs attention to water crises, water needs, water quality,

water pollution and eutrophication.

Lecture 4 concentrates on society and water, water scarcity, water

conservation, climate change and its effect on water resources,
transboundary water, and the concept of water privatization.
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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
c. How to define International Waters?

Water knows no political boundaries. A water body or water basin that is

shared by two or more countries, is defined as an International Water.

The term International Waters, also referred to as trans-boundary waters,

applies to areas or regions where any of the following types of bodies of
water transcend their global boundary/boundaries: oceans, large marine
ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries,
rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (eg. aquifers), small pools of water
such as ponds and wetlands.

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According to the United Nations Law of the Sea, coastal states may declare a Territorial Sea
that allows them to exercise national sovereignty over a belt of coastal waters that extends 12
nautical miles (22 km) from the baseline (low water mark). They may further exert limited
control over an additional 12nm band extending from the edge of the 12nm Territorial Sea in
an area called the Contiguous Zone. Countries may also declare an Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ) that extends to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the Territorial Sea baseline. Countries
may control all economic activities in their EEZ. International Waters lie beyond the EEZ of
coastal nations and represent an area where no country has authority over another.
Global International Water Assessment (GIWA) Map of 2004:
GIWA is a water programme led by the United Nations Environment Programme. The aim of
the programme is to assess the ecological status and the causes of environmental problems
in 66 water areas in the world. The assessment focuses on the environmental conditions
and problems in transboundary (cross-national) waters, comprising marine, coastal and
freshwater areas, surface waters and ground waters.
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Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are relatively large areas of ocean space of approximately
200,000km or greater, adjacent to the continents in coastal waters where primary
productivity is generally higher than in open ocean areas.

This global map illustrates the boundaries and average primary productivity of the 64 LMEs
of the world (from www.lme.noaa.gov). 7
This map shows the global circular current systems (including some of the ocean currents
driving the Large Marine Ecosystems). 8
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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, GOALS
AND METHODS
Currently there are several International Water agreements, laws,
policies and treaties that govern the use of international waters. Some of
them include: the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Global
Agreement and the Atlantic Coast of West and Central Africa Regional
Agreement under the Regional Seas Program of United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP).

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) International Waters focal area was
established in 1991, to support countries to jointly manage their
transboundary surface water basins, groundwater basins, and coastal and
marine systems by enabling the sharing of benefits from their utilisation.
Through the International Waters focal area, the GEF attends to a unique
demand in the global water agenda: nurturing transboundary
collaboration and building trust between countries that often find
themselves locked in difficult and long-lasting water-use conflicts.
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LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
a. The Hydrological Cycle

Water moves between the land surface, groundwater, the oceans and the
atmosphere due to the unique properties of the water molecules. This is
the globally important hydrologic cycle.

The cycle is driven by energy from the sun. Water molecules evaporate
from all water surfaces on Earth into moisture in the atmosphere,
through a process called evaporation. In the atmosphere, the water
molecules gather and as they cool off they form small droplets that fall
back to the ground through precipitation. The water molecules remain
the same throughout this process, they only change form and place.

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LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
Oceans contain 97.5% of all water in the hydrologic cycle. The remaining
2.5% comprises the freshwater on the planet which is found in rivers,
lakes, ground water, ice caps and moisture in the atmosphere.

The hydrologic cycle is made up by five key elements:

Precipitation;
Runoff;
Surface and groundwater storage;
Evaporation/transpiration; and
Condensation.

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 LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER

The Hydrological Cycle

(Thomas V. Cech, Principles of Water Resources: History, Development, Management, and
Policy, Chapter 1 and 2)
LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
b. Everything works with water

Water is odorless, colourless and tasteless.

The earth is made up of more than 70% of water. Of this, more than 90%
of the earths water is salt water and is contained in our oceans.

Only a small percentage of the earths water consists of freshwater which

is stored in sources such as groundwater, Icecaps and glaciers, rivers,
swamps and lakes.

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Distribution of the worlds water supply in the Hydrological Cycle
(Thomas V. Cech, Principles of Water Resources: History, Development, Management, and
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Policy, Chapter 1 and 2)
Freshwater is stored in sources such as groundwater, Icecaps and glaciers, rivers (i.e. 16Orange
River), swamps and lakes (i.e. Lake Victoria)
LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
Water makes up a large portion of our earth, our body, the food we eat
and beverages we drink.

Water is used to clean oneself, clothing, dishes, and everything else

around.

