WATER & WASTEWATER

ENGINEERING 2
Water Management & Background:
(Hydraulics & Hydrology, Groundwater & Distribution System)

John Manuel B.Vergel

BS-CE,
BS CE, MS
MS-CE
CE
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Water Pressure:
P = H

where: P = Pressure (KPa)
= unit
i weight
i h off water (9
(9.81 KN/m3)
81 KN/
H = head (m)

Pressure diagram
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pressure-Velocity Head-Relationship:
Continuityy Equation:
q
Q = VA
where:
h Q = Discharge
Di h ((m3/s)
/)
V = Velocity (m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of flow(m2)

Q=A1V1=A2V2
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pressure-Velocity Head-Relationship:
Energy
gy Head:

where:
Z = elevation
l (m)
P/ = Pressure Head (m)
V2/2gg = Velocity Head (m)
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pressure-Velocity
l Head-Relationship:
d l h
Head Loss: (Darcy Weisbach Equation)

where: H=hL = head loss (m)

f = ffriction
i ti ffactor
t
L = length of pipe (m)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
D = diameter of pipe (m)
 Relative Roughness
off pipe materials &
H friction factors for
turbulent pipe flow
(D of pipes in feet)
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pressure-Velocity Head-Relationship:
Minor Head Loss:

hL = K(V2/2g)
/2 )
where: hL = head loss (m)
V = velocity of flow, (m/s)
k = loss coefficient

Units in ft
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 1: Calculate the head loss in a 0.60 m (24-in)
diameter, 1,525 m long, smooth walled concrete (=0.001)
pipeline carrying a water flow of 0.28 m3/s.

V = Q/A = 0.28/[(0.60)2/4] = 0.99 m /s

From the
h diagram:
di (d 24 =0.001)
(d=24in, 0 001) f = 0.017
0 017

HL = 0.017 (1,525/0.60)(0.992/19.62)
= 22.16
16 m
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 2: A pump discharge line consist of 60 m of 0.30 m (12
in) new cast-iron pipe, three 90 medium radius bends, two gate
valves and one swing check valve.
valve Compute the headloss through
the line at a velocity of 1m/s.

The total equivalent pipe length is:

(60 3 28)+(3 27)+(2 17)+(1 135)= 447 ft = 136.22m
(60x3.28)+(3x27)+(2x17)+(1x135)= 136 22
From the diagram: (d=12in, cast iron) f = 0.019

HL = 0.019 (136.22/0.30)(12/19.62)
= 0.44 m
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 3: Calculuate the headloss in the pipeline based on
the figure below. Based on the ff:
Z1=4.5m Z2=9.3m
P1=280 Kpa P2=200KPa
V1=1.2m/s V2=1.2m/s
Z1+(P1/)+(V12/19.62) =
Z2+(P ) ( 22/19.62)) +hL
( 2/9.80)+(V

4.5+(280/9.80)+(1.202/19.62) =
. ( / . ) ( . 2//19.62)
9.3+(200/9.80)+(1.20 . ) + hL

4.5+28.6+0.07=9.3+20.4+0.07+hL

hL = 3.4m
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Pipes under Pressure:
for Pipe Flow: ((Hazen Williams))

Q 0. 8 C 2.63S0.54
Q=0.281CD 0. 78C 2.63S0.54
Q=0.278CD
Q
(SI Units) (Metric Units)

where: Q = quantity of flow

flow, (gpm,
(gpm cms)
C = coefficient (see table)
D = Diameter of pipe (in, m)
S = hydraulic gradient (ft/ft,m/m)
This equation relates the quantity of
turbulent water fflow through
g a circular
pipe flowing full
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Pipes under Pressure:
for headloss: (Hazen Williams)

100 1.85 Q1.85 100 1.85 Q1.85

hL=0.002083 L ( ) 4.8655
hL=0.002131 L ( )
C D C D4.8655
(SI Units) (Metric Units)
where: hL = headloss ((ft,m))
L = length of pipe (ft, m)
C = coefficient,, ((see table))
Q = quantity of flow (gpm, cms)
D = Diameter of pipe (in (in,m)m)

Note: substitute S = hL/L

Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Pipes under Pressure:
Hazen Williams

Correction Factors to Determine Head

Losses atValues off C other than C=100
Example: if C=100; hl=8.5ft/1000ft.
Therefore if C=130; 0.62x8.5 = 5.3ft/1000ft

Nomograph in English Units for C=100

((15-20 yyr-old ductile iron))
Example: for Q=500gpm, 8in diam
[headloss=8.5 ft/1000ft, V=3.2ft/sec]
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Pipes under Pressure:
Hazen Williams

Nomograph in Metric Units for C=100

((15-20 yyr-old ductile iron))
Example: for Q=30l/s, 200mm diam
[headloss=0.0080 m/m, V=0.95m/sec]
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example
l 44: G
Groundwater
d from
f a wellll ffield
ld is pumpedd through
h ha
14-in diameter transmission main for 10,500 ft to the treatment
plant. Calculate the headloss for a flow rate of 1,400 gpm
assuming C=100 and assuming C=140
100 1.85 Q1.85
hL = 0.002083 L ( )
C D4.8655
100 1400 1.85
=0.002083 x10,500 ( ) 1.85 = 38.3 ft
100 144.8655
Using nomograph for C=100; Q=1400gpm;d=14-in:
hL = 3.6ft/1000 ft.
Therefore: hL = 3.6/1000 x 10,500 = 38 ft
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 4: Groundwater from a well field is pumped through a
14-in diameter transmission main for 10,500 ft to the treatment
plant Calculate the headloss for a flow rate of 11,400
plant. 400 gpm
assuming C=100 and assuming C=140.
100 1.85 Q1.85
hL = 0.002083 L ( )
C D4.8655
100 1400 1.85
=0.002083 x10,500 ( ) 1.85 = 20.6 ft
140 144.8655

