Heat Transfer - N 2018

GATE 2018 MEi [ HEAT TRANSFER ]
CONTENTS
Sl.No. Description Page No.
1 Syllabus 1
2 Mark Distribution in Previous GATE Paper 1
3 Heat transfer 2
4 Conduction 3
5 Fins 16
6 Transient heat transfer 21
7 Convection 25
8 Heat exchanger 30
9 Radiation 37
10 Problematic Questions - Class Work 44
11 Previous GATE Questions - Class Work 51
12 Problematic Questions - Home Work 68
13 Previous GATE Questions - Home Work 68
14 Answer Keys 74
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Syllabus
Modes of heat transfer; one dimensional heat conduction, resistance concept,
electrical analogy, unsteady heat conduction, Heisler`s chart, fins; dimensionless
parameters in free and forced convective heat transfer, various correlations for heat
transfer in flow over flat plates and through pipes; thermal boundary layer; effect of
turbulence; radiative heat transfer, black and grey surfaces, shape factors, network
analysis; heat exchanger performance, LMTD and NTU methods.
Mark Distribution in Previous GATE Paper

Heat transfer
Year 1 Mark Q: 2 Mark Q: Marks
2016 1 1 2 2
2016 2 1 3 3
2016 3 2 2 2
2015 1 1 1 3
2015 2 2 3 8
2015 3 2 1 4
2014 1 2 1 4
2014 2 2 3 8
2014 3 1 3 7
2014 4 3 3 9
2013 0 5 10
2012 2 2 6
2011 2 1 4
2010 - 1 2
Average Mark: 5.14

1
HEAT TRANSFER
o Heat is a form of energy in transit; heat is transferred due to the temperature difference.
o For a given material higher the temperature, the greater its thermal energy.
o Naturally heat can be transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature.
o In SI units the rate of heat transfer is measured in watts (W) or joules per second (J/s)
o Heat may be classified into two forms:
Sensible heat: Sensible heat interaction results change in temperature.
Latent heat: It is the heat energy utilized for phase change.
o Heat transfer is a study of the exchange of thermal energy (heat) through a body or
between bodies which occurs when there is a temperature difference.
o The knowledge of rate of heat transfer is necessary for a design engineer to design all
types of heat transfer equipments like boilers, condensers, furnaces, cooling towers,
dryers, heat exchangers etc
o Heat can be transferred by any of the following modes:
Conduction: Transfer of heat energy from one particle to another by direct
contact.
Convection: Transfer of heat energy in fluids (gases and liquids) through the bulk
movement of matter from one place to another.
Radiation: Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves and it does not
require matter to transfer thermal energy.

2
CONDUCTION
o In conduction, heat transfer that takes place at molecular levels. i.e., microscopic forms
of heat transfer with-out bulk motion of matter.
o Heat transfer by conduction can take place through solids or stationery fluids. But, it
occurs primarily in solids because the particles are tightly packed together.
o Conduction heat transfer take place between two bodies or two parts of the same body.
o Two mechanisms involved in the heat transfer by conduction:
Lattice vibration
Molecular collision
o Conduction through solids occurs by a combination of these two mechanisms; heat is
conducted through stationery fluids primarily by molecular collisions.
Conduction by lattice vibration
o The electrons in the hot side of the solid move faster than those on the cold side, the
faster electrons (hot) give off some of their energy to the slower electrons (cold).
o Equilibrium is reached, where all the atoms are vibrating with the same energy.
Conduction by molecular collision
o Solids, especially metals, have free electrons, moves freely in the solid.
o The electrons in the hot side of the solid move faster than those on the cooler side.
o As the electrons undergo a series of collisions, the faster electrons give off some of their
energy to the slower electrons.
o Finally, through a series of random collisions, equilibrium is reached, where the electrons
are moving at the same average velocity.
o In solids, conduction through electron collision is more effective than through lattice
vibration; this is why metals generally are better heat conductors.
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction
o The law states that the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the area
perpendicular to heat flow and the temperature gradient in that direction.
o Assumptions:
1-D heat transfer
Steady state hat transfer
Constant value of thermal conductivity
Uniform temperature at the walls

3
dT
Q A
dx
dT T -T
Q = -k A = k A i o
dx L
Q
q=
A
Fourier`s Law of Heat Conduction

Q = Heat flow (W)
A = Area perpendicular to heat flow (m2)
dT
= Temperature gradient in the direction normal to the area A.
dx
k = Thermal conductivity (W/mK or W/moC)
q = Heat flux (W/m2)

Thermal conductivity (k)
o The constant of proportionality in the equation of Fouriers law of conduction is a
material property called the thermal conductivity
o It is define as the amount of heat conducted through a body of unit area and unit
thickness in unit time, when the temperature difference is unity.
Q dx
i.e., k = - .
A dT
o Therefore units of k = (W/m2 ) (m/ K) = W / (m K) or W / (m C)
o It is the measure of ability of material to conduct heat.
o Factors affecting thermal conductivities are temperature, material structure, density etc.
o Metals have more free electrons, therefore high value of thermal conductivity.
o Thermal conductivity: solid > liquid > gas
o The thermal conductivity varies with temperature, K = f (T)
1 1
kmetal , kliquid & k gas ( T )
T T

4
Thermal Resistance
Differance in Voltage dV
Current flow = I=
Electrical Resisrance Re
Differance in Temperature dT
Heat flow = Q=
Thermal Resisrance Rth
I Q
Re Rth
dV dT
dx L
Rth = =
kA kA
I = Current flow
Re = Electrical resistance
dV = Difference in voltage
Q = Heat flow
Rth = Thermal resistance
dT =Temperature in temperature
Thermal diffusivity ( )
o Thermal diffusivity indicates how fast heat transfer takes place
o Ratio of thermal conductivity and thermal capacity
o Larger the value of thermal diffusivity, faster will be the heat diffuse through the
material.
o Thermal diffusivity is an important characteristic quantity for unsteady heat transfer
analysis.
k
= Unit is m2/sec
C
p
= Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

k = Thermal conductivity (W/mK or W/moC)
3
= Density (kg/m )
cp = Specific heat (J/kg K

5
Heat Conduction Equations

o Heat Conduction Equations can be represented in following ways
Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinates system
Cylindrical coordinates system
Spherical or Polar coordinates system
Cartesian or Rectangular coordinates (x, y, z, )
o General unsteady heat conduction equation in 3D heat flow with constant thermal
conductivity is given as:
2T 2T 2T qg 1 T qg 1 T
2 + 2 + 2 + = Or T + k =
2

x y z k
dT dT dT
, & = Temperature gradient in the x, y & z direction.
dx dy dz
q g = Heat generated per unit volume per unit time
dT
= Temperature change with respect to time
d
o simplified forms of general heat conduction equations in Cartesian coordinates are given
below:
Case 1: Heat transfer with no heat generation
qg
qg =0 =0
k
1 T
2T = .. Fourier`s equation

Case 2: Steady state heat transfer

T 1 T
=
0 =0

qg
2T + =0 Poisson`s equation
k
Case 3: Steady state heat transfer with no heat generation
qg
qg =0 = 0
k
T 1 T
=
0 =0

2T =0 ..Laplace equation

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Case 4: Steady state, one dimensional heat transfer
2T qg
2 + =
0
x k
Case 5: Unsteady state, one dimensional heat transfer with no heat generation
2T 1 T
2 =
x
Case 6: Steady state, one dimensional heat transfer with no heat generation
2T
2 =0
x
Cylindrical coordinates (z, r, , )
2T 1 T 1 2T 2T qg 1 T
2+ + 2 2 + 2 + =
r r r r z k
Spherical (Polar) coordinates (r, , , )
1 2 T 1 2T 1 T qg 1 T
r +
2 2 2
+ 2 sin + =
r r r r sin r sin
2
k
One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation

o Various conditions of one dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat
generation in Cartesian, cylindrical and Spherical coordinates are explained below:
1. Conduction through a Plane Wall
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth

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o Uniform Thermal conductivity
L
Rth =
kA
o Variable thermal conductivity
L
Rth = k=
m ko . (T )
km A
2. Conduction through a Composite Wall
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
o Series connection
Rth = Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rth 3
L
Rth1 = 1
k1 A
L
Rth 2 = 2
k2 A
L
Rth 3 = 3
k3 A
o Parallel connection
1 1 1 1
= = +
Rth Req Rth1 Rth 2
L
Rth1 = 1
k1 A1
L
Rth 2 = 2
k2 A2

8
o Combination of series and parallel connection

Rth = Rth1 + Req + Rth 4
L
Rth1 = 1
k1 A1
L
Rth 2 = 2
k2 A2
L
Rth 3 = 3
k3 A3
L
Rth 4 = 4
k4 A4
1 1 1
= +
Req Rth 2 Rth 3
3. Plane Wall by considering contact resistance

o Due to surface roughness and void spaces (reduces area of contact), a resistance to heat
flow occurs at interfaces and there is a temperature drop.
o Resistance offered by air in the void space need to be consider

