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1 | 2015
ABSTRACT
Mira Eryig it
This study aims at the development of an optimization model based on articial immune
Department of Environmental Engineering,
systems (AIS) to minimize cost designs of water distribution networks (WDNs). Clonal selection Faculty of Engineering & Architecture,
Abant Izzet Baysal University,
algorithm (Clonalg), a class of AIS, was used as an optimization technique in the model, and its Glky Campus,
14280 Bolu,
mutation operation was modied to increase the diversity (search capability). EPANET, a widely Turkey
E-mail: miraceryigit@hotmail.com
known WDN simulator, was used in conjunction with the proposed model. The model was
applied to four WDNs of Two-loop, Hanoi, Go Yang, New York City, and the results obtained
were compared with other heuristic and mathematical optimization models in the related
literature, such as harmony search, genetic algorithm, immune algorithm, shufed complex
evolution, differential evolution, and non-linear programming-Lagrangian algorithm.
Furthermore, the modied Clonalg was compared with the classic Clonalg in order to
demonstrate the impact of the modication on the diversity. The proposed model appeared to
be promising in terms of cost designs of WDNs.
Key words | articial immune systems, optimization, water distribution network
INTRODUCTION
At the present time, design engineers should consider the annealing, Tabu search, ant colony optimization, scatter
cost and functionality while designing any project. In this search, shufed complex evolution (SCE), and differential
regard, cost optimization techniques are mostly used in evolution (DE) (Simpson et al. ; Cunha & Sousa
the designing of water distribution networks (WDNs). ; Maier et al. ; Cunha & Ribeiro ; Liong &
Many conventional optimization techniques have been Atiquzzaman ; Zecchin et al. ; Lin et al. ;
developed to solve minimal-cost problems, such as linear Dong et al. ). Geem (), Savic & Walters (),
programming gradient (Alperovits & Shamir ; Fujiwara and Kim et al. () proposed cost optimization models
et al. ; Kessler & Shamir ; Bhave & Sonak ; using a harmony search (HS) algorithm, GA, and a pro-
Eiger et al. ), dynamic programming (Schaake & Lai jected Lagrangian algorithm (NLP), respectively, for the
), and non-linear programming (NLP) (Fujiwara & following four famous WDN problems of Two-loop,
Khang ; Varma et al. ). However, obtaining a Hanoi, Go Yang, and New York City in the related litera-
least-cost WDN with discrete-value pipe diameters is extre- ture. Another heuristic algorithm is articial immune
mely difcult using conventional optimization techniques systems (AIS) simulating the natural immune system
(Yates et al. ). On the other hand, heuristic algorithms (NIS) (Harmer et al. ; De Castro & Timmis ;
have recently been utilized to solve WDN optimization Koster et al. ; Bezerra et al. ). AIS have been suc-
problems, such as genetic algorithm (GA), simulated cessfully applied to various test functions and optimization
doi: 10.2166/aqua.2014.031
48 M. Eryig it | Cost optimization of water networks using articial immune systems Journal of Water Supply: Research and TechnologyAQUA | 64.1 | 2015
problems (Tazawa et al. ; Hajela et al. ; Chu et al. related literature, such as HS, GA, NLP, immune algorithm
). (IA), SCE, and DE. Furthermore, the modied Clonalg was
This study develops a cost optimization model based on compared with the classic Clonalg in order to demonstrate
AIS in order to contribute to the related literature. The the impact of the modication on the diversity.
model aims to determine optimal diameters of pipes in
WDNs under hydraulic conditions such as water demand,
and minimum pressure requirement. Clonal selection algor-
ithm (Clonalg), a class of AIS, was used as an optimization
technique in the model in order to minimize the cost designs
of WDNs. The main difference to the classic Clonalg, is the
modication proposed to its mutation operation. While run-
ning the algorithm, new genes were generated for each
antibody during the mutation operation instead of generat-
ing new individuals (antibody) in each iteration. This
modication provides to increase a diversity. The model
was applied to the four benchmark WDNs, and results
obtained were compared with the other algorithms in the
Figure 2 | Flow chart of Clonalg for optimization (De Castro & Von Zuben 2002).
