Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

C l a r i t o G . l o p e z J r .
M P A / P A , L L B P a g e |1
PART ONE
Chemistry of Fire
Introduction
Fire is not, in fact, a substance. When

you gaze at the leaping flames of a
campfire, youre observing not an object,
but a process a chemical reaction. Its the
same chemical reaction that occurs when a
cut apple left on the counter turns brown,
when silver tarnishes or when an iron nail
rusts.
That process is oxidation: combining
oxygen with another substance. The
defining difference between a fire and your
half-eaten apple is speed: fire is an
oxidation process that happens very fast, so
that light, heat and sound are released
often with enough force and majesty to
justify the ancients reverence. The sudden
release of energy causes temperatures to
rise, sometimes by thousands of degrees.
And it also results in smoke, the toxic waste
of fires leftovers.
Persons behind the introduction of fire

studies
C l a r i t o G . l o p e z J r . M P A / P A , L L B P a g e |2
JOHN WALKER he was the English

Pharmacist who inv
ented the first match in 1872, the tip of his
match was coated a mixture sulfide and
potassium chlorate that was held on the
wooden matchstick by gym Arabic and
Starch.
ANTOINE LAVOISER A French Chemist

who proved in 1777 that burning is the result
of the rapid union of oxygen with other
substances. As substances burn, heat and
light are produced.
THOMAS ALYA EDISON An American

inventor who was able to send an electric
current through a carbon filament (wire)
until the filament become so hot that it
gave off light.
Concept of Fire
Fire is defined as the state of burning that

produces flames which send out heat and light.
Fire is simply the perceptible phase of burning or
combustion, which is the chemical combination
of oxygen in the air with carbon contained in
matters; it is the heat and light that comes from
burning substances, produced by the

combustion of substances; it is also the
manifestation of rapid chemical reaction
occurring between a combustible matter and
an oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction
releases energy in the form of heat and light.
When a substance burns, heat and light are
produced. The act or process of burning is
called combustion.
A flame is the resultant gases which on

being released reach
incandescence, providing illumination. It is one
of mans ancient and fundamental tools that
led him to progress, but fires destructive effects
have resulted to great disasters.
Nature of fire
FIRE is a rapid oxidation (Oxidation refers to

a change of matter) of matter accompanied
by heat or flame. Self-sustained process of rapid
oxidation is called combustion.
Fire is defined as state, process, or instance

of combustion in which fuel or other material is
ignited and combined with oxygen, giving off
light, heat, and flame. Flame is a burning gas or

vapor that is undergoing combustion; a portion
of ignited gas or vapor. As for a general usage,
consider that the flames are the "tongues" of
the fire in the same way that branches are part
of the tree.
Classification of Fire
A. Based on Burning Facts
Class A - (Solid Fire) Fires involving ordinary

combustible materials. (Wood)
Class B - (Liquid and Gas Fire) Fire involving

flammable and gasses. (Gasoline)
Class C - (Electrical Fires) Fires that starts in

live electrical wire, equipment, motors,
electrical appliances and telephone
switchboard.
Class D - (Metal Fires) Fires that result from

the combustion of certain metal in finely
divided form. These combustible metals include:
Magnesium, Powdered Calcium, Sodium,
Lithium, Potassium, Zinc, Titanium, Zirconium.
Class E - Combination of the above- solid,

liquid, gas, electrical and metal.
B. based on fuel type:
Class A: Ordinary combustible materials, such as

wood, cloth, paper, rubber and many plastics.
They burn with an ember and leave an ash.
Extinguish by cooling the fuel to a temperature
that is below the ignition temp. Water and other
extinguishing agents are effective.
Class B: Flammable liquids (burn at room

temperature) and combustible liquids (require
heat to ignite). Petroleum greases, tars, oils, oil-
based paints, solvents, lacquers, alcohols, and
flammable gases. High fire hazard; water may
not extinguish. Extinguish by creating a barrier
between the fuel and the oxygen, such as layer
of foam.
Class C: Fuels that would be A or B except that

they involve energized electrical equipment.
Special techniques and agents required to
extinguish, most commonly carbon dioxide or
dry chemical agents. Use of water is very
dangerous because water conducts electricity.
Class D: Combustible metals, such as

magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium
and potassium. Most cars contain numerous
such metals. Because of extremely high flame
temperatures, water can break down into
hydrogen and oxygen, enhancing burning or
exploding. Extinguish with special powders
based on sodium chloride or other salts; also
clean dry sand.
Class K: Fires in cooking appliances that involve

combustible cooking media (vegetable or
animal oils and fats).
Phases of fire
Most fires (and especially those in structures)

can be divided into three separate phases:
Incipient phase (Growth). Although actual

flame temperatures can reach 1000
degrees F., temperatures in the surrounding
area are not greatly increased. There is free
burning with open flame. Oxygen in the
area remains near 21%. Thermal updraft
causes heat to accumulate at the higher
portions of the area.
Free burning phase (Fully developed). Air

from the surrounding atmosphere is drawn
into the fire. "Mushrooming" may take place
and flame is present. Oxygen content of
area is usually reduced to 16% - 18%. Fire
gases which may be present are carbon,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water,
sulfur dioxide, etc., depending on fuel, heat,
and general environment. "Flashover"
frequently occurs during this phase.
Smoldering phase (Decay). Free burning

may cease in the fire area. Area fills with
dense smoke. Oxygen may drop below 15%.
Temperatures may reach 1000 degrees F.
throughout the area. Improper/uncontrolled
air admission may result in "backdraft".
How fire spreads
Fire spreads by transferring the heat energy

from the flames in three different ways.
Conduction: The passage of heat energy
through or within a material because of direct
contact, such as a burning wastebasket
heating a nearby couch, which ignites and
heats the drapes hanging behind, until they too

burst into flames.
Convection: The flow of fluid or gas from hot
areas to cooler areas. The heated air is less
dense, and rises, while cooler air descends. A
large fire in an open area produces plume or
column of hot gas and smoke high into the air.
But inside a room, those rising gases encounter
the ceiling. They travel horizontally along the
ceiling forming a thick layer of heated air, which
then moves downward.
Radiation: Heat traveling via electromagnetic
waves, without objects or gases carrying it
along. Radiated heat goes out in all directions,
unnoticed until it strikes an object. Burning
buildings can radiate heat to surrounding
structures, sometimes even passing through
glass windows and igniting objects inside.
Theories of fire
Fire Triangle Theory
This theory is a graphical representation of

the three elements of fire namely the oxygen,
heat and fuel. This theory states that to produce
fire, 3 things/conditions must exist, namely; heat,
fuel and oxygen (see figure 1 below).
The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a

simple model for understanding the necessary
ingredients for most fires.
The triangle illustrates the three elements a

fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an oxidizing
agent (usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs
when the elements are present and combined
in the right mixture, and a fire can be prevented
or extinguished by removing any one of the
elements in the fire triangle. For example,
covering a fire with a fire blanket removes the
"oxygen" part of the triangle and can extinguish
a fire.
Figure 1
Fire Tetrahedron Theory

C l a r i t o G . l o p e z J r . M P A / P A , L L B P a g e | 10
This theory is a figure; the illustration on how

the chain reaction sequences or intersects with
heat, fuel and oxygen to support and sustain
combustion.
Figure 2
CHAPTER 2
Elements of Fire
Fire is composed of three elements to

sustain the process of combustion, namely:
heat, fuel, and oxygen.
HEAT
Heat is a form of energy generated by

transformation of some other form of energy as
in combustion of burning. It is an energy
produced through movement of molecules by
friction. Temperature is usually used to
measure the degree of thermal agitation of
molecules; the hotness or coldness of
something; measure of the thermal agitation of
molecules of matter.
Sources of Heat
a) Open flame
b) Friction
c) Electrical circuit
d) All sources of ignition
e) Hot surface
f) Sparks
General Categories of Heat Energy
a Chemical Energy Heat results from chemical

reaction, such as: (1) Heat of decomposition,
(1) Heat of solution.
b Mechanical Energy Heat resulting from: (1)

Friction and, (2) Compression.
c Electrical Energy Heat results from electricity,

such as (1) Resistance heating; (2) Arching; (3)
Short circuiting; (4) Di-electric heating.
d Solar Energy Energy resulting from the heat

of the sun confining the even distribution of
radiated rays from the sun in one area.
e NUCLEAR ENERGY Heat resulting from

breaking or combining of atom.
- Heat of fission separating or breaking
of atom
- Heat fusion combining atom together.
Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat is energy transit; it always flows from a

substance at a higher temperature to the
substance at a lower temperature.
When heat is transferred through solid

materials, this is called Conduction. During a
fire, heat can be transferred through steel
beams, metal conduct and wire - to mention a
few - which are good conductors of heat.
In Convection, heat is transferred by air

motion. During a fire, heated air expands and
moves away from the fire exerting presence
against doors, dampers in air ducts and the fire
penetrating the opening.
When heat is transferred by

electromagnetic waves this is called Radiation.
During a fire hot surface can radiate heat
igniting combustible materials in considerable
distances.
Heat is also transferred by direct flame

contact. When a substance or material is
directly heated by flame, vapors will be given
off and the vapors - by its nature are
flammable thus containing the existence of
flame.
FUEL
Any materials or substances capable of

burning can be considered as fuel. No fuel will
burn unless it is in vapor state.
Fuels are generally classified as:
a) CLASS A Ordinary combustible

materials (mostly solid)
b) CLASS B Liquid or gas state fuel (LPG,

Oil & other petroleum products)
c) CLASS C Electrical energized fuel (flat

iron, electric fan, etc.)
d) CLASS D Metallic Fire (Potassium,

magnesium and other combustible
metals)
Characteristics of fuel
1.Solid Fuels. The principal component is

carbon. The most obvious solids fuels are
woods, fibers and plastics.
2.Nuclear fuels. Provide energy through

the fission or fusion of their atoms.
Uranium is the most commonly used
nuclear fuel, though plutonium also
provides nuclear energy. When the
atoms of these elements undergo
fission, they release tremendous
amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used
mainly to generate electricity. They also
power some submarines and ships.
3.Liquid Fuels. The principal component is

hydrocarbon. These are made mainly
from petroleum, but some synthetic
liquid fuels are also produced.
Petroleum also called crude oil, ranges
from clear yellow-brown oils to thick.,
black tars; most are refined to produce
gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.
Gasoline is for most motor vehicles and
piston-engine airplanes. Diesel powers
most trains, ships, and large trucks.
Kerosene provides energy for jet
airplanes. The most common liquid fuels
are kerosene, gasoline, and oil.
Classification of Liquid fuels

- Flammable liquids. It refers to any liquid

having a flashpoint below 37.9 *C.
- Combustible liquids. It refers to any liquid

having a flashpoint at or above3 7.8* C.
Flammable and combustible liquids,

strictly speaking, will not cause fire. It is
then the vapors from the evaporation of
these liquids when exposed to air and
under the influence of heat which will
burn or explode.
4.Gaseous Fuels. The principal component

is hydrocarbon. GAS is a state of matter;
no definite volume and no definite
shape, unless it is confined in a
container; composed of very tiny
particles called molecules.
Classification of g a s e s :
A. Based on source:
1.Natural Gas - used to cook food, and
provide energy for industries; consists chiefly
of methane, a colorless and odorless gas;

usually mixed with compounds of the foul-
smelling element sulfur so gals leaks can be
detected examples are Butane and
propane.
2.Manufactured Gas - like synthetic liquid

fuels, this is used chiefly where certain fuels
are abundant and others are scarce. Coal,
petroleum, and biomass can all be
converted to gas through heating and by
various chemical procedures. Gas can also
be produced by treating such biomass as
animal manure with bacteria called
anaerobes. The bacteria expel -methane as
they digest the waste.
3.Liquefied gases are those in normal

atmospheric pressure partly in liquid sate
and partly in solid state under pressure
inside the container. Its pressure is
dependent upon the temperature of the
liquid.
4.Cryogenic gases - are liquefied gases that

exist in its container at temperature far low
normal atmospheric temperature, usually

slightly above its boiling point with low
moderate pressure.
B. Based on usage:
a)Fuel gases flammable gases used for

burning with air to produce heat and
utilized as power, light sources, etc.
b)Industrial gases - used en industries i.e.,

used in welding and cutting of metals
(Oxygen, acetylene), refrigeration,
chemical processing, water treatment,
etc. Ex. Freon, ammonia, Sulfur dioxide,
Hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, and
fluorine.
c)Medical gases those used for

treatment such as for anesthesia and
for respiratory therapy. Ex. Chloroform,
nitrous oxide, Oxygen
OXYGEN
A colorless and odorless gas, a composition

of air which is approximately 21% by volume.
This is the most common oxidizing agent.12%
oxygen are insufficient to produce fire, while 14-
15% oxygen can support flash point. 16-21% can
support fire point.
Air is composed of :
21% oxygen
78% nitrogen
1% inert gas
Chapter 4
Products of combustion
Flame
Flame is refers to:
- Luminous body of burning gas;

