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LAQ-Option 1: Write a note on architect Le Corbusier

He was born as Charles-douard Jeanneret-Gris in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city

in Neuchtel canton in north-western Switzerland, in the Jura mountains, just 5
kilometres (3.1 mi) across the border from France. He attended
a kindergarten that used Frbelian methods.
Young Jeanneret was attracted to the visual arts and studied at the La-Chaux-de-
Fonds Art School under Charles L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and
Paris. His architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect Ren Chapallaz,
who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest houses.
In his early years he would frequently escape the somewhat provincial
atmosphere of his hometown by traveling around Europe. About 1907, he traveled
to Paris, where he found work in the office of Auguste Perret, the French pioneer
of reinforced concrete. In 1908, He studied architecture in Vienna with Josef
Hoffmann. Between October 1910 and March 1911, he worked near Berlin for the
renowned architect Peter Behrens, where he might have met Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe and Walter Gropius. He became fluent in German. Both of these experiences
would prove influential in his later career.
Later in 1911, he journeyed to the Balkans and
visited Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey, filling sketchbooks with renderings of what he
saw, including many famous sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would
later praise in his work Vers une architecture.

Early career: the villas, 19141930

Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds during World War I,
not returning to Paris until the war was over. During these four years in
Switzerland, he worked on theoretical architectural studies using modern
techniques.[1] Among these was his project for the Domino House (19141915).
This model proposed an open floor plan consisting of concrete slabs supported by a
minimal number of thin, reinforced concrete columns around the edges, with a
stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan.
This design became the foundation for most of his architecture for the next ten
years. Soon he would begin his own architectural practice with his cousin, Pierre
Jeanneret (18961967), a partnership that would last until the 1950s, with an
interruption in the WWII years, due to Le Corbusier's ambivalent position towards
the Vichy regime.
In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter Amde Ozenfant, in whom he
recognised a kindred spirit. Ozenfant encouraged him to paint, and the two began
a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and "romantic," the pair
jointly published their manifesto, Aprs le cubisme and established a new artistic
movement, Purism. Ozenfant and Le Corbusier established the Purist
journal L'Esprit nouveau. He was good friends with the Cubist artist Fernand Lger.
IDEAS:
FIVE POINTS OF ARCHITECTURE
It was Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye (19291931) that most succinctly summed
up his five points of architecture that he had elucidated in the journalL'Esprit
Nouveau and his book Vers une architecture, which he had been developing
throughout the 1920s.
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First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it
by pilotis reinforced concrete stilts.
These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to
elucidate his next two points: a free faade, meaning non-supporting walls that
could be designed as the architect wished, and an open floor plan, meaning that
the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for
supporting walls.
The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that
allow unencumbered views of the large surrounding yard, and which constitute
the fourth point of his system.
The fifth point was the roof garden to compensate for the green area consumed
by the building and replacing it on the roof.
A ramp rising from ground level to the third floor roof terrace allows for an
architectural promenade through the structure.
The white tubular railing recalls the industrial "ocean-liner" aesthetic that Le
Corbusier much admired. As if to put an exclamation mark after Le Corbusier's
homage to modern industry, the driveway around the ground floor, with its
semicircular path, measures the exact turning radius of a
1927 Citron automobile.
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LAQ-Option 1: Elaborate on the architecture of Tadao Ando and discuss his

design philosophies with examples.
TADAO ANDO

Tadao Ando was born in Osaka, Japan in 1941. Unlike most contemporary architects,
Ando did not receive any formal architectural schooling. Instead, he trained himself
by reading and traveling extensively through Africa, Europe, and the United States. In
1970 he established Tadao Ando Architect & Associates. Ando has built in Japan,
India, Europe, and the United States and he has won many awards, including the
prestigious Pritzker Architecture Prize for his enrichment of the art of architecture.

Features

1. The first impression of his architecture is its materiality. His large and powerfull
walls set a limit.
2. A second impression of his work is the tactility. His hard walls seem soft to
touch, admit light, wind and stillness.
3. Third impression is the emptiness, because only light space surround the
visitor in Tadao Ando 's building.