Using correction factor for C=140; K=0.54 (see table)

Therefore: hL = 3.6/1000 x 10,500 x 0.54 = 20 ft
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 5: If a 200mm water main (C=100) is carrying a
flow of 30L/s. What is the velocity of flow and head loss.

Usingg nomograph:
g p Q=30L/s; d=200mm;
HL/L = 0.008m/m ; V=0.95 m/s

Q=VA; V = 0.03/[(0.20)2/4] = 0.955 m/s

Q=0 278CD2.63
Q=0.278CD 2 63S0.54
0 54; S0.54
0 54=0.30/(0.278x100x0.20
=0 30/(0 278 100 0 202.63
2 63)

S = 0.0744(1/0.54)
S=HL/L = 0.00817m/m
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 5: If a 200mm water main (C=100) is carrying a
flow of 30L/s. What is the velocity of flow and head loss.

100 1.85 Q 1.85

hL = 0.002131
0 002131 L ( )
C D4.8655
100 0
0.030
0301.85
hL/L =0.002131 ( )1.85 = 0.00817m/m
100 0.204.8655
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 6: An extremely simplified water supply system
consisting of a reservoir with lift pumps, elevated storage, piping
and loaded center (withdrawal point) is shown in the figure.
a) Based on the ff: data, sketch the hydraulic gradient for the
system:
ZA=0ft; ZB=30ft; ZC=40ft;
PA=80psi; PB=30psi; PC=100ft; (water level
tank))
b) For these conditions compute the flow available at point B from
both supply pumps and elevated storage
storage. Use C=100
C 100 and pipe
sizes as shown in the diagram
Hydraulics & Hydrology
a) Hydraulic Head :
y Example 6: @ A = 0ft + (80 psi x 2.31ft/psi) = 185 ft
@ B = 30ft + (30psi x 2.31 ft/psi) = 99ft
@ C = 40ft
f + 100ft
f = 140ftf

b) hL between A&B = 185-99 = 86ft

hL per 1000ft = 86/5 = 17.2ft
hL = 17.2ft/1000ft
usingg nomograph:
g p
(hL = 17.2ft/1000ft; 12in diameter)
Q = 2,160 gpm from A

hL between C&B = 140-99 = 41ft

hL per 1000ft = 41/3 = 13.7ft
hL = 13.7ft/1000ft
13 7f /1000f
using nomograph:
(hL = 13.7ft/1000ft; 10in diameter)
Q = 1,180 gpm from C
Total available Q@B = 2160+1180=3,340gpm
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Centrifugal Pump Characteristics:
Centrifugal
g pumps
p p are used commonlyy for low and high
g
service to lift and transport water, reciprocating positive-
sp ace e t.
displacement.
It is popular because of its simplicity, compactness, low cost
and ability to operate under a wide variety of conditions.
conditions
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pump Head-Discharge Curve:
as the valve is ggraduallyy opened,
p , allowingg increasingg of flow
of water, the pump head decreases.
The pump efficiency rises with increasing rate of discharge to
an optimum value and the decreases.
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pump Characteristics:
For a ggiven impeller
p diameter ((D)) operated
p at different
speeds (N):

Where: Q = Discharge (gpm,Lps)

H = Head (ft,m)
Pi = Power
P iinput (h
(hp,kW)
kW)
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Pump Characteristics:
For a p
pumpp operating
p g at same speed
p ((N)) . A change
g in
impeller diameter (D) affects discharge,, head and power
put:
input:

Where: D = Impeller diameter (in

(in,cm)
cm)
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Power and Efficiency:
Power input is the motor power applied to a pump.
Power output is the work done power unit of time lifting the
g elevation.
water to a higher
Efficiency of pump can be defined as:

Centrifugal pump efficiency usually in the range of (60 to

85%)
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Power and Efficiency:
The equation
q relatingg discharge
g to motor power
p input
p is

English units Metric units

Where: P = Motor power input (hp) Where: P = Motor power input (kW)
g (gpm)
Q = Discharge g Q = Discharge
g (lps)
H = Head (ft) H = Head (m)
= unit weight of water = (8.34lb/gal) = unit weight of water
EP = Pumpp efficiencyy = ((0.0098KN/l)
. /)
550 = ft-lbs/sec/hp EP = Pump efficiency
60 = seconds/min
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 7: The characteristics of a centrifugal pump
operating at two different speeds are listed in the ff: chart.
Graph these curves and connect the best efficiency points
p with a dashed line. Calculate the head-discharge
(bep) g values
for an operating speed of 1450 rpm and plot the curve.
Finallyy sketch the ppumpp operating
p g envelope
p between 60 &
120 % of the bep
 Plotting
Pl tti th
the H
Head-discharge
d di h
Hydraulics & Hydrology value for operating speed of
1450rpm: (sample computation
y Example 7: for: 1500gpm;H=216ft
@1750 rpm)

Q2=Q1(N2/N1)=
1500(1450/1750) = 1,240gpm

H2=H1(N2/N1)2=
216(1450/1750)2 = 148ft

@1750rpm: best efficiency

@86%; Q = 3300gpm.
60%(3 300) = 2,000
60%(3,300) 2 000 gpm
120%(3,300)=4,000gpm
@1150rpm: best efficiency
@84%; Q = 2200gpm.
60%(2,200) = 1,300 gpm
( , ) , gp
120%(2,200)=2,600gpm

Then plot
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Hydraulic grade line 1:
y System Characteristics: Water is being pumped through outlet
and elevated storage.