Figure 1 | Clonal Selection Theory (De Castro & Von Zuben 2000). Figure 3 | Flow chart of the modied Clonalg for optimization.
49 M. Eryig it | Cost optimization of water networks using articial immune systems Journal of Water Supply: Research and TechnologyAQUA | 64.1 | 2015
Two-loop 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 in inches 2, 5, 8, 11, 16, 23, 32, 50, 60, 90, 130, 170, 300, 550 in USD/
meter
Hanoi 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 40 in inches 45.726, 70.4, 98.378, 129.333, 180.748, 278.28 in USD/meter
New York 0, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, 132, 144, 156, 168, 180, 93.5, 134, 176, 221, 267, 316, 365, 417, 469, 522, 577, 632, 689,
192, 204 in inches 746, 804 in USD/foot
GoYang 80, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350 in millimeters 37,890, 38,933, 40,563, 42,554, 47,624, 54,125, 62,109, 71,524 in
won/meter
population C*. The higher antigenic afnity means a (7) From the population C*, the n amount of the matured
smaller mutation rate. clones with the highest afnity is reselected and
(6) For each matured clone in C*, the afnity value ( fi*) is added to Ab.
determined. (8) Finally, the d amount of the antibodies with the lowest
afnity is replaced with new individuals (Abd).
the objective function, and nd is the number of genes of where i is the mutation rate for the clones exposed to
Abi. In this study, xij corresponds to a diameter of the the maturation process, is a decay coefcient, and fi
pipe. is the afnity value normalized over the interval [0,1].
The number of clones generated for all the n selected In this study, new genes are generated for each clone
antibodies can be estimated as follows (De Castro & Von with a certain probability depending on a given problem
Zuben ): (probability rate) in step 5, instead of step 8. This modi-
cation provides to increase the diversity. Furthermore,
X
n
NAb instead of using Equation (2) as proposed by De Castro &
Nc round i 1, :::, n (2)
i1
i Von Zuben (), the following equation was used to calcu-
late Nc (De Castro & Von Zuben ):
where Nc is the total number of the clones in C, is a mul-
tiplying coefcient, round is the rounding operator for an X
NAb
Nc round NAb i 1, :::, NAb (4)
integer. i1
The mutation rate can be computed as follows (De
Castro & Von Zuben ):
i exp fi (3)
Node Elevation (m) Demand (m3/day) Min. Pressure (m) Pipe Length (m) C
Table 6 | Parameters of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Two-loop
network
Modied Clonalg (This study) HS Geem (2006) GA Keedwell & Khu (2005) GA Savic & Walters (1997)
1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
3 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Cost($) 419,000 419,000 419,000 419,000 419,000 419,000 419,000
This modication results in that both all antibodies For each node, the continuity equation should be
in Ab are cloned and the same number of the clones is satised
generated for each antibody in Ab. Thus, there is not any
X X
selection of n amount of antibodies with the highest afnity Qin Qout Qe (6)
(step 3).
where Qin and Qout are the inow and outow rate of the
node, respectively, and Qe is the external inow rate or
demand at the node.
MODEL FORMULATION For each loop in the network, the energy conservation
equation is utilized
The cost design of WDNs consists of diameters and lengths
of pipes constituting the network. Thus, the objective func- X
N
tion depends on the pipes diameter and length. The Hi Ep 0 i 1, :::, N (7)
i1
objective function used in the model is of the following
form (Geem ; Chu et al. ): Table 8 | Comparison of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Two-loop
network
Table 9 | Performances of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Two-loop network
Algorithm Min. Cost (USD) Max. Cost (USD) Success rate in 20 runs (%) Average Run Time (min) Average Iteration Number
where Hi is the head loss in pipe i, and Ep is the energy was used in this study (Rossman )
added to the water in the network by a pump.
