Measurement of Matter

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Introduction
Human beings seen various types of materials in its surrounding and we trying to
understand their nature. Everything in the universe is made up of materials, called Matter.
Example air we breathe, food we eat, clouds, stones, water - everything is matter.
According to the Indian philosophers, the matter are classified in five basic forms, called
Panch Tatva Air, Earth, Fire, Sky and Water.
We can also seen all things occupy space and mass. But Ancient Indian and Greek
philosophers have always wondered about the unknown and unseen form of matter.
According to Indian philosopher Maharishi Kanad, matter (Padarth) is divisible and made
up of indivisible particles (Parmanu). In same period Greek philosophers Democritus and
Leucippus suggest, matter are divisible made up of indivisible particles atoms.
In eighteenth century, scientists recognized difference between elements and
compounds. Compounds are formed by chemical combination of same elements or different
elements. Dolton atomic theory is an important principle for molecules of compounds are
formed by different elements.

Law of Chemical Combination

Scientists finding out How and Why elements combine and What happens When
they combine.
Antoine L. Lavoisier and their collaborators establishing two important laws of
chemical combination.
i. Law of Conservation of Mass
ii. Law of Constant Proportion

i. Law of Conservation of Mass

In 1785, Antoine Lavoisier explain his research and stated the law of conservation of
mass, mass can neither be created nor destroyed in chemical reaction. In any chemical
reaction the total weight of the reactant is same as the total weight of the product formed
due to the chemical reaction and this is called the law of conservation of mass.
Activity :
Take 56 g calcium oxide in a large conical flask and put 18 g water in it.
Observe what happens.
When calcium oxide and water mixed with each other to from calcium hydroxide.
Measure the mass of the substance formed.
Mass of reactant (56 g calcium oxide + 18 g water) is 64 g = Mass of product 64 g
Calcium hydroxide)
What similarity do you find? Write your inference.
The mass of reactant is equal to the mass of product.

ii. Law of Constant Proportion

In 1794, Joseph L. Proust stated the law of constant proportion. He observed along
with other scientists, noted that many compounds were composed of two or more elements

1 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

and each such compound had the same proportion. In a chemical substance the elements
are always present in definite proportion by mass. This law also known as law of definite
proportion.
Example : The proportion by weight of hydrogen and oxygen in water is 1:8. This means
that 9 g water is formed by chemical combination of 1 g hydrogen and 8 g oxygen.

Doltons Atomic Theory

British chemist John Dolton provided the basic explanation about the nature of
matter. He picked up the idea about divisible matter. This theory based on the law of
chemical combination.
According to Dolton atomic theory, all matter is composed of small particles, called
atoms.
Postulates of Dolton Atomic Theory
All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.
Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.
The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Atom
According to Dolton, atoms are indivisible and it is a fundamental building blocks of
matter. In other hand, after some experiments prove that, atoms are charged particles of
matter. Atoms are consist charged particles (sub-atomic particles), hence atom are not
indivisible. They are divisible.
Activity : Comb dry hair. Does the comb then attract small pieces of paper ?
From the above activity, can we conclude that on rubbing two objects
together, they electrically charged. Means atom is divisible and consists of charged
particles. Many scientists contributed in revealing the presence of charged
particles in an atom.

Structure of Atom
After the discovery of two fundamental particles (proton and electron) inside the
atom, fails the aspects of Doltons atomic theory.

J. J. Thomsons Model of an Atom

Thomson proposed that : An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the
electrons are embedded in it. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So,
the atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
Thomsons model explained that atoms are electrically neutral, the results of
experiments carried out by other scientists could not be explained by this model.

Rutherfords Model of an Atom

Features of Rutherfords model of atom :
There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the
mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.

2 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.

The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit is not expected to be stable. Any
particle in a circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged
particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and finally
fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and hence matter
would not exist in the form that we know. We know that atoms are quite stable.

Bohrs Model of an Atom

Postulates Bohrs Model of an atom :
Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside
the atom.
While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and
Bury.
The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons in different
energy levels or shells :
The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2,
where n is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,4. Hence the maximum number
of electrons in different shells are as follows :
First orbit or K-shell will be = 2 12 = 2,
Second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 22 = 8,
Third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 32 = 18,
Fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 42= 32, and so on.

Atomic Size / Atomic Radius

The distance between centre of nucleus to the outermost
valence shell of an atom, called atomic radius. The atomic radius
1
expressed in nanometer (nm). m = 1nm 1m = 109 nm
109

Mass of an Atom
The mass of an atom depend upon on its nucleus. They contain protons (p) and
neutrons (n). The sum of number of protons and number of neutrons (p+n) present in the
nucleus of an atom, called atomic mass number. It is denoted by A.
An atom is very tiny. Then how do we determine its mass ? Therefore, introduce new
concept relative mass of an atom. The relative atomic mass of various atoms became equal
to their atomic mass number (p+n).
In 1961, introduced carbon-12 isotope as a reference atom for measuring atomic
masses. One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one-twelfth (1/12th) the mass
of one atom of carbon-12. The relative atomic masses of all elements have been found with
respect to an atom of carbon-12.

