l'..
:etion
: ,=::on is a result of weathering and erosion.
:.::,:.es are washed from land into lakes and
' .. s. They are eventually deposited as silt on
: ^ = :nd riverbeds and eventually on coastal
' : .,
--:rs, forming deltas and beaches.
: ..:ron is harmful to the environment because
::-rses the water to become murky. This
:-:3s the gills of fishes to be clogged, which
-..- :r'entually lead to death; it also prevents
'-: renetration of the Sun's rays to maintain
: - --:osvnthesising organisms.
: :::ion can, however, be a good thing; it brings
* :.era1s and nutrients to plant life in the
' =:beds and to bottom-dwelling animals. It
...: benefits many coastal plants, as well as
: : :','iding a rich area for breeding organisms in
- : s:al regions. Finally, it helps in lqnd reclamation
:=:iaiming the land).
Stach deposits
- -: existence ofa beach is dependent on the rate
.''ediment deposition, compared to its rate of
:.roval; this is called the sediment budget. As
- :g as the sediment deposition rate is equal to
-: exceeds removal rates, the beach will rdmain
.-able or expand in size. However, if sediment
:=noval rates are highea the beach will contract.
-: Fact, some beaches undergo cyclic expansions
.:d contractions within a twelve-month period.
- sediments are removed from a beach, they
:an be replaced by the natural processes that
::ansport sediments to that beach. For this
:eason, beaches can be classified as renewable
:esources.
Beach loss frorn sand-mining
t r= '' . 'e l ''14 Leatlrerbacr l:Lrrtles visrt the beach to
If beach material is lost through unregulated sand
mining, the effect is the exposure of coastal land
to erosion from and by the sea (loss ofbeach).
Beach loss and subsequent erosion could cause
flooding and loss ofhabitat for creatures such as
crabs and also for turtles that come to lay eggs on
coastal beaches such as at Matura in Tiinidad and
Tobago. Beach loss also hampers tourism.
Oil spills
Oil discharged into surface water, usuaily in the
sea but also in rivers. has caused major pollution
problems. Several large oil spills from under-
water oil drilling have occurred in recent years.
However, although spills make headlines, normal
shipping activities probably release more oil over
a period ofyears than is released by occasional
spi11s.
Causes of oil spills
Oil production from the Gulf of Paria marine
fie1ds was about 14 million barrels up to 1988,
which was about equal to that from all the land
fields and about halfofthat produced from
the east-coast marine fields. With more than
thirty marine platforms, over 150 kilometres of
pipeline, and the movement of about 70 tankers
per month within the Gulf of Paria, the presence
and the risk of oil pollution is evident. In
addition, bilge pumping, bunkering and accidental
Ieakages from hundreds ofother craft that operate
between and within the major Gulf of Paria ports,
all compound the marine pollution problem. The
sheer volume of traffic increases the probability of
pollution within the Gulf.
in 1945, Whiteleather and Brown's research
noted: 'Extensive oil slicks were encountered on
several occasions in different parts of the Gulf of
Paria. Oil spills have serious effects on fisheries,
but also after the oils have become hear,y enough
to sink, they contaminate the bottom muds
affecting the communities of animals on which
demersal fish subsist.'
Effects of oil spills
The risk of oil pollution is present in all stages
of activity, from exploration to production,
transportation by pipeline, storage, shipping,
refining and distribution. Oil pollution may
be chronic, with longterm low-1evel inputs, or
catastrophic, with events usually referred to as oil
lay spills. The former is more insidious, as the effects
are less obvious and do not alwavs command due
attention, whereas the graphic effects of the latter
usuaily generate prompt often highiy publicised
action. Based on research published by the
National Academy of Sciences in 1985, it has been
reported that sensitivity to hydrocarbons varies
between phyla (major groups of plants or animals)
and across and between developmental stages, and
affects processes from the maturation of gonads to
the survival and settlement of larvae.
t Figure 3.45 Controll ng and clearing oil spills
The effect of oil on marine microorganisms
depends on the type and amount of oil spilled,
the physical nature of the oil spilled, the physical
nature of the area (for example, open ocean or
estuarine marsh), nutritional status, oxygen
concentration and the previous history of the
affected area with regard to hydrocarbon exposure.
