Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion in

Tropical Soils

Deyanira Lobo Lujan1

Facultad de Agronomia, Instituto de Edafologia,

Universidad Central de Venezuela, Maracay, Venezuela

Lecture given at the

College on Soil Physics
Trieste, 3-21 March 2003

LNS0418021

1
lobod@agr.ucv.ve
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 233

INTRODUCTION

The total vegetated land area of the earth is about 11,500 hectare. Of this, about 12%
is in South America. Of this, about 14% is degraded area. Water erosion, chemical
degradation, wind erosion, and physical degradation have been reported as main types
of degradation. In South America water erosion is a major process for soil
degradation.
Nevertheless, water erosion can be a consequence of degradation of the soil
structure, especially the functional attributes of soil pores to transmit and retain water,
and to facilitate root growth. Climate, soil and topographic characteristics determine
runoff and erosion potential from agricultural lands. The main factors causing soil
erosion can be divided into three groups
Energy factors: rainfall erosivity, runoff volume, wind strength, relief,
slope angle, slope length.
Protection factors: population density, plant cover, amenity value
(pressure for use) and land management.
Resistance factors: soil erodibility, infiltration capacity and soil
management.
The degree of soil erosion in a particular climatic zone, with particular soils,
land use and socioeconomic conditions, will always result from a combination of the
above mentioned factors. It is not easy to isolate a single factor. However, the soil
physical properties that determine the soil erosion process, because the deterioration
of soil physical properties is manifested through interrelated problems of surface
sealing, crusting, soil compaction, poor drainage, impeded root growth, excessive
runoff and accelerated erosion.
When an unprotected soil surface is exposed to the direct impact of raindrops
it can produce different responses: Production of smaller aggregates, dispersed
particles, particles in suspension and translocation and deposition of particles. When
this has occurred, the material is reorganized at the location into a surface seal.
Aggregate breakdown under rainfall depends on soil strength and a certain threshold
kinetic energy is needed to start detachment.
Studies on necessary kinetic energy to detach one kilogram of sediments by
raindrop impact have shown that the minimum energy is required for particles of
0.125 mm. Particles between 0.063 to 0.250 mm are the most vulnerable to
detachment. This means that soils with high content of particles into vulnerable range,
for example silty loam, loamy, fine sandy, and sandy loam are the most susceptible
soils to detachment.
Many aspects of soil behavior in the field such as hydraulic conductivity
water retention, soil crusting, soil compaction, and workability are influenced
strongly by the primary particles. In tropical soils also a negative relation between
structure stability and particles of silt, fine sand and very fine sand has been found,
this is attributed to low cohesiveness of these particles.
The ability of a structure to persist is known as its stability. There are two
principal types of stability: the ability of the soil to retain its structure under the action
234 D.L. Lujan

of water, and the ability of the soil to retain its structure under the action of external
mechanical stresses. (e.g. by wheels). Both types of stability are related with
susceptibility to erosion.
The soil susceptibility to sealing and crusting has been related to different
indices:
Consistency index C5 10
Consistency Index C5 10 = (w5 w10) where w5 and w10 are the water
contents, in percentage of dry weight for which the two sections of a part
of the soil in the Casagrande cup touch each other over a distance of 1
cm, after 5 and 10 blows, respectively. It has been found that stable
topsoils have values of C5 10 > 3, whereas unstable soils have values less
than 2.5.

Wetsieving
The distribution of water stable aggregates is determined by wet-sieving.
During wet-sieving, soil aggregates are submerged and gently sieved
under water to characterize the aggregate resistance to breakdown.

Absolute Sealing Index ASI

ASI is the minimum value of the hydraulic conductivity in the seal
formed by impact of water drops The test measures the changes of
saturated hydraulic conductivity of the seal formed by raindrop impact
obtained from a layer of soil aggregates of approximately 1.5 cm thick
and 2 to 4 mm in diameter that receive a simulated rainfall during 60
minutes with an intensity around 90 mm/hour.

Infiltrability of wet and more or less sealed topsoils

A non-destructive method whereby small amounts of water is supplied by
drip sources placed close to the soil surface without dissipation of kinetic
energy and the area of saturated flux is measured when gravitational flow
begins to prevail. Once a steady flow is apparently obtained, lateral flow
as well as evaporative flux are neglected, with the relation between the
source discharge rate Q and the equivalent radius r of the saturated patch
written as
Q = pr 2 q i
where qi is the infiltration rate through the crusted topsoil.
One of the processes that determine water erosion is infiltration.
Hydrologically the infiltration process separates rain into two parts. One part stored
within the soil supplies water to the roots of vegetation and recharges ground water,
while the other part which does not penetrate the soil surface is responsible for
surface runoff.
On stable soils without gradual deterioration of the soil structure, the decrease
of infiltration rate results from the inevitable decrease in the gradient of matric
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 235