Hydraulic grade line 2:

Water is discharging through outlet 2
f
from pump andd elevated
l d storage

Curve 1: Pump flow entering

elevated storage
Curve 2: Pump flow discharging
at outlet 2
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Constant-Speed Pumps:
Point A: Entire discharge flows
into elevated storage.

Point B: if free discharge is

allowed only from the piping
system at outlet 2

Point C: New operating point

to raise hydraulic gradeline and
the system head discharge
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Constant-Speed Pumps:
Parallel installation arrangement
g ((1,2
, same & 3 is higher)
g )

The point of
intersection of the
combined head
g curve and
discharge
the system curve gives
the combined rate of
discharge of the
pumps and the
operating head of
pumps

Pumps
p are operated
p individuallyy or in combination to meet the water
demand by discharging into a common header and outlet pipe
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Variable-Speed Pumps: (operating w/ 2 impeller speeds)

a) Head discharge curves with efficiency

values for a pump operating at two impeller
p
speeds

b) System-demand head curve for a constant

pressure discharge corrected for transducer
operation. (Pump speed increases when the pump
discharge pressure reduces as a result of increasing
d
demand d andd ddecreases
c w/increaseing
/i c i demand
d d
pressure)

c) Superimposedd pump head

h d discharge
d h andd
demand curves

d) Curves of speed and efficiency versus

demand
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Variable-Speed Pumps:
A variable speed
p drive must be pprevented from operating
p ga
pump at extremely low speeds.
When the demand is less than the minimum required
discharge, the pump is protected from damage by
recirculating water through the pump.
pump
The recommended minimum discharge rate is generally 25
to 35% of the pumping rate at the best operating efficiency.
Variable speed
p pumps
p p can be used in combination with
constant speed pumps.
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Variable-Speed Pumps:
Variable speed
p can also be operated
p in pparallel in multiple
p
pump installations (load sharing and staggered operations)
Load sharing all pumps run at the same speed and discharge at
equal rates
Staggered Operation one or more of the pumps runs at
optimum efficiency (constant speed) while the speed of only
one pump is varied to meet changing demand.
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 8: Draw system head-discharge curves for the two
operating conditions in the simplified water system
diagramed in Figure. The highest system head-discharge
pp boundary)
curve (upper y occurs when ppumpp discharge g enters
the elevated storage tank with no system withdrawal. The
p
lowest anticipated system
y head-dischargeg curve occurs when
the pressure at the load center is 45 psi and flow is entering
y
the system from both pump
p p discharge g and elevated storage.
g
On the same head-discharge diagram, draw the
characteristics pump curve from figure at an operating speed
of 1750 rpm. Label the range of pump operations
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Example 8:

Operation:
Upper curve:
H d =200ft
Head 200f Q
Q=2620gpm
2620
Lower Curve:
Head =165ft Q=3770gpm
Total pump head @elevated storage
= static head + headloss in 8000 ft of 16-in for
a given Q Total pump head @load center
S l solution:
Sample l ti (f
(for 2,000gpm)
2 000 ) = static head + headloss in 5000 ft of 16-in for
8,000ft x 0.0037 ft/ft = 30ft a given Q
Total pump head = 150+30 = 180ft p solution: (for
Sample f 2,000gpm)
gp
L
Lower curve
Upper curve 5,000ft x 0.0037 ft/ft = 19ft
Total pump head = 104+19 = 123ft
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Equivalent Pipes:
An equivalent
q pipe
p p is an imaginary
g y conduit that replaces
p a
section of a real system such that the headlosses in the two
systemss are
syste a e identical
e t ca for
o tthee quantity
qua t ty oof flow.
o .

Example
E l 9:
9 D
Determine
i an equivalent
i l pipeline
i li 2000ft
2000f in
i
length to replace the pipe system illustrated in the figure
@ Line BC:
Assume headloss of 10ft
Usingg nomograph:
g p
(d=8in; hl=10ft/1000ft) Q=550gpm
(d=6in; hl=10ft/800ft=(12.5ft/1000ft))
Q 290gpm
Q<290gpm
(Q=550+290=840gpm;hl=10ft/1000ft)
d=9.4in
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Equivalent Pipes:
Example
p 9: Determine an equivalent
q pipeline
pp 2000ft in
length to replace the pipe system illustrated in the figure
Consider the 3 pipes in series:
Assume Q=500gpm: (using nomograph)
A-B: hl=0.4x8.3=3.3ft
B C hl=3
B-C: hl=3.8ft
8ft
C-D: hl=0.6x2.7=1.6ft
Total hl=8.7ft in 2000ft = (4.4ft/1000ft)