Prior exposure to hydrocarbons may be reflected
in changes in number and in types or diversity
of micro-organisms, their chemical composition,
as well as changes in microbial activities. Light
crude oils and refined products, such as gasoline
and diesel fuel, are usually more toxic (Source:
Baker, 1983). Chronic low-level spills ailow time
for naturally occurring microbial degradation of
oil. Changes to communities of flora and fauna
and the activities of the microbial population occur
but are less dramatic. In the case of a catastrophic
spill, those that are sensitive to hydrocarbons will
be killed or their growth suppressed, while those
with genetic potential to use hydrocarbons as a
carbon and energy source will grow and increase in
numbers and/ or biomass.
Possible biological effects of petroleum include:
1. Lethal toxic effects. The components of the oil
interfere with cellular and sub cellular processes in
the organism to such an extent that death follows.
The components of drilling fluids are also highly
toxic to marine life.
CHAPTER
2. Sub-lethal effects that disrupt physiological
activities, but do not cause immediate mortality,
although death may follow because of interference
with feeding and reproductive activities or due to
other abnormal behaviour.
3. The up-take of oil, or fractions of it, by
marine organisms and the initiation of a sequence
whereby the pollutants are transferred to other
members of the food chain. This process can lead
to deieterious physiological effects on the different
marine organisms involved, as well as making
them unfit for human consumption.
4. Direct smothering and suffocation or
interference with movements to obtain food or
escape from predators, as a result of becoming
coated with oil.
5 Alterations to the chemical and physical
properties of the marine habitat, which result in
changes in populations of individual species as
well as shifts in species composition and diversity.
6. Mortalities caused by indiscriminate use of
detergents to disperse oil. Plankton and free-
swimming larvae are likely to be most sensitive to
the presence of emulsifiers.
Control of oil spills: national oil-spill clean-up
plan
As long ago as 1945, attention was being drawn to
the probable effects of oil pollution on fisheries of
bothpelagic, surface swimming fish and demersal,
bottom-dwelling fish in the Gulf of Paria.
In an effort to address problems associated with oil
pollution, a chart was produced at the Ministry of
Petroleum and Mines detailing potential pollution
sources and their envirbnmental characteristics.
This was a precursor to the development of an
oil-spill clean-up plan, although the designation
of near-shore areas as 'natural fish nurseries' was
probably little more than specuiation, due to a iack
of sound research-based information.
ln I977 , a National Oil Spill Clean-up Plan
(NOSCP) was produced by the Ministry of
Petroleum and Mines. Included in this document
was a map defining areas considered to be at high
risk because both the existence of sources of a
pollution incident and the higher likelihood of an
incident fell within them.
This document also noted that the risk areas
on land are generally adjacent to some heavily
poiluted rivers that contributed to marine
pollution, as well as to the despoilation of
agricultural areas that surround these rivers.
} NETUNNT RESOURCEs OF THE CARIBBEAN |5
In 1984, another NOSCP was produced, with an
that described the coastai margins of
"ttachment
Tr-inidad, including information on the ecology
:nd near-shore characteristics of defined areas,
',,.'ith an assessment of their sensitiviti'es to oil
:oliution incidents. In 7987, the Government
:iTiinidad and Tobago applied for technical
.ssistance, through the European Development
lund, for an evaluation of the NOSCP The
:e sult of this was the recruitment of a consultant
.r prepare a proposal for a new NOSCP The
:.:quirement was to:
+ prepare proposals for overseas and national
rraining of personnel dealing with the NOSCP
+ prepare suggestions on methods, practical and
administrative, to minimise the offshore and
shore-based permanent oil pollution of the
marine environment
+ prepare recommendations regarding accession
ro the international conventions for pollution
of the marine environment and on insurance
:nd claims for compensation
+ frepare proposals on how to use or develop
rire existing organisation in order to respond to
hazardous spills.
-and-based sources
- :e following observations were included as
- =:kground in a document for the evaluation of
.-:ional oil pollution control system:
)'l pollution originates from all the facets of
' :ndling the crude, from the well-head, the
: le/lnes, the tanks farms, the refineries and
'. : terminals. Oil leaks from mostwell-heads,
.,rsociated pumps, valves and plpes lnto the
: -,"rounding soil. ln connection with most well-
-:ads, a ditch is excavated to retain the leaking oil.