- Product of incomplete combustion;
- The matter produced by fire;
- It is composed of burning
incandescent gasses; and,
- It is the manifestation of fire, when
fire is in gas phased combustion.
TYPES OF FLAME according to color and

completeness of combustion
a Luminous Flame a reddish orange in color, it

deposits soot because it is a product of
incomplete combustion, it has lower
temperature.
b Non luminous flame bluish in color, it does

not deposit soot because it is a product of
complete combustion, it has higher
temperature than luminous flame.
c Laminar- particles follow a smooth path.
d Turbulent- un steady flame
What are the TYPES OF FLAME according to

burning fuel and air mixture
a Premixed Flame e.g. flame of Bunsen burner.
b Diffusion Flame e.g. flame of oxyacetylene

torch (diffused dispersed; widely spread)
What are the TYPES OF FLAME based on

smoothness
a Laminar Flame (Smooth Flame) flame is

laminar when a particle follows a smooth path
through a gaseous flame.
b Turbulent Flame (Rough Flame) those having

unsteady, irregular and eddies.
PYROLYSIS refers to the chemical process

whereby fire consumes the most solid part of
the fuel. It is the thermal decomposition of
combustible matter. The process involves the
following:
1.The fuel is heated until its temperature

reaches its fire point.
I 2.Decomposition takes _place - moisture in

the fuel is converted to vapor. 3_
Decomposition produces combustible
vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel.
Combustible vapors are technically termed
as free radicals.
Smoke
Smoke is a visible product of incomplete

combustion.
Highly combustible vapors
- Hydrogen gas (H)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO)

- Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Nitrogen (N)
Chapter 5
Causes of Fire
Natural causes
1.Spontaneous heating, automatic chemical

reaction that results to spontaneous
combustion due to auto-ignition of organic
materials; the gradual rising of heat in a
confined space until ignition temperature is
reached.
2.Lightning, a form of static electricity; a

natural electric current with great
magnitude, producing tremendous
amperage and voltage. Lightning can

cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly
when it strikes telephone and other
transmission lines, causing an induced line
surge. It can cause a flashfire or dust
explosion. When lightning strikes a steel or
metal rod covered with dust, the dust
would suddenly burn thus resulting to an
explosion.
A lightning may be in the form of:
- Hot bolt - longer in duration; capable only

of igniting combustible materials.
- Cold bolt - shorter in duration; capable of

splintering a property or literally blowing
apart an entire structure; produces
electrical current with tremendous
amperage and very high temperature.
3.Radiation of sunlight - when a light hits a

concave mirror, concentrating the light on
a combustible material thereby ignites it.
Accidental causes of fire

1.Short-circuit- unusual or accidental

connection between points at different
potentials (charge) in an electrical circuit of
relatively low resistance.
2.Arcing - production of sustained luminous

electrical discharge between separated
electrodes when electrical current crosses
the gap between 2 electrical conductors.
3.Sparking - production of incandescent

particles when two different potentials
come in contact; occurs during short-circuits
or welding operations.
4.Induced current - induced line surge--

increase of electrical energy flow or power
voltage; sudden increase of electrical
current resulting to the burning of insulating
materials, exploding of the fuse-box, or
burning of active electrical appliances.
5.Overheating of electric a l appliances

increase or rising of amperage while electric
current is flowing in a transmission line
resulting to the damage or destruction of
insulating materials; maybe gradual or rapid;
internal or external.
Intentional causes
Incendiary - preparations or traces of

accelerant and plants and trailer then the
cause of fire is intentional.
a)Accelerant highly flammable
chemicals that are used to facilitate
flame propagation.
b)Plant - the preparation or gathering of
combustible materials needed to start a
fire.
c)Trailer the preparation of flammable
substances in order to spread the fire.
Common causes of accidental fires
1. Electrical Short Circuit

2. Electrical Grounded Circuit
3. Electrical Overloading
4. Loose Connection or Improper Splicing
5. LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Characteristics of LPG:
1.it is liquid inside the container but

automatically transformed into gaseous
state when release so that it can be
transported easily and stored economically
(1:270);
2.It is 1.5 heavier than air; and
3.It is colorless, tasteless and odorless, but an

oxidizing agent called Ethyl Mercaptan is
introduced to determine leakage.
4.
Chapter 6
Fire Behavior
Thermal balance and thermal imbalance:
Thermal balance refers to the rising

movement or pattern of the fire; the normal
behavior when the fire is undisturbed.
Thermal imbalance is the abnormal

movement of fire due to interference of foreign
matter.
Dangerous/fatal behavior of fire
Backdraft
Backdraft is the sudden and rapid (violent)

burning of heated glasses in a confined area
that occurs in the form of explosion because of
improper ventilation. If not properly ventilated,
highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated
such that when a door or window is suddenly
opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen
and simultaneously, a sudden combustion may
occur which may happen as an explosion.
Characteristics of Backdraft:
a)Fire gases are under pressure

b)Existence of black smoke that is
becoming dense gray yellow
c)Confinement of excessive heat
d)There is little flame or no visible flame
e)Smoke leaves the building in puffs or by
intervals
f)Windows are smoke stained
g)Muffled sounds are heard inside the
building
h)Violent rushing of air inside when
opening is made
Flashover
Flashover is the sudden ignition of

accumulated radical gases produced when
there is incomplete combustion of fuels. There
will be a very intense fire that is capable of
travel to a hundred yards within a few seconds.
Biteback
A fatal condition that takes place when the

fire resists extinguishment operation and
becomes stronger and bigger instead.
Flash fire
Flash fire a.k.a. as dust explosion; when a

metal post that is completely covered with dust
is hit by a lightning creating a violent chemical
reaction that produces a very bright flash
followed by an explosion.
Flash point
The minimum temperature at which a liquid

fuel gives off sufficient vapor to form an
ignitable mixture with a near surface. At this
temperature, the ignited vapor will flash but will
not continue to burn.
Fire point
The temperature at which a liquid fuel will

produce vapors sufficient to support
combustion once ignited.
Ignition temperature
The minimum temperature to start self-

sustained combustion independent of the
heating source.
Physical Properties Of Fire
a Specific Gravity the ratio of the weight of a

solid or liquid substance to the weight of an
equal volume of water
b Vapor density the weight of a volume of

pure gas composed to the volume of water.
c Vapor Pressure the force exerted by the

molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.
d Temperature the measure of thermal

degree of the agitation of molecules of a
given substances the measure of the

molecular activity of the substance.
e Boiling point the constant temperature at

which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
to the atmospheric pressure.
f Ignition temperature or Kindling temperature

the minimum temperature to which the
substance is the air must be heated in order to
initiate on cause self-contained combustion
without the addition of heat from outside
sources.
g Fire point the temperature at which the

material will give off enough vapors to keep
burning.
h Flash point the temperature at which a

material is not hot enough to keep burning
but still give off enough vapors to cause a
flame to flash across the surface.
Chemical properties of fire
a Endothermic Reaction are changes

whereby energy is absorbed or is added
before the reaction takes place. *Absorbed /

added energy
b Exothermic Reaction reactions or changes
that release of give off energy (heat) thus
they produce substances with less energy that
the reactants. Give off / Release energy
c Oxidation a chemical changes in which

combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing
agent part.
d Combustion Flame the manifestation of fire

when the fire in gas-phased combustion. A
matter that is produced by fire.(result of fire)
Chapter 7
Fire Extinguishment
Extinguishment
This is the process of putting out the main

body of fire using the four general methods of
fire extinguishment.
Fire prevention
Is the descriptive term of the various

methods or safety measure utilized to stop
harmful or destructive fires from starting.
Fire Hazard
Any condition or act that increase or may

cause increases in the probability that tire will
occur or which obstruct, delay hinder interfere
with the fire fighting operations and the state
guarding of life and property.
Methods of extinguishment
a Cooling to reduce the temperature of a fuel

below its ignition temperature. This is a direct
attack on the heat side of the fire

tetrahedron.
b Smothering to separate fuel from oxygen.

This can be considered as attack on the edge
of the fire tetrahedron where fuel and oxygen
meet.
c Oxygen Dilution to reduce the amounts of

oxygen below the needed amount to sustain
combustion. This is an attack to the oxygen
side of tetrahedron
Chain Breaking to disrupt the chemical

process that sustains the fire. This is
considered an attack in the chain reaction
side of the fire tetrahedron
Extinguishing agent
a WATER- is a liquid between the temperature

of zero degrees centigrade to 100 degrees
centigrade. Excellent cooling agent.
b FOAM- an aggregation of small bubbles of

lower specific gravity than oil and water
which flows across the surface of a burning
substance and forms a cohesive smothering

blanket effect.
c CARBON MONOXIDE- A normal gas but it may

liquefied or solidified under pressure. At 43
degrees centigrade carbon dioxide exist as a
solid called dry ice a non-electrical
conductor. Dilutes the air surrounding the fire
until the oxygen content is low to support
combustion.
d DRY CHEMICAL- chemicals in powder form.

Extinguish fire by cooling shielding of radiant
heat and by breaking the chain reactions.
e DRY POWDER- Is the only agent that can

extinguish metal fires without causing any
violent reaction. Mostly composed
f HALOCENATED EXTINGUISHING AGENT

(HALON)- are made up of carbon and one or
more halogen elements like fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine.
Firefighting activities
Considering the danger and hazards posed by

a fire, extra- protection equipment should be
worn by fire fighters to minimize injury or death.
Other equipment is also recommended to
expedite the extinguishment of the destructive
fire or to prevent the spread of the fire.
Fire Hose
- Made up of double jacketed, rubber-lined

cotton in size of 1 inch, 2 inch, and 3
inch.
- The standard length is 50 feet, a 50- foot
length is normally referred to as engrain.
- There are two fitting on its length of a hose,
a male fitting on one end and female fitting
on the other end.
- Hoses should always be rolled with the male
fitting inside to protect the treads.
Nozzles
a Attached to the end of the fire hose and is

used to direct a direct a solid stream of water,
low or high velocity fog to the fire. The handle
can adjust the nozzle easily and quickly.
b Do not pick up a charge hose by the handle

of the nozzle (The hose is charged when it has
the water is available at the nozzle).
c The handle could easily move to open

position and the high water pressure (about
10 pt.) could cause the hose to whiplash
dangerously, possibly injuring or damaging
equipment.
Pre- Fire Planning
This activity involves developing and

defining systematic course of action that
maybe performed in order to realize the
objectives of the fire protecting involves the
process of establishing the SOP in case of the
break out.
Evaluation- Size- Up (On the- spot- planning, or

sizing up the situation)
This is the process of knowing emergency

situation. It involves mental evaluation by the
operation officer in charge to determine the
appropriate course of action that provides the
highest probability of success. The things to

consider in Size- Up.
EVACUATION
The activity of transforming people livestock,

and property away from the burning area to
minimize damage or destruction that might
incur in case it propagates to other adjacent
buildings.
ENTRY
This is the process of accessing the burning

structure. Entry may be done in a forcible
manner. Purposes of conducting forcible entry:
a To provide access for the lighter with the

equipment for fire extinguishment;
b To provide rescue;
c To provide ventilation
Forcible entry required
Forcible entry is required when the areas

where normal openings are locked, blocked or
not provided.
RESCUE
This is the operation of removing (extracting) this

