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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to humbly present this project with the grace of the almighty to Mr.
Pratyush kaushik. I would first of all like to express my most sincere gratitude
to Mr. Pratyush kaushik for his paramount support and encouragement. I am
thankful for being given the honour of doing this research paper on
RHETORIC IN SPEECH. I am thankful to the library staff and committee
members of all the conveniences which played a major role in the completion of
this paper.
Last but by far the most important, I would like to thank God for keeping me in
good health and senses to complete this project.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
II. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RHETORICAL DEVICE AND FIGURES OF
SPEECH
III. COMMON RHETORIC EXAMPLES
IV. EXAMPLE OF RHETORIC IN LITERATURE
V. FUNCTIONS OF RHETORIC
VI. HOW TO USE RHETORIC IN A SPEECH
VII. CONCLUSION
Bibliography
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I. INTRODUCTION
Giving a precise, concrete definition of rhetoric may be a somewhat difficult task as it is a
field of many aspects and scholars. Originating back to the ancient Greek and Roman
philosophers Plato, Aristotle and Cicero from Before the Christian Era, the field of rhetoric
has been studied and tested through thousands of years by millions of people. Today, rhetoric
enjoys a status of high importance and is an acknowledged field of research within the
academic world.
In classical antiquity, the definition of rhetoric was ars bene decendi, the art of speaking
well in public (Nash 1989) (Charteris-Black 2011: 7). In ancient Greece, rhetoric was also
defined as the art of writing well in prose (Bryant 1953: 403), which meant using all the
available means of persuasion to direct the truth. As more research has been conducted within
the field of rhetoric, these definitions have expanded and today it is widely accepted that
rhetoric is constituted by numerous elements, for example the rhetor (or the orator), context,
audience, persuasion, and other elements such as the five canons of rhetoric: invention,
arrangement, style, memory, and delivery (Covino and Joliffe 1995: 10).
One of the most acknowledged philosophers within the field of rhetoric was Aristotle, who
wrote the famous work Rhetoric. Aristotle defines rhetoric as the faculty of observing in any
given case the available means of persuasion [] (Aristotle 2004: 7). Furthermore, he
identifies three appeals or means of persuasion called pisteis that affect an audience: ethos,
which is the authority, credibility and moral values of the rhetor; pathos, which is the
emotional appeal to the audience; and logos, which is the appeal of reasoning and logic that
the audience and the rhetor share (Covino and Joliffe 1995: 15-17). Together these appeals
interact in the rhetorical situation to persuade the audience of the intentions of the rhetor.
Finally, Covino and Joliffe offer a more contemporary definition of rhetoric: Rhetoric is a
primarily verbal, situationally contingent, epistemic art that is both philosophical and
practical and gives rise to potentially active texts1 (Covino and Joliffe 1995: 5). Thus,
rhetoric is the ability to speak or write in a manner that will persuade your audience of your
ideas and agenda and which allows them to create their world views and change their minds
according to your words.
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The objective of the research is to be familiar with the art of speech being
practiced from many years and to know its uses in speech in modern world
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Doctrinal mode of research has been adopted that is, various literary works and
reports from the secondary sources, different websites and journals, using the
internet and primary resource, library, were used extensively in collecting the
data and information essential for this study. I have tried to be analytical in
writing this project.
HYPOTHESIS
The big idea is that in any form of writing or speech-giving the speaker or
writer must always think hard about the audience, the situation, the aim of the
speech and what the audience already thinks about the topic. Rhetoric is
centrally about how a speaker presents him or herself to an audience, and about
how to assemble stories, arguments and emotional appeals which will persuade
that audience
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Not all theories of meaning have a concept of "literal language" (see literal and
figurative language). Under theories that do not, figure of speech is not an
entirely coherent concept.
Rhetoric originated as the study of the ways in which a source text can be
transformed to suit the goals of the person reusing the material. For this goal,
classical rhetoric detected four fundamental operations that can be used to
transform a sentence or a larger portion of a text. They are: expansion,
abridgement, switching, transferring.
Rhetorical devices are used to convey a particular meaning with the aim of
persuasion or provoking an argument about a topic. These devices are mostly
used in an argumentative or oratory environment were eloquence is necessary.
Rhetorical devices are not strongly guided by grammatical mechanics but are
mainly concerned with arrangement, style, delivery, memory and invention.
These devices include sarcasm, metaphors and irony among other constructs.