For each node, the minimum pressure required is H 4:727C 1:852 Q1:852 D4:871 L (9)
expressed as follows:
where H is the head loss (length; ft or m), C is Hazen
Hj Hjmin j 1, :::, M (8) Williams roughness coefcient, Q is the ow rate (volume/
time; cfs), D is the pipe diameter (ft), and L is the pipe
length (ft).
where Hj is the pressure head at node j, Hj min is the mini- Savic & Walters () introduced a numerical conver-
mum required pressure head at node j, and M is the sion constant depending on the units used. With this
number of nodes in the network. constant, the HazenWilliams equation can be re-arranged
The model uses EPANET for the hydraulics analysis. as follows:
EPANET has three head loss equations HazenWilliams,
DarcyWeisbach and ChezyManning to compute the fric- L
H Q (10)
tion head loss in the pipes. The HazenWilliams equation C D
Pressures (m)
Table 11 | Parameters of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Hanoi network
Modied Clonalg (This Van Dijk et al. HS Geem Wu & Walski Liong & Vairavamoorthy & Ali GA Savic &
study) (2008) (2006) (2005) Atiquzzaman (2004) (2000) Walters (1997)
1 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
2 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
3 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
4 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
5 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
6 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
7 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
8 40 40 40 40 40 30 40 40
9 30 40 40 40 40 30 40 40
10 30 30 30 30 30 3 30 30
11 24 24 24 24 24 30 24 24
12 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
13 16 20 24 20 20 16 20 20
14 12 16 12 16 16 12 16 16
15 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
16 12 12 12 12 12 24 12 12
17 20 16 16 16 16 30 16 16
18 20 24 24 20 20 30 20 20
19 24 20 24 20 20 30 20 20
20 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
21 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
22 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
23 40 40 40 40 40 30 40 40
24 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
25 30 30 30 30 30 24 30 30
26 20 20 20 20 20 12 20 20
27 16 12 12 12 12 20 12 12
28 12 12 12 12 12 24 12 12
29 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
30 12 12 12 12 12 16 12 16
31 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
32 20 16 20 16 16 16 16 12
33 16 16 16 16 16 20 16 16
34 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 20
Cost($) 6,016,520 6,081,087 6,110,000 6,056,000 6,056,000 6,220,000 6,056,000 6,073,000
56 M. Eryig it | Cost optimization of water networks using articial immune systems Journal of Water Supply: Research and TechnologyAQUA | 64.1 | 2015
Table 13 | Comparison of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Hanoi network pressure head requirements, the higher constant
values require a larger diameter to deliver the same
Modied Clonalg Classic Clonalg
amount of water than the lower values since the greater
Pipe 10.667 10.667 head loss means higher cost for the WDN designs
1 40 40 (Geem ). The constant value in EPANET v.2.0 is
2 40 40 10.667 (Eusuff ; Van Dijk et. al ). This value
3 40 40 can be derived as follows (Rossman ; Reehuis
4 40 40 ):
5 40 40
convQ
6 40 40 4:727
convD
7 40 40
8 40 40 where convQ is a conversion factor from dened unit for
9 40 40 Q to cfs, and convD is a conversion factor from dened
10 30 30 unit for D to ft. When Q and D are expressed in m3/s
11 24 24 and m, respectively, and becomes:
12 24 24
13 20 20
convQ1:852
14 16 16 4:727 10:667
convD4:871
15 12 12
16 12 12 where:
17 16 16
18 24 24 convQ 35:31466 m3 =s ! cfs
19 20 20
20 40 40
convD 3:28083 m ! ft:
21 20 20
22 12 12
The penalty function is described in addition to the
23 40 40
objective function in case of violating the constraints.