Equivalent Pipe A-D:

(required loss 4.4ft/1000ft at Q=500gpm
Therefore: d=9.2in
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Computer Program:
Epanet
p
- is a public-domain, water
distribution system modeling
software
ft package
k developed
d l d by b the
th
United States Environmental
Protection Agencys (EPA) Water
Supply and Water Resources
Division. It performs extended-
pperiod simulation of hydraulic
y and
water-quality behavior within
pressurized pipe networks and is
designed to be "aa research tool that
improves our understanding of the
movement and fate of drinking-
water constituents within
distribution systems". EPANET first
appeared in 1993.
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Computer Program:
WaterCad
- is an easy-to-use hydraulic
and water quality modeling
solution for water
distribution systems. It
features advanced
interoperability, model
building, optimization, and
asset management tools.
tools
WaterCAD helps engineers
and utilities analyze, design,
andd optimize
ti i watert
distribution systems.
 Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Gravity Flow in Circular Pipes:
Mannings
g Formula used for uniform,, steady,
y, open
p channel
flow

((English
g units)) ((Metric units))

Where: Q = Quantity of flow (cfs, cms)

n = Coeffficient of Mannings
g roughness
g based on material
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2,m2)
R = Hydraulic radius = (A/wetted P) (ft,m)
S = slope of hydraulic gradient (ft/ft
(ft/ft, m/m)
Common Sewer Pipe Materials:
a))Vitrified
f clayy and smooth concrete: n=0.011 to 0.015 nn=00.013
013 (common adopted n for swer design
b) Corrugated steel pipe: n = 0.021 to 0.026
 Nomograph
N h for
f
Hydraulics & Hydrolo Mannings
Formula based
y Gravity Flow in Circular Pipes: on n=0.013

Example:
D=8in;
S=0.02ft/ft
Therefore:
Therefore
Q=760gpm
V=4.9ft/s
Hydraulics & Hydrolo
y Gravity Flow in Circular Pipes:

((q,v,a)) symbols
b l
for partial flow.
(Q,V,A) symbols
for full flow

p
Example:
Flow in pipe at a
depth of 30% of
pipe diameter

q/Q = 0.20
a/A = 0.25
0 25
v/V = 0.78

Relative quantity, velocity, cross sectional area The greatest quantity of flow
of flow in a circular pipe for any depth of flow occurs at 93% of depth
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 10: If a 10-in sewer is placed on a slope of 0.010
what is the flowing full quantity and velocity for a)n=0.013
b)n=0.015

a. Based on nomograph: (S=0.010; d=10in)

Q = 990
990gpm; V=4ft/s
V 4f /
b. Q&V are inversely proportional to n, therefore:
Q (@n=0.015) = 0.013x990/0.015 = 860gpm
V (@n=0
(@n=0.015)
015) = 0.013x4.0/0.015
0 013x4 0/0 015 = 3.5ft/s
3 5ft/s
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 11: The measured depth of flow in a 48-in storm
sewer on a grade of 0.00015ft/ft is 30-in. What is the
calculated quantity and velocity of flow?

Based on nomograph: Q=7700gpm and V=1.4ft/s.

Depthh off flow
D fl to diameter
di off pipe
i ratio:
i d/D
d/D=30/48=0.62
30/48 0 62
Based on graph (any depth of flow): q/Q=0.72; v/V=1.08
Therefore: q on depth 30in = 0.72x7700 = 5500gpm
v on depth 30in = 1.08x1.4
1 08x1 4 = 1.5
1 5 ft/sec
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 12: An 18-in sewer pipe, n= 0.013 is placed on a
slope of 0.025. At what depth of flow does the velocity of
flow equal to 2ft/s?

Based on nomograph: V=3ft/s.

Therefore:
Th f v/V=2/3=0.67
/V 2/3 0 67
Based on graph (any depth of flow): d/D=0.23
d (depth for v=2ft/s) = 0.23x18=4.1in
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 13: What is the flowing full quantity and velocity of flow
for a 450-mm-diameter sewer, n=0.013 on a slope of
0 00142m/m? Determine the quantity of flow for a depth of flow
0.00142m/m?
equal to 300mm.

Based on nomograph: Q=0.18cms; V=1.14m/s

A=(0 45)2/4=0
A=(0.45) 159 2
/4=0.159m
R=A/P=()d2/4/()d=d/4=0.45/4=0.112m

Q
Q=(1/0.013)(0.159)(0.112)(2/3)(0.00142(1/2)=
(1/0.013)(0.159)(0.112)(2/3)(0.00142(1/2) 0.18cms
V=Q/A = 0.18/0.159=1.14m/s
d/D = (300/450)=0
(300/450)=0.667;
667; Therefore: q/Q=0
q/Q=0.78
78
Therefore: Q@d=300mm = 0.78x0.18 = 0.14cms
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow Measurements in Pipe:
HouseHold water meter Turbine Type
yp water meter

For high rates of flow

For low rates off fflow
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow Measurements in Pipe:
Compund
p water meter Venturi Flow meter

For high and low

rates of flow Differential pressure
meters
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow Measurement in Open Channels:
Parshall Flume
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Amount of Storm Runoff:
Rational Formula
Q=CiA (english units) Q=0.278CiA (metric units)