-rese ditches are supposed to be emptied regularly
,,. tank truck ... if they are not, the oil will flood
-. e drtches and escape into the environment, a
:,'.'amp, a creek and to a river and from there to the
': l.
l:e or more dams with oil-collection devices are
::l/t c/ose to the estuaries of river flowing through
- ifrelds. However, these devices are, in general,
' ::dly maintained, poody operated and quite
-adequate to avoid large quantities of oil escaping
-io the sea.
:. the refineries and major tank farms, one or
- cre oily water separators of the API type are
.,:ab/lshed to separate crude from production
..ter or drainage. Most of the oil in the drainage
5
caused by leaking valves, pipelines and pumps, due
to poor maintenance. If the API separators are well
maintained and are correctly operated, the effluent
from the separator should be almost free from oil.
This is, in most cases, not the situation and a great
amount of oil is leaking to the marine environment.
ln the same places the effluent from the API
separators is treated with a dispersant to 'get rid of
any oilwhrch should accidentally escape' from the
separators. This treatment was observed to be quite
ineffective and, apaft from being a waste of money,
it is expected that this careless use of dispersants in
freshwater streams will damage the natural life of
the stream seriously ...'
Source: Ostergaard, 1 9 87
TH g IMPORTANCE OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
TO CARI BBEAN
COUNTRI E5
Natural resources are the greatest component
of the wealth of Caribbean countries and have a
value far above that of industry and influence a
wide range of economic sectors.
Employment
The exploitation and processing of natural
a
resources provides a high percentage of the
employment in the Caribbean. In addition to
being a common form of employment, it also pays
much more than other jobs.
Earning foreign exchange
The natural resources, their harvesting and
exploitation are major earners of foreign
exchange. They contribute a significant
percentage of each country's gross domestic
product (GDP) and the abundance ofrau.
materials attracts many foreign investors.
While exports of natural resources such as oil
or gas bring in revenue from other countries.
the environment itself is also an important
natural resource. Goods and services associated
with tourism bring in important revenue ro ail
Caribbean countries.
Food
Both the land and the sea are productive in rhe
Caribbean. The sea holds many differenr species
of fish which supply home and export markets.
is
The land produces abundant local food crops and
cash crops for export. Agriculture has always been,
and is still, a vibrant and lucrative industry.
I( atat vnattriuLs fr:r inc{ustri*"t prdcesses
The Caribbean is rich in raw materials, such as
bauxite, gold, timber, and energy for industrial
processes. This is especially so in Tiinidad. Foreign
investors are attracted by the availability of
resources and a ready workforce.
ItwreaLirn
The sea is an important natural resource in the
Caribbean. It provides for facilities such as bathing,
cruises and water sports.
The wildlife in the region generates other leisure
facilities, ranging from birdwatching and reef
diving to observing the migration of whales.
The environment, as a whole, is a huge natural
resource. It displays many attractive features, such
as waterfalls, underground caves and breathtaking
scenery, as well as blue skies and white beaches,
that are enjoyed by the Caribbean peoples and the
tourists who are drawn to the area.
Tng IMPoRTANCE oF BAUXITE To
CanI BBEAN CoUNTRI E5
Huge deposits of bauxite can be found in Jamaica
and Guyana. Those in Guyana are embedded
deeply in the layers of rocks, while in Jamaica the
deposits are under the topsoil. Bauxite is used to
make aluminum. Guyana also has rich deposits of
gold and manganese oxides.
!'rttjrct un hauxite
Subject: environmental science
By: Avinash G. Singh
f Frgure 3.46 Raw bauxite
CHAPTETi
Bauxite
Bauxite isn't much to look at. It's dull brown,
Brey, yellow or white in colour and looks like a
common piece of concrete with small pebbles
throughout.
Bauxite is the ore of aluminium and is named after
Les Baux in France, where it was discovered in
1821. Its discovery has provided the world with
one of the most important and useful minerals of
all time.
Bauxite, which was formed by the rapid
weathering of granite (igneous) rocks in warm,
humid climates, can be easily purified and
converted directly into metaliic aluminium.
Bauxite deposits are usually found near the Earth's
surface and open pit mining methods are used. For
deeper deposits, miners dig shafts and tunnels to
reach the ore.