9
( Ti To ) Rth = Rth1 + Rcont: + Rth 2 Rcont =

( T )
Q=
Rth Q
4. Composite Wall by considering convection

o In this case two types of resistance are involved in the heat transfer, which are:
L
Conductive resistance Rcond =
kA
1
Convective resistance Rconv =
h A
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
Rth = Rcv1 + Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rth 3 + Rcv 2
1
Rcv1 =
hi A
L
Rth1 = 1
k1 A
L
Rth 2 = 2
k2 A
L
Rth 3 = 3
k3 A
1
Rcv 2 =
ho A
Overall Heat transfer Coefficient (U)

o Overall hear transfer coefficient is used when dealing with problems of fluid to fluid heat
transfer across solid member.
o Unit of overall heat transfer coefficient is W/m2K or W/m2 oC
o Expression for overall heat transfer coefficient is given as:
=Q UA(Ti To )

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5. Plane Hollow cylinder
( Ti To ) ln ( r2 r1 )
Q= Rth =
Rth 2 k L
6. Composite Hollow cylinder
Q=
( Ti To ) Rth = Rth1 + Rth 2
Rth
ln ( r2 r1 ) ln ( r3 r 2 )
=Rth1 = Rth 2
2 k1 L 2 k2 L

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7. Composite Cylinder by considering convection
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
Rth = Rcv1 + Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rcv 2
1 1
=
Rcv1 =
h i A1 h i ( 2 r1 L )
ln ( r2 r1 )
Rth1 =
2 k1 L
ln ( r3 r 2 )
Rth 2 =
2 k2 L
1 1
=
Rcv 2 =
h o A3 h 0 ( 2 r3 L )
8. Plane Hollow Sphere
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
Rth =
( r2 r1 )
4 k r1 r2
9. Composite Hollow Sphere
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
Rth = Rth1 + Rth 2
Rth1 =
( r2 r1 ) Rth 2 =
( r3 r2 )
4 k r1 r2 4 k r2 r3

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10. Composite Sphere by considering convection
Q=
( Ti To )
Rth
Rth = Rcv1 + Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rcv 2
1
Rcv1 =
h i A1
Rth1 =
( r2 r1 )
4 k r1 r2
Rth 2 =
( r3 r2 )
4 k r2 r3
1
Rcv 2 =
h o A3
Log mean area

o Log mean area used to convert cylindrical and spherical geometry into rectangular
geometry to calculate heat transfer
o Expression for Log. mean area is given as:
Cylinder
Am =
( A 2 - A1 ) A1 = ( 2 r1 L ) & A 2 = ( 2 r2 L )
A
In 2
A1
dT
Q = -k Am
r2 r1
Sphere
A m = A1 A 2 A1 = 4 r12 & A 2 =4 r2 2
dT
Q = -k Am
r2 r1

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Critical thickness of insulation (rc)

o The thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which hear flow decreases is
termed as critical thickness.
o In cases of cylinders and spheres it is called critical radius, i.e. critical thickness = radius
corresponding to maximum heat transfer
o Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 whose outer surface temperature T1 is
maintained constant.
o The pipe is now insulated with a material whose thermal conductivity is k and outer
radius is r2.
o Heat is lost from the pipe to the surrounding medium at temperature To, with a
convection heat transfer coefficient h.
o The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air can be expressed
as:
o The variation of Q with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is plotted.

o The value of r2 at which Q reaches a maximum is determined from the requirement that
dQ
= 0 (zero slop)
dr2

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o Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 yields the critical radius of insulation for
a cylindrical body to be
k
rc = for cylinder
h
o Note that the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the
insulation k and the external convection heat transfer coefficient h.
o The rate of heat transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition of insulation for
r2 < rcr, reaches a maximum when r2 = rcr, and starts to decrease for r2 > rcr.
o Thus, insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat transfer from the pipe
instead of decreasing it when r2 < rcr.
o The expression for critical radius of insulation for sphere is given as:
2k
rc = for sphere
h

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Heat conduction with internal heat generation in solids

o For practical heat transfer applications, involve
the conversion of some form of energy into
thermal energy in the medium, which leads to
internal heat generation.
o Under steady state condition, rate of heat
transfer from solid to surrounding is equal to
rate of energy generated within the solid.
o Consider a solid sphere:
Qcond =
Qg Qcond =
qg V
dT
k A = qg V
dr
dT 4 3
Qconv = Q g k ( 4 r 2 ) = qg r
dr 3
Qconv= qg V
qg
h AS .(Ts T ) =
qg V dT = ( dr )
3k
4
h ( 4 r 2 ) (Ts T ) =qg r 3 Ts
qg r
3 Tc dT =
3 k
dr
o
qg r
Ts = T + q r2
3h (Ts Tc ) = g
3 k 2
q r2
Tc =Ts + g
6 k

k = thermal conductivity of solid, h = heat transfer coefficient

Tc = Temperature at the centre , T = Ambient temperature
Ts = Surface Temperature, qg = heat generated per unit volume
As = surface area , L = Length of cylinder
o Similarly for plane wall and cylinder is given as:
Solid Plane wall
q L q L2
Ts =
T + g and Tc =Ts + g
2 k
h
Solid Cylinder
qg r qg r 2
Ts =
T + and Tc =Ts +
2h 4k

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FINS
o Fins are extended surfaces, used for raising the heat transfer rate by increasing surface
area between solid body & fluid medium.
o The rate of heat transfer from a surface at a temperature Ts to the surrounding medium
at Ta is given by Newtons law of cooling as:
Q conv = h As ( Ts Ta )
As = heat transfer surface area and

h = convection heat transfer coefficient.
o When the temperatures Ts and Ta are fixed by design considerations, there are two ways
to increase the rate of heat transfer:
To increase the convection heat transfer coefficient h
To increase the surface area As
o Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan, or replacing the existing one
with a larger one, but this approach may or may not be practical.
o The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to the surface extended
surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials.
dT = const :
A Q -----
h = const :
Fins Analysis
o Consider a volume element of a fin at location x having a length of x, cross sectional area
of Ac, and a perimeter of p.
o The general solution: Characteristics equation with two real roots: + m & -m.
= ( a ) = C1 e mx + C2 e mx
hP
m=
k Ac
P = Perimeter (m)
k = thermal conductivity , h = heat transfer coefficient
To = Temperature at the base , Ta = Ambient temperature
T = Temperature at any location of fins
Ac = cross sectional area
o To evaluate the two constants C1 and C2 we need to specify two boundary conditions:

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Fin Types
o Three common type of fins considered here are:
Long Fin
Short Fin with insulated tip
Short Fin without insulated tip
Long fin ( L )
o For a sufficiently long fin of uniform cross section (Ac = constant), the temperature of the
fin at the fin tip will approach the environment temperature Ta and thus will approach
zero.
Boundary Conditions
@ x=0 ( T - Ta ) = ( T0 - Ta )
@ x= = ( T= - Ta ) ( T= a - Ta ) 0
o Expressions for Temperature profile

and Heat transfer from the fins is given as:
T Ta mx
=e
T
o aT
Q fin= p h k Ac (To Ta )
Short fin with insulated tip
Boundary Conditions
@x=0 (T - Ta ) =
( T0 - Ta )
dT
@ x=L =0
dx

T Ta cosh {m ( L x )}
=
To Ta cosh ( mL )
Q fin= p h k Ac (To Ta ) tanh ( m L )

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Short fin without insulated tip
Boundary Conditions
@ x=0 ( T - Ta ) =
( T0 - Ta )
dT
@ x = L -k A = h A ( Tx - Ta )
dx

T Ta cosh {m ( Lc x )}
=
To Ta cosh ( mLc )
Q fin= p h k Ac (To Ta ) tanh ( m Lc )
t
Lc= L + ..
2
d
Lc= L + .
2
Efficiency of Fins
actual H.T from fin Qactual
fin =
max. H.T from fin, if entire fin area at base temp. Q max.
Consider long fin
Qactual p h k Ac (To Ta )
= =
h ( p L )(To Ta )
fin
Q max.
k Ac 1 1
= =
h p L m L

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1
fin = . for long fins
mL
tanh(m L)
fin = ..for short fins with insulated tips
mL
tanh(m Lc )
fin = ..for short fins without insulated tips
m Lc
Effectiveness of Fins
heat loss with fin Q fin
= fin =
heat loss without fin Qwithoutfin
Consider long fin
Q fin p h k Ac (To Ta ) pk
= fin = =
Qwithout fin h Ac (To Ta ) h Ac
Pk
fin = . for long fins
h Ac
Pk
= fin tanh ( m L ) ..for short fins with insulated tips
h Ac
Pk
= fin tanh ( m Lc ) ..for short fins without insulated tips
h Ac
o Effects of different parameters on the effectiveness of the fin are as flows:
Ac
p , ( k ) , ( h )
o Economic justification of Fins