saying people and other livestock from burning
building and other involved properties
conveying them to a secure place.
EXPOSURE (cover exposure)
This is the activity of securing other building

near the building structure in order to prevent
the fire from extending to another building.
CONFINEMENT
This is the activity of restricting the fire at the

place (room) where it started; the process of
preventing from extending from another section
or from one section to another section of the
involved building.
VENTILATION
This is the operation purposely conducted to

displace toxic gasses. It includes the process of
displacing the heated atmosphere within the
involved building with normal air from outside

atmosphere.
Steps of conducting ventilation
a)remove the material outside the burning

area
b)protect or cover the materials by using
tarpaulins (cotton, canvas treated with
water proofing)
OVERHAUL
This is the complete and detailed check of the

structure and all materials therein to eliminate
conditions that may cause re-flash; involves
complete extinguishment of sparks or
smoldering (glowing) substances (embers) to
prevent eliminate possibilities of the re-ignition of
rekindling.
Fire scene investigation
This is the final stage of the fire suppression

activities. It is an inquiry conducted to know or
determine the origin and cause of fire.
types of Ladder
a GROUND LADDER vary in sizes from 3.1 to 17

meter (10.55) long. It is carried on a bumper or
fire trucks.
b AERIAL LADDER are mounted on a turntable,
capable of extending up to 30.5 meters (100
feet) have three or four mete section of
ladder, that can be raised or lowered by
hydraulically controlled cable.
FORMS OF GROUND LADDER
a WALL: best used in rescue where a ladder in

place already falls of the endangered
persons. It allows the user to climb up or down,
one starry at a time.
b EXTENSION LADDER: consists of a bed and

once or more fly ladders, 24, 35 or 36 foot
ladders are types commonly found on
pumpers.
c HOOK (Roof) or straight ladder 12 to 16 feet,

most common 14 foot
d ATTIC LADDER provides means of reaching

through an opening into attics, lofts and other
areas that are somewhat difficult to reach

without a special ladder. It can be folded or
collapsed for a small room or closer works.
Different LADDER Terminologies
a BED LADDER: the lowest section of an

extension ladder
b FLY LADDER: the top section of an extension
c BUTT: the bottom end of a ladder
d HEEL: the party of the ladder that touches the

ground
e HALYARD: a rope or cable used to raise the fly

ladder
f PAWL OR DOG: the mechanism on the end of

the fly ladder that locks to the end of bed
ladder
g RUNG: the cross members used in climbing
h TOP OR TIP: the tope of a ladder

i HOOKS: used to hook over a roof peak, sills or

walls where the heel does not rest on a
foundation (found only on the roof-type
ladders)
j STOPS: wood or metal blocks used to prevent

the fly of an extension ,ladder from extending
out further from the ladders
GUIDES: light metal strips of an extension ladder

while it is being raised or lowered.
Fire protection
Is the description term referring to the

various methods used to stop, extinguish and
control destructive fire for eventual prevention
of loss of life and property.
Laws related with fire prevention and fire

protection
a)PD# 1185 Fire Code of Philippines

August 26,1977
b)PD# 1096 Building Code of the
Philippines
c)PD# 6975 The DILG Sat of 1990 chapter

4, section 53-59)
PART TWO
FIRE & ARSON INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES &

PRACTICES
Arson
The intentional or malicious destruction of

property by fire.
What constitute arson?
a Burning to constitute burning, pyloris must

take place. In other word, there must be
burning or changing e.g. fiber of the wood

must be destroyed, it identify changed.
b Willfulness- means intentional and it implies

that the act was purposely and intentionally.
c Malice- it denotes hatred of a deceit for

revenge.
d Motive- is the moving cause that includes the

commission of the crime.
e Intent- is the purpose of design w/ w/c the act

is done and involves the will.
f Art. 325,RPC- burning ones own property as a

means of committing arson
g Art. 326, RPC- setting fire to property

exclusively owned by the offender.
h PD # 1613 Amending the law of arson
Aggravating circumstances in Arson?
a If committed with intent to gain

b If committed with the benefit of another
c If spite or hatred toward the owner or

occupant of the property motivates the
offender burned.
d Or committed by syndicates (3 or more

person)
What are the motives of a person to commit

arson?
a those with desire to defraud the insurer

b employ or such other person who had
grievance (fire revenge)
c those with desire to conceal evidence of the
crime
d those who set fire for purposes of intimidation
Who are persons without motives to commit

arson?
a those whore mentally ill

b pathological fire setters
c pyres (pyromaniac)
d psychos
Pyromania
The uncontrollable impulse of a person to

burn anything without any motivation. They do
not run away from the fire scene, they love
watching fire burning.
types of Pyromania?
a Abnormal youth- epileptics, imbeciles, and

morons.
b Hero type- a person set a building of fire
and pretends to discover it, turn on the
alarm or make some rescue work to appear
as a hero.
c Drug addicts and alcoholic
d Sexual deviates and perverts
Tell Tale Signs Of Arson In A Burned Building?
1. separate fires
2. color of smoke
3. color of flame
4. size of fire
5. direction of travel
6. intensity
7. odor condition of content

8. doors and windows
9. other suspicious circumstances
What are the meanings of the color of smoke in

relation to the things being burned?
a Black smoke with deep and flame- petroleum

products, tar, rubber, plastic, etc.
b Heavy brown with bright and flame- nitrogen
products
c White smoke with bright flame- magnesium
products
d Black smoke with red and blue green flame-
asphalt
e Purple violet flame- potassium products
f Greenish- yellow flame- chlorine or
manganese products
g Bright reddish yellow flame- calcium products
h White smoke with yellow flame- humid
materials
Nature Of Fire Investigations
A fire or explosion investigation is a complex

endeavor involving both art and science. The
compilation of factual data, as well as an
analysis of those facts, should be accomplished

objectively and truthfully.
The basic methodology of the fire investigation

should rely on the use of a systematic approach
and attention to all relevant details.
The use of a systematic approach often will

uncover new factual data for analysis, which
may require previous conclusions to be
reevaluated.
With a few exceptions, the proper

methodology for a fire or explosion investigation
is to first determine and establish the origin(s),
then investigate the cause: WHAT
CIRCUMSTANCES, CONDITIONS, OR AGENCIES
CAUSED THE IGNITION SOURCE, FUEL, AND
OXIDANT TO COME TOGETHER?
Systematic Approach
The systematic approach recommended is

that of the scientific method, which is used in
the physical sciences.
This method provides for the organizational

and analytical process so desirable and
necessary in a successful fire investigation.
Relating Fire Investigation To The Scientific

Method
The scientific method is a principal of inquiry

that forms a basis for legitimate scientific and
engineering processes, including fire incident
investigation.
Scientific method of fire investigation
The scientific method is applied using the

following six steps.
Recognize the Need
First, one should determine that a problem

exists. In this case a fire or explosion has
occurred and the cause should be determined
and listed so that future, similar incidents can be
prevented.
Define the Problem

This is done by an examination of the scene

and by a combination of other data collection
methods, such as the review of previously
conducted investigations of the incident, the
interviewing of witnesses or other
knowledgeable persons, and the results of
scientific testing.
Collect Data
Facts about the fire incident are now

collected. This is done by observation,
experiment, or other direct data gathering
means. This is called empirical data because it is
based on observation or experience and is
capable of being verified.
Analyze the Data (Inductive Reasoning
Subjective or speculative information

cannot be included in the analysis, only facts
that can be clearly proven by observation or
experiment.
Develop a Hypothesis
Based on the data analysis, the investigator

should now produce a hypothesis or group of
hypotheses to explain the origin and cause of
the fire or explosion incident.
This hypothesis should be based solely on

the empirical data that the investigator has
collected.
Test the Hypothesis (Deductive Reasoning)
This is done by the principle of deductive

reasoning, in which the investigator compares
his or her hypothesis to all known facts.
If the hypothesis cannot withstand an

examination by deductive reasoning, it should
be discarded as not provable and a new
hypothesis tested.
This may include the collection of new data

or the reanalysis of existing data.
This process needs to be continued until all

feasible hypotheses have been tested.
Otherwise the fire cause should be listed as

undetermined.
Presumption of Cause
Until data have been collected, no specific

hypothesis can be reasonably formed or
treated. All fires, however, should be
approached by the investigator w/o
presumption.
Basic Method of A Fire Investigation
Using the scientific method in most fire or

explosion incidents should involve the following
five major steps from inception through final
analysis.
Receiving the Assignment
The investigator should be notified of the

incident, what his or her role will be, and what
he or she is to accomplish.
The investigator should know if he or she is

expected to determine the origin, cause, and
responsibility; produce a written or oral report;
prepare for criminal or civil litigation; make
suggestions for code enforcement, code
promulgation, or changes; make suggestions to
manufacturers, industry associations, or

government agency action; or determine some
other results.
Preparing for the Investigation
The investigator should marshal his or her

forces and resources and plan the conduct of
the investigation.
Preplanning at this stage can greatly

increase the efficiency and therefore the
chances for success of the overall investigation.
Estimating what tools, equipment, and

personnel (both laborers and experts) will be
needed can make the initial scene
investigation, as well as subsequent
investigative examinations and analyses, go
more smoothly and be more productive.
The investigator should conduct an

examination of the scene, if it is available, and
collect data necessary to the analysis.
The actual investigation may take and

include different steps and procedures, and
these will be determined by the purpose of the

investigation assignment.
These steps and procedures are described

in detail elsewhere in the document.
A typical fire or explosion investigation may

include all or some of the following:
a)a scene inspection;

b)scene documentation through
photography and diagramming;
c)evidence recognition, documentation,
and preservation;
d)witness interviews;
e)review and analysis of the investigations
of others; and
f)identification and collection of data or
information from other appropriate
sources.
It is during this phase of the investigation

that the data necessary for the analysis of the
incident will be collected.
Collecting and Preserving Evidence

Valuable physical evidence should be

recognized, properly collected, and preserved
for further testing and evaluation or courtroom
presentation.
Analyzing the Incident
All collected and available data should be

analyzed using the principles of the scientific
method. An incident scenario or failure analysis
should be described, explaining the origin,
cause, fire spread, and responsibility for the
incident.
Conclusions should be drawn according to

the principles expressed in this guide.
Conducting the Investigation
When compiling information relating to a fire

scene investigation, the observations of the first
arriving Fire Department units can be a valuable
source of information.
These observations, early in the fire

extinguishment process, can assist the fire scene
investigator in knowing what had transpired

prior to their arrival. The following information
should be obtained from those members who
had early access to the fire and knowledge of
the circumstances surrounding aspects of its
early stages.
1. Receipt of alarm
The day of the week and time of alarm will

often be the first indication of possible motive in
an incendiary fire.
2. Observations enroute to the fire:
Weather conditions. Is it hot, cold, cloudy or

clear? Are conditions in the involved structure
appropriate for the weather? If it's cold outside,
you would expect to find the windows closed. If
it's hot, the furnace should be found off.
Natural hazards. Had there been lightning,

flooding, fog or an earthquake? Arsonists often
wait for natural conditions which will delay the
fire department's arrival at the scene.
Wind direction and velocity. Knowledge of

these factors will aid in determining the natural
path of fire spread.
Man made barriers. Are there barricades,

downed trees, cables or trash containers
obstructing the fire departments arrival? These
could be early indications of a suspicious fire.
3. Arrival at the scene:
Compare what is found at the scene with

the information given to you by the Incident
Commander. In an industrial building, if the fire
has developed greatly in intensity between the
time of the alarm and the arrival of the fire
department, it could indicate the presence of
an accelerant.
Were any cars seen speeding from the

scene? If so, try to obtain a description/license
number; Dress and appearance of persons
leaving the scene; Were windows and doors
covered? Drawing the shades or covering the
windows and doors with blankets are
techniques employed by arsonists to delay
discovery of the fire; What was the Fire
Department's means of entry? Were the doors
locked/unlocked, closed or open? Was there

evidence of forcible entry? Observe the color of
smoke/flame. This is often the firefighter's first
observation to the type of combustibles
involved in the fire. Firefighters should be
interviewed as soon as possible. Flame color
can provide another clue for the fire scene
investigator to determine what is burning and
the intensity of the fire.
4. While fighting the fire, be aware of:
a Separate and seemingly unconnected fires.
b The presence of usual odors. Some odors are

likely to be familiar to firefighters. These
include food, wood, grass, gasoline, kerosene,
paint thinner, lacquers and turpentine.
c The presence of unusual odors.
d Reaction of fire to water. A straight stream of

water applied where flammable liquids were
used may cause the liquid to float to the top,
reignite, and continue to burn and spread the
fire. The presence of an accelerant may also
be suggested by flashback and/or several
rekindles in the same area or by an increase in

burning after water is applied.
e Obstacles to hinder fire fighting. Was furniture

moved in the premises in such a manner as to
make movement difficult during firefighting?
f Artificial conditions created to assist fire

spread. Arsonists often prop open fire doors,
pull down plaster to expose wood, or punch
holes in ceilings from floor-to-floor, or walls
from room-to-room in order to increase the
rate of fire spread.
g Absence of furnishings, clothing or personal

effects. Absence of family pets (birds, cats,
dogs) in dwelling fires.
h Absence of stock, fixtures, machinery, display

cases, records or raw materials in industrial or
commercial properties.
i Uneven burning or localized heavy charring.