Living organisms need water to survive, plants need water to make food,
and animals also depend on water resources, as do most other living
organisms.

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Humans and all living organisms needs water to survive
LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
Human uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household,
recreational and environmental activities, as well as transportation.

Most human uses of water require freshwater, such as:

Agricultural usage includes irrigation;
Industrial usage includes hydroelectric dams, power plants, chemical processes
and cooling;
Recreational usage includes swimming, water skiing, boating, golf courses etc.;
Environmental usage includes maintenance of natural systems; and
Transportation.

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Water
used for
agricultural
purposes
such as
irrigation
systems

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LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
c. Description of freshwater ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are a subcategory of the Earth's aquatic ecosystems.

They include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, and wetlands. Unlike the
marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems have a lower salt content and are
classified according to various factors such as location, climate, light penetration,
temperature, biodiversity and vegetation.

Freshwater ecosystems are imperative to the existence of living organisms, in

particular human life and social and economic well-being. These ecosystems
provide many valuable commodities and services to societies. Societies rely
heavily on rivers, lakes, wetlands and underground aquifers to supply them with
drinking water, daily activities such as bathing, cooking, and irrigation of crops,
survival of livestock, transportation, recreation and the operation of industrial
processes.

Services provided by freshwater ecosystems include flood control,

transportation, recreation, purification of human and industrial wastes, homes
for flora and fauna, production of fish and other foods and sought-after goods.
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Freshwater ecosystems
LECTURE 2: EVERYTHING WORKS
WITH WATER
Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic ecosystems or still water,
and lotic ecosystems or flowing water. The structure and functioning of
freshwater ecosystems are linked to the rhythms of the natural hydrologic
variability, and the presence of watersheds (an area of land that separates
waters flowing to different rivers, basins or seas) and catchments (an area
where water is collected by the natural landscape), of which they are a part.

Common chemical stresses to the health of freshwater ecosystem include,

pollution from sources such as industrial waste, sewage, fertilizer runoff
from urban lawns and rural croplands, acidification, eutrophication and
copper (and possibly other heavy metals too) and pesticide contamination.

Freshwater ecosystems are often described as biological assets that are

both disproportionately rich and disproportionately imperilled (Ecological
Society of America, 2003). These systems require naturally varying flows of
water and sediment, and reduced pollution levels (be it effluent, plastics,
waste, etc.) in order to deliver the essential goods and services that societies
and ecosystems depend on.

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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

a. Water needs

Water is essential for all life on earth. We need water as a basic part of our
lives, functioning of our bodies. We cannot be deprived of water and survive
for more than a few days. There exists an intimate relation between water
and life. Water is essential for all socio-economic development and for
maintaining healthy and productive ecosystems.

Our bodies need water to function optimally, we also need water to maintain
a basic standard of personal and domestic hygiene sufficient to maintain
health. Water, sanitation and health are very closely inter-related and cannot
be separated.

We need water to grow our food, generate our power and run our industries.
Water for basic household needs and services constitutes a relatively small
amount of water use compared to the total quantities of water used for
industrial uses.

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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

b. Water quality

Each component of the hydrological cycle (precipitation, surface water runoff, surface
water and groundwater storage, and evaporation) can change the quality of a water
body:
Precipitation in the form of rain or snow can carry airborne pollutants to the surface of the earth.
Surface water runoff can cause erosion and transport sediments and pollutants.
Groundwater recharge can leach chemicals into aquifers, and evaporation can elevate concentrations of
pollutants in water bodies by reducing the total volume of stored water.

Each natural component of the hydrologic cycle can therefore have a negative effect
on surface and groundwater quality if we do not manage our waste, transport,
agricultural and industrial processes properly.

Humans also have a tremendous effect on water quality. We contribute waste to the
environment through consumption of resources and can interrupt natural processes
through destruction of ecosystems and pollution. The rapidly growing global
population more than seven (7) billion people, and associated need for resources,
and space and the increasing production of waste, is contributing to the deterioration
of our existing water resources.
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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

c. Water pollution

Water pollution can occur either naturally or through human activity. Water
is considered to be polluted if it is unusable for a particular purpose. Natural
processes, such as chemical reactions between rocks and water, erosion and
sedimentation caused by flowing water, percolation of surface water into
groundwater aquifers, and the residence time of water stored in rivers, lakes,
wetlands, and aquifers, can all create or compound pollution. In some
locations, water is naturally of such poor quality that plants and animals
cannot survive.