P.k
> 5 or >5
h.A c

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TRANSIENT HEAT TRANSFER

o In transient heat transfer temperature of a body varies with time as well as position, i.e.,
heat transfer is unsteady.
o It may be periodic heat transfer or non-periodic heat transfer.
Periodic: Heat transfer is linearly varying with time
e.g. I. C Engine cylinder, Earth surface during a period of 24 hr.
Non-periodic: Heat transfer is non-linearly varying with time
e.g. Cooling of hot metal in a water
o The analysis of such heat transfer problems is called the lumped system analysis
o Lumped system analysis is applicable when Bi < 0.1
Rcond << Rconv:
Internal resistance --------------Conductive resistance
L
o Rcond =
kA
External or surface resistance Convective resistance
1
o Rconv =
h A
Lumped System analysis

o In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a lump whose
interior temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer
process.
o The temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only, T().
o Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this idealization is known as lumped system analysis.
o In the analysis of lumped systems the temperature of a solid varies with time but
remains uniform throughout the solid at any time.
o Consider a solid body initially at a uniform temperature Ti, suddenly immersed in a fluid
which is maintained at a uniform temperature T,
V = Volume,
A = Surface area,
= Density, Cp = Specific heat
k =Thermal conductivity
T= Temperature of the solid at any time , = Time

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o For the sake of discussion, we will assume that T > Ti, but the analysis is equally valid for
the opposite case.
o We assume lumped system analysis to be applicable, so that the temperature remains
uniform within the body at all times and changes with time only, T = T ().
o During a differential time interval d, the temperature of the body rises by a differential
amount dT.
o An energy balance of the solid for the time interval d can be expressed as:
Heat transfer into the body during d = The increase in the energy of the body during d
. V Cp
h As ( T - T ) = m C p dT = dT
d
dT h As ( T - T )
Rate of temperture change = =
d V Cp
o Integrating & applying boundary conditions, finally we get
T T h A s h
=e =e
Ti T V C p C p Lc

= e

=e [ Bi Fo ]

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T = Temperature of the solid at any time(o C)
T = Amb: temperature(o C)
Ti = Initial surface temperature( o C)
= Time(sec)

= Thermal diffusivity = k C
p
= Denity of solid (kg / m3 )
Cp = Specific heat (J / kg.K)

.
m = Mass rate (kg/s)
A s = Surface area of solid

V
V = Volume (m3 ) and Lc = Characteristic length (m) =
As
Biot Number (Bi)

o The Biot number can be viewed as the ratio of the convection at the surface to
conduction within the body.
o It can also be expressed as:
QConv: of fluid h Lc
=Bi =
QCond: of solid k
o Lumped system analysis assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the

body, which will be the case only when the thermal resistance of the body to heat
conduction (the conduction resistance) is zero.
o Thus, lumped system analysis is exact when Bi = 0 and It is generally accepted that
lumped system analysis is applicable if Bi < 0.1

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Fourier Number (Fo)

o Fourier number represents the degree of penetration of heating or cooling, i.e., how fast
heat is transferred

Fo =
Lc 2
= Thermal diffusivity
Lc = Characteristic Length
= Time
Characteristic length (Lc)
o Characteristic Length is the ration between volume and surface area.

V
Lc = Characteristic length =
As
R R
=
Sphere Lc =
Cylinder Lc
3 2
a t
=
Cube Lc =
Flat Plate Lc
6 2
Thermal time constant
C p Lc
= = sec
h Bi F
= Thermal time constant = Response time (Time response)

o Minimum response time means better response of thermo couple

o In practical condition, = 4

o Reduced by.. Lc .....d Cp h
Heisler Chart
o Heisler chart is used to solve transient heat conduction in solids with finite conduction
and convective resistance (0<Bi < 100).

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CONVECTION
o Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid (gases and liquids) in the
presence of bulk fluid motion.
o So convection is also known as macroscopic form of heat transfer.
o Convection needs fluid medium to transfer heat and the heat transfer rate depends
largely upon the mixing motion of the fluid.
Newtons law of cooling
o Convection heat transfer is expressed in terms of Newtons law of cooling as:
Qconv =
h AS .(Ts T )
2
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m C)
A = Heat transfer Surface area to (m2)
Ts = Average surface temperature (C or K)
T = Temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface, (C or K)
o Typical values of Convective heat transfer coefficient are:

Free convection: gases: 2 -25; liquid: 50 -100
Forced convection: gases: 25 -250liquid: 50 -20,000
Boiling/Condensation:2500 -100,000
o Convection heat transfer depends on:
Fluid properties (, k, , Cp)
Fluid velocity
Geometry of the surface
Roughness of the surface
Type of the fluid flow (laminar or turbulent)
Classification of convection
Based on geometry
External flow
Internal flow
o Convection is also classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is
forced to flow over a surface or in a channel.

25
Based on driving mechanism

Free (Natural) Convection
Forced Convection
o Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection, depending on how the
fluid motion is initiated.
o In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external
means such as a pump or a fan.
o In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy
effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid.
Based on number of phases
Single phase
Multiple phases
Based on nature of flow
Laminar flow
In the laminar region local heat transfer coefficient is minimum when thickness
of boundary layer is maximum.
Turbulent flow
o Laminar Flow is characterized by
Smooth streamlines and
Highly ordered motion
o Turbulent flow is characterized by
Velocity fluctuations, and
Highly disordered motion
Turbulent boundary layer consists of 3 layers
laminar sub layer
buffer layer
turbulent layer

26
Non-dimensional numbers
o Non-dimensional numbers need to understand the physics behind different heat transfer
phenomena.
Reynolds number
o It is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
o It is used for determining whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent.
inertial forces V .Lc 4A

=Re = Lc = c
viscous forces. p
V = mean fluid velocity
Lc = characteristic length (equal to a diameter for a circular pipe)
= dynamic fluid viscosity
= kinematic fluid viscosity
= density of fluid
p = wetted perimeter
Prandtl number
o It is defined as the ratio of kinematic viscosity and thermal diffusivity.
kinematic viscosity .C p
=
Pr = =
thermal diffusivity k
= Dynamic fluid viscosity
= Kinematic fluid viscosity
= Thermal diffusivity of fluid
C p = Specific heat of fluid
k = Thermal conduictivity of fluid
o Prandtl is a connecting link between the velocity field and temperature field and its value
influences relative growth of velocity and thermal boundary layers..
o In fact, it can also be defined as the ratio of hydraulic boundary layer thickness and
thermal boundary layer thickness.
= h =
t .............Pr 1
h
= ( Pr ) h < t .............Pr < 1
1/ 3
t
h > t .............Pr > 1
Where
h = momentum boundary layer thickness
t = thermal boundary layer thickness.

27
Nusselt number
o Nusselt number is defined as the ratio of convective heat transfer of fluid and
conductive heat transfer of fluid.
Qconv h L C 4A
=N u = Lc = c
Qcond k p
h = convective heat transfer coeff.

Lc = characteristic length (equal to a diameter for a circular pipe)
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid
p = wetted perimeter
Grashoff Number
o Grashoff number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number
in forced convection.
[ g Lc 3 dT ]
Gr =
2
g = acceleration due to gravity
1
= volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid =
(Tavg + 273)
Tavg =
(Ts + Ta )
2
Ts = Surface temperature difference
Ta = Average temperature difference
dT = Temperature difference
Lc = Characteristic length
= Kinematic viscosity
Peclet number
o It is defined as the product of the Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
Pe = R e .Pr
Stanton number
Nu h
=St =
R e .Pr .V .C p
Rayleigh number
o It is defined as the product of the Grashoff number and Prandtl number.
R e = Gr .Pr

28
Thermal Boundary layer

o The thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a specified temperature flows over
a surface that is at a different temperature
o Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform temperature of T over an isothermal flat plate
at temperature Ts.
o The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the surface will reach thermal equilibrium with
the plate and assume the surface temperature Ts. These fluid particles will then
exchange energy with the particles in the adjoining-fluid layer, and so on. As a result, a
temperature profile will develop in the flow field that ranges from Ts at the surface to T
sufficiently far from the surface.
o The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction
normal to the surface is significant is the thermal boundary layer.
o The thickness of the thermal boundary layer t at any location along the surface is
defined as the distance from the surface at which the temperature difference,
(T -Ts) = 0.99(T -Ts).
o Note that for the special case of Ts = 0, we have T = 0.99 T at the outer edge of the
thermal boundary layer, which is analogous to u =0.99 U for the velocity boundary layer.
o The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers is best described
by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number.