Building Materials

Accordingly, his concrete and glass buildings reflect, the modern progress underway
in both Japan and the world.

Ando's chosen building material is reinforced concrete.

In plan, his buildings consist of geometric forms whose smooth concrete surfaces
define pristine sculpted spaces.

Tradition - Design

In opposition to traditional Japanese architecture, Ando creates spaces of

enclosure rather than openness.
He uses walls to establish a human zone and to counter the monotony of
commercial architecture.
On the exterior, the wall deflects the surrounding urban chaos, while on the
interior it encloses a private space.
Ando developed a radically new architecture characterized by the use of
unfinished reinforced concrete structures. Using a geometric simplicity which
reveals a subtlety and richness in spatial articulation,
Ando has generated an architecture that shares the serenity and clarity that
characterize traditional Japanese architecture.
Ando rejects the rampant consumerism visible within much of today's
architecture.
He responds both sensitively and critically to the chaotic Japanese urban
environment, but maintains a connection to the landscape.
Although Ando rejects cultural fads, he uses materials and forms to incorporate
the materialism of modern society into his architecture.
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Light and Shade

Ando is particularly masterful at incorporating light, water, and landscape into
his structures.
When building alongside a waterfront or in a natural setting, his work has a
strong relationship with the nature. Oftentimes, he sinks the building into the
site, concealing all but a small outcropping of the building.
In urban settings, Ando brings the nature into the building through his use of
reflecting pools, light shafts, and framed vistas that focus one's view on water
or low plantings.
Slits allow natural light to penetrate the thick walls, casting changing patterns
that help define the interior spaces.
These slits not only increase the intensity of light, but ones awareness of light.
A frequent characteristic of Ando's buildings are long monolithic concrete walls
that shield the facade. Like the best artwork, this threshold introduces the
element of mystery and surprise, heightening expectations as one discovers
and approaches the entrance.
Ando has designed specifically for the Saint Louis Art Museum's galleries,
by creating a special architectural space, an environment, that will include an
entrance facade, a reflecting pool, light and shade effects.
WORKS

1. Row House in Sumiyoshi, Osaka in 1975.

This building was a simple block building, inserted into a narrow street of row houses.

This residence is immediately noticeable because of its blank concrete fasade

punctuated only by doorway. The whole object space is divided into a three equal
rectangular spaces, while the central part is atrium. The space nearest the doorway
contains the living room at ground level, and the bedroom above. The last final space
contains the kitchen and bathtroom below, and the master bedroom above. Build in
the wooden residential area above the port city of Kobe.

2. The Koshino House, second realisation of Tadao Ando, was completed in two
phrases (1980-81 and 1983-84). This house is a masterpiece, and collects all
fragments of Tadao Ando 's architectonical vocabulary, mainly the light. "Such things
as light and wind only have meaning when they are introduced inside a house in a
form cut off from the outside world. The forms created have altered and aquired
meaning through elementary nature (light and air) that give indications of the
passage of time and changing of the seasons.

3. Rokko Housing - One of the first projects to bring international attention to

Tadao Ando was his Rokko Housing (Kobe, Hyogo, 1981-83), which is situated
much further down the slope of the Rokko Moutains than the Koshino house, this
complex is wedged into a restricted site on a south-facing 60 degrees slope.

Each of the 20 units is 5,4 x 4,8 m in size, and each has a terrace looking out towards
the bush harbour of Kobe. Some years later, Tadao Ando build a second housing
complex, adjacent to Rokko Housing I. (Rokko Housing II.). Four times larger than
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the original building, this structure includes 50 dwellings, designed on a 5,2m square
grid. A third and even larger structure is under way above Rokko Housing II. (Rokko
Housing III.), under construction.

3. The church of the light (Baraki, Osaka, 1988-89) is located in a residential

suburb 40 km to the north-east of the center of Osaka. It consists from a rectangular
concrete box crossed at 15 degrees angle by freestanding wall. The bisecting wall
obliges the visitor to turn to enter the chapel. In an unusual configuration, the floor
descends in stages toward the altar, which is next to the rear wall, whose horizontal
and vertical openings form a cross, flooding the space with light.