Where: Q = maximum rate of runoff (cfs,cms)

C = Coefficient of runoff based on type yp and
character on surface (see table on the left)
i = average rainfall intensity, for the period of
maximum rainfall of a given frequency of
occurrence having a duration equal to the
time required for the entire drainage area
to contribute
ib flow
fl (inches/hr,mm/hr)
(i h /h /h )
A = drainage area (acres,sq.km)
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Amount of Storm Runoff:
Intensityy Flow Duration Curves
5-yr storm frequency =
residential areas
10-yr storm frequency =
business section
15-yr storm frequency =
high value districts
where flooding would
result in considerable
pproperty
p y damage g
The duration of rainfall
frequency depends on
time of concentration
(inlet time + time of
fflow through
g the ppipe)
p )
Inlet time generally
ranges from 5-20 min
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 15: Compute the diameter
of the outfall sewer required to drain
the storm water from the watershed
described in figure, which gives the
l
lengths
h off llines, ddrainage areas, andd
inlet times. Assume the ff: C=0.30,
T 5 years, V=2ft/s.
T=5 V 2ft/

Time of Manhole1-2
t=d/V=400/2=200sec=3.33min
Time of Manhole2-3
t=d/V=600/2=300sec=5min
Hydraulics & Hydrology
Example 15:
Time of concentration from remote
points off the
h tree separate areas to
Manhole 3:
t=5+3.3+5=13.3min
5+3 3+5 13 3 i for f Area
A 1
t=5+5=10 min for Area2
t=8min for Area3
i=4.4in/hr (from graph)
(for D=13.3min&T=5yrs)
Q5=CiA=0.30(4.4)(3+6+4.5)
Q5=18ft3/s = 8080gpm
Usingg Manningsg nomograph:
g p
(Q=8080gpm&V=2ft/s)
d=42in & slope=0.0004ft/ft
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Stream and Rivers
Weibull plotting position
Calculatingg Frequency
q y Curve
Hydraulics & Hydrology
y Flow in Stream and Rivers For T=10yrs:
P=90%
Calculatingg Frequency
q y Curve (lowflow)
Q=22.6cfs
Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
Originates
g as infiltration from precipitation,
p p , streamflow,,
lakes and reservoir
The surface of saturated zone is called water table
table, and its
depth is described by the level of free water in an observation
well extending into a saturated zone
zone.
Porosity (n): Typical
yp values of porosity:
p y
n=0.2 to 0.4 (sands & gravel,
depending on the grains size, size
distribution and degree of
Where: Vv = Volume of voids compaction)
V = total Volume n=0.1 to 0.2 (sand & stone)
n= 01 to 00.11 (shale & limestone)
n=.01
Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
 Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
Permeabilityy is the abilityy of porous
p medium to transmit
water.
Coefficient of permeability,
permeability K,
K by Darcys
Darcy s Law:

v=Ki
Ranges off values
R l off K:
Where: v = velocity of flow (ft/s,mm/s) K= 10x10-5 ft/s = 0.003 mm/s
K = coefficient of Permeability (ft/s,mm/s) (fine grane deposit)
i = hydraulic gradient (ft/ft,
(ft/ft m/m) Up to
K= 1 ft/s = 300 mm/s
(course gravel)
g
Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
Unconfined Aquifer
q

Where:
Q=wellll discharge
d h (cfs,l/s)
f l
K=coefficient of
permeability
(ft/s,mm/s)
ho=saturated thickness of
q
aquifer before
pumping (ft.m)
ro=radius of the cone of
depression (ft,m)
(ft m)
hw=depth of water in well
while pumping (ft,m)
rw=radius
di off wellll (f
(ft,m))
Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
Confined Aquifer
q

Where:
B
B=thickness
thickness of aquifer
(ft,m).
Values of ro and hw may be
assumed or measured from
observation well data
Groundwater
y Groundwater Hydrology
Pumping
p g test in unconfined acquifer
q (Permeability
( y test))

For unconfined acquifer

For confined acquifer

Groundwater
y Example
l 16
16: A wellll withh a ddiameter off 2f
2ft is constructedd in a confined
f d
aquifer as illustrated in the figure. The sand aquifer has uniform
thickness of 50ft overlain byy an impermeable
p layer
y with a depth
p of 115
ft. A pumping test was conducted to determine the coefficient of
permeability of the aquifer. The initial piezometric surface was 49ft
below the gground surface datum of the test well and observation wells.
After water was pumped at rate of 0.46 cfs for several days, water level
in the wells stabilized with the ff: drawdowns:
21ft (test well)
12.1ft (observation well at a distance of 30ft)
7 9 ft (2nd observation well at a distance of 100ft)
7.9
From these test data calculate the permeability of the aquifer. Then using
the K value, estimate the well discharge with the drawdown in the well
l
loweredd on the
h top off the
h confined
fi d aquifer.
if
 Groundwater
y Example 16:
=0.46cfs

2ft ho=115-49=66ft
49ft
100ft hw=66-21=45ft
30ft 7.9ft h1 66 12 1 53 9ft
h1=66-12.1=53.9ft
12.1ft
21ft h2=66-7.9=58.1ft