29
HEAT EXCHANGER
o Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures.
o Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and
conduction through the wall separating the two fluids.
o n the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to work with an overall heat transfer
coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these effects on heat transfer.
o The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger
depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies
along the heat exchanger.
Classification of Heat Exchangers
Based on nature of heat exchanging process
o Recuperative heat exchanger (Surface heat exchanger)
It has separate flow paths for hot & cold fluid.
There is no mixing between hot & cold fluids
e.g., Automobile radiator
o Regenerative heat exchanger
It has a single flow path which the hot and cold fluids
Each fluid passes alternatively.
o Direct (Open) heat exchanger
There is physical mixing between hot & cold fluids.
Both fluids must be of same kind.
e.g., Cooling tower
Based on flow direction
o Parallel flow heat exchanger
In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same
end and move in the same direction.
o Counter flow heat exchanger
In counter flow, on the other hand, the hot and cold fluids enter the heat
exchanger at opposite ends and flow in opposite directions
o Cross flow heat exchanger

30
Based on construction
o Concentric tube heat exchanger
o Shell and tube heat exchanger
Based on physical state of fluids
o Condenser
o Evaporator

31
Analysis of Heat Exchangers
o Two methods used in the analysis of heat exchangers:

The log mean temperature difference (or LMTD) method
The effectivenessNTU method
o The analysis of heat exchangers can be simplified by making the following assumptions:
Steady-flow,
Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible,
The specific heat of a fluid is constant,
Axial heat conduction along the tube is negligible.
The outer surface of the heat exchanger is perfectly insulated.
U is constant
The Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method
o The temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids varies along the heat
exchanger.
Parallel flow heat exchanger
Q = U . A.( LMTD )
(T1 T2 )
LMTD =
T
ln 1
T2
T=
1 (T
h ,in Tc ,in )
T=
2 (Th , out Tc ,out )

32
Counter flow heat exchanger
Q = U . A.( LMTD )
(T1 T2 )
LMTD =
T
ln 1
T2
T=
1 (T
h ,in Tc ,out )
T=
2 (T
h , out Tc ,in )
Note:
1. Mean temperature difference:
Mean temperature difference = ( Th - Tc )
T + Th,out
Th = h,in
2
T + Tc,out
Tc = c,in
2
2. Heat capacity:
C = heat capacity = m c p
if, Ch = Cc m h c ph = m c c pc
LMTD = T1 =T2 =T for Counter flow
T1 =T2 =T
Q = U . A.T

33
3. Arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD)
T + T2
AMTD = 1
2
4. If the temperature of one of the fluid remains same, LMTD remains same for both in
parallel & counter flow.
5. LMTD correction factor is used in cross flow heat exchanger.
(LMTD) cross flow = (correction factor) x (LMTD) counter flow
6. (LMTD) counter flow > (LMTD) cross flow > (LMTD) parallel flow
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)
o A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids

separated by a solid wall.
o Heat is transferred
From the hot fluid to the wall by convection,
Through the wall by conduction, and
From the wall to the cold fluid by convection.
o The thermal resistance network
Two convection and
One conduction resistances.
Q = U . A.( LMTD )
= m c c pc (Tc,out - Tc,in )
= m h c ph (Th,in - Th,out )
.Thick wall
1 1 1
= + ..Thin wall
U hi h0
1 1 L 1
= + + Plane wall
U hi k h0

34
Fouling Factor
o The performance of heat exchangers declines with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surfaces.
o The layer of deposits represents additional resistance to heat transfer and causes the
rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger to decreases, so efficiency decreases
o The net effect of these accumulations on heat transfer represented by fouling factor (Rf)
o The overall heat transfer coefficient needs to be modified to account for the effects of
fouling on both the inner and the outer surfaces of the tube.
o Fouling factor is obtained experimentally by determining the values of U for both clean
and dirty conditions in the heat exchanger. The fouling factor is thus defined as
The effectiveness - NTU method

o The LMTD method is easy to use if the inlet and outlet temperatures are known or can
be determined.
o If outlet temperatures are not known, then LMTD method is difficult to use. In that case,
we use effectiveness-NTU method.
o NTU is a measure of heat exchanger size.
Capacity ratio (R)

o It is defined as the minimum heat capacity rate divided by the maximum capacity rate.
C
R = Capacity Ratio = min
Cmax
C = heat capacity = m c p
C=
min minimum ( m h c ph & m c c pc )
C=
max maximum ( m h c ph & m c c pc )
No. of transfer unit (NTU)
U .A
NTU =
Cmin
A = .D.L. ( n )
n = number of tubes

35
Effectiveness ()
o Heat exchanger effectiveness is the ratio between actual heat transfer rate and
maximum possible heat transfer rate
o The actual heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger can be determined from an energy
balance on the hot or cold fluids and can be expressed as
Q=
m c c pc (Tc,out - Tc,in ) = m h c ph (Th,in - Th,out )
= Cc (Tc,out - Tc,in ) = Ch (Th,in - Th,out )
o To determine the maximum possible heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger, we first
recognize that the maximum temperature difference in a heat exchanger is the
difference between the inlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluids.
o The heat transfer in a heat exchanger will reach its maximum value when
(1) The cold fluid is heated to the inlet temperature of the hot fluid or
(2) The hot fluid is cooled to the inlet temperature of the cold fluid.
o These two limiting conditions will not be reached simultaneously unless the heat
capacity rates of the hot and cold fluids are identical (i.e., Cc = Ch).The expression for
effectiveness becomes
Qactual ( Th,in - Th,out ) ( Tc, out - Tc,in )

= = =
Qmax Th,in - Tc,in Th,in - Tc,in
o The effectiveness can also be represents as a function of NTU and Capacity ratio (R).
o The expression of effectiveness for different configurations are given below:
1 e NTU (1+ R )
= parallel flow HE
(1 + R )
1 e NTU (1 R )
= ..Counter flow HE
1 R e NTU (1 R )
= 1 e NTU ..Condenser, evaporator & Boiler

36
RADIATION
o Radiation differs from the other two heat transfer mechanisms in that it does not require
the presence of a material medium to take place, i.e. heat transfer can take place in
vacuum (e.g. radiation from the sun to the earth)
o The heat transfer by conduction or convection takes place in the direction of decreasing
temperature; that is, from a high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature one.
o It is interesting that radiation heat transfer can occur between two bodies separated by a
medium colder than both bodies.
o For example, solar radiation reaches the surface of the earth after passing through cold
air layers at high altitudes.
o Radiation is heat transfer by means of electromagnetic mechanism and Radiation of
energy in the form of Photns
o All bodies at T > 0K emit thermal radiation and it
depends on 4th power of temperature difference.
o The frequency is related to wavelength by the
following:
c= f
where,
c = speed of light.
= wave length
f = frequency
o Electromagnetic radiation is categorized into types

by their wavelengths.
o The electromagnetic radiation encountered in
practice covers a wide range of wavelengths, varying
from less than 10-10 m for cosmic rays to more than
1010 m for electrical power waves.
o The electromagnetic spectrum also includes gamma
rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light,
infrared radiation, thermal radiation, microwaves,
and radio waves, as shown in Figure.

37
o Thermal radiation is defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that extends
from about 0.1 to 100 m.
o Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and infrared (IR) radiation as well as a
portion of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Emissivity
o The emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the
emissive power of a black surface at the same temperature.
o It is denoted by the symbol .
emissive power of the surface E

=
emissive power of black surface Eb
o Emissivity is the surfaces tendency to emit radiation.
o Surfaces with high emissivity are also very absorptive.
black body = 1
white body = 0
gray body =0 to 1
o Emissive Power (E): The emissive power of a surface is the energy emitted by a surface
at a given temperature per unit time per unit area.
Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity
o All radiation incidents on a surface will be reflected, absorbed or transmitted through a

surface.
Q = Qa + Qr + Qt
Qa Qr Qt
1= + +
Q Q Q
1 = + +

38
o Absorptivity () the fraction of incident radiation absorbed.

o Reflectivity () the fraction of incident radiation reflected.
o Transmissivity () the fraction of incident radiation transmitted.
o These properties may vary depending on the wavelength of radiation falling on the
surface and surface properties.
o Examples of Surfaces
o Opaque body: = 0, + = 1
o White body: = 1, = = 0
o Blackbody: = 1, = = 0
Black body
o A black body is a hypothetic body that absorbs all radiation that falls on its surface.
o For a blackbody, = 1, = = 0.
o It is a theoretical concept; actual black bodies don't exist in nature.
o It is a standard with which the radiation characteristics of other bodies are compared.
o Its characteristics are approximated by a small hole in a sphere.
black body = 1
o
White body
o A black body is a hypothetic body that reflects all radiation that falls on its surface.
o For a white body, = 1, = = 0.
white body = 0
o
Opaque body
o Opaque body does not allow radiation to pass, i.e., no transmission of energy.
o For a white body, + = 1 & = 0
Gray Bodies
o A gray body is a body having the same value of emissivity at all wavelengths at a given
temperature.
o gray body = 0 to 1

39
Laws of radiation
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
o The radiation energy per unit time from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature and can be expressed with Stefan-Boltzmann Law as
Q = b A T4
Q = heat transfer per unit time (W)