For instance a statement by Abraham Lincoln when he stated that his political
rival "dived down deeper into the sea of knowledge and come up drier than any
other man he knew is well placed to show use of rhetorical devices. This
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statement uses both irony and a metaphor to persuade the audience that the rival
did not benefit from education.
Literary devices are used to create the compression of ideas and uniqueness of
expression that envelops story in metaphor, imagery and symbolism. Literary
devices are attended to directly in the analysis, interpretation and appreciation
of literature while they indirectly guide, generate and enhance (foreground)
feelings, moods, tones, suspense and expectations for the reader of literature,
which includes theatrical drama and poetry (in poetry, literary devices are called
poetic devices).
Examples of literary devices include the literary element of plot, which is the
sequence of events that determines a story, and the literary technique of
flashback, which reveals plot in an a-chronological pattern and generates
suspense. Mood is another literary element (also called atmosphere) that
governs how a reader responds emotionally to a story and its setting (compare
the mood of Poe's works with the mood of Austen's works). Another example of
a literary device is the literary technique of oxymoron. For instance, in the
phrase terribly beautiful the two words are used together to add emphasis but
refer to each others' opposite meaning creating an oxymoron of contradictory
meaning.
Figure of speech: 'A mode of expression in which words are used out of their
literal meaning or out of their ordinary use; for instance, hyperbole, simile,
metaphor.'
Literary device: 'a literary or linguistic technique that produces a specific effect,
esp. a figure of speech, narrative style, or plot mechanism.
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Now we see how these different examples of rhetorical devices work. We can
use rhetorical devices in our own writing to create more interesting or
persuasive content.
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V. FUNCTIONS OF RHETORIC
Hart and Daughton wrote that throughout history, great rhetoric has been poetic
as well as pragmatic. But it does not simply involve diurnal scribbles and
poetic verses. It quite frequently involves careful attention to the messages of
daily life (Hart & Daughton 2). One must recognize the importance of kairos
(the right time or opportunity) and heed rhetorical artifacts, the leftovers of
rhetorical acts that serve as records that remain and can be reexamined after
discourse. This further bolsters the sturdy belief that rhetoric can serve not only
as a pedestrian art form, but also as a socially-bettering medium of
communication. Great rhetoric regardless of underlying themes or central
aims successfully expresses ones thoughts and emotions, and also draws on
our most basic human commonalities and uses simple language with elegance
(Hart & Daughton 6).
Focusing on such principles, consider the role of arguably the greatest rhetor of
the current era, President Barack Obama. He must analyze situations,
understand his constraints, adapt to his audiences, and convey policy
recommendations and kairotic discourse. All the while, he must pose and
defend an exigence, a controlling and organizing principle Bitzer described as
an imperfection marked by urgency a defect, an obstacle, something waiting
to be done an exigence is rhetorical when it is capable of positive
modification and when positive modification requires discourse or can be
assisted by discourse (Bitzer 6-7). Obamas speeches mainly function as
pragmatic forms of rhetoric, because they offer answers to the questions of the
nation. But in a poetic way, his rhetoric also asks new questions, exploring
them with the audience as a sort of public mediation of thought and action. The
presidential role exemplifies the duality of effective rhetoric.
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Rhetoric does not manipulate audiences, but rather offers them choices. It aims
not to exploit, but rather to help the listener or reader explore the rhetors
perspective. The rhetor must narrow the audiences options for making these
choices, so ethos (the rhetors character), pathos (the rhetors appeal to the
audiences emotions), and logos (the rhetors appeal to logic) are all imperative
to the effectiveness of delivery. The user of rhetoric peddles choices, even
though most people naturally resist making choices unless forced to do so. And
if forced to do so, people also naturally resist having their search for a solution
constrained by someone else (Hart & Daughton 7). The rhetor must help by
offering choices, examples, or endorsements without appearing gauche,
overbearing, or unworthy of the audiences support.
However, rhetoric does better the global society because it helps us learn what
other people think and also learn our own minds about things (Hart &
Daughton 9). Rhetorical discourse uncovers an individuals internal truths and
personal perspectives. And by conveying a message, and communicating ones
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knowledge, both the rhetor and the audience learn about their own life, as well
as each others role in life. By helping the collective members of society adapt
to each other, and aiding a better understanding between the worlds diverse
cohabitants, rhetoric further assists the act of peddling new choices for positive
change. Again, rhetoric exhibits its sheer power.