4. Tadao Ando build his Water Temple, following a small footpath, the visitor first
sees a long concrete wall, 3m high, with a single opening. Through this door one does
not find an entrance, but rather another wall, blank, but carved this time, bordered
by a white gravel path. Having walked past this new screen of concrete, the visitor
discovers an oval lotus pond, 40m long and 30m wide. In the centre of the pond, a
stair way descends to the real entrance of the temple. Below the Lotus Fond, within a
circle 18M in diameter, the architect has inscribed a 17.4 m square. Here, within a
grid of red wood, a statue of buddha turns its back to the west, where the only
openings admits the glow of the setting sun.
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LAQ-Option 2: Write a note on Critical Regionalism and discuss the work of

an architect with respect to the above with examples and sketches.
PIONEERS

1. Critical Regionalism has to be understood as marginal practice

2. Buildings are not free-standing object but should influence the site itself
Critical regionalism emphasized on the territory to be established by the structure
rather than the importance of the free standing structure. his place form
relationship was important which recognized the physical boundary.

3. Critical Regionalism favors tectonic architecture a building exercise with

spaces and materials rather than just the outer or the faade details.

4. Critical Regionalism opposes universal civilization This was to optimize the

use of air-conditioning, mechanical and artificial lighting solutions and encourage the
natural systems.

5. Emphasises on the tactile and the visual or the sensory part of architecture

6. Opposed to the sentiments of vernacular architecture.

7. Critical regionalism exists in a small notable sector which have escaped the
universal civilization

Examples

1. Luis Barragan

The tactile sense and approach can be seen in the works of the Mexican
architect Luis Barragan, whose finest houses assume the topographic form.
He had always believed in earth bound architecture, an architecture of
enclosures , stelae, fountains, and water courses an architecture laid into the
volcanic rock and lush vegetation.
His life long association with the Islamic architecture always gets to be
translated in design.
His opposition to the invasion of privacy and his criticism of the erosion of
nature in works of the post war civilization show his ideology in critical
regionalism.
Had moved away from the international style
Work had always been committed to an abstract form which characterized work
of art of that time.
Had a liking for abstract planes set into the landscape as in the intense gardens
for residences and in his freeway monument - Satellite city towers.
Luis Barragan house This is a fine example of Barragans values translated
into architecture. His concepts of serenity, silence, solitude and joy are all
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integral and expressed in his own abstract method. Barragans architecture is a

fine example of regionalism considered and integral with the architecture.

successful approaches (Critical Regionalism and use of appropriate

technology)

b) The Aga Khan University and hospital in Karachi by Payette Associates is a

fine example of architecture that has addressed the issues posed by critical
regionalism.

Just by looking at the form, one can make immediate connections that this
work is designed for a specific place, and further analysis will reveal the depth
of thinking.
The architects took an extensive tour of Islamic monuments in Pakistan, the
Middle East, North Africa and Spain.
Basic fundamental regional practices such as wind-catchers, open timber and
terracotta screens are visible in the design.
Climate was considered, using the water body as a humidifier and the screens
to tame the harsh sun.

d) Charles Correas Kanchenjunga Apartments in Mumbai, India (Refer notes)

is a fine example of how a high-rise apartment building in the middle of a busy
modern city deals with a variety of critical issues at once.

The major issues are the views, the pollution below, the harsh summer climate
and of course a modern program in an historical context.
Just by observing the exterior form and the views from the terrace gardens one
gets a feeling that this building belongs in its context.
The orientation of the tower, the continuous cross-ventilation and the
breathtaking views provide an extraordinary experience.

e) Hafsia Quarters,Tunis, Tunisia

The faade is important in an urban context, whether it be an apartment

building like Gaudis Casa Batlo or the beautiful Hafsia quarters in Tunis,
Tunisia.
Both these are buildings uniquely respond to regional questions with regard to
their architecture.
The Hafsia Quarter is a fine example of using the local influence of architecture,
climate, surroundings and culture to create successful urban communities.
The infill construction, balconies and courtyards blend the new into the old,
creating a unified architecture, the old marrying the new harmoniously.
In this project one would see the urban spaces being created, emulating the
nature of the intimate streets and closely knit sense of community.
The Hafsia reconstruction program has achieved international recognition for its
success, the revitalizing of the economic base and diversifying the old city,
encouraging the influx of the middle class, thereby making the city a center for
socio-economic integration.
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LAQ-Option 1: Write a note on the ideologies, design philosophy and works