= 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T = absolute temperature Kelvin (K)
A = area of the emitting body (m2)
o For objects other than ideal blackbodies ('gray bodies') the Stefan-Boltzmann Law can be
expressed as
Q = b A T4
= emissivity of the object

Plancks law:
o This law states that the monochromatic power of a blackbody is given by
C
Eb = 1
(C2 / T)
[e
5
- 1]
C1 and C2 are constants whose values are found from experimental data;
C1 = 3.7415 x 10-16 Wm2
C2 = 1.4388 x 10-2 m-K.
is the wavelength and T is the absolute temperature in K.
Kirchoffs law:
o This law states that the emissivity of a surface is equal to its absorptivity when the
surface is in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.
o The emissivity of the body, so that =
Qa E
==
=
Q Eb
Weins displacement law:
o Product of wave length of radiation and absolute temperature will be constant
T = 2898
..........( m)
T ..........( K )

40
View factor (Shape factor)

o Radiation heat exchange between surfaces depends on the orientation of the surfaces
relative to each other and it is accounted by the view factor.
o View factor is a purely geometric quantity and is independent of the surface properties
and temperature. It is also called the shape
factor, configuration factor or angle factor.
o The fraction of energy which is emitted by
body 1 and directly falling on to body two
without having intermediate reflection is
known as shape factor.
Q1 2
F1 2 =
Q1
Q1 2= F1 2 A1 (T14 T2 4 )
Theorems
Summation theorem
F11 + F1 2 + F13 + ........... + F1 n =
1
Reciprocating theorem
A1 F1 2 =A2 F21
Properties
o It is purely depends upon geometry and
orientation of the body.
o F varies from 0 to 1
o For convex surface F11 = 0
o For concave surface F11 0

41
Interchange factor
o In black bodies = 1
o But in the case of real bodies 1 (it varies from 0 to 1)
o To solve problems of non-black bodies (real bodies) we have to consider the effect of the
emissivities of surfaces by including an Interchange factor (Equivalent emissivity) on
radiation equation.
o Considering the effect of interchange factor, heat transfer is given by:
Q= f1 2 A1 (T14 T2 4 )
Infinite parallel plates

1
f1 2 =
1
1
+ 1
1 2
Concentric cylinders or concentric spheres
1
f1 2 =
1 A1 1
+ 1
1 A2 2
Body 1 (small) enclosed by body 2 (large)
f1 2 = 1
Body 1 (large) enclosed by body 2 (large)

1
f1 2 =
1 A1 1
+ 1
1 A2 2
Two perpendicular planes
f1 2= 1 2
Combined effect of Shape factor and Interchange factor on radiation

Q1 2= F1 2 f1 2 A1 (T14 T2 4 )
F1-2 = Shape factor

f1-2 = Inter change factor

42
Radiation shield
o Radiation shield is used to reduce overall heat transfer between two radiating surfaces,
by increasing surface radiation resistance.
o Used thin sheets of plastics coated with highly reflecting metallic film on both sides.
o Application: insulating cryogenic storage tank.
Infinite parallel plates
Hear transfer without shield
A (T14 T2 4 )
Qw.o.s =
1 1
+ 1
1 2
Hear transfer with shield
A (T14 T2 4 )
Qw.s =
1 1 1 1
+ 1 + + 1
1 3 3 2
% reduction in heat transfer by using radiation shields
Qw.o.s Qw.s
% reduction =
Qw.o.s
If is same for all plates and shields:

Qw.s 1
=
Qw.o.s n + 1
n = number of shields

43
Problematic Questions (Class work)

1. A wall of thickness 0.6 m has width has a normal area 1.5 m2 and is made up of material of
thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK. The temperatures on the two sides are 800 C and 100 C.
What is the thermal resistance of the wall?
A) 1 W/K B) 1.8 W/K C) 1 K/W D) 1.8 K/W
2. A composite wall is made of two layers of thickness 1 and 2 having thermal conductive K
and 2K and equal surface areas normal to the direction of heat flow. The outer surfaces of
the composite wall are at 100C and 200C respectively. The heat transfer takes place only
by conduction and the required surface temperature at the junction is 150C. What will be
the ratio of their thicknesses 1:2?
A. 1: 1 B. 2: 1 C. 1: 2 D. 2: 3
3. A square silicon chip (k = 150 W/m. K) is of width w =5 mm on a side and of thickness t = 1
mm. The chip is mounted in a board such that its side and back surfaces are insulated, while
the front surface is exposed to a coolant. If 4 W are being dissipated in circuits mounted to
the back surface of the chip, what is the steady-state temperature difference between back
and front surfaces in C?
Common data question (Next two)
A pipe (with outer diameter 5 cm) is covered with asbestos [k =0.17 W/mC] and exposed to
room air at 20C with h=3 W/m2 C. What is the heat loss in kW from the pipe of unit length
maintained at 200C.?
4. When pipe is covered with the critical radius of insulation
5. When pipe is without insulation
6. A wall as shown below is made up of two layers (A) and (B). The temperatures are also
shown in the sketch. The ratio of thermal conductivity of two layers is kA/kB = 2
What is the ratio of thickness of two layers?
A) 0.105 B) 0.213 C) 0.555 D) 0.840

44
7. A hollow pipe of 1 cm outer diameter is to be insulated by thick cylindrical insulation having

thermal conductivity 1 W/mk. The surface heat transfer coefficient on the insulation surface
is 5 W/m2K. What is the minimum thickness of insulation for maximum heat tranafer?
A. 10 cm B. 15 cm C. 19.5 cm D. 20 cm
8. A composite plane wall is made up of two different materials of the same thickness and
having thermal conductivities of k1 and k2 respectively. The equivalent thermal conductivity
of the slab is?
2k1 k2 k1 k2 k1 + k 2 k1 +k 2
A) B) C) D)
k1 + k 2 k1 + k 2 2k1 k2 k1 k 2
Common Data Questions (Next two)

Two metal rods, one is copper and other is aluminium with identical dimensions ( length = 40
mm and diameter = 25 mm) pressed together at the ends. The thermal conductivity of the
copper is 400 W/mK and that of aluminium is 200 W/mK. The overall temperature drop
between extreme faces of both rods is 150 o C. The thermal resistance at the aluminium
copper interface is 25 K/W. Assume curved surface is insulated.
9. What is the heat flow rate along the bar?
(A) 8 W (B) 0.8 W (C) 5.85 W (D) 0.585 W
10. The temperature drop across the interface is
(A) 5.65 (B) 4.43 (C) 146.4 (D) 4.27
11. A room at 25 oC air temperature is losing heat to the outdoor air at 5 oC at a rate of 1300 W
through 3 m high and 5 m long wall. Now the wall is insulated with 2 cm thick insulation of
thermal conductivity 0.03 W / m oC. What is the rate of heat loss from the room through this
wall after insulation?
(A) 4.2 W (B) 420 W (C) 334 W (D) 33.4 W
12. The temperature distribution, at a certain instant of time in a concrete slab during curing is
given by: T = 3x2 +3x+16, where x is in cm & T in K. The thermal diffusivity is 0.0003 cm2/s.
Assume one dimensional heat transfer without heat generation. The rate of change of
temperature with time is
(A) 0.0009K/s (B) 0.0048 K/s (C) 0.0012 K/s (D) 0.0018 K/s
13. An exterior wall of a house may be approximated by a 10.16 cm layer of common brick [k =
0.7 W/mC] followed by a 3.81 cm layer of gypsum plaster [k =0.48 W/mC]. What thickness
in cm of loosely packed rock-wool insulation [k =0.065 W/mC] should be added to reduce
the heat loss (or gain) through the wall by 80 percent?