115ft ho
h2
hw h1

50ft

K=0.00042ft/sec
 Groundwater
y Example 16:
=0.46cfs

49ft 2ft
100ft
30ft 7.9ft hho=66ft
=66ft
12.1ft
21ft hw=0ft (drawdown
in the well at the top
ho of sand aquifer)
115ft h2 rw=1ft
hw h1
Assume:
rcone=700ft
50ft

Q=1.3cfs
Distribution System
y Introduction
I d i
Objectives of a municipal water system:
To
T provide
id safe,
f potable
bl water ffor ddomestic
i use;
To provide an adequate quantity of water sufficient pressure for
fire protection and industrial water for manufacturing.
manufacturing

Typical waterworks consists of a source,

source treatment
treatment, pumping and
distribution system.
Sources for municipal
p supplies
pp are deepp wells, shallow wells,
rivers, lakes, and reservoir.
About 2/3 of the water for public supplies comes from the
surface-water
f t sources.
Distribution System
y Water Quantity and Pressure Requirements
The amount of water required
q byy a municipality
p y depends
p
on population; climate; commercial and industrial water
userss co
use conservation;
se at o ; water
ate reuse
euse for
o landscape
a scape irrigation
gat o
and economic conditions
Typical,
Typical average
average-day
day municipal per capita,
capita based on
location, climate, and mix of residential versus commercial
andd industrial
i d t i l connections
ti vary bbetween
t 380 to
t 780
L/person for all demands included.
Residential demands alone are 300 to 500 L/person
Distribution System
y Water Quantity and Pressure Requirements
The recommended water ppressure in a distribution system
y
is 65 to 75 psi (450 to 520 kPa), which is considered
aadequate
equate to co
compensate
pe sate for
o local
oca fluctuations
uctuat o s in
consumption.
For a residential service connections,
connections the minimum
pressure in the water distribution main should be 40 psi
(280 kPa)
kP )
Maximum pressure in a system are allowed for 150 psi.
(most pipes and fittings are designed for 150 psi only)
Distribution System
Gravel packed water well in a sand aquifer
y Well Construction equipped with a two-stage vertical turbine
pump
Water in the voids of
underground sand or gravel
e s can
beds ca bee tappe
tapped for
o
municipal supply by using a
drilled well.
well

Typical Well Construction

Distribution System
y Surface Water Intakes
Intake structure is required
q to withdraw water from a river,,
lake or reservoir.
Typical intakes are towers and shoreline structures.
structures
Their primary function is to supply the highest quality of
water from
f the
h source.
Distribution System
y Surface Water Intakes
Towers are for lakes and
reservoirs with fluctuating
ate levels
water e e s or
o variations
a at o s
of water quality with depth

Shore intakes located

adjacent to a river
Distribution System
y Piping Networks
Municipal water distribution system includes a network of mains
withh storage reservoirs, pumping stations, ffire hhydrants
d andd
service lines.
Arterial
A i l mains i or ffeeders:
d are pipelines
i li or llarger size i that
h are
connected to the transmission lines that supply the water
distribution.
distribution
Parallel feeders are cross-connected at interval of one mile, with
valving, for isolation in emergency cases.
Distribution lines are connected to arterial loops to form gridiron
y
system which services fire hydrants
y and domestic and commercial
consumers.
Distribution System
y Piping
Pi i Networks
N k
The gridiron system: Best
arrangement for distributing
water because:
All arterial and secondaryy
mains are interconnected
Dead-ends are eliminated
Water is circulated
When piping repairs are
necessary, the
h area removedd
from service can be reduced
to one block if valves are
properly located.
Distribution System
y Piping Networks
Dead-end system:
y
it should be avoided in new
area and can be corrected in
existing systems by proper
keeping.
p g
Water stagnation at dead-
ends ma developp tastes and
odors, to prevent this, dead-
ends, mayy require
q frequent
q
flushing.
Distribution System
y Piping Networks
y Service Connections:
A typical service installation consists of a pipe from the
distribution main to turnoff valve located near the ppropertyp y line.
A special tapping machine is used to insert the corporation stop
while the main is in service under pressure.
Water meters are installed inside or outside the property.
The
Th estimated
ti t d rate t ffor a ttypical
i l hhouse hhaving
i ttwo bbathrooms,
th ffullll
laundry, kitchen, and one or two house bibs is 15 gpm. A pressure
of 15 psi is usually adequate to operate any fixture
fixture, with the
excerption of lawn sprinkler.
Distribution System
y Kinds of Pipe:
In water distribution system,
y , the followingg pipes
p p are used:
Ductile iron
Plastic
Pl ti
Concrete
Steel
Copper (for house constructions)
Distribution System
y Kinds
Ki d off Pipe:
Pi
Pipe materials must have the ff: properties:
Adequate
Ad tensile
il andd bbending
di strengthh to withstand
i h d externall
loads.
High bursting strength to withstand internal water pressure
Ability to resist impact loads during transportation, handling,
installation
Smooth non-corrosive interior surface for minimum resistance of
water flow
An exterior unaffected by aggressive soil and groundwater
Material that can be provided with tight joints and easy to tap for
making
ki connection ti
Distribution System
y Kinds
Ki d off Pipe:
Pi
Ductile Iron Pipes:
Are
A notedd ffor llong lif
life, toughness,
h imperviousness,
i i andd ease off
tapping as well as withstand internal pressure and external loads.
This kind of ppipes
p is stronger,
g , tougher,
g , and more elastic than cast
iron. Iron pipes are available in sizes between 2 and 48 inches in
diameter. (50 to 1200mm).