Note Earlier atomic mass unit abbreviated as amu, but according to the latest IUPAC
recommendation, it is now written as u unified mass. 1u = 1.66053904 x 10-27 kg.

3 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 Name of Symbol Atomic
Element Number
Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2
Lithium Li 3
Beryllium Be 4
Boron B 5
Carbon C 6
Nitrogen N 7
Oxygen O 8
Fluorine F 9
Neon Ne 10
Sodium Na 11
Magnesium Mg 12
Aluminum Al 13
Silicon Si 14
Phosphorus P 15
Sulfur S 16
Chlorine Cl 17
Argon Ar 18
Potassium K 19
Calcium Ca 20

Chemical Symbols of Elements

Now-a-days, IUPAC (International union of pure and applied chemistry) approves
the names of elements. The symbols of elements are the first or first two latter of the
elements english name. First letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter in case of
first letter of elements name or in a first two letters, first as a capital and second as small
letter.

Name of Element Symbol

Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Neon Ne

Molecule
A group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together by attractive
forces. Atoms of the same element or of different elements can join together to form
molecules.

4 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

Molecules of Elements and Compounds
Molecules of Elements
The molecules of an element are constituted by the same type of atoms. The number
of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity.

Atomicity of some elements

Name Atomicity
Argon Monoatomic
Helium Monoatomic
Oxygen Diatomic
Hydrogen Diatomic
Nitrogen Diatomic
Chlorine Diatomic
Phosphorus Tetra-atomic
Sulphur Poly-atomic

Molecules of Compounds
The molecules of an compound are constituted by the different types of atoms. In
other words atoms of different elements join together in definite proportion to form
molecules of compounds.

Molecules of Some Compounds

Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass Simplest Ratio
Water (H2O) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8 2:1
Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14:3 1:3
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8 1:2

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Number

After studying the structure of atom, they contain sub-atomic particles (proton,
neutron, electron). We know that protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
The protons present in the nucleus of an atom determine the atomic number of that atom.
The total number of protons (p) present in the nucleus of an atom, called atomic number. It
is denoted by Z.
The sum of the total number of protons and neutrons (p+n) present in the nucleus of
an atom, called atomic mass number. It is denoted by A.
A=p+n
N=Ap

Name of Symbol Atomic Number of Number of Atomic

Element Number Protons Neutrons Mass
[Z] [p] [n] Number [A]
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 4
Lithium Li 3 3 4 7
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 9

5 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 Boron B 5 5 6 11
Carbon C 6 6 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 14
Oxygen O 8 8 8 16
Fluorine F 9 9 10 19
Neon Ne 10 10 10 20
Sodium Na 11 11 12 23
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 24
Aluminum Al 13 13 14 27
Silicon Si 14 14 14 28
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 31

Molecular Mass
The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms present in a single molecule, called
molecular mass.

Molecule Constituent Atomic Number of Atomic Mass x Mass of the

Elements Mass Atoms in the Number of Constituents
Molecule Atoms
CO2 Carbon 12 1 12 x 1 12
Oxygen 16 2 16 x 2 32
Molecular Mass = Sum of Constituent Atomic Masses Molecular
(Molecular Mass of CO2) = (Atomic Mass of C) x 1 + (Atomic Mass Mass
of O) x 2 44

Formula Unit Mass

Formula unit mass is calculated in the same manner as we calculated the molecular
mass. The difference is only that formula unit for those substances whose constituent
particles are ions.

Molecule Constituent AtomicNumber of Atomic Mass Mass of the

Ions Mass Ions in the x Number of Constituents
Molecule Ions
NaCl Sodium 23 1 23 x 1 23
Chlorine 35.5 1 35.5 x 1 35.5
Formula Unit Mass = Sum of Constituent Atomic Masses Formula Unit
(Molecular Mass of NaCl) = (Atomic Mass of Na) x 1 + (Atomic Mass
Mass of Cl) x 1 58.5

Valency
The combining capacity of atom, called valency. The combining capacity of the atom
of other atoms, that is, their tendency to react and form molecule with atoms of same or
different elements.

6 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 Name of Atomic Number of Number of Number of
Element Symbol Number Protons Neutrons Electrons Valency
[Z] [p] [n] [e]
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 3/5
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2

Ion
Ionic compounds have two constituents metal and non-metal. Both are charged
species (positively and negatively). The charged species are known as ions. The positively
charged species are called cation and negatively charged species are called anion. Both take
part in chemical reaction, hence it called radical. The cationic radical are also called basic
radical and anionic radical are also called acidic radical. Both radicals are attract each other
due to the attraction between positive radical and negative radical forms ionic bond. Ionic
bond containing compounds called ionic compounds.