45
14. The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a thermocouple whose spherical

junction diameter is 1 mm. The properties of the spherical junction are: k = 40 W/ m k, =
9000 kg /m3, Cp = 350 J/kg K, h = 200 W/ m2 K. How long it will take for the thermocouple to
read 90 % of the initial temperature difference?
(A) 3 sec (B) 0.28 sec (C) 6 sec (D) 0.14 sec
15. A finned surface consists of root or base area of 0.001m2. The average heat transfer
coefficient is 20 W/m2 K. Effectiveness of fins provided is 0.75. If finned surface with root or
base temperature of 50C is transferring heat to a fluid at 30C, the rate of heat transfer in
Watts is. Assume the fin is infinitely long and having circular cross-section.
Common Data Questions (Next three)
A steel rod of diameter 2 cm and thermal conductivity 50 W/ (m K) is exposed to ambient air
at 20 C with a heat transfer coefficient 64 W/ (m2K). Base of the rod is maintained at a
uniform temperature of 120 C. What is the rate of heat transfer in Watts from the rod to
the ambient, if:
16. The rod is very long
17. Rod is of length 10 cm with negligible heat loss from its tip
18. Rod is of length 25 cm with heat loss from its tip.
Common Data Question (Next Two)
The thermal conductivity of the potato is given to be k =
0.49 W/mC.
The heat transfer coefficient, h = 19.1 W/m2C.
Average diameter of potato = 0.1 m
19. The initial rate of heat transfer from a potato?
(A) 2.25 W (B) 9W (C) 12 W (D) 3W
20. The temperature gradient at the potato surface
(A) -779 C/m (B) -585 C/m (C) -0.38 C/m (D) -195 C/m
21. The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a thermocouple whose junction can
be approximated as a 1-mm-diameter sphere. The properties of the junction are k = 35
W/mC, = 8500 kg/m3, and Cp = 320 J/kg C, and the convection heat transfer coefficient
between the junction and the gas is h = 210 W/m2 C. How long it will take for the
thermocouple to read 99 percent of the initial temperature difference.
(A) 9 sec (B) 10 sec (C) 8 sec (D) 7 sec

46
22. For flow over a flat plate the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness is 0.5 mm. The dynamic
viscosity is 25 x106 Pa s, specific heat is 2.0 kJ/(kg K) and thermal conductivity is 0.05 W/(m-
K). The thermal boundary layer thickness would be
A. 0.1 mm B. 0.5 mm C. 1 mm D. 2 mm
23. What is the heat loss by natural convention per meter length of a horizontal pipe of 150 mm
diameter, the surface of which at 277 oC. The room temperature is 17oC. For a horizontal
pipe,
Nu = 0.527 (Pr) 1/2 (Pr+0.952) -1/4 (Gr) 1/4
Take Pr = 0.68, Gr = 15.1 106, k = 4.357 10-5 kW/m2K
(A) 352 W (B) 562 W (C) 855 W (D) 680 W
A cylindrical resister of 1.2 cm length and 0.3 cm diameter dissipates 0.15 W of power in an
environment at 40C.
24. If heat to be transferred uniformly from all surface, What will be the heat flux ( in W/m2) on
the surface of resister.
25. The surface temperature (inC) of the resister for a combine convection-radian heat transfer
coefficient of 9 W/m2C.
Air heated by passing it through a 25 mm bore copper tube which is maintained at 280 C.
The air enters at 150 C and leaves at 270 C at a mean velocity of 30 m/s. The properties of
-5
air at bulk mean temperature are = 3.591 10 m2 /s, = 0.73kg/m3, Cp = 1.027 kJ/kgK,
k = 3.94 10-5 kW / m K. Given that Stanton number is 0.33.
26. Heat transfer coefficient of air in kW/m2K is
27. What is the length of tube in mm
Common Data Question (Next two)
A square isothermal chip is of width w = 5 mm on a side and is mounted in a board such that
its side and back surfaces are well insulated, while the front surface is exposed to the flow of
a coolant at T = 15 C. From reliability considerations, the chip temperature must not
exceed T = 85 C.
28. If the coolant is air and the corresponding convection coefficient is h = 200 W/m2 K. What is
the maximum allowable chip power in kW?

47
29. If the coolant is a dielectric liquid for which h = 3000 W/m2.K. What is the maximum
allowable power in kW?
30. Air enter a counter flow heat exchanger at 70 C and leaves at 40 C. Water enter at 30 C
and leaves at 50 C. The LMTD in degree C is
(A) 5.65 (B) 14.43 (C) 19.52 (D) 20.17
31. Exhaust gases flowing through a tubular heat exchanger at the rate of 0.3 kg /s are cooled
from 400 oC to 120 oC by water initially at 10 oC. The specific heat of exhaust gases and water
may be taken as 1.13 and 4.19 kJ/kg K respectively, and overall heat transfer coefficient from
gases to water is 140 W/m2 K. What is the surface area (in m2) required if the cooling water
flow is 0.4 kg / s. Working arrange is counter flow.
(A) 4.01 (B) 3.37 (C) 5.2 (D) 2.9
A parallel flow heat exchanger has the hot fluid entering at 250 oC and leaving at 60 oC, while
the cold fluid enters at 30 oC and leaves at 50 oC.
32. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 21 W/m2K, what will be the rate of heat exchange in
kW / m2
(A) 1.43 (B) 1.88 (C) 1.58 (D) 2.32
33. If a counter flow heat exchanger worked with the same temperature difference and overall
coefficient as the fluid mentioned in the above question, what would be the LMTD and heat
transfer rate in this case?
(A) 67.9 o C and 1.88 kW / m2 (B) 89.6 o C and 1.88 kW / m2
(C) 67.9 o C and 1.43 kW / m2 (D) 58.7 o C and 2.32 kW / m2
34. A single pass shell and tube heat exchanger uses waste gas on the shell side to heat a liquid
in the tubes. The waste gas enters at a temperature of 400C at a mass flow rate of 40 kg/s.
The liquid enters at 100C at mass flow rate of 3 kg /s. The velocity of the liquid is 1 m/s.
Tube diameter is 10 mm, length of the tube is 1m and density of the liquid is 500 kg/m3. The
required number of tubes is?
Common Data Questions (next two)
A spherical ball 50 mm diameter and 300 K is placed inside a large spherical furnace at 600
K. Assume the surface is black.
35. What is the diameter of the spherical furnace such that 30 % of the energy emitted by the
furnace reached the spherical ball?
(A) 57.2 mm (B) 45.6 mm (C) 91.3 mm (D) 114.5 mm
48
36. What is the net heat exchange of energy between the two surfaces?
(A) 216 W (B) 54 W (C) 0.45 W (D) 0.95 W
37. Electricity is generated and transmitted in power lines at a frequency of 60 Hz. Speed of light
is 3x108 m/s. The wavelength of the electromagnetic waves is?
(A) 5x106 cm (B) 2x10-7 cm (C) 1.8x1010 cm (D) N A
38. Consider the rectangular surface shown in figure.
If view factors are F31 = 0.27 and F3(1+2) = 0.32.
What will be the view factors F23

The overall heat transfer coefficient due to convection and radiation for a steam pipe at
200C running in a large room at 30 C is 20W / m2K. Take the emissivity of the pipe surface
is 0.7.
39. What is the heat transfer coefficient corresponding to radiation in W / m2 K
(A) 6.75 (B) 14 (C) 9.72 (D) 13.2
40. What is the heat transfer coefficient due to convention in W / m2 K
(A) 13.25 (B) 6.32 (C) 10.28 (D) 9.36
41. The net radiation from the surface of two parallel plates maintained at T1 and T2 is to be
reduced by 79%.Calculate the number of screens to be placed between the two surface to
achieve this reduction in heat exchanger assuming the emissivities of the screens and the
surface are 0.8
42. Two very large parallel planes with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8 exchanger radiative energy. What
is the percentage reduction in radiative energy transfer when a polished aluminum radiation
shield ( = 0.04) is placed between them.

49
Common Data Question (Next Two)

Consider two very long ducts with different cross sections are given
43. What are the shape factors F12 and F21 for case I
(A) F12 =0.5 , F 21 =0.5
(B) F12 =0.5 , F 21 =0.5
(C) F12 =1 , F 21 = 0.64
(D) F12 =1 , F 21 = 0.36
44. What are the shape factors F12 and F21 for case II
(A) F12 =0.5 , F 21 =a/2b
(B) F12 =0.5 , F 21 =b/2a
(C) F12 =0.5 , F 21 = a/b
(D) F12 =1 , F 21 = a/2b

50
Previous GATE Questions (Class Work)

1. A coolant fluid at 30C flows over a heated flat plate maintained at a constant temperature
of 100C. The boundary layer temperature distribution at a given location on the plate may
be approximated as T = 30 + 70 exp (-y) where y (in m) is the distance normal to the plate
and T is in C. If thermal conductivity of the fluid is 1.0 W/mK, the local convective heat
transfer coefficient (in W/m2K) at that location will be [GATE - 2009] (1)
(A) 0.2 (B) 1 (C) 5 (D) 10
2. In a parallel flow heat exchanger operating under steady state, the heat capacity rates
(product of specific heat at constant pressure and mass flow rate) of the hot and cold fluid
are equal. The hot fluid, flowing at 1 kg/s with Cp = 4kJ/kgK, enters the heat exchanger at
102C while the cold fluid has an inlet temperature of 15C. The overall heat transfer
coefficient for the heat exchanger is estimated to be 1kW/m2K and the corresponding heat
transfer surface area is 5m2. Neglect heat transfer between the heat exchanger and the
ambient.
The heat exchanger is characterized by the following relation: 2 = 1 - exp ( - 2NTU)

The exit temperature (in C) for the cold fluid is [GATE - 2009] (2)
(A) 45 (B) 55 (C) 65 (D) 75
3. Consider steady-state heat conduction across the thickness in a plane composite wall (as
shown in the figure) exposed to convection conditions on both sides.
Assuming negligible contact resistance between the well surfaces, the interface
temperature, T (in C), of the two walls will be [GATE - 2009] (2)
(A) 0.50 (B) 2.75 (C) 3.75 (D) 4.50