Bauxite ore may be as soft as clay or as hard as
rock, but usually occurs in lumps about the size of
a pea.
It contains large amounts of hydrated aluminium
oxides, a chemical combination of aluminium
oxide and water. Aluminium oxide is also called
alumina.
Most bauxite consists of 30 to 60 per cent alumina
and 72 to 30 per cent water. The aluminium
industry uses about 90 per cent ofthe bauxite
mined throughout the world.
How bauxite is mined
In Guyana, bauxite mining is a difficult operation,
because a thick layer of overburden must be
removed. In the first areas to be mined, the
overburden was less than a metre thick, and could
easily be removed with shovels. Today, bauxite
is being extracted from areas with over 60 m of
overburden.
Guyanese bauxite is mined by clearing the site
with bulldozers, then removing the first layer of
overburden, sand or sandy clay with a bucket
wheel excavator.
The sand is taken away by conveyor belts. It can
also be removed by hydraulicking which involves
powerful jets of water.
The next layer of overburden is clay which is
removed with a walking dragline which can scoop
up 15 tonnes ofclay on the end ofa 60m long
]-oom. The boom can swing round and deposit the
clay on land which has already been mined.
After the overburden has been removed, the
bauxite is drilled and blasted with explosives,
J NATURAL RESoUIiCES oF THE CARIBBEAN I IJ
 to break it up so it can be loaded into trucks or
railcars, and transported to the bauxite processing
plant.
In Jamaica, there is no overburden tg remove, and
the bauxite is soft enough to be extracted without
blasting. This means there are fewer separate
stages in the topsoil removal, so the bauxite
can be dug out with a backhoe or a rubber-tyred
tractor shovel.
Processing bauxite
Jamaican bauxite contains about 45Vo aluminium
oxides, but to obtain a high purity ore, the
aluminium oxide in the ore has to be separated
from the other minerals, including the iron oxides
:h"; which give the ore its red colour.
Fo: Pure aluminium oxide is a white powder known
:o as alumina.
Making alumina
:ci Alumina is produced by the Bayer process.
The ore is ground with caustic soda to form a
IN slurry.
Bauxite slurry is fed into large pressure vessels
I called digesters, where a second stream ofhot
caustic soda is added. The caustic soda reacts
xii; rvith the alumina and dissolves it. The other
minerals in the bauxite do not react with the
caustic soda, and are not dissolved.
After cooling, slurry from the digesters is fed
into settling tanks. The liquid in the slurry,
rvhich contains the dissolved alumina, is
ior.
separated from the solids by filtration. The
residue which remains is known as red mud.
Disposing of the red mud is a problem for the
ou-:
industry.
: temperatures, high-strength electrical porcelain
The liquid which contains the alumina is
rf
crystallised. Small alumina seed crystals are
added to the solution. These increase the rate at
e
rvhich crystals grow.
of
The crystals are separated out, sorted by size,
rvashed, and dried and stored in silos.
AL Making aluminium
oiles Aluminium is produced in a smelter:
The alumina crystals are dissolved in molten
cryolite, in a graphitelined container.
coc; A strong electric current is passed through the
rg
molten ore.
;it'-:=
The graphite lining on the container is called
the cathode and has a negative electric charge.
|8
The alumina is broken down into aluminum and
oxygen. The aluminium is attracted towards the
negadve charge in the container Iining.
Molten aluminium collects in the bottom of the
container and is tapped off.
It takes two tonnes of alumina and 13 000 to
20 000 kWh of electricity to make one tonne of
aluminium. An aluminium smelter uses as
much electricity as a city of 500 000 people.
Unless the electricity is cheap, the cost of the
aluminium will be high. Smelters are usually
located close to a cheap power source such as a
hydroelectric dam.
Other uses of bauxite and use of aluminium
There are many uses for aluminum. It is strong,
very light in weight, a good conductor of heat
and electricity and also relatively resistant
to atmospheric corrosion, so it is used in
engineering and construction work, cooking
utensils, aircraft, food and drink packaging,
jewellery and electrical and electronic work.
Aluminium is also easy to recycle. This is a good
energy conservation measure.