Char on the underside of doors, base boards,
or on the underside of any low horizontal
surface may indicate there was a flammable
liquid pool. Fingers of char in the cracks of
wood flooring can also indicate the presence

of a flammable liquid.
j Intensity of heat generated by fire. A very

intense heat may indicate an accelerant was
applied to increase the fire spread.
k Speed of fire spread. Taking into consideration

the building's structure and occupancy, did
the fire spread unusually fast? An unusually
rapid fire spread could indicate the use of an
accelerant.
l Tampering or damage to fire prevention

facilities. Was the sprinkler system in operating
condition? Were the sprinkler valves open
before the fire? Was the fire alarm system in
working order?
m Tampering or damage to burglar alarm.
n Was the burglar alarm set and did it activate?

What was the normal routine for setting the
alarm?
5. After extinguishment:
a For the safety of firefighters and to preclude

re-ignition of the fire, a cursory examination by
the fire scene investigator for origin and cause
should begin immediately while the firefighters
take a break and pick up unnecessary hose
lines and equipment. Check to see that
members did not destroy any incendiary
devices or other evidence during
extinguishment.
b Note attitude and dress of owner/occupants.

One would expect to find the owner or
occupants of a building distressed at an
unexpected fire. occupants should also be
found in attire appropriate to the time of day.
If the fire occurs at 0400 hours, it would be
noticeably suspicious to find the occupants
fully dressed.
c Note individuals who attend several fires.

Some arsonists are emotionally disturbed
individuals who receive personal satisfaction
in seeing a "successful" fire. Individuals who
attend several fires, especially in various
locales, are suspicious.
d Note any persons at the scene acting

abnormally. Most persons at a fire scene are
intent on watching the fires extinguishment.

Persons at the scene constantly talking,
laughing, or in any way making light of the
situation, should be considered suspicious.
e Record name, address, telephone number,

and date of birth of owner(s), occupant(s),
and witnesses.
6. Follow these steps to determine the area of

origin:
a When you conduct your investigation, start

with the exterior and proceed to the interior,
from the least damaged areas to the most or
heaviest damaged area.
b Determine whether the fire originated at the

building's exterior or interior. Look for burned or
smoked areas on the roof, doors and
windows.
c Check for any openings that may have

caused drafts to influence the fire spread. If
natural-gas might be involved, examine the
outside gas valve to see if it was on or off
before the fire.
d Examine the interior completely to locate the

area/room of most severe damage and any
other evidence that may have a bearing on
cause or spread of the fire.
e Check the floor, walls, and ceiling to find the

worst area of damage. Often the point of
origin can be found directly beneath the
worst area of damage on the ceiling.
f Find the lowest point of burning within the

area of origin. It may be helpful to look under
furnishings and shelves for severe charring.
Examining the depth of char on wood can
help to determine both the length of burning
and the point of origin.
g Look for the direction of heat flow. After

locating the area of lowest and deepest
charring, look for other heat indicators. Light
bulbs may swell and lose their shape at 9000
h when exposed to heat for 10 minutes or more.

The side of the bulb exposed to the fire initially
may melt and come to a point.
i Examine the colors on chromium and other

shiny metals subjected to the fire (check
surfaces of ovens, toasters, irons and other

appliances). The progress of the fire can be
traced by comparing the color of various
shiny metals at different locations within the
area of origin.
j Window glass in the immediate vicinity of the

fire's origin will exhibit only traces of smoke
while glass farther away from the fire's point of
origin will reveal heavier concentrations of
smoke.
k Look for evidence of multiple fires. Are the

sources of ignition independent of one
another? When a room reaches
approximately 1,000 F. a flashover may occur
making the entire room appear to burst into
flames at once. Upon investigation, flashovers
of highly combustible materials may lead the
fire scene investigator to suspect there were
two or more separate fires.
l As areas are examined and determined to

contain no evidence pertaining to cause &
origin and the area is deemed safe for
firefighters, limited overhaul operations may
be initiated. Exception: fire scenes involving
homicides, fire fatalities or other related

crimes.
m Keep in mind, burning flammable liquids

and combustible materials may cause heavy
charring at locations distant from the source
of ignition and might not necessarily indicate
the point of origin.
n Look for a definite fire pattern. A normal

pattern is upward and outward in a "V" shape.
7. Indicators of slow or fast-burning fires:
- Overhead damage. Uniform overhead

damage usually indicates a slow, smoldering
fire. Extensive damage in one place on the
ceiling indicates an intense, rapid buildup
beginning below this spot.
- Fire pattern. A wide angle "V" pattern usually

indicates a slow burning fire.
- Crazing of glass. Large cracks and heavy

smoke usually indicate slow burning while
irregularly shaped cracks and slight smoke
film usually indicate rapid burning.
- Alligatoring. A fast, intense fire will cause

heavy alligatoring and shiny, smooth blisters
on exposed wood surfaces. A long
developing, low heat source will produce flat
alligatoring.
- Line of demarcation. Examine a cross-section

of a piece of wood found near the point of
origin. A distinct line between charred and
un-charred portions of the wood indicates a
fast, intense fire. A graduation in charring and
an overall baked appearance usually
indicates a long, slow fire.
- Spalling. Surface pieces of concrete, cement

or brick may break off when exposed to an
intense heat source or when subjected to a
high level of heat and cooled rapidly.
8. Determine the cause of the fire:
It may be easiest and most effective to

locate the cause of the fire if furnishings remain
in their original positions within the area of origin.
Remember, a fire needs both a fuel supply and
a heat source. Fuels include flammable liquids,
combustible solids and combustible gases. Heat

sources may include open flames, hot surfaces,
electricity, friction and reaction (spontaneous
ignition).
Is there equipment in the area of origin that

could have emitted a spark, overheated or
backfired? Be aware of low temperature or
non-flaming heat sources like light bulbs,
electric blankets, electric irons or steam
pipes, which, over a period of time, can
ignite combustible materials they come into
contact with. If electric motors are found in
the area of origin check the interior of the
motor windings to see if the damage was
deep seated. Motor burnout may also be
indicated if, after extinguishment, the motor
housing is too hot to touch but iron or steel
of similar size in the same area is relatively
cool. If the motor was running during the
fire, there may be bits of solder in the interior
of the motor housing. Friction as a fire cause
will be indicated if the point of damage to
the motor belts is worse where it passes over
the pulleys (in fires from outside sources,
belts are mostly damaged between
pulleys). In electrical appliances having a
thermal control, sticking or fusing of the
contact points may cause overheating of

the device. Electric clocks found in the
debris can be extremely helpful. They may
aid in determining the burning time,
progress of fire, and involvement of other
electrical equipment in the area.
Was there any possible source of an

electrical short circuit? First check the fuse
panel for tampering. Is it overloaded with
improper fuses? A short circuit or dead short
will usually burn the face of a glass fuse
while overloads or high resistance shorting
will only melt the fuse band without burning
the face of the plug. It is difficult to tell
whether a short circuit caused the fire or
was a result of the fire. Continued overload
of a circuit will result in decomposition and
carbonization of insulation on both sides of
where the short occurred. Shorts caused
during the heat of the fire, however, may
show beading but decomposition and
carbonization of insulation will be found only
on the side exposed to the fire.
Were smoking materials involved?

Cigarettes require good insulation in order
to cause flaming combustion with an
average incubation or smoldering time of

about 1-1/2 hours. Fires caused by
cigarettes in furniture will be slow and
smoldering, leaving heavy charring on the
insides of the furniture and on the floor in the
immediate area. Long periods of smoldering
will cause the coil springs in the furniture to
collapse (1400 F.) and may become brittle
due to rapid cooling during extinguishment.
Were there any signs of an explosion? Gas

leaks can cause explosions, so check
appliances and gas furnace valves to see if
they were open or closed. Look for loosened
pipe fittings and piping sawed or cut in half.
Take note of any gas appliances found in
unusual locations.
Was spontaneous combustion a possible fire

cause? Since it takes a considerable mass
of combustible materials to produce
spontaneous heating, some remains from
the internal charring may be found at the
point of origin. Location is an important
factor in considering the possibility of
spontaneous ignition, the materials
necessary are rarely found in large
quantities in living rooms or bathrooms. It
usually requires a great deal of time to

produce the amount of heat necessary to
cause spontaneous ignition. Substances
Active in Spontaneous Combustion.
Substance Form Aluminum Shavings, filings,

powder Animal matter Hides, skins, manure
Bronze Shavings, filings Magnesium Shavings,
filings Miscellaneous Sawdust, coal, flour
Steel Shavings, filings Vegetable matter Hay,
grain Vegetable oils All Zinc Shavings, filings
Combustible solids like wood, paper and

rags can be found in most buildings, but
were they in a normal location?
Check the layers of debris one by one to

determine the sequence in which things
burned. Were there any newspapers found
in an unusual place? If so, are the
newspapers of different types or dates?
Checking the condition of burned wood

can help to determine the length of time of
flaming combustion. Douglas fir and similar
soft woods have a char rate of
approximately 1" in 45 minutes when
exposed to fire temperatures of 1500 - 1900

degrees F.
Look for specific evidence of incendiary

origin.
Trailers between fires made of paper, string

or cord soaked in oil, rope soaked in
kerosene, dynamite fuses, black
gunpowder, cotton batting and kapok,
streamers, excelsior, or any combination of
these.
Candles used to ignite trailers. Was there

residue of candle wax or paraffin near the
point of origin?
Matches tied around combustible fibers or

attached to mechanical devices.
Accelerant containers and evidence of

flammable or combustible liquids including
gasoline, kerosene, solvents, alcohol,
acetone, paint thinner and ether. Since
flammable liquids flow to the lowest level,
more severe burning found on the floor than
on the ceiling may indicate the use of an
accelerant as floor temperatures are usually

lower than ceiling temperatures.
If an accelerant has been used, charring

may be as great or greater on the bottom
of furniture, shelves, doors, etc. compared
to the topsides of these items. If flammable
liquids have soaked into wooden flooring,
there may be heavy burning at the joints
and ink blob outlines may be found after
extinguishment. Since most floors are not
completely level, look for heavy charring in
corners. Accelerant residue may be found
in the soil under buildings with a raised
foundation if an accelerant has been used.
Rags, clothing or curtains soaked in oil.
Rubbish and paper.
Timing devices including clock radios, timers

and telephones.
Electrical equipment and/or appliances

may be used to initiate a fire or may be
placed at the area of origin to make it
appear as a source of ignition or cause of
the fire. Was it plugged into an outlet?
9. Incident Indicators
A. Introduction
In most cases, damage from fire leaves

behind distinctive patterns. The type of material
burning, the manner in which it was ignited and
how long it burns dictates the pattern(s) that
remain. The burn patterns may be very obvious
or extremely subtle, requiring an exhaustive
search. The fire scene Investigator must be able
to follow the path of the fire by reading these
patterns.
The area of origin can best be determined

by having the knowledge and experience to
recognize these patterns or incident indicators.
Burn patterns and the ability to recognize them
are fundamental to the fire scene investigator.
There are definite relationships between the

point of origin and the fire cause. Conclusions
should be based on the preponderance of the
indicators and the total fire scene.
B. Structures
1. Preliminary observations
The process of determining cause and origin of

a fire starts prior to arrival on the fire scene.
Some considerations are as follows:
Type of occpancy
Time of day and day of week
Color of fire and smoke
Complete combustion often produces little
or no smoke.
Dense, heavy smoke often indicates
incomplete combustion as the lack of
sufficient oxygen usually causes flames to
be darker.
The color of flames may indicate the types
of materials being burned. As the amount of
hydrocarbons increase, the flames will
become darker and more orange in color.
The process continues through the
extinguishment phase.
How well developed was the fire upon
arrival?
How fast was the fire developing?
How difficult was the fire to extinguish?
How did firefighting tactics and strategy
affect the fire travel?
2. Scene investigation
Accurate cause and origin determination

requires the fire scene investigator to develop a
well organized and coordinated procedure.
First, examine the entire exterior of the

structure. Then examine the interior of the
structure, working from. the LEAST to the MOST
damaged fire areas. It is imperative that ALL
areas be examined, to insure that nothing of
significance is overlooked.
Different Places And Try To Disprove Your Own