51
Radiative heat transfer is intended between the inner surfaces of two very large isothermal
parallel metal plates. While the upper plate (designated as plate 1) is a black surface and is
the warmer one being maintained at 727C, the lower plate ( plate 2) is a diffuse and gray
surface with an emissivity of 0.7 and is kept at 227C . Assume that the surfaces are
sufficiently large to form a two-surface enclosure and steady state conditions to exist. Stefan
Boltzmann constant is given as 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4. [GATE - 2009] (2+2)
4. The irradiation (in kW/m2) for the upper plate (plate 1) is

(A) 2.5 (B) 3.6 (C) 17.0 (D) 19.5
5. If plate 1 is also a diffuse and gray surface with an emissivity value of 0.8, the net radiation
heat exchange (in kW/) between plate 1 and plate 2 is
(A) 17.0 (B) 19.0 (C) 23.0 (D) 31.7
6. A fin has 5 mm diameter and 100 mm length. The thermal conductivity of fin material is 400
W/mK. One end of the fin is maintained at 130 and its remaining surface is exposed to
ambient air at 30. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 40 W/mK, the heat loss (in
W) from the fin is [GATE - 2010] (2)
(A) 0.08 (B) 5.0 (C) 7.0 (D) 7.8
7. A pipe of 25mm outer diameter carries steam. The heat transfer coefficient between the
cylinder and surroundings is 5W/m2K. It is proposed to reduce the heat loss from the pipe by
adding insulation having a thermal conductivity of 0.05W/mK. Which one of the following
statements is TRUE? [GATE - 2011] (1)
(A) The outer radius of the pipe is equal to the critical radius
(B) The outer radius of the pipe is less than the critical radius
(C) Adding the insulation will reduce the heat loss
(D) Adding the insulation will increase the heat loss
8. In a condenser of a power plant, the steam condenses at a temperature of 60C .The cooling
water enters at 30C and leaves at 45 C . The logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD) of the condenser is [GATE - 2011] (1)
(A) 16.2 C (B) 21.6 C (C) 30 C (D) 37.5 C
9. A spherical steel ball of 12mm diameter is initially at 1000K. It is slowly cooled in a
surrounding of 300K. The heat transfer coefficient between the steel ball and the

52
surrounding is 5W /m2 K . The thermal conductivity of steel is 20W/mK. The temperature
difference between the centre and the surface of the steel ball is [GATE - 2011] (2)
(A) Large because conduction resistance is far higher than the convective resistance
(B) Large because conduction resistance is far less than the convective resistance
(C) Small because conduction resistance is far higher than the convective resistance
(D) Small because conduction resistance is far less than the convective resistance
10. For an opaque surface, the absorptivity (), transmissivity () and reflectivity () are related
by the equation: [GATE - 2012] (1)
(A) + = (B) + + = 0 (C) + =1 (D) + = 0
11. Which one of the following configurations has the highest fin effectiveness?
[GATE - 2012] (1)
(A) Thin, closely spaced fins
(B) Thin, widely spaced fins
(C) Thick, widely spaced fins
(D) Thick, closely spaced fins
12. Consider two infinitely long thin concentric tubes of circular cross section as shown in the
figure. If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the inner and outer tubes respectively, then the
view factor F22 is given by [GATE - 2012] (2)
D
(A) 2 1 (B) 0
D1
D D
(C) 2 (D) 1 2
D1 D1
13. Water (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.K) at 80C enters a counter flow heat exchanger with a mass flow rate
of 0.5 kg/s. Air (Cp = 1 kJ/kg.K) enters at 30C with a mass flow rate of 2.09 kg/s. If the
effectiveness of the heat exchanger is 0.8, the LMTD (in C) is [GATE - 2012] (2)
(A) 40 (B) 20 (C) 10 (D) 5
14. Consider one-dimensional steady state heat

conduction, without heat generation, in a plane
wall; with boundary conditions as shown in the

53
figure below. The conductivity of the wall is given by k = k0 + bT ; where k0 and b are positive
constants, and T is temperature. [GATE - 2013] (1)
As x increases, the temperature gradient ( dT dx ) will
(A) Remain constant (B) be zero (C) increase (D) decrease
15. A steel ball of diameter 60 mm is initially in thermal equilibrium at 1030C in a furnace. It is
suddenly removed from the furnace and cooled in ambient air at 30C, with convective heat
transfer coefficient h = 20 W/m2K. The thermo-physical properties of steel are: density =
7800 kg/m3, conductivity k = 40 W/mK and specific heat c = 600 J/kgK. The time required in
seconds to cool the steel ball in air from 1030C to 430C is [GATE - 2013] (2)
(A) 519 (B) 931 (C) 1195 (D) 2144
16. Two large diffuse gray parallel plates, separated by a small distance, have surface
temperatures of 400 K and 300 K. If the emissivities of the surfaces are 0.8 and the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant is 5.67 10-8W/m2K4, the net radiation heat exchange rate in kW/m2
between the two plates is [GATE - 2013] (2)
(A) 0.66 (B) 0.79 (C) 0.99 (D) 3.96
Common Data for Questions (Next two)

Water (specific heat, cp = 4.18 kJ/kgK) enters a pipe at a rate of 0.01 kg/s and a temperature
of 20C. The pipe, of diameter 50 mm and length 3 m, is subjected to a wall heat flux qw'' in
W/m2 [GATE - 2013] (2+2)
17. If qw''= 2500 x, where x is in m and in the direction of flow (x = 0 at the inlet), the bulk mean
temperature of the water leaving the pipe in C is
(A) 42 (B) 62 (C) 74 (D) 104
18. If qw''= 5000 and the convection heat transfer coefficient at the pipe outlet is 1000 W/m2K,
the temperature in C at the inner surface of the pipe at the outlet is
(A) 71 (B) 76 (C) 79 (D) 81

54

55

56

57

58
44. A plastic sleeve of outer radius r0 = 1 mm covers a wire (radius r = 0.5 mm) carrying electric
current. Thermal conductivity of the plastic is 0.15 W/m-K. The heat transfer coefficient on
the outer surface of the sleeve exposed to air is 25 W/m2-K. Due to the addition of the
plastic cover, the heat transfer from the wire to the ambient will [GATE 2016-1 (1)]
(A) Increase (B) remain the same (C) decrease (D) be zero
45. A steel ball of 10 mm diameter at 1000 K is required to be cooled to 350 K by immersing it in
a water environment at 300 K. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2-K.
Thermal conductivity of steel is 40 W/m-K. The time constant for the cooling process is 16
s. The time required (in s) to reach the final temperature is _____ [GATE 2016-1 (2)]
46. An infinitely long furnace of 0.5 m 0.4 m cross-section is shown in the figure below.

59
Consider all surfaces of the furnace to be black. The top and bottom walls are maintained at
temperature T1 = T3 = 927C while the side walls are at temperature T2 = T4 = 527 C. The
view factor, F1-2 is 0.26. The net radiation heat loss or gain on side 1 is W/m.
Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 108 W/m2-K4 [GATE 2016-1 (2)]

47. A hollow cylinder has length L, inner radius r1, outer radius r2, and thermal conductivity k.
The thermal resistance of the cylinder for radial conduction is [GATE 2016-2 (1)]
ln ( r2 r1 ) ln ( r1 r 2 ) 2 k L 2 k L
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2 k L 2 k L ln ( r2 r1 ) ln ( r1 r 2 )
48. Consider the radiation heat exchange inside an annulus between two very long concentric
cylinders. The radius of the outer cylinder is R0 and that of the inner cylinder is Ri. The
radiation view factor of the outer cylinder onto itself is [GATE 2016-2 (1)]
1/ 3
Ri R R Ri
(A) 1 (B) 1 i (C) 1 i (D) 1
Ro Ro Ro Ro
49. Consider a parallel-flow heat exchanger with area Ap and a counter-flow heat exchanger with
area Ac. In both the heat exchangers, the hot stream flowing at 1 kg/s cools from 80 to 50
. For the cold stream in both the heat exchangers, the flow rate and the inlet temperature
are 2 kg/s and 10 , respectively. The hot and cold streams in both the heat exchangers are
of the same fluid. Also, both the heat exchangers have the same overall heat transfer
coefficient. The ratio Ac/Ap is ________ [GATE 2016-2 (2)]
50. Two cylindrical shafts A and B at the same initial temperature are simultaneously placed in a
furnace. The surfaces of the shafts remain at the furnace gas temperature at all times after
they are introduced into the furnace. The temperature variation in the axial direction of the
shafts can be assumed to be negligible. The data related to shafts A and B is given in the
following Table. [GATE 2016-2 (2)]
The temperature at the centerline of the shaft A reaches 400 after two hours. The time
required (in hours) for the centerline of the shaft B to attain the temperature of 400 is
_____