Other uses for bauxite
Other bauxite products are a white mineral salt
called alum, that purifies water and hardens
plaster of Paris, and the chemical called
aluminium sulphate, which is also used in water
purification as well as in paper making
Some Guyanese bauxite has a very low iron
content, and a high proportion of alumina. It is
known as refractory-grade bauxite, and is used for
making firebricks for lining kilns and furnaces,
special cement which can withstand high
for electrical insulators and anti-skid surfacing
materials for roads, bridges, factory floors, and
airport runways.
3b" rt"d""tb ;;t;;il,, r"piir" p.ii";;;"i; th
Caribbean on page I 30 at the end of this chapter.
"
CoNSERVATION OF
NATURAT RESOURCES
Conservation means different things in different
circumstances. In a pragmatic sense, the term
means adjusting our needs to minimise the use
ofa particular resource. In the case ofenergy, for
example, mankind needs to change its pattern
of use, waste less and also learn to use less. The
same principles apply to other resources, although This is.just one of many ways to use the services
the nature of conservation measures will vary. of nature. Others include selecting nitrogen-fixing
species for planting on degraded land or nutrient
Terrestrial wildiife and fisheries are considered
poor pastures, follolved by early successional
together because they have a commQn history of
species for improving micro-climate and soil
exploitation, management and conservation and
conditions. This technique facilitates the later
because modern attempts to manage and conserve
estabiishment of more vulnerable trees. It is,
them are similar.
however, important to be alert to possible roles
An endangered species can be any form of life, for any and all species, even though they may be
from bacteria and fungi to flowering plants and considered pests.
animals. However. the primary issues relating
to endangered species are discussed in terms of
wildlife.
The beginnings of attempts to apply science to
conserve and manage wildlife and fisheries date
from the turn ofthe 20th century. Each species
was viewed as a singie population, in isolation, in
the belief that it could be managed in this way'

THE GOAIS OF BIOTOGICAT

CONSERVATION
There are different ways in which biological
conservation can be pursued. One version is
maintaining a wild creature in a wiid habitat,
which is called in siru conservation. Another t Figure 3.47 Yangrove forest restoration, Ecuador
version is maintaining a wild creature in a
managed habitat, so that the species persists, feeds P RE'E RVATION
and reproduces with iittle interference and so that
we can see it in a naturalistic habitat. M aint aining glob al div er sitY
A further version involves keeping a reservoir We can maintain global diversity by preserving
of a population in a zoo, so that the genetic representatives of as many habitats as possible,
characteristics are maintained in live individuals. some with high diversity of species and some
The final version is conservation of genetic with endemic or rare species. There is no need
material only - keeping frozen cells containing to manqge such areas by activities that control or
DNA from a species for future scientific research. alter the habitat, for example, by building roads.
Naturally occurring ecosystems have managed to
RESTORATION stay intact for thousands of years without human
support. The only management that is required
When an ecosystem has been degraded, it is not is to limit the intrusion of roads and keep out
necessarily gone for ever. Restoration can be machinery. By so doing, the most destructive
attempted. There is a wide range of restoration external influences rvill be avoided.
and rehabilitation techniques that match the
When preservation of site or landscape is
large variety of degraded ecosystems. A common
inadequate to protect the species contained withi:-
approach to restoring degraded forest areas is tree
them, ex situ mechanisms may be necessary. (Er
planting. A common technique is to prepare an
sifu means in places away from the site where the speci;:
area and then plant seedlings, usually at intervals
naturally occur.) Ex situ examples are botanical
of 2 to 4 metres. A major problem to this approach
gardens, game farms, captive breeding programm.;
is the expense. Often, only smali areas can be
in zoos, and gene banks. These facilities are
reforested because of limited funds. Under certain
particularly important for wild species whose
conditions, however, much iarger areas can be re-
popuiations are rare or endangered. They serve a:
forested at relatively iow cost by taking advantage
a backup to in situ reserves as a source of materi'
of the services of nature and relving on the
for reintroduction and as a major repository of
dispersal of seeds by animals, wind and water.

CHAPTER 3 NN-fURAi REsOURCE5 OF THE CARIBBEAN I !

I
a

on species preservation may be most effective

in conserving charming species such as pandas,
or commercially valuable species of flora such
a as mahogany, conservation of biodiversity and
ecosystem functions may be best achieved by
preserving habitats.