of architect Hassan Fathy with sketches.
HASSAN FATHY

Inspired by Pharaonic and traditional Nubian architecture, Fathy was engineer-

architect, musician, dramatist, teacher, professor, and inventor. Hassan Fathy re-
inspired the living art of adobe architecture, giving it a mission for the 20th and
21st centuries. He designed complete communities including utilities and services,
country retreats, and special projects and homes. Hassan Fathy had already
worked for decades in his beloved Egypt before he designed and built for the
homeless community of Gourna, Upper Egypt, which attracted international
acclaim

Principles

Employing energy-conservation techniques, six fundamental principles underlie

Hassan Fathys work:

Belief in the primacy of human values in architecture

Importance of a universal rather than a limited approach
Use of appropriate technology
Need for socially oriented, cooperative construction techniques
The essential role of tradition
The re-establishment of national cultural pride through the act of building.
Thoughts

The word "contemporary" is defined as meaning "existing, living, and

occurring at the same time as." The word implies a comparison between at least
two things, and it conveys no hint of approval or disapproval. But as used by many
architects, the word does carry a value judgment. It means something like "relevant
to its time" and hence to be approved, while "anachronistic" means "irrelevant
to its time" and is a term of disapproval.

Influence

He saw a more appropriate method of building in the Vernacular Architecture

of the Nubians (region of southern Egypt), which influenced his ideas
greatly.
Nubian craftsmen were masters at constructing domed and vaulted roofs of
mud brick which they also used for the walls. The structures were cheap,
cool in the summer and the walls were heat-retaining in winter.
Features

Hassan Fathy developed his own ideas, inculcating traditional Arab styles like
the malkhaf (wind catcher), the shukshaykha (lantern dome) and the
mashrabeya (wooden lattice screens) / (Sunshades).
Also, the qa'a [a central, high-ceilinged upper-story room for
receiving guests, constructed so as to provide natural light and ensure
ventilation] was supplanted by the ordinary salon, and all such delights as
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the fountain, the salsabil [a fountain or a basin of still water designed

to increase air humidity]
He encouraged the revival of such ancient crafts as claustra (lattice
designs in the mud work) to adorn the buildings.
Projects

A) Village New Gourna

Planning

The old Gourna village was situated near archeological Pharaonic sites on the
western shore of Upper Egypt. The Department of Antiquities commissioned
Hassan Fathy to meet the challenge of providing a home for a poor community
of 7,000 people.
His solution differed drastically, not requiring the machinations of the
established building industry of concrete and steel.
For New Gourna he utilized natural resources using mud-brick, a signature of
adobe architecture, and features of Egyptian architecture such as enclosed
courtyards and domed vaulted roofing.
Its strict geometric plan is broken by gently curving streets and sloping
alleyways. They create a tension that leads one to continuously new viewpoints
while strolling through the village.
He worked with the local people to develop the new village, training them to
make the materials to construct their own buildings with.
Old Gourna was essentially a gathering of five tribes of peasants each with
different sheiks, or leaders.
In his design for New Gourna Fathy maintained this social order by dividing the
village into four quadrants (two of the tribes were so interrelated that they
shared a quadrant) created by the two main roads.
Within each quadrant blocks were made up of narrow, winding streets in order
to slow traffic.
Residences

The residences were to be organized into smaller groups called badanas

(neighborhood-like clusters of houses) just as they were in Old Gourna.
Each house was to be designed according to the needs of the family.
Fathy was against row upon row of boxy concrete buildings because he felt that
they completely turned away from the social and environmental considerations
that had shaped Arabic architecture.
The homes that Fathy planned were based on traditional Islamic and desert-
living spatial arrangements. Characteristics of this are the kaa (main hall)
and iwan (recessed area of room) forms as well as the separation of public
and private spaces.
Fathy investigated the needs of the peasants by visiting with the sheiks from
each tribe and talking to the people. Unfortunately, because the Gournis were
not choosing to be moved, they provided little help to Fathy despite his good
intentions. Still, he managed to adapt many aspects of their lives such as
watering holes instead of running water, specially developed beds, and pigeon
towers.
Urban design
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Fathy was concerned with a number of urban design issues.