The selection pipe thickness depends on:

IInternal
t l pressure
External load
Allowance for corrosion
Design factor for safety
Distribution System
y Kinds of Pipe:
Plastic Pipes:
p
They are not subject to corrosion
or deterioration by chemical or
biological activities.
They
Th are smooth, h minimizing
i i ii
friction losses in water flow.
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is the plastic refered for water
distribution piping because of its strength and resistance to
pressure.
Co
Commonlyo y manufactured
a u actu e ssizes
es aaree 4 to 12 inches
c es ((100
00 to
300mm) with internal pressure of 100, 150, and 200psi.
Distribution System
y Kinds of Pipe:
Concrete Pipes:
p
Three types of reinforced
concrete pipes are used for
pressure conduits.
They
Th hhave theh advantage
d off
durability, water tightness, and
low maintenance costs.
Theyy are applicable
pp in larger
g
size (16 to 144inches).
Distribution System
y Kinds of Pipe:
Steel Pipes:
p
Used in transmission lines
They
Th are off hi
highh strength,
t th able
bl
to yield without breaking,
resisting
i i shocks.
h k
Protection against corrosion is
necessary.
Distribution System
y Distribution Pumping and Storage:
Pumps:
High-lift pumps deliver water from treatment to distribution system
Booster pumps to deliver water to elevated points in distribution area
Common pumps in high
h h service:
a. Vertical turbine pumps
b
b. Horizontal split-case
split case centrifugal pumps

Why?
y
1. They have good efficiency.
2. They have the capability to deliver water at high discharge heads
3. This type of pumps operates at a range of capacities from design flow to
shutoff without excessive loss of discharge pressure or efficiency.
Distribution System
y Distribution Pumping and Storage:
Distribution storage
g can be pprovided by:
y
1. Elevated tanks
2 Stand
2. St d pipes
i
3. Underground basins
4. Covered reservoir
Distribution System
y Distribution Pumping and
Storage:
1. Elevated Tanks:
Have the advantage of that the
pressure is derived from holding
water that is higher than the
surrounding terrain
Can be made from steel (50,000 to
3 mil gallons)
Distribution System
y Distribution
Di ib i P Pumping
i and
d
Storage:
2. Ground Level Stand Pipes
p or Reservoir:
Provided when gravity water pressure
is not necessary or when booster
ppumpsp are used.
Usually available in sizes up to 5 mil
gal.
St l standpipes
Steel t d i are applicable
li bl where
h
the height of the tank exceeds
diameter (If the diameter is greater
than the height then it is a reservoir).
reservoir)
Concrete reservoirs can be
constructed above or below the
ground.
d
Distribution System
y Distribution Pumping and Storage:
4. Covered Reservoir:
Storage Basins need to be covered to:
a. Reduce
e uce tthee possibility
poss b ty oof po
pollution
ut o
b. Reduce the possibility of deterioration of the interior
surface
Exposure to the atmosphere will result in:
a. Ai b
Airborne contamination
t i ti
b. Algal growth due to penetration of sunlight
c. Freezing of water surface in cold climates
Distribution System
y Distribution Pumping and Storage:
The choice between elevated and ground storage depends on:
Topography
SSizee of
o community
co u ty
Reliability of water supply
Economic aspects

In general, elevated tanks are more economical and are

recommended for small water systems. Reservoir are booster
pumping
i ffacilities
ili i are usually
ll less
l expensive
i ini llarge system
Distribution System
y Distribution
Di ib i P Pumpingi and d SStorage:
Functions of Distribution Storage:
Permit continuous treatment of water
Permit continuous uniform pumping rates of water into the distribution system
Store water in advance of actual needs at one or more locations

Advantages of Distribution Storage:

Water
W t ddemands d are nearlyl equall att source, ttreatment,
t t ttransmission,
i i andd
distribution
Flow pressure of the system is stabilized throughout the service area
Reserve supplies are available for emergency cases such as fire fighting.

To
T Determine
D t i storage
t needed,
d d the
th ff:
ff mustt be
b considered:
id d
Volume used to meet variations in demand
Amount related to emergency
g y reserves
Distribution System Peak water consumption Data on
Day of Max water usage
y Example 1: Calculate the
distribution storage needed for
both equalizing demand and for
fire reserve based on the ff:
information (see table). Fire flow
q
requirements are 6000gpm
gp for a
duration of 6-hr for the high
gp
value district with 2000gpm
from storage.
Distribution System For 8-hrs pumping:
1860gpmx24hrs/8hrs=5,580 gpm
Plot off hourlyy water consumption
p rates to det.
y Example 1:
The storage needed to equalize at constant
pumping rate
Distribution System
y Example 1:
The storage required to provide the entire reserve is equal to the
fl rate times dduration:
flow
2000 gal/min x 60min/hr x 6hr = 720,000 gal

The total storage capacity required for equalizing demand for a

continuous 24-hr pumping rate plus fire protection is:
500,000 gal + 720,000 gal = 1.22 mil gal

The total considering an 8-hr pumping period plus fire reserve:

2.11 mil gal + 720,000 gal = 2.83 mil gal
Distribution System
y Example 2: Consider a water supply system serving a city with the ff:
demand characteristics:
average daily
d il ddemandd = 4 0 mgdd (2780 gpm);
4.0 )
maximum day = 6.0 mgd (4170 gpm);
peak hour = 9 0 mgd (6250 gpm);
9.0 gpm)
required fire flow=7.2 mgd (5000gpm) resulting in a maximum 5-hr
rate of 13.2 mgd(9170gpm) maximum daily demand plus fire flow.