Theory.
3. Burn patterns
Burn patterns are the burned areas as

opposed to unburned areas and their
relationship to each other. This will be indicated
by the angle, or where the burn IS as opposed
to where it is NOT. Convection and radiation
play a major role in producing burn patterns.
Factors that may influence the burn patterns:

Fuel load
Venting
Firefighting activities
Weather
Complete and systematic removal of debris
may be necessary to obtain a clear,
unobstructed view of patterns.
a. General
The fire scene investigator should work

backwards in relation to the fire's travel or
spread. Examine the areas of least damage
and work toward areas of most severe
damage.
Entire structure must be examined and

conditions recorded. Ceiling damage may help
locate the point of origin.
The area above the point of origin is usually

exposed to heat and flame for longer periods
and may result in holes in the ceiling.
The normal growth of a fire is usually upward

and outward. This burning usually produces a
V" pattern. V" patterns may help to identify
point of origin and are usually found on walls,

therefore, once ceiling damage has been
identified, walls should be evaluated next, then
patterns at floor level.
V" patterns will usually point toward the origin
of the fire. Shape/characteristic of V" pattern:
Wide V" pattern with diffused line of
demarcation usually indicates a slow
smoldering combustion.
Narrow V" pattern with sharp line of
demarcation may indicate flaming, rapid
combustion.
Inverted V" pattern with sharp line of
demarcation may indicate flaming, very rapid
combustion; possible presence of flammable
accelerants.
V" may only be identifiable from a distance in
larger structure fires.
In some cases, V" may be vertical,

horizontal or a combination of both. V"
patterns may extend around corners, walls and
doors.
Interior structural elements may form V"
patterns.
b. Char patterns
The chemical composition of wood and

modified wood consists primarily of carbon with
other elements such as hydrogen and oxygen
with lesser amounts of nitrogen.
Douglas fir burns at the rate of approximately
one inch in 40-45 minutes. Hardwoods burn at
the rate of about 3/4 inch in 40-45 minutes and
pine burns at a faster rate than fir.
If a cross section of the wood is cut and the

line of demarcation examined, it will show a
sharp line of charring between the burned and
unburned areas for high temperatures.
However, if the area between the burned and
unburned is overlapping showing a grey or
brown area, then this is a good indication of a
slow fire with lower temperatures.
A fast fire does not give heat time to

penetrate the wood. A slow fire would give the
heat time to penetrate and there would be a
"gradual" decline from unburned to charred
wood. Wall coverings must be taken into
consideration in regards to flame spread. How
long would these coverings protect the wood?
When exposed to high temperatures, such as
those associated with flammable liquids, wood
will usually develop deep, shiny, rolling,
alligatoring blisters. Relative depth of char

usually indicates length of time materials have
been exposed to the flame. Deep char is
usually found near the point of origin and may
be a good indicator to help locate the point of
origin.
The char patterns will vary based upon the

fuel load. Other factors that may effect charring
are:
Ventilation
Age of the product
Moisture content
Hardness/density of the product
Temperature of the fire
Existing fuel load around the product
Firefighting tactics & strategy
Expect deeper char around doors, windows

and other openings. This will usually be caused
by the flames venting out these openings as the
fire seeks additional oxygen.
c. Low burns
Fire penetrates floor

Consider fuel load.

Consider venting.
Consider floor covering.
Consider radiant heat patterns.
Consider sharp lines of demarcation which may
indicate the presence of flammable liquids.
Fuel load
Table/chair legs
Undersides of tables/chairs
Door bottoms
d. Lowest level of burning
Burning in a downward direction is usually

very slow. The point of origin is usually located at
or near the lowest level of burning. Remove
debris in layers when searching for lowest level
of burning. Determine if debris is normal for
given occupancy or area. Establish times when
various fuels/materials were heated/burned
and fell to floor.
Examine undersides of contents for fire
damage.
Fire damage to the underside of contents may
indicate point of origin at lower level (chairs,
sofas, tables, etc.). Examine undersides of
structural elements for fire damage (shelves,
doors, window sills etc.).
e. Spalling
Spall is the explosive breaking off of pieces of

masonry materials such as concrete or brick
during exposure to fire. Great care must be
used while evaluating the significance of
concrete spalling. Spall only suggests a
possibility of the presence of flammable liquid,
and in and of itself, does not prove the
presence of a flammable liquid. Spalling can be
caused by rapid contraction of the surface of
the concrete as a result of application of hose
streams. It may also be caused by expanding
moisture pre-existing in the concrete prior to the
fire.
f. Ghost marks
Asphalt tile is usually applied by use of a mastic

adhesive. Most flammable liquids are
petroleum-base and will be a solvent to the
mastic. As the flammable liquid soaks into the
joints of the tiles, it
will mix with and liquefy the mastic. The
tightness of the joints regulates the amount of
liquid seeping under the tile. In most cases,
ghost marks are caused by the application of a
flammable liquid to a surface covered with

asphalt tile. Ghost marks will leave a dark,
discolored mark where the tile edge was
located.
g. Smoke residue color-and density
Black, sooty smoke usually indicates a

hydrocarbon product (flammable liquid or
foam). Dark, gray smoke adheres to
surfaces and is usually sticky and difficult to
wipe off. It is usually indicative of a slow or
smoldering fire. The farther away from the
origin, the higher the smoke line. This will-
vary with the fuel load.
h. Light bulbs
When subjected to 900 degrees F., may swell

toward the point of heat. Under fire conditions,
the gas pressure in the light bulb increases while
the glass is softened on the side which is heated
most by the fire.
i. Light fixtures
Improperly installed light fixtures may cause fires

in nearby combustible construction materials
(joists, studs, insulation, etc.). The fire may be
slow starting and may be characteristic of low

temperature ignition. There may be deep
charring or pyrophoric carbon in the area of
origin. In fluorescent fixtures, the ballast
transformer can often cause fires when the
pitchblende inside the transformer breaks
down.
The transformers are designed to operate
continuously at approximately 90 degrees F, but
the temperature often goes higher. This heat
can melt and vaporize the pitchblende
sometimes igniting combustible ceiling material.
Ballast transformers have a life expectancy of
15 years. Many older ones still in use are
beginning to break down. Check for the odor of
the burned ballast. Check for leakage of ballast
filler material.
j. Glass as an indicator.
Factors that effect glass behavior
Age
Thickness
Type
Temperature variation (inside to outside)
Country of manufacture Glass objects located
throughout the structure can be affected by
smoke, heat and flame, and therefore assist

with point of origin identification. The effects of
these products vary with:
Heat buildup
Intensity of fire
Speed of fire spread
Distance from the fire
Smoke stain and glass Smoke production
varies with the type of material burned, rate
of burning, and duration of burning. Smoke
stains must be used as an indicator only due
to the many variables affecting its presence.
Accumulates on cool/cold surface. Stops
forming when temperatures reach 700
degrees F. Baked on smoke stain (soot) will
burn off when exposed to direct flame.
Crazing of glass as an indicator. Crazingis

usually caused by rapid buildup of heat during
the fire.
Extent and size of crazing varies with the
thickness of glass, relative exposure to fire, and
type of glass.
Heat fracturing of glass

Usually larger than crazed glass. Usually

caused by slower heat buildup. Checkering of
glass (half-moon shape found on surface of
glass). Usually results from water being applied
to heated glass. Usually indicates glass was in its
frame when fire streams were used.
Broken glass due to mechanical force
Requires careful examination.

Check the glass for concentric fractures and
radial fractures.
Can indicate forced entry prior to fire.
May produce protected areas under the
glass.
Explosion will cause shards of glass to be
found at various distances outside of
structure.
Location of glass within debris
Level that glass is located in debris.
Determine what time during the fire the
glass became part of the debris.

k. Annealing of springs
The term annealing, when applied to spring

steel, means to make less brittle. This condition is
the result of the steel being subjected to heat

and allowed to slowly cool.
Annealing can occur to any type of spring,
whether in a vehicle or in furniture.
The annealing temperature is dependent on

the type and mass of the steel.
l. Melting points of metal
Melting of metal within the structure may

indicate an intense fire. Possible indicator of
extreme heat at or near floor level. Extreme
heat may be the result of the use of flammable
liquids. The melting of different materials in the
structure can be an indicator of the type of
temperatures reached during the fire.
m. Calcination of drywall/sheetrock
Naturally contains 21% water which is

chemically bound in the product. Dehydration
of gypsum is called "calcination". Heat exposure
causes it to undergo calcination (105+ degrees
F.). The calcination process causes distinct lines
to appear.
This can be observed by looking at the edge of
the board (cross section).
C. Vehicles
The average automobile contains over 300

pounds (approximately 13%) of plastics which
are derived from petroleum products. Vehicles
also contain other materials, such as gasoline,
diesel fuel, motor oil, transmission and brake
fluids, and battery acids, which among other
things, are subject to combustion. In addition to
these components, a normal vehicle contains
mechanical systems which generate electrical
sparks and heat during its normal operation.
These sources of ignition are capable of starting
a fire under the proper conditions. Engineering
and safety designs by the manufacturer play an
important role in protecting these vehicles from
accidental fires. Accordingly, accidental fires
involving vehicles are not as frequent as
commonly believed.
1. Fire scene investigation
a. Fires involving vehicles require both a fire

scene examination and a detailed vehicle
examination.
b. As in other fires, vehicles should be worked

from the area of least damage to the area of
most damage in an attempt to locate the point
of origin.
c. Begin your investigation PRIOR to overhaul.
d. Survey of the surrounding area may help in

the overall fire scene examination. The following
indicators may be of importance: Gas cap
missing.
Accelerant residue under or near vehicle which
may be taken from the soil. Fire damage to the
surrounding area should be noted. An
accelerant container may be found in the
immediate area. A remote area may indicate
vehicle was possibly stolen and taken to that
location to be burned.
e. Exterior vehicle examination may be helpful

in the fire cause determination. This should
include an examination of the following:
Fire damage relating to roof, tires, wheels and

other body components. Make note of collision
damage.
Check for multiple fires, although strict attention
must be given to prove that one fire did not
communicate to the other. Burn patterns may

be evident on the vehicle especially when a
flammable liquid was used to accelerate the
fire. Check for obvious missing parts such as
tires, wheels, doors, etc., which may possibly
indicate a motive for the fire. Check for
flammable liquid residue around the moldings
of fenders, doors, hood, trunk and windows.
Check trunk for the usual contents (spare tire,
jack, etc.). An empty trunk should be
considered suspicious on older model vehicles.
f. Examination of the vehicle's interior may

reveal indicators as to the cause of the fire to
include the following: A fire that is intentionally
accelerated with flammable liquid in the
passenger compartment will have a total, even
burn from front to rear. The roof line will be
severely distorted if allowed to burn for
ten to fifteen minutes. Generally, the seats will
show evidence of annealing (weakening and
collapsing).
Flammable liquid containers may be left in the
vehicle by the suspect thinking they will be
consumed in the fire. Regardless of the
container used (metal, glass or plastic), some
portion will be left as evidence. Flammable
liquid residue may be present in floor carpets,
under mats, in seat cushions or along door