Plato recognized in Gorgias that language is a powerful force for moving
people to action, going so far as to say that language could work on a persons
spirit as powerfully as drugs worked on the body. He taught his students that
language could bewitch people, could jolt them out of their everyday awareness
into a new awareness from which they could see things differently hence its
persuasive force (Crowley & Hawhee 23). Why, then, did Plato refuse to
accept rhetorics definitive power amongst persuasive discourse?
rhetorical discourse, and have undoubtedly changed the way you think in many
ways. This, again, is the fascinating art of rhetoric.
Rhetoric empowers writers and public speakers, and elongates the time that
those writers and speakers draw upon. With every word they create, and affect
audiences with, the world moves. The people of the world change with the
everyday use of rhetoric. And if such change continues to include successfully
convincing others to make positive choices, rhetoric will retain its ultimate
power by continually facilitating education, adaptation, compromise, and
coexistence throughout audiences across the globe.
Your loved ones were daring and brave, and they had that special grace,
that special spirit that says, Give me a challenge, and I'll meet it with
joy. -Ronald Reagan- The Space Shuttle "Challenger" Tragedy
Address
Former President Reagan uses alliteration to highlight the spirit of the seven
that died on the Challenger. His alliteration captures the audiences
attention and makes that statement more memorable. By alliterating special,
special, spirit, and says, Reagan captures the audiences attention and
emphasizes that the seven that died on the Challenger were heroes.
Allusion
Amplification
Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals
for the inspection and control of arms, and bring the absolute power to
destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations.
Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its
terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate
disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce. -
JFK Inaugural Address
Analogy
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To apply any other test -- to deny a man his hopes because of his color,
or race, or his religion, or the place of his birth is not only to do
injustice, it is to deny America and to dishonor the dead who gave their
lives for American freedom. -Lyndon Baines Johnson- "We Shall
Overcome"
Here, Johnson uses analogy to say that to deny a man because of race is to
dishonor the dead who gave their lives for American freedom. He compares
the two people in order to show the connection between the dreamer and the
dead who gave their lives for American freedom. The people who fought for
freedom died to give the dreamer rights, and Johnson uses analogy to show
that by denying the dreamer, you dishonor the heros sacrifice.
Anaphora
We'll continue our quest in space. There will be more shuttle flights
and more shuttle crews and, yes, more volunteers, more civilians, more
teachers in space. Nothing ends here; our hopes and our journeys
continue. -Ronald Reagan- The Space Shuttle "Challenger" Tragedy
Address
Antithesis
"Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate."
JFK Inaugural Address
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Apostrophe
Climax
I would go on, even to the great heyday of the Roman Empire. And I
would see developments around there, through various emperors and
leaders. But I wouldn't stop there.
I would even come up to the day of the Renaissance, and get a quick
picture of all that the Renaissance did for the cultural and aesthetic life
of man. But I wouldn't stop there.
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I would even go by the way that the man for whom I am named had his
habitat. And I would watch Martin Luther as he tacked his ninety-five
theses on the door at the church of Wittenberg. But I wouldn't stop
there. Martin Luther King Jr.- Ive Been to the Mountaintop
Ellipsis
Hyperbole
"Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall
pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend,
oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of
liberty." JFK Inaugural Address
Metanoia
Metaphor
The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will
light our country and all who serve it. And the glow from that fire can
truly light the world. JFK Inaugural Address
The metaphor former President Kennedy uses here compares the energy,
faith, and devotion used to uphold freedom, to a fire that lights America.
Kennedy then goes on to say also that this fire can truly light the world. He
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uses this metaphor to show Americans that their efforts to create unity and
freedom will not only affect America, but the entire world as a whole.
Rhetorical Question
Can we forge against these enemies a grand and global alliance, North
and South, East and West, that can assure a more fruitful life for all
mankind? Will you join in that historic effort? JFK Inaugural
Address
VII. CONCLUSION
For example, suppose you are trying to motivate your sales department:
Financial analysts in our industry predict that sales are going to be down
next year. But does that prediction apply to us? [ and then you go on to
show why it does not]
Why would anyone care about the polling data, when it has proven to be
inaccurate in the past? The primary reason is that polling firms have been
using entirely different methods this time
Bibliography
Websites
http://www.history.com/speeches
http://www.press-pubs-uchicago.edu/founders
http://www.great speeches.wordpress.com/
http://teachungamericanhisttory.org/library
http://www.historyplace.com/speeches//previous.htm
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