The first thing he recognized was that the farmland surrounding the selected
site would not economically support a town of 7,000. Fathys solution was to
attempt to provide multiple areas of craftsmanship in which the boys of the
town could be trained in. His design of the Khan (inn) allowed for training
spaces and work areas behind and above the selling stalls. The provision of the
market area (souk) was an added feature on the commercial arena.
Art Schools and Theatres

The schools in New Gourna were funded by national school building legislation. Fathy
had high hopes for the growth of New Gourna. This is shown by his plans for the
craft schools as well as the inclusion of a theater in this rural village. Fathy
envisioned New Gourna becoming a successful town where eventually the people
would become prosperous enough to desire cultural entertainment. He imagined the
theater as a place where traditional entertainment such as quarterstaff contests, a
somewhat violent form of martial arts, took place.

Mosque

The mosque was probably the most important building to be included in New Gourna.
It was the first to be built and the only one to be continuously maintained. Fathy used
some aspects of Old Gournas mosque (which is curiously similar to that of some
Nubian mosques) in his design. The treatment of this building highlights the
importance of the religion, despite problems in social and cultural matters.

B) Society of Agriculture and Izhit al - Basri

The work that Fathy had done for the Royal Society of Agriculture, the
prototype house at Izbit al-Basri, prove his mettle at vernacular rchitecture. In
these examples was the form that was to become his trademark - the Nubian
vault and dome made from mud bricks.
When Fathy began working in the vernacular style he used mud bricks walls and
flat wood roofs. Although the mud for the walls was cheap, the wood was
expensive.
To lower construction costs Fathy wanted to build vaulted ceilings out of brick
but without the expensive wood forms. The Society of Agriculture (1941) was
Fathys first attempt at domed roofs.
Fathy and his team made many attempts and perfected the Nubian's skill in
building vaults and domes without any bracing.
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LAQ-Option 2: Discuss the ideologies and works of architect Walter Gropius

and explain one of his works in detail.

Walter Gropius was a German architect and educator who is widely known as the
founder of the iconic Bauhaus school, which quickly became a dominant force in
the spheres of architecture and the applied arts in the first half of the 20th
century.
Gropis was born in Berlin, Germany in 1883; and died in Boston, Massachusetts,
USA in 1969. As the founder of the Bauhaus school in Weimar, Gropius is without a
doubt one of the most influential architects of the 20th century.
It's no surprise that Gropius took to architecture, his father (Walter Adolph
Gropius) was also an architect, although oddly enough, Gropius could not draw
and relied heavily on others throughout his student and professional career. His
great-uncle Martin Gropius was also a successful architect and professor and had a
great influence on Walter Gropius.

IDEOLOGY:

He follows mainly three aspects about his work.

1. Functionalism
2. Rationalism
3. Expressionism
He also follows basic outlines of architect Frank Lloyd eg:- Bauhaus.
Also form reflects functions.

WORKS:

FAGUS SHOE FACTORY

One of his first buildings of greater importance was the Fagus factory in Alfeld,
built in 1911 this building marked a step further in the path of steel and glass
structures. The building is a three story, steel frame structure.
Steel supports the floors, and the walls have become glass screens, non-
structural in character and underscored by the absence of vertical support at
the corners.
The Fagus building is an important example of early modern architecture.
Commissioned by owner Carl Benscheidt who was looking for a radical structure
to express the company's break from the past, the factory was designed by
Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer. It was constructed between 1911 and 1913.