potential, one of the forces drawing water into the soil, which occurs as the
infiltration process proceeds. In unstable soils, a second cause for the decrease in the
infiltration rate with time is the deterioration of soil structure on the surface occurring
during the infiltration process. This deterioration may cause the formation of a dense
crust, and a partial sealing of the profile.
Runoff and soil loss prediction has been widely used as a tool to guide
conservation planning. The prediction technology can be characterized as empirically
based, process-based or a combination of the two.
There are numerous process-based models. In a hydrologic simulation model
to compute runoff and soil loss, relationships for fundamental runoff and soil loss
processes should be combined with relationships for fundamental hydrologic
processes. One of these models, SOMORE, accounts for infiltration of rainfall into
the soil as limited by surface sealing effects and limited layers close to the soil
surface, and by internal drainage or subsurface runoff as affected by rainfall
infiltration, effective root depth and saturated hydraulic conductivity of the limiting
soil layer.
The SOMORE model uses as inputs: daily rainfall, daily evapotranspiration,
infiltration rate, and rainfall intensity and soil conditions at the rooting depth, such as
soil moisture at saturation, soil moisture at liquid limit, soil moisture at plastic limit,
soil moisture at field capacity, soil moisture at -0.15 MPa, soil moisture at -1.5 MPa,
soil moisture at the first day, and saturated hydraulic conductivity of the subsoil.
Some outputs of model are: water losses by runoff or surface drainage (mm),
waterlogging (mm), duration of waterlogging (hours), water losses by internal
drainage (mm) and soil moisture at rooting depth (mm). The model also provides
additional outputs, e.g. days with waterlogging, days with excessive soil moisture for
tillage, days with excessive soil moisture for the crop, days with appropriate soil
moisture for tillage for the crop, etc.

CASE STUDIES

Two case studies in Venezuela will be used to illustrate the role of soil physical
properties in the erosion process. Two soils of gently rolling topography (5 10 %
slopes) representating large rainfed agricultural areas were selected. The Barinas soil
is located in the Western Plains. The Chaguaramas soil is located in the Central
Plains.
Thirty years ago, the land use changed from pasture and livestock to crops
like maize and sorghum in the Western Plains, and to sorghum in the Central Plains,
highly mechanized and livestock. Tillage operations previous to seeding, generally
include two or three disc harrowing, oftentimes leaving a bare surface soil exposed to
the rainfall impact during the first days of the crop.
A modification of Fourniers Index was used to assess the climatic
aggressiveness
1
FI =
P
pi
236 D.L. Lujan

where pi is monthly precipitation and P the annual precipitation. Correlations between

monthly FI values and R factor values (Wishmeiers method) are highly significant.
Figure 1 shows the monthly Fournier Index distribution. For the Barinas soil
the high values of Fournier Index (>7.5) occur from April to October, whereas for the
Chaguaramas soil high values occur from May to August.

Barinas Chaguaramas

16
14
Fournier Index

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

ct

ic
ov
go
l
n

ay
b

n
il

pt
ch

Ju
Ja

pr
Fe

Ju

D
O
Se

N
M

A
ar

A
M

Months

Figure 1. Fournier Index distribution

In Barinas most of the rainfall occurs from April through November (Figure 2). In
Chaguaramas most of the rainfall (about 750 mm) occurs from May through October
(Figure 3). In both regions, 50% of the rainfalls have intensities greater than 25mm/h.
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 237

Barinas

(1980 - 1999)
300 Total rainfall Rainfall > 25 mm/h

Rainfalll (mm) 250

200

150

100

50

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months

Figure 2. Total rainfall and rainfall with intensities higher than 25 mm.h-1 in Barinas

Chaguaramas

(1980 - 1999)
200
Total rainfall Rainfall > 25 mm/h

150

100
Rainfalll (mm)

50

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months

Figure 3. Total rainfall and rainfall with intensities higher than 25 mm.h-1 in Chaguaramas
 238 D.L. Lujan

Table 1 shows the particle size distribution of two Venezuelan Alfisols. Both soils are
sandy loam in the soil surface, but they differ in the proportion of silt and different
sand sizes.

Table 1. Particle size distribution

Particle diameter (m)

Soil Depth <2 2 50 50 100 250 500 1000 Textural
100 250 500 1000 2000 Class
0-15 15 12.0 21.0 28.0 16.5 3.5 1.0 SL
15-35 18 10.5 19.5 25.0 22.0 6.5 1.5 SL
Barinas
35-55 24 12.0 22.0 24.0 13.5 3.5 1.0 CSL
55-70 27 14.5 22.0 21.5 11.0 3.0 1.0 CSL
0-10 10 34.0 21.0 25.5 8.5 1 0 SL
10-18 14 37.5 23.5 18.5 4.5 1 1 L
Chaguaramas
18-35 17 47.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 2 2 L
35-45 24 44.0 13.5 9.5 5.0 2 2 L
45-70 20 40.0 20.0 13.5 4.5 2 0 L

In the Chaguaramas soil particles between 2 and 250 m prevail. In the

Barinas soil particles between 50 and 500 m prevail.
Figure 4 shows the structure stability of Barinas and Chaguaramas soils
assessed by means of wet-sieving (Yoders method). The Chaguaramas soil shows a
low proportion of larger water stable aggregates and a high proportion of smaller
water stable aggregates. The Barinas soil shows a higher proportion of large water
stable aggregates. The maintenance of large aggregates stable in water on the surface
soil is important to maintain high water intake rates and to reduce evaporation losses
of the water stored in the soil.
> 0,8 0- 0,4 0,4 - 0,1 < 0,1 > 0,8 0,8 - 0,4 0,4 - 0,1 < 0,1
80 40
Stable aggregates (%)