24 30 30
This function prevents searching from taking place in
25 30 30
the infeasible solution space where pipes with small
26 20 20
diameters that cannot satisfy the minimum pressure
27 12 12
requirement at each node are located. The penalty func-
28 12 12
tion is of the following form (Geem ):
29 16 16
30 12 12 n o2 n o
fp Hj a max 0, Hjmin Hj b sgn max 0, Hjmin Hj
31 12 12
32 16 20
33 16 16
where fp is the penalty function, max is the maximum
34 24 24
function giving the larger value, sgn is the sign function
Table 14 | Performances of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Hanoi network
Algorithm Min. Cost (USD) Max. Cost (USD) Success rate in 20 runs (%) Average Run Time (min) Average Iteration Number
21 41.78 41.26
22 36.70 36.10
This network consists of 20 nodes, 21 pipes and one loop,
23 44.70 44.52
and is fed by the gravity from a reservoir with a 300 ft
24 38.81 38.93
25 34.94 35.34
26 30.56 31.70 Table 16 | Parameters of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for New York City
27 30.06 30.76 network
28 39.10 38.94
Probability
29 30.13 30.13 Algorithm NAb Rate Max. Iteration
xed head. The objective of the problem is to add new pipes layout of Go Yang network are shown in Table 5 and
parallel to existing pipes in the network since the existing Figure 7, respectively.
pipes cannot satisfy the pressure head requirements at
nodes 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 (Schaake & Lai ). Node
and pipe data and the layout of the New York City network
RESULTS
are shown in Table 4 and Figure 6, respectively.
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 96 144 108 144 96 0 108
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 0 0 0 0 0 120 0
16 96 96 96 96 96 84 96
17 96 96 96 96 96 96 96
18 84 84 84 84 84 84 84
19 72 72 72 72 72 72 72
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
21 72 72 72 72 72 72 72
Cost ($) 36,660,000 38,637,600 37,130,000 38,637,600 36,660,000 38,800,000 37,130,000
59 M. Eryig it | Cost optimization of water networks using articial immune systems Journal of Water Supply: Research and TechnologyAQUA | 64.1 | 2015
classic Clonalg, n and d were assigned as 90% of NAb and Table 20 | Pressures at the nodes of New York network
In the study, a PC with Intel Core Duo 2.16 Ghz and 1 Reservoir Reservoir
Matlab R2009a 7.8 programming language were used for 2 294.39 294.21
3 286.59 286.15
4 284.31 283.79
5 282.30 281.70
Table 18 | Comparison of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for New York City 6 280.75 280.07
network
7 278.31 277.51
Modied Clonalg Classic Clonalg 8 276.45 276.67
9 273.76 273.78
Pipe 10.667 10.667
10 273.73 273.74
1 0 0
11 273.86 273.87
2 0 36
12 275.15 275.14
3 0 48
13 278.12 278.10
4 0 36
14 285.59 285.56
5 0 36
15 293.34 293.33
6 0 0
16 260.27 260.08
7 144 84
17 272.87 272.87
8 0 48
18 261.40 261.18
9 0 0
19 255.37 255.05
10 0 36
20 260.92 260.73
11 0 36
12 0 36
13 0 0
14 0 36
15 0 36
16 96 96 Table 21 | Parameters of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Go Yang
17 96 96 network
18 84 84
Algorithm NAb Probability Rate Max. Iteration
19 72 72
Modied 10.5088 50 1 2 0.01 100
20 0 0 10.5879 50 1 2 0.01 100
21 72 72 10.667 30 5 2 0.01 100
Cost ($) 38,637,600 49,240,000 Classic 10.667 30 5 2 100
Table 19 | Performances of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for New York City network
Algorithm Min. Cost (USD) Max. Cost (USD) Success rate in 20 runs (%) Average Run Time (min) Average Iteration Number
the analyses. Optimal costs obtained by the modied won (using 10.5088, 10.5879, 10.667, respect-
Clonalg are 419,000 USD (using 10.4973, ively) for Two-loop, Hanoi, New York City and Go Yang,