panels.
Check for annealing of springs in seat cushions
which is an indicator of extreme heat, but in
and of itself is not necessarily an indicator of an
incendiary fire. Examine the windows of the
vehicle, noting their position and if they had
been broken out prior to the fire (lack of
heat/smoke damage).
Examine doors to establish if forcible entry had

been made prior to the fire.
Examine interior of vehicle to establish if

accessories may have been removed/stolen
prior to fire.
Check to see if ignition key is in its proper place

or if the vehicle may have been "hot-wired".
Make a complete search of the vehicle for

evidence of incendiary devices.
g. Examination of vehicle's fuel system should

include the following:
Inspect the integrity of the fuel tank and its

components. Examine the tank fill cap and
spout.
Examine fuel lines and connections (check for
tool marks or tampering). Vehicles equipped
with catalytic converters present special fire-
related problems. A properly operating
catalytic converter can reach internal
temperatures of 1600 degrees.
An improperly operating converter may
generate an external temperature of
approximately 2500 degrees Fahrenheit. This
heat can be conducted through the bottom of
the vehicle causing combustible material in the
interior to ignite.
EVIDENCE
A. Types of Evidence
Evidence has been defined as all the means

by which any alleged matter of facts are
proved or disproved. It includes objects,
testimony or statements, records or documents,
and anything else that can be legally
presented at a trial. Evidence can normally be
divided into two major categories; direct and

circumstantial. Evidence can be briefly defined
as "The facts that tend to prove something."
When called to the scene of a fire, the Incident
Commander's first responsibility after suppression
is to determine the cause and origin of the fire.
If they determine the fire was intentionally set,
their concern shifts to the discovery of evidential
material that will support their contention and
prove the elements of the crime of arson in a
court of law. Evidence can take many forms
and it is up to the Incident Commander to
search out all areas of the scene to determine
what is evidence and what is not.
Direct Evidence
Direct evidence is any evidence that

directly proves a fact, without an inference or
presumption on the part of anyone. Direct
evidence would include physical evidence,
eyewitness statements, and confessions. A good
illustration of direct evidence would be where a
witness sees an individual light a grass fire with a
fusee. Both the statement of the eyewitness and
the remains of the fusee would be direct
evidence.
Physical evidence
This evidence has a physical substance or

existence and can be perceived by any of the
five senses (hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting,
and feeling). It may be a burn pattern, ignition
device, trailer, container of accelerant, remains
of a fire bomb, or a faulty appliance or
electrical component.
Eyewitness statements
This type of direct evidence would be

testimony of a witness's personal experience of
hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, or feeling
directly related to the facts being presented.
This could include a witness seeing an individual
set a fire, a witness hearing a threat being
made, or a witness smelling gasoline in a room
prior to a fire.
Confessions
A confession consists of those statements,

made by a suspect either spontaneously or
after their waiving of the Miranda admonition,
implicating the suspect in the crime. The corpus
delicti (crime of arson) must be established

independently of the confession.
Circumstantial Evidence
Circumstantial evidence is evidence of an

indirect nature. Circumstantial evidence is the
proof of facts based on inference. Certain facts
are proven and from these facts the court or
jury may infer other facts which would normally
follow based on common sense and
experience.
Where the crime of arson is established by
direct evidence, the connection of an
individual to the crime may be proven by
circumstantial evidence and any reasonable
inferences. An example of circumstantial
evidence would be where a business suffers an
incendiary fire. The investigation reveals that
business was bad and the owner increased the
insurance the day prior to the fire. The poor
business and the insurance increase would be
circumstantial evidence and along with other
direct evidence could implicate the owner in
the crime.
Evidence Handling
After suppression and during the initial

phases of cause determination, look for
evidence indicating the cause of the fire or
contributing factors which may have influenced
the spread of the fire. Don't overlook the
obvious such as items absent from or foreign to
the immediate fire scene.
Handle all evidence with-care:
When possible, photograph the fire scene,

emphasizing the point of origin and any
incendiary devices on the premises, making
sure to photograph devices exactly where
they are found.
Leave all evidence intact if at all possible.

Barricades may be helpful in blocking off
the area to further foot traffic. Areas
surrounding devices should be roped off
and a guard should be posted to protect
the evidence.
If in doubt of how to handle or preserve the

evidence, contact the appropriate arson
unit for instructions.
If an arson unit is requested, protect the

evidence by preserving the fire scene from
overhaul and water additives. If the
evidence is out of the immediate area of
the scene, place a firefighter to guard the
evidence. Do not remove it or touch it if
possible.
If no arson unit is requested, photograph

evidence before moving it. Clean unused
paint cans with lids that automatically seal
when closed are the best containers for
retaining evidence. Plastic containers and
plastic bags should be avoided as any
evidence of petroleum products may
deteriorate the plastic. Paper bags can be
used for dry clothing or metal articles,
matches or papers. Either a cellulose
sponge or cotton batting can be used to
soak up small quantities of liquids.
All evidence should be marked in some

way. Marking should include the date, time,
location, officer's name and assignment.
Fire scene investigators should keep a

record of each person who handles the
evidence.
Preserve the chain of custody in handling

evidence. If the chain of custody is not
preserved, the court may rule the evidence
inadmissible.
Once evidence is found, preserve it,

photograph it and make a note of where,
when, and how it was found. Protect the
evidence from contamination, alteration,
damage, or destruction. Upon returning to
quarters, notify the arson section by
telephone. Be sure to include all information
under the F-902 comment section (arson
screen). Additionally, all information relating
to the incident and the evidence should be
journalized.
Store the evidence in the station in a safe

and secure location. Keep it in a place
where "curious" firefighters won't handle it.
Do not store evidence in an area accessible
to the public. Request arson to pick up the
evidence as soon as possible. If the
evidence is not collected in a reasonable
time, notify the arson section again to
determine when the evidence will be
picked up.
Chain of Evidence
The term "Chain of Evidence" refers to the chain

of custody (possession) of an item of evidence
from the point in time when it was first
discovered until the time it is offered as an
exhibit in court. Any break in the chain of
evidence could preclude its use as evidence in
future court proceedings. Evidence can take
many forms and it is up to the fire scene
investigator to search out all areas of the scene
to determine what is evidence and what is not.
It takes evidence, both direct and
circumstantial to successfully prosecute and
convict individuals responsible for the crime of
arson. Be aware of everything in the area when
conducting the scene investigation for the
cause and origin. Following these procedures
should ensure that when the evidence arrives
for its "day in court", no problems will be
encountered.
VII. MOTIVES
A. Motive Types
Various types of fires can be more readily

identified if the fire scene investigator at the
scene is aware of a possible motive for that fire.
Being able to identify a motive can assist in
developing a suspect for the fire.
1. Spite/Revenge
At this point in time, "Spite" is the most

predominant motive that you may encounter. It
is most commonly found in domestic disputes.
Fire is frequently the weapon of someone

who wants to be removed from the physical act
of violence. A fire of this type is often the most
deadly and can result in extensive loss of life.
These fires often occur in the bedroom and

can be the result of a problem in a personal
relationship.
They usually occur during the hours of

darkness.
They may involve the use of available

combustibles, but are often set using
flammable liquids as an accelerant.
Articles of clothing may be gathered in a

pile to be burned.
A vindictive person may target a personal

vehicle for an act of vandalism.
Statements made concerning

neighborhood disputes can be a valuable
tool in establishing spite as a motive for your
fire.
Spite fires may also result from an emotional

conflict such as in work relationships, labor
disputes, racial confrontations or religious
antagonisms (hate crimes).
2. Juveniles
"Juveniles" is not a motive, however, since this

group is often involved in many different types
of fire-setting, it is listed here as a separate
motive group.
Children have a natural curiosity about fire,

usually occurring in both sexes between the
ages of 4 and 12.
INTENT is 'the primary consideration. If the

child's intent was NOT to set fire and/or if the
act was intended as playing or
experimenting with fire, this incident should
not be classified as incendiary.
Juvenile fires often occur in secret or hidden

places such as closets, under beds,
basements and attics.
Juveniles occasionally set "nuisance" fires in

trash and grass, the severity depending on
extension and intent.
3. Pyro/Psycho
"Pyromania" is defined as the uncontrollable

impulse to start fires. This may or may not be
connected to sexual gratification or desires. The
following is a list of traits, some or all of which a
pyromaniac may possess.
A loner, a loser
Unable to do anything about being a loser

or a pyromaniac.
Suffering a setback of some kind.
May use alcohol/drugs to boost courage.
May be extremely deceptive.
Seldom carries an accelerant.
May set more than one fire at a given time.
May set fires in structures or outside.
Finds some kind of relief by setting fires.
The fires usually occur in buildings other than

their own.
The "pyro" fires usually set some type of

activity pattern.
May or may not stay in the incident area

after setting the fire(s).
4. Crime Cover
There are many reasons why fire may be used

by a criminal. In all circumstances where a fire
may have been set to cover a crime, efforts
must be made to protect the scene.
A fire can destroy books/records in an effort

to cover shortages of stock, materials, cash,
or other items.
A fire can destroy evidence of other crimes

such as signs of forcible entry, fingerprints,
rifled drawers, or other physical evidence.
A fire may be set to cause a distraction so

that criminal activity can occur in other
areas of a neighborhood.
A fire may cover evidence of a homicide or

a suicide.
Another crime, such as burglary, can be

staged by the owner to \explain a fire that
has been intentionally set.
5. Fraud
By definition, a "fraud" is a deception

deliberately practiced in order to secure unfair
or unlawful gain. There are several types of
fraud fires which are usually encountered:
Direct gain fraud fires are frequently associated

with:
(1) Collection of insurance money.
(2) Interruption of mortgage payments.
(3) Inability to dispose of unwanted property
when taxes are due.
(4) A structure that is "condemned". It's cheaper
to burn than tear down.
(5) Property is being divided in court. Estate
settlement money is easier to divide.
(6) Periods of business recession (seasonal
businesses suffer more incendiary fires than do
year 'round businesses).
(7) Merchandise/equipment becomes obsolete
or out of style.
(8) Insurance money is of greater value than
rent money.
(9) Owner's desire to redecorate/remodel.
(10) Dissolution of a business partnership.
b. Indirect gain fraud fires may or may not

involve profit from insurance money.
(1) Tenant sets a fire to break a lease.

