MADE BY-

NAMAN BHARTI

RA1611008010287-I.T.

ROOM NO.-1015
Satellite Communications

In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the
help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is
sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receivers
antenna present on the earths surface. So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus,
this type of communication is known as space communication.

Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite communication are Active and passive satellites.

Passive satellites: It is just a plastic balloon having a metal coated over it. This sphere reflects the
coming microwave signals coming from one part of the earth to other part. This is also known as
passive sphere. Our earth also has a passive satellite i.e. moon.

Active satellites: It basically does the work of amplifying the microwave signals coming. In active
satellites an antenna system, transmitter, power supply and a receiver is used. These satellites are
also called as transponders. The transmitters fitted on the earth generate the microwaves. These
rays are received by the transponders attached to the satellite. Then after amplifying, these signals
are transmitted back to earth. This sending can be done at the same time or after some delay.
These amplified signals are stored in the memory of the satellites, when earth properly faces the
satellite. Then the satellite starts sending the signals to earth. Some active satellites also have
programming and recording features. Then these recording can be easily played and watched.
The first active satellite was launched by Russia in 1957. The signals coming from the satellite when
reach the earth, are of very low intensity. Their amplification is done by the receivers themselves.
After amplification, these become available for further use.

EXAMPLES
Indias latest communication satellite GSAT-15 was successfully launched by
Ariane-5 rocket in the early hours on Wednesday from the spaceport of
Kourou in French Guiana.The European launcher blasted off at 03:04am (IST)
and hurled the GSAT-15, designed to deliver telecommunications services, as
well as dedicated navigation-aid and emergency services, into space in a
flawless flight.

The satellite was launched into a Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) after
its co-passenger Arabsat-6B (BADR-7) was injected into space.

Arianespace successfully launched two satellites this evening (local time):

Arabsat-6B (BADR-7) for the operator Arabsat, and GSAT-15 for Isro (Indian
Space Research Organisation), Arianespace said.

GSAT-15, weighing 3,164 kg at lift-off, is a high power satellite being inducted

into the INSAT/GSAT system. It carries a total of 24 communication
transponders in Ku-band as well as a GPS-Aided GEO Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) payload operating in L1 and L5 bands, Isro said adding
that it is the third satellite to carry GAGAN payload after GSAT-8 and GSAT-
10, which are already providing navigation services from orbit.

It also carries a Ku-band beacon as well to help in accurately pointing

ground antennas towards the satellite.

GSAT-15 is the 19th payload launched by Arianespace for Isro.

Speaking at Kourou, Isro Satellite Centre (ISAC) director M Annadurai said,

GSAT-15 satellite signal has been acquired by Master Control Facility at
Hassan (in Karnataka). The initialisation commands are in process and the
satellite health is hail and healthy.

He said the launch of GSAT-15 will enable ISRO to provide continuity of

service to Indian users in Ku-band and the navigation payload GAGAN of
GSAT-15 will provide in orbit backup to ensure safety of life navigation
services in civil aviation sector as well as other location based services to
various services in the Indian region.

Annadurai also said other two communication satellites GSAT-17 and GSAT-
18 are getting ready for launch by Ariane vehicle in the next year.

The realisation of both the satellites are in very advanced stage.

The launch was telecast live by Doordarshan. GSAT-15 brings in Ku-band

capacity to augment as well as provide replacement to indigenous
operational satellite capacity, Isro said.

The launch of GSAT-15 will be one more step towards further strengthening
the satellite navigation infrastructure and sustaining the communication
infrastructure in the country, Isro chief AS Kiran Kumar said in a recorded
video message.

Indian satellites co-passenger Arabsat-6B, lofted for Airbus Defence and

Space and Thales Alenia Space as part of a turnkey contract with Saudi
Arabia-based Arabsat, was also launched by Ariane 5 VA-227.

According to Arianespace, Arabsat-6B, to be renamed BADR-7 once in orbit

will provide broadcast, broadband and telecommunications services over
the Middle East, Africa and Central Asia.

Radar System
Radar is an acronym for "radio detection and ranging." A radar system usually operates in
the ultra-high-frequency (UHF) or microwave part of the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum,
and is used to detect the position and/or
movement of objects. Radar can track storm
systems, because precipitation
reflects electromagnetic fields at certain
frequencies. Radar can also render precise
maps. Radar systems are widely used in air-
traffic control, aircraft navigation, and marine
navigation.