10.5088, 10.667), 6,016,520 and 6,081,087 USD respectively. On the other hand, optimal costs for these
(using 10.5088, 10.667, respectively), 36,660,000 networks in the related literature are 419,000 USD (Savic
and 38,637,600 USD (using 10.5088, 10.667, & Walters ; Keedwell & Khu ; Geem ),
respectively), 176,958,824, 176,994,561 and 177,009,557 6,056,000 USD (Vairavamoorthy & Ali ; Wu &
Modied Clonalg (This study) DE Dong et al. (2012) GA Dong et al. (2012) HS Geem (2006)
Pipe 10.5088 10.5879 10.667 10.667 10.667 10.5879 NLP Kim et al. (1994)
Table 23 | Comparison of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Go Yang Walski ; Geem ), 36,660,000 USD (Geem ),
network
and 177,010,000 won (Dong et al. ), respectively. In
Modied Clonalg Classic Clonalg addition, optimal costs obtained by the classic Clonalg
for these networks are 419,000 USD (using 10.667),
Pipe 10.667 10.667
6,085,284 USD (using 10.667), 49,240,000 USD (using
1 150 150
10.667), and 177,009,557 won (using 10.667),
2 150 150
respectively. Parameters of the modied Clonalg and the
3 125 125
classic Clonalg, comparisons of the results, pressures at
4 125 125
the nodes, and performances of the modied Clonalg and
5 100 100
the classic Clonalg for all the networks are given in
6 80 80
Tables 625.
7 80 80
8 80 80
9 80 80
CONCLUSIONS
10 80 80
11 80 80
The value of has a signicant impact on the cost designs of
12 80 80
the WDNs. In order to compare the modied Clonalg and
13 80 80
the other algorithms (HS, GA, NLP, IA, SCE, and DE) in
14 80 80
the related literature, the same values of (10.4973,
15 80 80
10.5088 and 10.5879) were applied for the analyses in
16 80 80
addition to EPANET v.2.0s value of 10.667. Results
17 80 80
showed that the modied Clonalg could nd lower costs
18 80 80
than the other algorithms with the same values of , and
19 80 80
appeared to be signicantly successful and feasible for the
20 80 80
cost designs of the WDNs.
21 80 80
In the application of the Two-loop network, the modied
22 80 80
Clonalg obtained a higher success rate and a lower maximum
23 100 100
cost (worst cost) than the classic Clonalg, although both
24 80 80
algorithms could nd the same minimum cost (419,000
25 80 80
USD). In the application of the Hanoi network, the modied
26 80 80
Clonalg could nd both a lower minimum cost with a higher
27 100 100
success rate and a lower maximum cost than the classic Clo-
28 80 80
nalg. In the application of the New York City network, the
29 80 80
modied Clonalg could nd both a lower minimum cost
30 80 80
with a higher success rate and a lower maximum cost than
Cost (won) 177,009,557 177,009,557
the classic Clonalg. In the application of the Go Yang
Table 24 | Performances of the modied Clonalg and the classic Clonalg for Go Yang network
Algorithm Min. Cost (won) Max. Cost (won) Success rate in 20 runs (%) Average Run Time (min) Average Iteration Number
Table 25 | Pressures at the nodes of Go Yang network In future studies, performance of this model needs to be
explored under various restrictions such as a velocity, maxi-
Pressures (m)
Node mum pressure in the node, variation in water demands
10.5088 10.5879 10.667 depending on time, in addition to the minimum pressure
1 Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir requirements for the WDNs.
2 28.93 24.99 24.95
3 28.86 26.30 26.25
4 25.39 24.07 24.02
5 23.07 22.75 22.37 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6 20.40 20.66 20.57
7 27.42 25.20 25.14 The author thanks Fatih Evrendilek for his textual
8 25.76 24.35 24.29 assistance.
9 20.14 19.98 19.90
10 15.23 15.42 15.07
11 15.02 15.05 15.04
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First received 19 March 2014; accepted in revised form 19 June 2014. Available online 19 July 2014