Chaguaramas Soil
60 30

40 20

20 10

Diameter of aggregates (mm) Diameter of aggregates

0
Figure 4. Stable aggregates distribution
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 239

Figure 5 shows the behavior of saturated hydraulic conductivity obtained

from a layer of soil aggregates of approximately 1.5 cm thick and 2 to 4 mm in
diameter that received a simulated rainfall during 60 minutes with an intensity around
90 mm/hour. ASI is the Absolute Sealing Index which is equal to the minimum value
of hydraulic conductivity in the seal formed by impact of water drops, Kws the
hydraulic conductivity value with seal, Kns the hydraulic conductivity value without
the seal and RSI the Relative Sealing Index which is the ratio Kns/Kws.
The effect of raindrop impact on the hydraulic properties of the layer of soil
aggregates is more evident in the Chaguaramas soil. This can be explained because
the Chaguaramas soil shows a relatively high percentage of silt, fine sand and very
fine sand. The Absolute Sealing Index in the Chaguaramas soil is very low - about 2.9
mm/h, and that in the Barinas soil is higher - about 8 mm/h.
The amount of surface soil removed by runoff water depends to a large extent
on the resistance of soil aggregates to be disrupted by the energy of raindrop impact.
The ability of a surface soil to accept a continuous heavy rainfall is a critical factor in
the prevention of accelerated erosion of soils, and is related to the stability of
aggregates to raindrop impact and to the resistance to the shearing force of running
water. Moreover, any dispersed clay may effectively block the pores between the
micro-aggregates and give an extremely low infiltration rate. Dispersion and swelling
of clay results in the elimination of the larger soil pores with a consequent reduction
in soil hydraulic conductivity. Soil compaction, a process resulting in an increase in
soil bulk density and a decrease in total pore space, significantly influences soil
hydraulic properties (pore size distribution, water retention and hydraulic
conductivity) as well as soil strength and mechanical impedance to root growth. The
pore size distribution and continuity is related to water transmission, especially to the
relative proportion of drainage pores.
Figure 6 shows that a compacted layer is evident at 15 cm in the Barinas soil
and at 10 cm in the Chaguaramas soil. Figure 7 shows the relative importance that
changes in physical conditions on the surface or inside the profile could affect the
infiltration process. In the Chaguaramas soil, the infiltration and water movement are
more limited by a compacted layer close to the surface. In Barinas soil the surface
seal is more limiting.
240 D.L. Lujan

Chaguaramas Soil
80 10
Kns
70
Kws
60
ASI = 2,9 mm/h 0
50 RSI = 7,8 22.6/2.9
K
40
mm/h
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Time (minutes)

Barinas soil
120
110 ASI = 8,2 mm/h
Kns
100 RSI= 6.7 55/8.2
Kws
90
80
K 70
mm/h 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Time (minutes)

Figure 5. Absolute and Relative Sealing Indices in Chaguaramas and Barinas soils
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 241

Figure 6. Structural Indices

Figure 7. Infiltration rate and saturated hydraulic conductivity in the profile

242 D.L. Lujan

The most important effect of soil sealing is the reduction in infiltration rate
shown in Fig. 8. However, infiltration may be also severely impeded by compacted
layers, because they become limiting barriers for deep percolation and drainage of
excess infiltrated rainfall, thus increasing the risks of waterlogging, water runoff
losses and soil erosion.

300 Barinas Soil

250

200

150
i
-1
(mm.h ) 100
50

0
0 50 100 150

140 Chaguaramas Soil

120
100
80
i
-1 60
(mm.h )
40
20
0
0 50 100 150

Time (minutes)

Figure 8. Infiltration rate (double ring method)

Estimates of water runoff losses during the growing period of sorghum was
obtained using the hydrological process-based model SOMORE for the two
conditions: 1) bare soil, and 2) rainy seasons of years with annual rainfall close to the
average (return period of two years).
Figure 9 shows the accumulated rainfall and runoff in the Barinas soil. The
runoff after saturation is insignificant, because the compacted layer does not limit
water movement. The total runoff is about 30%. In the Chaguaramas soil (Figure 10),
 Soil Physical Properties Affecting Soil Erosion 243

the compacted layer close to the soil surface and soil sealing affects the runoff. The
total runoff is greater than 50%.

BARINAS
2000

1500 R ainfall

1000
(min)

Surface runoff
500
R unoff after
0 saturation
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161
T im e (d ays)

Figure 9. Accumulated rainfall and runoff in the Barinas soil

CHAGUARAMAS
1000
Rainfall
800

600
(min)

400 Total runoff

Surface runoff
200
Runoff after
saturation
0
1 24 47 70 93 116 139 162
Time (days)

Figure 10. Accumulated rainfall and runoff in the Chaguaramas soil