Ions / Radicals
Basic Radicals Acidic Radicals
Simple Radicals Composite Radicals Simple Radicals Composite Radicals
Name Ion Name Ion Name Ion Name Ion
Hydrogen H+ Ammonium NH4+ Hydride H- Hydroxide OH-
Sodium Na+ Fluoride F- Nitrate NO3-
Potassium K+ Chloride Cl- Nitrite NO2-
Silver Ag+ Bromide Br- Bicarbonate HCO3-
Cuprous Cu+ Iodide I- Bisulphate HSO4-
Mercurous Hg+ Oxide O2- Bisulphite HSO3-
Cupric/Copper Cu2+ Sulphide S2- Chlorate ClO3-
Magnesium Mg2+ Nitride N3- Bromate BrO3-
Calcium Ca2+ Iodate IO3-
Nickel Ni2+ Carbonate CO32-
Cobalt Co2+ Sulphate SO42-
Mercuric Hg2+ Sulphite SO32-
Manganese Mn2+ Chromate CrO42-
Ferrous Fe2+ Dichromate Cr2O72-
Platinum Pt2+ Phosphate PO43-
Ferric Fe3+
Aluminium Al3+

7 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 Monoatomic radicals are called simple radicals and a radical is a group of atoms
carrying charged are called composite radicals or polyatomic radicals.

Variable Valency
Some elements shows variable valency in different conditions. Example Copper,
Iron, Mercury, etc. Elements exhibit more than one valency. This property of the elements
is called variable valency.

Element Symbol Valency Ion Nomenclature

Copper Cu 1 Cu+ Cuprous
2 Cu2+ Cupric
Mercury Hg 1 Hg+ Mercurous
2 Hg2+ Mercuric
Iron Fe 2 Fe2+ Ferrous
3 Fe3+ Ferric

Writing Chemical Formulae

Following steps are involving in writing chemical formulae.
Example : Aluminium sulphate
Step I : To write the symbols of the radicals (Basic radical on the left).
Al SO4
Step II : To write the valency below the respective radical.
Al SO4
3 2
Step III : To cross-multiply as shown by the arrows the number of the radicals.
Al SO4

3 2
Step IV : To write down the chemical formula of the compound.
Al2(SO4)3
Mole Concept
When chemical constituents take part in a chemical reactions, it is necessary to know the
numbers of their atoms or molecules. Hence install a mole concept to measure out
quantities of or counting the numbers of atom and molecules.
1 mole of a compound is the mass of that substance in grams equal in magnitude to
its molecular mass. The SI unit is mol. The numbers of particles (atom or molecules or ions)
present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed with a value of 6.022 x 1023. This number is
called Avogadros constant or Avogadros number. It is represented by No or NA. Named in
honors of the Italian scientist, Amedeo Avogadro.
Formulae
1 Calculate number of moles from given mass
m
n=
M

Given Mass
Mole =
Molecular Mass
8 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES
 2 Calculate number of moles from given number of particles
N
n=
NA

Given number of particles of atoms/molecules/ions

Mole =
Avogadro's Number

Example : Calculate the number of moles for the following :

(i) 56 g of N2 gas (finding mole from mass)
(ii) 12.044 x 1023 number of N2 gas (finding mole from number of particles).

Solution : (i) Atomic mass of N = 14 u

Molar mass of N2 gas (M) = 28 g
Given mass (m) = 56 g
Thus, the number of moles
m 56
n= M = 28 =2

(ii) Given number of particles (N) = 12.044 x 1023

Avogadro number (NA) = 6.022 x 1023

N 12.044 x 1023
The number of moles n = NA = =2
6.022 x 1023

3 Calculate mass from given mole

m=nxM

Mass = Given Mole x Molecular Mass

Example : Calculate the mass of 0.5 mole of O2 gas (mass from mole of molecule).

Mass = Given Mole x Molecular Mass

m=nxM
m = 0.5 x 32 = 16

4 Calculate number of particles of atoms or molecules from given mole

N = n x NA
Number of Particles = Given Mole x Avogadro's Number

Example : Calculate the number of particles in 0.5 mole of Carbon atoms (number from
given moles).
Number of Particles = Given Mole x Avogadro'sNumber
N = n x NA

N = 0.5 x 6.022 X 1023 = 3.011 x 1023

9 Measurement of Matter KUSHALS NOTES

 5 Calculate number of particles of atoms or molecules from given mass
m
N = x NA
M
Given Mass
Given number of particles = x Avogadro's Number
Molecular Mass

Example : Calculate the number of particles in 14 g N2 molecules (number of molecules

from mass).
Given Mass
Given number of particles = x Avogadro's Number
Molecular Mass

m
N= x NA
M
14
N= 28 x 6.022 x 1023 = 3.011 x 1023

6 Calculate mass from given number of particles of atoms or molecules

N
m= xM
NA

Given number of particles of atoms/molecules/ions

Mass = x Molecular Mass
Avogadro's Number

Example : Calculate the mass of 3.011 x 1023 number of O atoms (mass from number).

Given number of particles of atoms/molecules/ions

Mass = x Molecular Mass
Avogadro's Number
N
m= xM
NA

3.011 x 1023
m= x 16 = 8 g
6.022 x 1023

______________________________________________________
KUSHAL KHOLGADE
MOB. 9021762036
kushalkholgade@rediffmail.com
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