Unfortunately, human activities have resulted in high levels of water

pollution in many locations around the world, for example, in streams, lakes
and estuaries. Leading pollutants in these impaired waters include excessive
levels of nutrients, metals (primarily mercury), sediments, and organic
enrichment. Runoff from urban areas and agricultural lands is the primary
sources of these pollutants.
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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

Generally water quality is classified in four or five categories; A through D,

with A being the highest quality. The five letter classification system,
reflecting the actual use or intended best use of a water body, is as follows:

Class Best Water Use

AA and A Drinking and all other uses
B Swimming/recreation
C Boating, fish propagation, and fishing
D Fishing

The purpose of these classifications is to alert the public to appropriate ad

safe water use activities, based on water quality, in local rivers, streams,
and lakes.
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 LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS
Point source and nonpoint source pollution

Where does pollution come from, and how is it transported to rivers, lakes,
wetlands, and estuaries? Pollution sources are divided into two categories: point
source and non-point source.

Point source pollution is generally defined as contamination discharge through a

pipe or other discrete, identifiable location. Pollution from a point source is
relatively easy to quantify, and impacts can be directly evaluated. Nonpoint
source pollution is generated from broad, diffuse sources that can be very
difficult to identify and quantify. Nonpoint source pollutants enter rivers, lakes,
and other waste bodies through surface and groundwater movement, and even
from the atmosphere through precipitation.

Point source and nonpoint source pollution result from human activities. It is
important to separate these activities from natural water quality degradation,
sometimes referred to as background pollution or natural contamination.
Naturally degraded water quality can be caused by chemical reactions between
water and metals and minerals, natural erosion, forest litter, natural migration of
salts, and other normal processes of the hydrological cycle.
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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS
Examples of point source pollution may include:

Factories and wastewater treatment plants;

Landfills;
Abandoned Mines; and
Underground and above ground storage tanks.

Examples of nonpoint source pollution may include:

Lawns, gardens, and golf courses;

Agricultural practices;
Street refuse;
Construction activities;
Stormwater runoff; and
Dredging activities.
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Point source and nonpoint source pollution
LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

d. Eutrophication

Eutrophication is when the water body becomes enriched with

an oversupply of nutrients.

Eutrophic waters are characterized by the presence of a lower

number of aquatic species due to the dominance of algae. A
eutrophic lake contains a large amount of algae but little else.

This state is caused by excessive nutrients in water that provide

food for algae and other excessive aquatic plant growth.

Eutrophic waters place a high demand on dissolved oxygen.

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LECTURE 3: WATER CRISIS

Organic materials, particularly nutrients such as phosphorous

and nitrates, cause the microbes decomposing them to
consume oxygen from the water, thereby creating anaerobic
conditions.

Eutrophication, though a natural process, is accelerated by

human activities that introduce excessive nutrients into a water
body.

A major goal of water management is to reduce or mitigate

eutrophication.

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A dead African Buffalo at Loskop Dam Nature Reserve in South Africa due to Eutrophication
LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

a. Water scarcity

Water scarcity involves the imbalances between the availability of

water and demand.

Water scarcity may result from either physical water scarcity

(inadequate natural resources) or economic water scarcity (as a result
of poor management of available water resources), or both.

Symptoms of water scarcity includes environmental degradation, and

declining groundwater levels. Addressing water scarcity requires
actions at local, national and river basin levels, and may require
corporation across international borders.
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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

Climate change is increasingly affecting water supply in many regions.

In South Africa, a water-scare country, as well as many other

countries, rains that usually replenish the natural water reservoirs can
be variable.

A number of places already suffer significant water shortages. In arid

and semi-arid regions, water scarcity is a result of water shortage,
combined with population growth and economic development.

Also important to note is that unreliable rainfall, demand from

agriculture and industries, have resulted in water supply problems
which cannot be satisfied entirely by the construction of large dams.
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Women and girls in Africa without regular access to water, spend hours collecting water
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for
domestic use
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Animals and plants need water to survive. Many areas in Africa experience water scarcity
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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

b. Water conservation

One needs to understand the importance of water as a resource

for survival in order to understand the reasons for conserving
water.

Water conservation has become an essential need and practice

in all regions of the world, including regions where water
resources are abundant.

