Physics Laboratory Manual

1.1 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Measuring Instrument Range Sensitivity Remark

1 Measuring tape Several 0.1 cm To measure
metres large distances,
e.g. the length
and breadth of
a classroom

2 Metre rule Several 0.1 cm To measure

centimetres breadth of a
to 1 m table

3 Vernier callipers Less than 0.01 cm To measure

15 cm external and
internal
diameters of a
test tube

4 Micrometer screw gauge Less than 0.01 mm To measure

25 mm diameter of a
wire

5 Analogue stopwatch Less than 0.2 s To measure

30 minutes (depend on period of
the scale of oscillation of
(depend on
stopwatch) simple
the scale of
pendulum
stopwatch)

6 Digital stopwatch Less than 0.01 s

60 minutes

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Measuring Instrument Range Sensitivity Remark

7 Triple beam balance 610 g Front scale: To measure the
mass of an
(Maximum 0.1 g
object.
range can Middle
be extended scale:
to 2610 g
100 g
with two
1000 g Rear scale:
masses.) 10 g
8 Electronic balance Not more 0.01 g To measure the
than 500 g mass of a small
object or
(depend on
chemicals
the
accurately.
specificatio
n of
electronic
balance)
9 Spring balance 0 2.5 N 0.05 N To measure the
(depend on (depend on weight of an
the scale of the scale of object.
spring spring
balance) balance)

10 Mercury thermometer 10 1 C To measure

110 C (depend on temperature of
(depend on the scale of a body.
the scale of thermometer)
thermometer)

11 Ammeter Dual range Dual range To measure

2 3 Upper scale: Upper electric current.
1 4
0A5A scale:
0 0.4 0.6 5
0.2 0.8 Lower scale: 0.1 A
0 1 0A1A Lower
A scale:
(depend on
the scale of 0.02 A
ammeter) (depend on
the scale of
ammeter)
12 Voltmeter 0V5V 0.1 V To measure
2 3 (depend on (depend on potential
1 4 difference or
the scale of the scale of
0 5 voltmeter) voltmeter) voltage.

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1.2 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

1.2.1 PROCESS IN A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Making observations about an object or a phenomenon to be investigated by using

our senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell.
OBSERVATION

An inference is an initial conclusion concerning the observation, which can be true or

it can be false.
INFERENCE

A suitable question or problem statement is suggested.

QUESTION

Manipulated variable is a quantity that are purposely changed.

Responding variable is a quantity that respond to the change in the manipulated
variable.
VARIABLES Fixed or constant variables are quantities that are kept constant throughout the
experiment.

A hypothesis is a general statement that is assumed to be true regarding the

relationship between the manipulated variable and the responding variable that are
HYPOTHESIS being investigated.

An experiment is designed and carried out to test the hypothesis that had been
made.
EXPERIMENT

Experimental data are collected and tabulated in a suitable form, e.g. a table.
TABULATION
OF DATA

Analysis of data is carried out by plotting a suitable graph, followed by interpretation

of the graph to look for any relationship between the manipulated and responding
ANALYSIS OF variables.
DATA

A conclusion is made to determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

CONCLUSION

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1.2.2 GENERAL FORMAT OF A SCIENCTIFIC REPORT

Date: _____________
Aim:

Inference:

Hypothesis:

Variables:
a) Manipulated variable:
b) Responding variable:
c) Fixed (constant) variable:

Apparatus and materials:

Arrangement of apparatus:
(Labelled functional diagram)

Procedure:
1)
2)
3)
:
:
:

Results / Tabulation of data:

(Tabulation data in a table)

Analysis of data:
(Graph or calculations if any)

Discussion:

Conclusion:

Precautionary steps:

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1.3 SAMPLE SCIENTIFIC REPORT

Inference : The inertia of an object depends on the mass of the object.
Hypothesis : The bigger the mass of an object, the bigger is the inertia.
Aim of experiment : To study the relationship between the mass of an object and its inertia.
Variables
a) Manipulated variable : Mass of plasticine,
b) Responding variable : Period of oscillation,
(Inertia is not a physical quantity and is indicated by the period of
oscillation. The longer the period of oscillation, the bigger is the inertia.)
c) Fixed variable : Stiffness of hacksaw blade
Apparatus and Materials :
Plasticine, hacksaw blade, G-clamp, triple beam balance, stopwatch.
Arrangement of apparatus :

G-clamp Plasticine

Hacksaw blade

Procedure:
1) The apparatus is set up as shown in above diagram.
2) A lump of plasticine with a mass of is weighted using triple beam balance and then is
attached to the free end of the hacksaw blade.
3) The hacksaw blade is displaced sideways slightly and released so that it would oscillate
horizontally.
4) The time taken for 20 complete oscillations, , is measured using stopwatch. This step is repeated
for another reading of . The average time taken for 20 complete oscillations, , is calculated.
5) The experiment is repeated with different masses of plasticine, = 40.0 g, 60.0 g, 80.0 g, 100.0 g
and 120.0 g.

Tabulation of data:
Time taken for 20 complete oscillations / s

20.0 7.3 7.1 7.2 0.36 0.130

40.0 9.6 10.0 9.8 0.49 0.240
60.0 12.2 12.1 12.2 0.61 0.372
80.0 13.8 13.7 13.8 0.69 0.476
100.0 15.2 15.6 15.4 0.77 0.593
120.0 16.6 16.5 16.6 0.83 0.689

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Analysis of data:

Graph of against
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Conclusion:
The inertia of an object increases when its mass increases.
The graph of against is a straight line that passes through origin. This shows that square of period
of oscillation, is directly proportional to mass, .