(2) Landlord sets a fire to force tenants out. New
leases bring increased rent.
(3) Owner sets fire to competitor to reduce
competition.
c. Organized criminal activity may include
insurance fraud, elimination of competition, and
fires set for purposes of intimidation.
6. Vanity
a. "Profit Vanity" fires may be a form of indirect

fraud. Example: a security guard or watchman
may set one or more fires to secure a raise in
pay. Another example would be that of an "on-
call" firefighter who seeks to secure their job
position by setting and then extinguishing fires.
b. "Hero Vanity" fires are incidents which many

believe to be closely associated to some forms
of pyromania. This would include a fire set by an
individual who wants attention for finding and
extinguishing the fires.
7. Civil Disorders, Revolutions and/or Political

Activity In these cases, fire is often used as a
weapon. it produces destruction of property
and creates the illusion a large group of people
are involved in firesetting in a specific area.
REPORTING PROCEDURES
The reporting procedure may take many

written or oral forms, depending on the specific
responsibility of the investigator. Pertinent
information should be reported in a proper form
and forum to help prevent recurrence.
Establishing the Role of

First Responders
The actions of public safety personnel

providing emergency services at a fire scene
are critical not only to lifesaving and fire
suppression efforts but also to any subsequent
investigation of the incident.
Observe the Fire and Scene Conditions

PROCEDURE
While approaching a fire scene, first

responders should observe and mentally note
the following conditions and activities and, as
soon as conditions permit, initiate permanent
documentation of the information (e.g., written
notes, voice recordings, videotapes):
a)The presence, location, and condition

of victims and witnesses.
b)Vehicles leaving the scene, bystanders,

or unusual activities near the scene.
c)Flame and smoke conditions (e.g., the

volume of flames and smoke; the color,
height, and location of the flames; the
direction in which the flames and smoke
are moving).
d)The type of occupancy and use of the

structure (e.g., a residential occupancy
being used as a business).
e)Conditions of the structure (e.g., lights

turned on; fire through the roof; walls
standing; open, closed, or broken

windows and doors).
f)Conditions surrounding the scene (e.g.,

blocked driveways, debris, damage to
other structures).
g)Weather conditions.
h)Unusual characteristics of the scene

(e.g., the presence of containers,
exterior burning or charring on the
building, the absence of normal
contents, unusual odors, fire trailers4).
i)The fire suppression techniques used,

including ventilation, forcible entry, and
utility shutoff measures.
j)The status of fire alarms, security alarms,

and sprinklers.
Exercise Scene Safety
PROCEDURE
Upon arrival at the scene, first responders

should:
a)Evaluate the scene for safety hazards

(e.g., structural collapse of the building;
smoke; electrical, chemical, or
biological hazards; other health risks).
b)Establish safety/hazard zones.
c)Communicate hazards to other

personnel arriving at the scene.
d)Use tools and personal protective

equipment appropriate to the task
during all operations.
DANGER:
The scene may contain devices

specifically designed to kill or maim
public safety responders. Do not touch
any suspected incendiary or explosive
device. Evacuate the area, and request
the services of personnel trained in the
removal of such items.
Preserve the Fire Scene
PROCEDURE
To preserve evidence, first responders should:
1.Observe and mentally note evidence that

may be present at the scene, such as:
- Fire patterns (including multiple fire

locations).
- Burn injuries to victims and fire patterns on

clothing.
- Trailers, ignitable liquids, or other unusual fuel

distribution (e.g., piles of newspapers,
furniture pushed together).
- Incendiary/ignition/explosive devices (e.g.,

lighters, matches, timing devices).
- Shoe prints and tire impressions.
- Broken windows and doors.
- Distribution of broken glass and debris.
- Indications of forced entry (tools and tool

marks).
- Containers.
- Discarded clothing.
- Trace evidence (e.g., hairs, fibers,
fingerprints, blood, other body fluids)
- Evidence of crimes in addition to the

possible arson (e.g., weapons, bodies,
drugs, clandestine drug laboratory
equipment).
- Witnesses, bystanders, and victims.
- Any other unusual items or the absence of

normal contents or structural components.
2.Recognize threats to evidence (i.e., its

movement, removal, contamination, or
destruction) from any of the following
sources
a)Fire suppression activities, such as a

straight stream applied at the point of
origin or deluge applications that may
wash away or dilute potential evidence.
b)Overhaul activities that destroy fire

patterns.
c)Salvage activities that involve moving or

removing potential physical evidence.
d)Use of a tool in any manner that causes

destruction of evidence.
e)Movement of knobs, switches, and

controls on appliances and utilities.
f)Weather conditions that affect transient

evidence (i.e., wind, precipitation, or
temperature changes).
g)Personnel walking through the scene.
h)Witnesses and victims leaving the scene.
i)Medical intervention and treatment of

victims (e.g., by damaging evidence at
the scene or destroying victims
clothing).
j)Premature removal or movement of

bodies.
k)Vehicles at the scene (e.g., that

introduce fluid to the scene through
vehicle leaks or destroy other evidence,
including shoe prints and tire

impressions).
l)Contamination from external sources,

such as fuel-powered tools or
equipment.
3.Protect Evidence by:
a)Limiting excessive fire suppression,

overhaul, and salvage.
b)Avoiding needless destruction of

property.
c)Leaving bodies undisturbed.
d)Flagging items of evidence with cones

or markers.
e)Recording observations through written

notes or voice recordings.
f)Covering items or areas containing

evidence with objects that will not
contaminate the evidence (e.g., clean
boxes or tarpaulins).
g)Isolating items or areas containing

evidence with rope, barrier tape,
barricades, or sentries.
h)Retaining and securing clothing items

removed from victims and suspects.
i)Obtaining information about victims and

witnesses (i.e., their names, addresses,
and telephone numbers).
j)Preserving transient evidence (e.g., trace

evidence, shoe prints, tire impressions).
k)Removing evidence at risk of imminent

destruction by the fire or the structural
collapse of the damaged building.
l)Ensuring that later arriving investigators

are fully apprised of the evidence
discovered.
Establish Security and Control
Procedure
a)Set up a security perimeter (e.g., using

barrier tape, fire line, sentry).
b)Control access into the scene through

the security perimeter.
c)Initiate documentation of the scene.
d)Request additional personnel resources,

such as firefighters, EMS personnel, law
enforcement officers, investigators, and
representatives of utility companies.
e)Inform authorities about the status of the

incident, hazards, injuries, witnesses, the
location of evidence, and other
pertinent facts.
oOo
MOCK TRIAL EXAMINATION
SET A
1 In accordance with Sec. 6 of PD 1613, which

of the following circumstances does not
constitute a prima facie evidence of arson?
a The property was insured substantially
more than its actual value at the time of
the issuance of the policy.
b Substantial amounts of flammable
substances were stored within the building
not necessary in the business.
c Doors and windows that were normally
kept open in the course of business were
found closed during the fire.
d The fire started in more than one part of
the building or establishment.
2 After a fire in which arson is suspected, you

may be able to trace the fire to its origin
because __.
a the alligator pattern of charring is not as
light absorbent of the surrounding areas
b the checks of the charring process will be
larger than the surrounding areas
c the pattern of charring at the point of
origin is smaller and deeper than the rest
of the areas
d the point of origin will be darker than the
rest of the areas
3 One of the following situations is a good

indication of an accidental fire.
a Smell of ammonia
b fire of several origin
c Intense heat
d fire of only one origin
4 The purpose of closing the doors and windows

during fire is to __.
a stop the fire
b confine the fire
c slow the spread of fire
d spread the accelerants
5 The purpose of opening the doors and

windows of adjacent rooms in a burning
building is to:
a extinguish the fire
b supply the oxygen in the area
c prevent back draft
d serve as entrance of firemen
6 An arsonist may rearrange materials or

furniture in a room prior to setting it on fire in
order to __.
a mislead the investigators
b camouflage the odor of accelerants
c provide a quick burning situation
d all of the above
7 If the fire is set by rationale motive, the

important point to establish is ___.
a intensity of fire
b size of fire
c rapidity of spread
d origin of fire
8 The eyes and ears of the investigators in fire

investigations are:
a By standers
b Arsonists
c Victims
d Firemen
9 The fire that started in almost all corners of the

building at the same time is called __.
a separate burning
b simultaneous burning
c related burning
10 One of the following is the characteristic of

the behavior of a pyromaniac.
a aggressiveness in putting off the fire
b smiling while a building is on fire
c uncontrollable and excessive laughter
d none of these
11 The lowest temperature at which a substance

must be heated to give of vapors that will
burn without the application of spark is called
__.
a Fire point
b auto-ignition point
c Flash point
d explosive point
12 When water comes in contact with fire, white

smoke is produced. But if it comes before the
water from the fire hose hits the fire, the
burning substance could be..
a Nitrocellulose`
b humid or organic substances
c Petroleum products
d Accelerants
13 A building which is unsafe in case of fire

because it lacks adequate fire exit is said to
be a..
a Fire hazard
b fire trap
c Fire resistive
d fire unsafe
14 A toxic deadly gas produced during fire when

there is insufficient oxygen for the complete
combustion of all the carbon in the burning
substance is known as ..
a Carbon dioxide
b carbon monoxide
c Hydrogen sulfide
d hydrogen gas
15 Usually, the color of the smoke will indicate

the type of material that is burning. In order to
be of value to the investigator, observation
should be made ..
a at the start of fire
b during smoldering stage
c after water from hose comes in contact with
flame
d before water from hose made in contact
with the fire
16 In arson cases, which of the following is not

used in determining if accelerants are used in
starting the fire?
a Heat and fire pattern
b Early color of smoke
c Conditions of doors and windows
d Presence of distinct odor
17 In cases where a structure is completely

burned to the ground, the position of doors
and windows during the fire whether opened
or closed may be ascertained by
a consulting the original structure blueprint
on file
b interviewing spectators
c collecting broken pieces of window
glasses
d locating the hardware used in the
construction of such doors
18 Using electrical appliances, which draws

electrical current beyond the designed
capacity of the electrical circuit, is known as..
a Over using
b over loading
c Over plugging
d over capacity
19 Which of the following statement is not

applicable with dry chemicals as a fire
fighting agent?
a Effect is only temporary
b Has a smothering effect
c Has no cooling effect
d No protection against re-flash
20 Among the statements below is the best

protection against fire.
a Performing good housekeeping chores
b Practicing fire prevention measures
c Having adequate fire fighting facilities
d Awareness of fire hazards
21 Fire is divided into four general classification to

indicate the following, except :
a nature of the combustible or fuel involved
b methods of extinguishing fire
c most suitable extinguishing agent
d flammability of the combustible
22 Perhaps no other motive is so frequently

responsible for the commission of arson if not..
a due to profit
b due to jealousy
c due to duress
d due to spite
23 Which of the following does not match?

a Combustible metal-inorganic-hydrogen
gas
b Complete combustion-ashes- carbon
dioxide
c Incomplete combustion-carbon-carbon
monoxide
d Humid combustible-white smoke-

hydrogen sulfide
24 The burning of combustible materials without

external source is:
a an accidental fire
b a spontaneous fire
c a providential fire
d an intentional fire
25 Trailers are devices used to ...

a spread the fire throughout the structure
b accelerate the burning process
c ignite combustible materials
d none of the foregoing
26 This is the purpose to use any means to effect

the act of burning.
a Motive
b Intent
c Both A and B
d neither A nor B
27 The primary responsibility of a fire investigator

is __.
a to determine the true cause of fire
b to determine the origin of fire
c to identify the victims
d to locate the perpetrator/s
28 What is the active principle of burning

accompanied by light and heat?
a Light
b Pyrolysis
c Fire
d Synopsis
29 What is the chemical reaction whereby

energy or heat is released?
a Exothermic reaction
b endothermic reaction
c Conduction
d Pyrolysis
30 The following are elements of fire, except:

a Fire gases
b Fuel
c Heat
d oxygen
31 The vertical natural movement of smoke

through the building caused by the difference
in the temperature between the inside and
outside air is called ..
a High effect
b Smoke effect
c Stock effect
d Stack effect
32 The following statements indicate hazards of

fire gases, except _.
a displaced the breathing air
b direct evidence
c poisoning
d corroborative evidence
33 In most cases, arson investigators rely on:

a circumstantial evidence
b direct evidence
c eye witnesses
d corroborative evidence
34 The injury resulting to burns is caused by direct

contact with..
a heat
b flame
c smoke
d fire gas
35 When there is a reaction between the

elements of fire, it causes the burning of:
a Substances
b solids
c the free radicals
d fire gases
36 Heat transfer and the dangerous behavior of

fire is obvious in its ..
a free burning phase
b initial stage
c final stage/smoldering phase
d none of the foregoing
37 In what stage of the burning/pyrolitic process

maximized the intensity of the fire to become
destructive?
a free burning phase
b initial stage
c final stage/smoldering phase
d all of the foregoing
38 Smoke of usual color that changes to yellow

or grayish yellow is caused by
a back draft condition
b flashback condition
c flash over condition
d stack effect
39 What is refers by a pot of gold in fire

investigation?
a area of origin of fire
b fire setter
c located evidence
d all of the foregoing
40 Arson classification is based on the following,

except:
a extent of damage
b kind
c location
d character
41 Burning ones own property constitute the

crime of arson, in what manner?
a means of destroying own property
b means of committing arson
c means of concealing another crime
d means of destroying evidences
42 Any of the prima facie evidence of arson is

sufficient to establish the fact of the crime if:
a not proven
b uncontradicted
c doubtful
d none of the above
43 Which of the ff. is the least reliable method of

identifying dead bodies in fatal fire?
a direct/visual examination
b personal effects
c clothing
d fingerprints
44 When autopsy examination reveals that there

is no carbon monoxide in the dead body, it
indicates that the person died
a during the fire
b before the fire
c after the fire
d any of the above
45 What is the common motive in the crime of

arson?
a Revenge
b terrorism
c Spite of jealousy
d profit
46 One of the following statements cannot be

considered as a prima facie evidence for the
crime of arson.
a suspect was seen in the area before the
fire
b presence of combustible materials within
the area
c fire has more than one point of origin
d demand of money was made
47 The following are indications that a fire

incident is not accidental, except __.
a removal of valuable materials away from
the area before the fire
b absence of effort to put off the fir
c ill-feeling between suspect and owner of
the structure burned
d absence of incendiary mechanism
48 Any witness in a fire incident should be

questioned on his/her observation about the
exact location of the blaze at the time of
observation in order to
a develop prime suspects
b establish motive of arsonist
c point out the origin of the fire
d look for evidences
49 The following are important factors in

processing evidences in arson, except _.
a admissibility of the object
b qualification of investigator
c admissibility of the laboratory result
d interpretation of the findings
50 Killing a person by means of fire constitute the

crime of
a Arson
b Arson with Homicide

c Murder with arson
d Murder
51 One thing that differentiates the flaming type

of combustion from the flameless type is ..
a radiative feedback of heat
b pyrolitic distillation
c state of matter of fuel
d uninhibited chain reaction
52 The place where the fire actually broke out is

called..
a the scene of the crime
b the point of origin of fire
c the point of heat of fire
d the fingerprint of fire
53 The observation that is obvious that the first

fireman at the fire scene will suspect arson is

a faulty electrical wiring
b spontaneous combustion process]
c two or more separate break out
d careless handling of electrical appliances
54 When lightning is the cause of fire __.