High-power radar, using large dish antennas,

has been used to measure distances to the
moon, other planets, asteroids, and artificial
satellites. From unmanned space probes, radar
has been used to map Venus, whose surface is
obscured at visible wave lengths by a thick
layer of clouds. Radar has been employed by
NASA (the U.S. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration) to make highly detailed
topographical maps of the earth's surface as
well.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar set. The radar
antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and
picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the receiving
antenna is called echo or return. The radar signal is generated by a powerful transmitter
and received by a highly sensitive receiver.
The following figure shows the operating principle of a primary radar set. The radar
antenna illuminates the target with a microwave signal, which is then reflected and
picked up by a receiving device. The electrical signal picked up by the
receiving antenna is called echo or return. The radar
signal is generated by a powerful transmitter and
received by a highly sensitive receiver.
picture)
All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it
is reflected in a wide number of
directions. The reflected signal is
also called
scattering. Backscatter is the term given to
reflections in the opposite direction
to the incident rays.
Radar signals can be displayed on
the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other more advanced radar display
systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the origin, which indicates the
pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of targets.
Transmitter
The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power rf pulses of energy that
are into space by the antenna.
Duplexer
The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver
so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the
high-power pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were
allowed to enter the receiver.
Receiver
The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides video signals on the output.
Radar Antenna
The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required
distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
Indicator
The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable,
graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.
The radar screen (in this case a PPI-scope) displays the produced from the echo
signals bright blips. The longer the pulses were delayed by the runtime, the further
away from the centre of this radar scope they are displayed. The direction of the
deflection on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently pointing.
All targets produce a diffuse reflection i.e. it is reflected in a wide number of
directions. The reflected signal is also called scattering. Backscatter is the term given
to reflections in the opposite direction to the incident rays.
Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan position indicator (PPI) or other
more advanced radar display systems. A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the
origin, which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna and hence the bearing of
targets.
 Transmitter
The radar transmitter
produces the short
duration high-power rf
pulses of energy that are
into space by the
antenna.
Duplexer
The duplexer alternately
switches the antenna
between the transmitter
and receiver so that only
one antenna need be
used. This switching is
necessary because the
high-power pulses of the
transmitter would destroy
the receiver if energy were
allowed to enter the receiver.
Receiver
The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides video signals on the output.
Radar Antenna
The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the required
distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.
Indicator
The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable,
graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.
The radar screen (in this case a PPI-scope) displays the produced from the echo
signals bright blips. The longer the pulses were delayed by the runtime, the further
away from the centre of this radar scope they are displayed. The direction of the
deflection on this screen is that in which the antenna is currently pointing.

Uses of radar:
Radar is still most familiar as a military technology. Radar antennas mounted at airports or
other ground stations can be used to detect approaching enemy airplanes or missiles, for
example. The United States has a very elaborate Ballistic Missile Early Warning System
(BMEWS) to detect incoming missiles, with three major radar detector stations in Clear in
Alaska, Thule in Greenland, and Flying dales Moor in England. It's not just the military who
use radar, however. Most civilian airplanes and larger boats and ships now have radar
too as a general aid to navigation. Every major airport has a huge radar scanning dish to
help air traffic controllers guide planes in and out, whatever the weather. Next time you
head for an airport, look out for the rotating radar dish mounted on or near the control
tower.

You may have seen police officers using radar guns by the roadside
to detect people who are driving too fast. These are based on a
slightly different technology called Doppler radar. You've probably
noticed that a fire engine's siren seems to drop in pitch as it screams
past. As the engine drives toward you, the sound waves from its siren
arrive more often because the speed of the vehicle makes them
travel a bit faster. When the engine drives away from you, the
vehicle's speed works the opposite waymaking the sound waves
travel slower and arrive less often. So you hear quite a noticeable
drop in the siren's pitch at the exact moment when it passes by. This
is called the Doppler effect.

The same science is at work in a radar speed gun. When a police officer fires a radar
beam at your car, the metal bodywork reflects the beam straight back. But the faster
your car is traveling, the more it will change the frequency of the radio waves in the
beam. Sensitive electronic equipment in the radar gun uses this information to calculate
how fast your car is going.

Radar has many scientific uses. Doppler radar is

also used in weather forecasting to figure out how
fast storms are moving and when they are likely to
arrive in particular towns and cities. Effectively, the
weather forecasters fire out radar beams into
clouds and use the reflected beams to measure
how quickly the rain is traveling and how fast it's
falling. Scientists use a form of visible radar
called lidar (light detection and ranging) to
measure air pollution with lasers. Archaeologists
and geologists point radar down into the ground
to study the composition of the Earth and find
buried deposits of historical interest.