In simpler terms, water conservation means to use water

responsibly, use less water, manage human activities so they do
not negatively impact on water quality, and to recycle water so
that it can be used again. 44
LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

There are a number of ways to reduce the amounts of water we use daily within
and around households:
Check water sources for leaks and repair if necessary;
Shower rather than bath, also take shorter showers;
Turn off the water while brushing your teeth;
Rinse razors in a sink instead of running clean water over it each time;
Avoid washing small loads of washing in the washing machine, or dishes in
the dishwasher;
Avoid watering plants outside during the warmest hours of the day, when the
sun is at its peak;
Choose environmentally friendly fertilizers, pesticides and household
chemicals; and
Dispose of liquid and solid waste responsibly and avoid flushing chemicals,
oils or other pollutants down the drain.

Water conservation is not only an essential need, it will also save monies on
utility bills.
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How can we save water?
LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

c. Climate change and its effects on water resources

Climate variability and change is a phenomenon we can no longer

ignore as its effects have become increasingly evident and extreme
worldwide.

Climate change is increasingly impacting water resources negatively.

As temperatures rise, so does evaporation and we can expect

significant impact on our freshwater resources and as well as
droughts.

Rising temperatures are also contributing to the melting of glaciers.

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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

Climate change through its impact on the quantity, variability, timing, form,
and intensity of precipitation, will continue to impact water resources,
although we have yet to understand the exact underlying processes involved.

In some areas, rainfall is expected to increase as a result of climate change,

potentially leading to floods and extreme storm events.

In other areas, rainfall is expected to decrease leading to droughts. In South

Africa, climate change is most likely to lead to increased temperatures, and
an increase in the frequency, but also intensity of precipitation.

This means that South Africa might not be able to harness the potential
benefits of an increase in precipitation because it will be in the form of
flooding.
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Consequences of climate change
LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

Climate change affects water resources by:

Increased evaporation rates;

Higher proportion of precipitation received as rain instead of
snow;
Earlier and shorter runoff seasons;
Increased temperatures;
Decreased water quality (inland and coastal areas); and
Physical and economic consequences.

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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

d. Transboundary water (water wars and the need to cooperate in

management of water)

Tensions over transboundary freshwater resources may arise due to

pressures on water resources as a result of:

Water scarcity,
growing populations,
agriculture production,
Industrial development,
increased demand and utilisation,
increased pollution;
as well as the variability of precipitation associated with the global climate
change phenomena.

The conflicts may arise between or within countries, between competing

sectoral user groups or between sectoral government agencies within
countries.
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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

The conflicts may arise between or within countries, between

competing sectoral user groups or between sectoral
government agencies within countries.

Although water use is frequently seen as a source of conflict,

water management can be seen as a tool for cooperation
between countries or user groups. The need for recognized
sustainable approaches to enhance international cooperation
for the management of transboundary waters therefore needs
to be carefully established, implemented and monitored.

Some of the factors that need to be taken into consideration

when managing transboundary water resources include
amongst others: social, political, economic, cultural and
physiographic conditions of the countries sharing this
waterbody.
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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

e. The concept of water privatization

Water resources are a common good that are mainly governed by public
organizations such as local governments. Water is an essential resource
and the public sector has held the responsibility for maintaining it for a
very long time.

The evolving concept of water privatization involves participation of the

private sector in the provision of water services. Water privatization
lends the opportunity for private sector to control the maintenance of
water systems and resources. For example, a private company might
work together with the local municipality to maintain a water treatment
plant or wastewater facility.

With water privatization, government can sell variable rights to water

resources, from 100% to 51% or a smaller stake or percentage, as long as
the private sector is given the managerial control.
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LECTURE 4: SOCIETY AND WATER

There are many opposing views on water privatization, while

some suggest that the private sector can improve the quality
and availability of water, others suggest that privatization is
business as usual and may result in even greater scarcity of
essential resources by the most marginalized sectors of
society who may be unable to pay.

The public sector both within South Africa and globally has
generally become more aware of the involvement of private
companies and the focus on profits to the detriment of the
environmental and long-term costs of private water
practices.

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 Cartoon depiction of the
water privatisation
sharks to be able to
sell their
products/services

Cartoon depiction of
water privatisation
merely for profits

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Community members opposing water privatisation
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The importance of consultation with user groups for access to water
ASSESSMENT:

Assignment Question: Module 3: Degradation of Freshwater Resources

In 2000 3000 words, critically analyse key challenges facing freshwater

resources in South Africa and the opportunities to deal with the challenges in
a sustainable manner.

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