Assume the minimum pressure to be maintained in the main district is

50 psi (115 ft) except during fire flow and that the piping system is
equivalent to a 24-in diameter main with a C=100. Consider the
system without
h storage andd withh storage bbeyondd the
h lloadd center.
Distribution System
y Example
l 22:
Effect of no storage:
(L=29,000
(L=29 000 ftft, D=24in C=100 &
by using nomograph)
For ave. dailyy demand:
(Q=4mgd;s=0.9ft/1000ft)
115+(0.9x29)=140ft
For
F max. daily
d l rate:
(Q=6mgd;s=1.9ft/1000ft)
( )
115+(1.9x29)=170ft
For peak hourly demand:
(Q=9mgd;s=4.0ft/1000ft)
115+(4.0x29)=230ft
For max. daily rate plus fire flow:
(Q=13
(Q 13.2mgd;s
2mgd;s=88.2ft/1000ft)
2ft/1000ft)
115+(8.2x29)=350ft
 Distribution System
y Example 2:
Storage beyond Load
C t
Center:
(L=29,000 ft, D=24in C=100
& by using nomograph)
For ave. daily demand:
(Q
(Q=4mgd;s=0.9ft/1000ft)
g ; f f)
120+(0.9x29)=146ft
For max. dailyy rate:
(Q=6mgd;s=1.9ft/1000ft)
For max. daily rate plus fire flow:
120+(1.9x29)=176ft (Q=4.8mgd;s=1.2ft/1000ft)
(Q g ; f f)
For peak hourly demand: 120-(1.2x10)=108ft
(Q=3mgd; s=0.5ft/1000ft); Q=9-3=6mgd; s=1.9ft/1000ft) (Q=13.2-4.8=8.4mgd;
120-(0.5x10)=115ft 115+(1.9x29)=171ft s=3.5ft/1000ft)
108+(3.5x29)=210ft
Distribution System
y Valves:
V l
Valves are used in:
Treatment plants
Pumping stations
Piping system
Storage reservoirs

Valve Function:
Control magnitude and direction of flow

How do they function:

They
Th have
h movablebl parts that
h extendd iinto the
h pipeline
i li ffor opening
i andd
closing the interior passage.
Distribution System
y Valves:
Kinds of Valves:
a. Shutoff Valve

b. Check Valves
Distribution System
y Valves:
Kinds of Valves:
c. Small Pressure-Reducing and Pilot
Valves
d. Automatic Control Valves
Distribution System
y Valves:
Kinds of Valves:
e. Pressure Reducing Valves

f. Altitude Valves
Distribution System
y Valves:
Kinds of Valves:
e. Solenoid Pilot Valves

f. Air-Release Valves
Distribution System
y Design
D i LayoutL off Di
Distribution
ib i SSystem:
Arrangement of water system is dictated by:
source off water supply,
l
topography of the distribution area,
variations
i ti iin water
t consumption.ti

Basic Principles of Design:

An arterial pipe network for a small system is shown with a high
service ppumping
p g station and elevation tank. ((see Figure
g 6-33a))

Wells distributed throughout

g the pipe
p p network pump
p p water
directly into the system at several locations, allowing the
installation of smaller diameter pipes. (Figure 6-33b)
Distribution System
y Design Layout of Distribution System:

Distribution System
y Evaluation of Distribution System:
Quantity:
Q y
The supply source plus storage facilities should be capable of
yielding enough water to meet both the current daily demands
and the anticipated consumption 10 years hence.

General Rule: The storage

g capacity
p y of an impounding
p g
reservoir should be equal to at least 30 days of maximum
daily demand 5 years into the future.
Distribution System
y Evaluation of Distribution System:
Intake Capacity:
A surface-water intake must be large enough to deliver
p use and treatment pplans
sufficient water to meet municipal
needs during any day of peak demand.

A water intake system must be reliable; it must be located,

p
protected,
, or duplicated
p such that no interruption
p of service to
customers or to fire protection occurs by reason of floods or
other weather conditions or for reasons of breakdown,
equipment repair, or power failure.
Distribution System
y Evaluation of Distribution System:
Pumping
p g Capacity:
p y
In a typical surface-water supply system, low lift pumps draw
water from the source and transport it to the treatment plant.
plant

A pumping system must have sufficient capacity to provide the

amount of water at pressures and flow rates needed to meet
both daily and hourly peak demand with require fire flow
Distribution System
y Evaluation
E l i off Distribution
Di ib i SSystem:
Piping Network:
Arterial
A i l andd secondary
d feeder
f d mains
i should
h ld be
b ddesigned
i d to supply
l
water service for 40 or more years after installation.

Actual useful service life of mains under normal conditions is 50

to 100 years.
y

Submains should be at least 6 in. in diameter in residential

districts, the minimum size in important districts should be 8 in.
in diameter with 12-in. intersecting mains.

Distribution lines are laid out in a gridiron pattern avoiding deal

ends by proper looping.
looping