One place radar isn't used is on board submarines. Electromagnetic waves don't travel
readily through dense seawater (that's why it's dark in the deep ocean). Instead,
submarines use a very similar system called SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging),
which uses sound to "see" objects instead of radio waves.

DATA TRANSMISSION
Data transmission, digital transmission or digital communications is the transfer
of data (a digital bit stream or a digitized analogue signal over a point-to-point or point-
to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper
wires, optical fibres, wireless communication channels, storage media and computer
buses. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical

voltage, radio wave, microwave, or infrared signal.

Analog or analogue transmission is a transmission method of conveying voice, data,

image, signal or video information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude,
phase, or some other property in proportion to that of a variable. The messages are either
represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code (baseband transmission),
or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms (passband transmission), using a
digital modulation method. The passband modulation and corresponding demodulation
(also known as detection) is carried out by modem equipment. According to the most
common definition of digital signal, both baseband and passband signals representing
bit-streams are considered as digital transmission, while an alternative definition only
considers the baseband signal as digital, and passband transmission of digital data as a
form of digital-to-analogue conversion.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a
computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analogue signal such as a phone call or a
video signal, digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation (PCM)
or more advanced source coding (analogue-to-digital conversion and data
compression) schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out
by codec equipment.

Types of Data Transmission:

1. Parallel transmission: -
Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits
are too short. Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate
wire to carry each bit of data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data
is exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal
delays in transferring each word.

In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus, each bit has its own line.
All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to
another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

Advantage of parallel transmission

It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a
single clock pulse.

Disadvantage of parallel transmission

It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same
time.

2. Series transmission: -
When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the
separation is more than a few kilometres, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use
a single pair of lines. Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval
for each bit. This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.
In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender
to receiver.
Thus, all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change
this parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so
that it can be transmitted over single line.
On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the
interval circuitry of computer can accept it

Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

Advantage of Serial transmission

Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as
compared to parallel transmission.

Disadvantages of Serial transmission

1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially
one after the other.

MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a network hardware device that modulates one or
more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission
and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is attempting
to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the
original digital data. Modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals,
from light emitting diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that turns the digital
data of a computer into modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone
lines and demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital
data.

Modems are generally classified by the maximum amount of data they can send in a
given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second (symbol bit/s, sometimes
abbreviated "bps"), or bytes per second (symbol B/s). Modems can also be classified by
their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the
number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21
standard used audio frequency shift keying with two possible frequencies, corresponding
to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry 300 bits per second using 300
bauds. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four
distinct symbols (two bits per symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600 symbols per
second (600 baud) using phase shift keying.
A CEA study in 2006, found that dial-up Internet access is declining in the U.S. In 2000, dial-
up Internet connections accounted for 74% of all U.S. residential Internet connections. The
US demographic pattern for dial-up modem users per capita has been more or less
mirrored in Canada and Australia for the past 20 years.
Dial-up modem use in the US had dropped to 60% by 2003, and in 2006, stood at
36%. Voiceband modems were once the most popular means of Internet access in the
U.S., but with the advent of new ways of accessing the Internet, the traditional 56K
modem is losing popularity. The dial-up modem is still widely used by customers in rural
areas, where DSL, cable, satellite, or fibre optic service is not available, or they are
unwilling to pay what these companies charge. In its 2012 annual report, AOL showed it
still collects around US$700 million in fees from dial-up users: about three million people.

TYPES OF MODEM:
Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Half duplex and full duplex Modems

Half duplex
1. A half duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time.
2. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an indication of the incoming
carrier to the DTE through a control signal of its digital interface.
3. As long as they camel' IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the
DTE to transmit data.

Full duplex
A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions.
Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one outgoing and the other incoming. Wire
and 4-wire Modems
The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission
medium. 4-wire Modem
In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair
is used for incoming carrier.
Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4- wire
connection.
As the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier
frequency can be used for both the directions.

2-wire Modem
2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers.
 A leased 2-wireconrlection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair
of wires is extended to the subscriber's premises.
The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-wire
connection.
In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for the
incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented.
For full duplex mode of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one
for transmit direction and the other for receive direction.
This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different carrier frequencies.
These carriers are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

Asynchronous & Synchronous Modems

Asynchronous Modem
Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits.
There is no separate timing signal or clock between the modem and the DTE.
The internal timing pulses are synchronized repeatedly to the leading edge of the start
pulse.

Synchronous Modem
Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock
signal.
 The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal.
There are separate clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received.
For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal clock and supply the
same to the modem.