Gropius' US Home in Lincoln, MA

While living in the United States, Walter Gropius built himself a house that
combined both elements of the Bauhaus aesthetic as well as details of classic
New England architecture. His home was built in 1938, for him and his family,
and it is still standing in Lincoln, Massachusetts.
The house was built using traditional construction materials used for
construction in New England: wood, brick and local stone, but it is also
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comprised of chrome and glass. Glass prism walls partially closed the outer
corridor and eaves above the highlighted tracks to the house approach.
The children's room is characterized by a special detail, namely a metal spiral
staircase connecting the bedroom of Gropius' daughter directly with the
greenery surrounding the house.
The house is built of economical, mostly pre-fabricated materials and
components. The outdoor terrace cover is supported by metal posts of simple
cast profiles.
Gropius' wife Isa invested great effort in planting, gardening and the
arrangement of the landscape surrounding their home. Walter Gropius himself
was very careful to place the house to the natural environment, so much so
that even the established trees that were supposed to be removed in order to
construct the house were actually transplanted.
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SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Less is More. Elaborate on this statement.

Mies van der Rohe: Less is more. Minimalists believe a work of art can be
stripped down to its essential elements, and that such art is both more beautiful
and more effective than a more elaborate style.
Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design,
especially visual art and music, where the work is set out to expose the essence
or identity of a subject through eliminating all non-essential forms, features or
concepts. Minimalism is any design or style in which the simplest and fewest
elements are used to create the maximum effect.
The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend
in design and architecture where in the subject is reduced to its necessary
elements. Minimalist design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional
design and architecture. In addition, the work of De Stijl artists is a major
source of reference for this kind of work. De Stijl expanded the ideas that could
be expressed by using basic elements such as lines and planes organized in
very particular manners.
Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe adopted the motto "Less is more" to
describe his aesthetic tactic of arranging the numerous necessary components
of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity, by enlisting every
element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes.
Designer Buckminster Fulleradopted the engineer's goal of "Doing more with
less", but his concerns were oriented towards technology and engineering
rather than aesthetics. A similar sentiment was industrial designer Dieter Rams'
motto, "Less but better" adapted from Mies. The structure uses relatively simple
elegant designs; ornamentations are quality rather than quantity.
The structure's beauty is also determined by playing with lighting, using the
basic geometric shapes as outlines, using only a single shape or a small number
of like shapes for components for design unity, using tasteful non-fussy bright
color combinations, usually natural textures and colors, and clean and fine
finishes.
Using sometimes the beauty of natural patterns on stone cladding and real
wood encapsulated within ordered simplified structures, and real metal
producing a simplified but prestigious architecture and interior design. May use
color brightness balance and contrast between surface colors to improve visual
aesthetics.
The structure would usually have industrial and space age style utilities (lamps,
stoves, stairs, technology, etc.), neat and straight components (like walls or
stairs) that appear to be machined with equipment, flat or nearly flat roofs,
pleasing negative spaces, and large windows to let in lots of sunlight.
This and science fiction may have contributed to the late twentieth century
futuristic architecture design, and modern home decor. Modern minimalist
home architecture with its unnecessary internal walls removed probably have
led to the popularity of the open plan kitchen and living room style.
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2. Write a brief note on the works of architect I.M.Pei.

I.M. Pei is a Chinese-American architect known for his creative use of modernist
architecture in combination with natural elements and open spaces. During his
six decades of architectural work, he has designed some of the world's most
recognizable buildings in countries around the world.
Mr. Pei's personal architectural style blossomed with his design for the National
Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado (196167).
He subsequently gained broad national attention with theEast Building of the
National Gallery of Art in Washington (196878) and the John Fitzgerald
Kennedy Library in Boston (1965-79) two of some thirty institutional projects
executed by Mr. Pei. Others include churches, hospitals, and municipal
buildings, as well as schools, libraries, and over a dozen museums. His most
recent works include the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Centerin Dallas,
the Grand Louvre in Paris, the Miho Museum in Shiga, Japan, the Schauhaus at
the German Historical Museum in Berlin, and the Muse d'Art Moderne Grand-
Duc Jean in Luxembourg.
Among Mr. Pei's skyscraper designs are the 72-story Bank of China Tower in
Hong Kong and the Four Seasons Hotel in midtown Manhattan. He has
completed two projects in his native China: the Fragrant Hill Hotel in Beijing
(1982) and the Suzhou Museum in Suzhou (2006), each designed to graft
advanced technology onto the roots of indigenous building and thereby sow the
seed of a new, distinctly Chinese form of modern architecture.
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