REA'ONS FOR (ONSERVATION OF

RE'OU RCEs
There are many arguments and justifications for
the conservation ofresources, ranging from the
aesthetic (beauty) to the economic (money). The
importance that we assign to these arguments
and justifications depends on our own value
judgements. This is the reason why it can be
difficult to get backing for environmental resource
preservation projects.
* Aesthetic argument: The natural environment
should be preserved because of its beauty.
Justification of aesthetic argument: Nature is
beautiful and that beauty in itseif is important
and valuable to people.
* Moral argument: The natural environment
should be preserved because natural diversity
adds to the quality of life. We should try to
' t g-te 3.48 Mountaln chicken frog endemic to Domtntca preserve all lifeforms.
i:netic material for future breeding programmes Justification of moral argument: Nature is
:: domestic species. Even for wild species that are important and valuable to people, providing
:.ri threatened, ex situ collections are needed, to some of the most appealing aspects of our
::ake material readily available for breeding, so existence.
--:ar the genetic base can be kept broad.
The lives of other lifeforms are important. We
do not have the moral right to destroy them.
* Utilitarian argument: The natural
environment should be preserved because the
products of naturai areas might be useful to us.
Justification of utilitarian argument:
Experience has shown that many species of
plants and animals have economic value, either
directly, as raw materials, food or medicine, or
as tourist attractions. We should not destroy
them unless their value has been assessed.
* Ecological argument: The natural
environment should be preserved because we
' =gur6 3.49 GuyaaaZoo should aim to preserve diversity of organisms.
The goal ofconservation biology is to preserve Justification of ecological argument: A wide
soecies diversity and, ultimately, global diversity of life is required to maintain the
:iodiversity. Although individual species may functions of ecosystems and the biosphere.
le exterminated because of their commercial The removal of any component of an ecosystem
','alues, the major threat to world diversity comes can have unexpected consequences for the
::om habitat destruction. Thus, although a focus wider world.

20

AAcASURES AND TOOLs
FOR CONSERVATION
Internat:iansi Unfcn for tke Conservafion
of Narure cnd Notur*l Resouress {iUCN)
The IUCN is the World Conservation Union. The
use of the name 'World Conservation Union'
began in 1990, but the full name and the acronym
IUCN are often used together, as many people still
know the Union as IUCN.
The World Conservation Union is the world's
largest and most important conservation
network. The Union brings together 82 states,
111 government agencies, 800 non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) and 10 000 scientists
and experts from 181 countries in a worldwide
partnership.
The Union's mission is to influence and assist
societies throughout the world to conserve nature
and to ensure that the use ofnatural resources is
ecologically sustainable.
Why does the world need the Conservation
Union?
The idea of conserving the environment has gained
political acceptance, but people still misunderstand
or ignore the value ofthe goods and services that
nature provides.
For example, over 15 thousand species of animals
and plants are threatened with extinction
and many ecosystems - wetlands and forests
- are being degraded and destroyed, despite our
knowing that natural ecosystems provide us with a
large range ofhighly valuable services.
The importance of well-functioning ecosystems in
helping to reduce poverty and improve livelihoods,
societies and economies is increasingly clear to
scientists. This knowledge needs to be integrated
into the decisions and actions of local, national and
international policy-makers, as well as business
leaders.
The World Conservation Union continues to
improve scientific understanding of what natural
ecosystems provide to humans and seeks to ensure
that this knowledge is used in practical ways.
What does the Union do?
The World Conservation Union supports and
develops cutting-edge conservation science; it
implements this research in field projects around
the world and then links both research and results
CHAPTER
to local, national, regional and global policy by
means of discussions between governments, civil
society and the private sector.
The Union's current programme (2005-2011) is
to build recognition of the many ways in which
human lives and livelihoods, especially of the
poor, depend on the sustainable management of
natural resources. The Union is actively engaged in
managing and restoring ecosystems and improving
people's lives, economies and societies.
Protecting the natural environment in the
Caribbean
How can the Caribbean region protect its rich
diversity and prevent deforestation? There are
many measures that can be taken.
* Establish biodiversity corridors.
* Use appropriate harvesting techniques.
* Do not permit clear cutting of trees.