a the color of the flame is blue
b the smoke produced is reddish-brown

c smoke marks are very noticeable
d odor of ozone maybe detected
55 Which of the following statement is true

concerning combustion?
a all of the following
b it is always accompanied by flame
c it will continue until materials is cooled to
below its kindling temperature
d a gas is compressed and this result in the
increase of temperature
56 It is a common knowledge that when the

suns rays are focused on the head of a
match by the use of hand lens, it will ignite.
What means of heat transfer burned the
match head?
a Conduction
b radiation
c Convection
d condensation
57 What factor will influence the ignition and

burning of wood?
a kind of heat energy source
b method of heat transfer
c physical form
d the purpose of ignition
58 An investigator at the fire scene noticed that

the color of the smoke coming out of the
building is white. He may conclude that.
a vegetable materials are being burned
b chlorine gas is given off by the burning
material
c petroleum products are being burned
d hydrogen products are ignited
59 Which of the following situation may produce

chemical heat energy?
a A copper wire gets red hot because it
carries mere current
b Two solids rubbed together and friction is
generated
c A substance is dissolved in a liquid and
releases heat.
d A gas is compressed and increased
temperature.
60 For heating purposes, which is better,

aluminous flame or non-luminous flame?
a Luminous because the brighter the color,
the higher the temperature.
b Non-luminous because practically all the
carbon fuel oxidized.
c None of the above

d Both A and B
61 What is the simpler method of computing

the distance between the heel of the ladder
and the building?
a divide the length of ladder by 4 and add 2
b divide the length of the ladder by 4
c divide the length of the ladder by 5 and
add 2
d divide the length of the ladder by 6 and
add 2
62 The very useful tool used to make quick

connection to damaged mate house
connections is:
a Couplings
b Spanner Wrench
c Universal thread adopter
d Hydrant Wrench
63 The clearing of smoke and heated gases at

the highest point of the roof is referred to as:
a Vertical ventilation
b Cross ventilation
c Forced ventilation
d Combination of cross ventilation
64 Which of the following occurs when a room

is heated enough the flame sweep over the
entire surface?
a Backdraft
b Flashover
c Oxidation
d Combustion
65 The tarpaulins known as tarps, made of

cotton canvas material treated with a
waterproofing compound are referred to as:
a Salvage covers
b Fire covers
c Canvass covers
d Sawdust
66 An in-depth investigation to determine more

specific details of the cause and effects of
fire.
a Basic investigation
b Technical investigation
c Arson investigation
d Follow-up investigation
67 When the burning materials are primarily

composed of liquid fuel, the fire is considered
as:
a Class A
b Class B
c Class C
d Class D
68 A fire investigator is necessary to conduct

some observation and examination during the
fire which includes the following, except:
a Burned building
b Separate fire
c Color of fire
d Color of smoke
69 The concentration of short-lived

intermediate chemical reactants in fuel and
oxidizers:
a Flames
b Luminous
c Oxidation
d diffusion
e Laminar
70 What branch of knowledge deals with

industrial arts and sciences?
a Chemistry
b Technology
c Science
d Atomic studies
e Modernization
71 Which of the following items enumerated

below is a good indicator of the intensity of
the fire and an important factor in
determining incendiarism?
a Size of fire
b Color of flame
c Direction of travel
d Color of smoke
e Smoke marks
72 The presence of chlorine is indicated by:

a Black smoke
b biting smoke
c reddish smoke
d white smoke
73 What is the lowest temperature of a liquid in

an open container at which vapors are
evolved fast enough to support continuous
combustion?
a Boiling point
b Fire point
c Flashpoint
d Velocity
e Vapor pressure
74 What kind of smoke indicates lack of air?

a Black smoke
b biting smoke
c reddish smoke
d white smoke
75 The changes whereby energy is absorbed

before the reaction takes place is:
a Exothermic reactions
b Flame
c Endothermic reactions
d Kindling point
e Oxidation
76 The minimum temperature to which the

substance in the air must be heated in order
to initiate or cause self-contained combustion
without the addition of heart from outside
source.
b Flame
d Kindling point
e Oxidation
77 Spontaneous heating is an example of what

kind of reaction?
b Flame
d Kindling point
e Oxidation
78 The following are the laboratory aids utilize

in the identifying the incendiary area, except:
a Spectrographic analysis
b fire analysis
c Fiber analysis
d soil analysis
e Identification of matchstick
79 What will be the result of a fuel if mixed with

certain elements as oxygen or chlorine or
fluorine?
a Heat
b Explosion
c Flame
d Gas
e Fire
80 The reaction that gives off energy that the

reactants is referred to as:
b Flame
d Kindling point
e Oxidation
81 The following are the major factors in which

an investigator should concentrate on,
except:
a Point of origin of the fire
b motive of fire setters
c Modus operandi of arsonist
d none of the above
e Identify of persons who might benefit
from the fire
82 What stage in the commission of arson is

accomplished if a person intended to burn a
wooden house, collected rags soaked in
gasoline and placed it inside the wall, but
when he lighted the wall and a small portion
was already burning, he as seen by another
who ran after him and arrested him?
a Attempted stage
b none of the above
c Frustrated
d any of the above
e Consummated
83 What is the law amending the law on arson?

a PD No. 1613
b RA 6975
c RA 1813
d RA 8551
84 In essence, it is a chemical reaction in which

a substance combines with oxygen, heat is
released and the form of substance is
destroyed.
a Fire
b Fuel
c Oxygen
d Ignition
85 Of the three things essential before a fire

can occur which one of the following is not
included.
a Fuel
b Wind
c Oxygen
d Initial source of heat
86 In fire statistics, the initial source of heat is

generally termed as
a Determinant
b Cause
c Primer
d Ignition
87 The term describes the transfer of heat

within a solid material from hotter to cooler
parts.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire
88 The term describes a mass movement in a

fluid (i.e., a liquid or a gas) where a fluid at
one temperature and density moves under
the influence of through surrounding fluid at a
different temperature and density, mixing it
with and gradually exchanging heat wit until is
all at the temperature.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire
89 The term describes the transfer of heat
through a gas or vacuum in a similar way to
light.
a Conduction
b Convection
c Radiation
d Fire
90 It is a measurement use in fire of the rate at

which heat produced.
a Intensity of combustion
b Density
c Velocity
d Temperature
91 It is a term of the start of combustion. Its

detailed process of a solid is very
complicated, since the proportions of
different flammable vapors evolved vary from
one material to another and contact with
oxygen must take place before combustion
can begin.
a Combustion
b Ignition
c Propellant
d Starter
92 Wood, and its products, such as hardboard

and fireboard are the principal combustible
materials present in the construction of a
building.
a Combustible contents
b Combustible structure
c Solids
d Dusts
93 Articles inside a building will normally include

many combustible materials, which may be
present in considerable quantity and
represent a total caloric value many times
greater than that of the combustible materials
used in the construction of the building.
c Solids
d Dusts
94 This will burn very readily if the surface area

is large in proportion to the weight of material.
c Solids
d Dusts
95 This is a term used to describe a transition

which occur in the development of a fire
when, for example, most of all of the
combustible surfaces within a room are
heated above their ignition temperature at
the same time.
a Ignition
b Flashover
c Starter
d Intensity
96 This term is reserved to describe the

behavior of a building material in a fire; it is
used to predict how long it will resist the
effects of a fire before it fails.
a Fire proof
b Fire resistance
c Building resistance
d Fire duration
97 It consists of small carbonaceous particles,

suspended in the atmosphere, which may of
such colors, size and quality that they can
obscure the passage of light, thus preventing
exists and exit sins from being seen. It may also
contribute to panic because of its effects on
eyes, nose and throat.
a Smoke
b Fire
c Carbonmonoxide
d Toxic
98 It is the main product of the combustion of

carbon. It is a poisonous but is an asphyxiant,
which lowers the proportion of oxygen
available for breathing.
a Carbon dioxide
b Carbon monoxide
c Smoke
d Gas
99 It is used to include not only architects

responsible for the design and erection of a
complete building but also the various
specialist engineers who may be concerned
with the structure, the electrical installation,
the heating and ventilation system and so on.
a Building contractors
b Designers
c Office of Building Permit
d Building Planners
100 The primary purpose of statutory

requirements for fire protection is
a To see to it that buildings are insured
b To safeguard life
c To see to it that buildings are fire hazard
free
d To generate income for the government
-oOo-

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Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

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C l a r i t o G . l o p e z J r .

Fire is not, in fact, a substance. When

Persons behind the introduction of fire

JOHN WALKER he was the English

ANTOINE LAVOISER A French Chemist

THOMAS ALYA EDISON An American

Fire is defined as the state of burning that

burning substances, produced by the

A flame is the resultant gases which on

FIRE is a rapid oxidation (Oxidation refers to

Fire is defined as state, process, or instance

light, heat, and flame. Flame is a burning gas or

A. Based on Burning Facts

Class A - (Solid Fire) Fires involving ordinary

Class B - (Liquid and Gas Fire) Fire involving

Class C - (Electrical Fires) Fires that starts in

Class D - (Metal Fires) Fires that result from

Class E - Combination of the above- solid,

B. based on fuel type:

Class A: Ordinary combustible materials, such as

Class B: Flammable liquids (burn at room

Class C: Fuels that would be A or B except that

Class D: Combustible metals, such as

Class K: Fires in cooking appliances that involve

Most fires (and especially those in structures)

Incipient phase (Growth). Although actual

Free burning phase (Fully developed). Air

Smoldering phase (Decay). Free burning

How fire spreads

Fire spreads by transferring the heat energy

heats the drapes hanging behind, until they too

Fire Triangle Theory

This theory is a graphical representation of

The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a

The triangle illustrates the three elements a

Fire Tetrahedron Theory

This theory is a figure; the illustration on how

Fire is composed of three elements to

Heat is a form of energy generated by

General Categories of Heat Energy

a Chemical Energy Heat results from chemical

b Mechanical Energy Heat resulting from: (1)

c Electrical Energy Heat results from electricity,

d Solar Energy Energy resulting from the heat

e NUCLEAR ENERGY Heat resulting from

Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat is energy transit; it always flows from a

When heat is transferred through solid

In Convection, heat is transferred by air

When heat is transferred by

Heat is also transferred by direct flame

Any materials or substances capable of

Fuels are generally classified as:

a) CLASS A Ordinary combustible

b) CLASS B Liquid or gas state fuel (LPG,

c) CLASS C Electrical energized fuel (flat

d) CLASS D Metallic Fire (Potassium,

1.Solid Fuels. The principal component is

2.Nuclear fuels. Provide energy through

3.Liquid Fuels. The principal component is

Classification of Liquid fuels

- Flammable liquids. It refers to any liquid

- Combustible liquids. It refers to any liquid