Precautionary steps:
1) Avoid parallax error by placing eyes such that the line of sight is perpendicular to the scale of the
stopwatch.
2) Ensure that the hacksaw blade is well clamped and oscillate horizontally.

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1.3.1 GUIDELINES ON TABULATION OF DATA

4 Calculated values derived from the

1 The header row must contain the
name or symbol of the variable
and their corresponding unit.
measured values, if any, are filled in the
third or subsequent columns of the table.
These values can be expressed to the same
number of decimal places or to an additional
number of decimal places.

Time taken for 20 complete oscillations / s

20.0 7.3 7.1 7.2 0.36 0.130

40.0 9.6 10.0 9.8 0.49 0.240
60.0 12.2 12.1 12.2 0.61 0.372
80.0 13.8 13.7 13.8 0.69 0.476
100.0 15.2 15.6 15.4 0.77 0.593
120.0 16.6 16.5 16.6 0.83 0.689

2 3
The values of manipulated variable The values of responding variable are
are filled in the first column of table. filled in the second column of table.
The values are chosen at uniform All values must be recorded in the
intervals (20.0, 40.0, 60.0, and so on) same significant figures and in the
and arranged in ascending or same decimal places to the
descending order. All values must be sensitivity of the measuring
stated in the same significant figures instrument.
and in the same decimal places to the This column may be divided into
sensitivity of the measuring several columns when repeated
instrument. measurements of the responding
Avoid rewriting their units in every variable are taken. Then, the average
row. value is calculated.

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1.3.2 GUIDELINES ON DRAWING GRAPH

Responding variable on -axis

2b
(State symbol and unit)
1 Title of graph
Graph of against
0.8

0.7
4 Size of graph is more than
50% of the graph paper
(At least of the graph
0.6 paper, if possible)

0.5
5 Correct plotting of
data points

0.4

6 Draw a smooth curve or a

0.3 straight line of best fit
(Best fit means the points
are distributed uniformly
above and below the line
0.2 if the line does not pass
through all the points.)

0.1

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
2a

3 Suitable scales for both axes Manipulated variable on -axis

Mark ticks for every 2 cm and use the scales below: (State symbol and unit)
(a) 2 cm : 1 unit or multiples / submultiples
(b) 2 cm : 2 units or multiples / submultiples
(c) 2 cm : 5 units or multiples / submultiples
Avoid using odd scales such as 2 cm : 3 units,
2 cm : 6 units, 2 cm : 7 units and 2 cm : 9 units.

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1.3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MANIPULATED VARIABLE AND RESPONDING VARIABLE

1) 2) 2)
(a) (b)

0 0 0

3) 4) 5)

0 0 0

6) 7)

0 0

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1.3.4 FINDING GRADIENT OF GRAPH

From the graph, calculate the gradient of graph, .

Graph of against
0.8

0.7
1a Choose two points
that the line passes
(110, 0.65)
through and write
down the coordinates.
0.6

0.5

0.4
2a

0.3

1b Draw a big triangle

0.2 with minimum size
of 8 cm 8 cm. 2b Usually write the
answer to the same
significant figures
0.1 and always check
the unit.

0
(0, 0) 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

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1.3.5 INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

From the graph:

1) Find the value of when is 0.67 s.

2) Find the value of when is 140 g.

Graph of against

0.8 2c
2a Extrapolate the graph
Then draw the corresponding
horizontal dashed line to
0.7 show .
Hence,

0.6

0.5

1a
0.4

Draw horizontal dashed

line from
0.3 to the straight line.

0.2

1b
2b
0.1 Then draw the
corresponding vertical Draw vertical dashed
dashed line to show line from to
. the straight line.

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

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1.3.6 PRECAUTIONARY STEPS

Type of experiment Precautions that can be taken

A General 1 Avoid parallax error by placing eyes such that the line of sight is
perpendicular to the scale of measuring instrument.
(Reject incomplete statement, e.g. avoid parallax error.)
2 Check the measuring instruments for zero error and take it into account
in measurements, if any. For ammeter and voltmeter, adjust the zero
adjusting screw to eliminate the zero error.
3 Repeat measurement several times and find the average to reduce
random error.
(Reject incomplete statement, e.g. repeat measurement several times.)
B Mechanics 1 Ensure the trolley runway is friction compensated so that the trolley will
move down the runway with a constant velocity when given a gentle
push.
2 Ensure that the spring is not loaded beyond its elastic limit so that the
spring able to returns to its original length when the load is taken off.
C Heat 1 Wrap aluminium block (or beaker) with insulating materials to prevent
heat lost to surroundings.
2 Smear the thermometer bulb with oil to give better thermal contact with
the aluminium block.
3 Stir the liquid continuously so that the temperature is uniform.
4 Ensure that the immersion heater is fully immersed into crushed ice or
water.
D Optics 1 Ensure the optical centre of a lens, object and the screen are aligned in a
straight line.
2 Carry out the experiment in a darkened room so that the image can be
seen clearly.
3 Move the screen back and forth until a sharp and clear image is formed
on the screen.
E Ripple tank 1 The legs of the ripple tank are adjusted so that the depth of water is
uniform.
2 Carry out the experiment in a darkened room so that the image of the
wavefronts can be seen clearly on the screen.
F Interference of light 1 C u Y u ub -slit experiment in a darkened room so that
the interference pattern can be seen clearly.
G Interference of 1 Carry out the experiment in an open space to avoid disturbance of
sound reflected sounds.
2 Ensure that there are no other sources of sound nearby when carrying
out interference of sounds.
H Electricity 1 All connections must be secure or tight to reduce excess resistance.
2 Switch off the current immediately after readings are taken to prevent
wires from heated up.
3 Use small currents to avoid heating of wires which will increase its
resistance.

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