* Encourage reafforestation measures.
* Encourage environmental education.
Each country should dedicate an area ofland
and/or sea for the protection and maintenance of
biological diversity and ofnatural and associated
cultural resources, managing it through legal or
other effective means.
Some areas can be classified as strict nature
reserves. This means the area:
* is managed mainly for science
* is an outstanding or representative ecosystem
* has representative geological features.
Other areas should be classified as wilderness
areas, which means:
* the area is managed for wilderness protection
* the aim is to preserve natural conditions.
Other ways of protecting the natural
environment
* National parks
These are managed for ecosystem protection and
recreation.
* National monuments
These are areas managed mainly for
conservation of specific natural features.
* Protected landscape/seascape
These are areas managed for:
r the sustainable use of natural ecosystems
I the maintenance of biological diversity
I meeting community need.
] NATURAL RESOURCEs OF THE CARIBBEAN
;'*.t il p,r"ibb e sn, a bi* cli.; ev s ity
The Caribbean islands are regarded as a
biodiversity hotspot that supports exceptionally
diverse ecosystems. These range from mpntane
cloud forests to cactus scrublands. This diversity
is present despite heavy deforestation and
encroachment by humans. The area has dozens of
highly threatened species, including two species
of solenodon (giant shrews), one found only in
Cuba and one found only on the island of
Hispaniola, and the Cuban crocodile, which lives
in only two swamp areas. The islands are also
special because of the small size of much of its
fauna, including the world's smallest bird (the
tiny bee humming bird) and smallest snake.
The original extent of the Caribbean forests is
estimated to have been about 230 000 km2. All
that now remains is about 23 000 km2.
There are still over 6500 endemic plant
species, 48 threatened endemic bird species,
18 threatened endemic mammal species and
143 threatened endemic amphibian species.
t Figure 3 50 The Caribbean islands
Thirty-eight species are known to have become
extinct; many are still threatened. The good
news is that 30 000 square kilometres of the
Caribbean are now specially protected and over
16 000 square kilometres are in high protection
categories.
ECOI.OCICAT RESERVE' IN THE
CARI BBEAN
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El Tucuche Reserve or Northern Sanctuary,
Maracas
Area: 936 hectares (2313 acres)
Natural attractions: El Tucuche is the second
highest peak, at 936 metres (3072 ft). The forest
122
1",*t sp * t has interesting flora and fauna, such as the giant
bromeliad, and exotic orchids. The golden tree
frog and various birds abound. These include the
orange-billed nightingale thrush.
Access facilities: Hiking only. Several trails can
be used. Guides can be hired. The most popular
trail is the Ortinola from the Ortinola Estate.
Valencia Wildlife Sanctuary, Valencia
Areat 2784 hectares (6881 acres)
Natural attractions: There are at least 50
species ofbird, including antbirds and tanagers.
Deer, wild pigs, agouti, tatoo, and iguana roam
this area.
Access facilities: Easy access by roads, Guides
can be hired.
Asa Wright Nature Centre and Lodge, Arima
Area: 81 hectares (200 acres)
Natural attractions: This study and
conservation centre retains some of its plantation
history as a result of the coffee, cocoa and citrus
still found there. It has the only easily accessible
colony of oil-birds. Rich bird life includes
the ruby-topaz humming bird and the tufted
coquette.
Access facilities: Guided tours provided through
the centre and to other reserves. Accommodation
and meals are avaiiable. Bathing is available in its
waterfall-fed pool.
Caroni Bird Sanctuary, Caroni
Area: 136 hectares (337 acres)
Natural attractions: This is the third largest
swamp in Tiinidad. At least 138 species of birds
inhabit it. Of these birds, the scarlet ibis provide
the most spectacular sight when they return at
dusk. Fish and other fauna abound.
Access facilities: Easy access by boat. Guided
tours daily.
Bush Bush Wildlife Reserve, Nariva Swamp
Area: 1554 hectares (3840 acres)
Natural attractions: This area encompasses
hard-wood forest and rich, varied, fauna. The red
howler monkey and the weeping capuchin are
among more than 57 species of mammal. The
savannah hawk, the red-breasted blackbird, as
well as reptiles, fish and other fauna are found
here.
Access facilities: Access by boat only.