60
51. Steady one-dimensional heat conduction takes place across the faces 1 and 3 of a composite
slab consisting of slabs A and B in perfect contact as shown in the figure, where kA , kB
denote the respective thermal conductivities. Using the data as given in the figure, the
interface temperature T2 (in C) is________ [GATE 2016-3 (1)]
52. Grashof number signifies the ratio of [GATE 2016-3 (1)]

(A) inertia force to viscous force (B) buoyancy force to viscous force
(C) buoyancy force to inertia force (D) inertia force to surface tension force
53. Two large parallel plates having a gap of 10 mm in between them are maintained at
temperatures. T1 = 1000 K and T2 = 400 K. Given emissivity values 1 = 0.5 and 1 = 0.25,
Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 108 W/m2-K4, the heat transfer between the plates (in
kW/m2) is ? [GATE 2016-3 (2)]
54. A cylindrical steel rod, 0.01 m in diameter and 0.2 m in length is first heated to 7500 C and
then immersed in a water bath at 100C. The heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2-K. The
density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of steel are =7801 kg/m3, c = 473 J/kg-K,
and k = 43 W/m-K, respectively. The time required for the rod to reach 300C is ____
seconds. [GATE 2016-3 (2)]

61
Problematic Questions (Home work)

1. The temperatures at two faces of a slab ( k = 0.8 W/mK) having surface area 10 m2 and
thickness 2 mm are 50C and 10C. What is the value of heat flux?
(A) 20 kW/m2 (B) 1820 kW/m2 (C) 16 kW/m2 (D) 14 kW/m2
2. A thick-walled tube of stainless steel k = 19 W/mC with 2 cm inner diameter (ID) and 4 cm
outer diameter (OD) is covered with a 3 cm layer of asbestos insulation [k =0.2 W/mC]. If
the inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600C and outside wall temperature
id 100 C, what is the heat loss in Watts per meter of length.
3. A composite wall having three layers of thickness 0.3 m, 0.2 m and 0.1 m and of thermal
conductivities 0.6, 0.4 and 0.1 W/ mK, respectively, is having surface area 1 m2. If the inner
and outer temperatures of the composite wall are 1840 K and 340 K, respectively, what is
the rate of heat transfer?
A) 150 W B) 1500 W C) 75 W D) 750 W
4. A pipe line (200 mm OD) carrying steam is covered by a layer of thickness 50 mm ( k = 1 W /
mK ). Later an extra layer of thickness 15 mm ( k = 0.5 W/mk) is added. The surrounding
temperature remains constant and heat transfer coefficient for outer surface is 10 W / m2K.
What is the percentage change in heat transfer due to extra layer?
(A) 11 % (B) 12 % (C) 14 % (D) 9 %
5. Thickness of slab A is 3 cm and its thermal conductivity is 40 W /m C. Thickness of slab B is
1.2 cm with thermal conductivity 0.5 W/m C. A plate type heater (20 cm 20 cm) is placed
between two slabs. The heat transfer coefficient at the outer walls of slab A and slab B are
250 W/m2 C and 50 W/m2 C respectively. The temperature of the surrounding air is 30C.
The rating of heater is 1.5 kW. What is the maximum temperature in the system?
(A) 163C (B) 205C (C) 158C (D) 185C
6. A refrigerated container is in the form of a cube with 2 m sides and 5 mm thick aluminium
wall insulated with a 10 cm layer of cork. During steady operation, the temperature on the
inner and outer surfaces of the wall is maintained at -5C and 30C respectively. What is the
approximate cooling load of the refrigerator?
kAl = 204 W/mK, k Cork = 0.043 W/mK
(A) 60 W (B) 360 W (C) 60 kW (D) 360 kW

62
7. A plane wall of thickness 0.1 m is maintained at inner and outer wall temperatures of 60C
and 30C respectively. What is the expression for steady state one dimensional temperature
variation? (Take x is the distance measured from inner to outer wall in m)
(A) T (x) = 300 x - 60 (B) T (x) = 60 x - 60
(C) T (x) = 300 - 60 x (D) T (x) = 60 300 x
8. The temperature distribution across a slab is given by the equation T = 3 x2+ 2x + 12. Where
x is in m and T is in K. What is the rate of change of temperature with time?
Take thermal diffusivity, = 0.0004 m2 / s.
(A) 0.24 K /s (B) 0.024 K/s (C) 0.0024 K/s (D) 0.00024 K/s
9. The inner and outer temperatures of a 40 mm thickness slab are 1000C and 40C. The
thermal conductivity of the slab material is given by:
k = 0.003 T 1 10- 8 T -2 2 10 - 9 T -3 (Take temperature, T in C)
What is the heat loss per unit area of the slab?
(A) 375 kW/m2 (B) 37.5 kW/m2 (C) 3.75 kW/m2 (D) 0.375 kW/m2
10. A furnace wall ( k = 2 W/mK) having thickness 0.6 m is insulated with an insulator ( k = 0.1 W
/ mK). The temperature difference between inner and outer surfaces of the furnace is
1500C. What is the thickness of the insulation if the loss of heat is limited to 1000 W /m2.
(A) 0.12 m (B) 0.15 m (C) 0.22 m (D) 0.25 m
11. A composite wall of a furnace has 2 layers of equal thickness having thermal conductivities in
the ratio of 3:2.What is the ratio of the temperature drop across the two layers?
A. 2 : 3 B. 3 : 2 C. 1 2 D. ln 2 : ln 3
12. The value of thermal conductivity of thermal insulation applied to a hollow spherical vessel
containing very hot material is 0.5 W /m K . The convective heat transfer coefficient at the
outer surface of insulation is 10 W/m2K. What is the critical radius of the sphere?
A. 0.1 m B. 0.2 m C. 1.0 m D. 2.0 m
13. A copper wire of radius 0.5 mm is insulated with a sheathing of thickness 1 mm having a
thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/m-K. The outside surface convective heat transfer coefficient
is 10 W/m2-K. If the thickness of insulation sheathing is raised by 10 mm, then the electrical
current-carrying capacity of the wire will
A. increase B. Decrease C. remain the same D. N.A
Common Data Questions (next two)
A furnace wall made up of two layers, the thickness of inner layer is 140 mm ( k = 2.1 W/m o
C) and that of outer layer is 200 mm ( k = 6 W/m o C). Inside and outside temperatures of
63
furnace wall are 800 o C and 100 o C respectively. The contact resistance between two layers
at the interference is 0.005 o C/W per unit area of the wall.
14. What is the rate of heat loss per unit area of the wall?
(A) 700 W (B) 70 W (C) 7 kW (D) 70 kW
o
15. What will be the temperature drop at the interference in C?
(A) 35 (B) 3.5 (C) 75 (D) 7.5
16. Liquid oxygen ( = 1150 kg / m3, Cp = 1.8 kJ/kg oC) is filled in a spherical tank ( d = 5 m) at -
185 oC. During the period of 150 hours the temperature increased to -184 o C. The average
heat transfer rate to the tank is?
(A) 250 W (B) 750 W (C) 1700 W (D) 650 W
17. A flat plate has thickness 5 cm, thermal conductivity 1 W/(mK) convective heat transfer
coefficients on its two flat faces of 10 W/(m2K) and 20 W/(m2K). The overall heat transfer
coefficient for such a flat plate in W/m2K is
A. 5 B. 6.33 C. 20 W D. 30
18. A 2 cm diameter copper rod (k = 401 W/m K, = 8933 kg /m3, Cp = 0.834 kJ/kg K) is initially at
a uniform temperature of 100C. It is now exposed to an air stream at 20C with a heat
transfer coefficient of 200 W/m2K. How long would it take for the copper rod to cool an
average temperature of 25C?
(A) 8.6 min (B) 5 min (C) 6 min (D) 3 min
19. The case of a power transistor, which is of length L = 10mm and diameter D = 12 mm, is
cooled by an air stream of temperature T = 25 C. Under conditions for which the air
maintains an average convection coefficient of h = 100 W/m2.K on the surface of the case,
what is the maximum allowable power dissipation in Watts if the surface temperature is not
to exceed 85 C?
20. What is the heat transfer coefficient for water flowing through a 25 mm diameter tube at
the rate of 1.5 kg / s, when the bulk mean temperature is 40 oC. For turbulent flow of liquid
take
Nu = 0.0243 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
The properties of water at 40 oC are = 1000 kg / m3, Pr = 4.3, = 651 10 -6 Ns/m2, k = 632
10-6 W/mK.
(A) 12.5 W / m2 K (B) 12.5 kW / m2 K
(C) 125 W / m2 K (D) 125 kW / m2 K

64
21. The properties of mercury at 300 K are: density = 13529 kg/m3, specific heat at constant
pressure = 0.1393 kJ/kg-K, dynamic viscosity = 0.1523 x10-2 N.s/m2 and thermal conductivity
= 8.540 W/ m-K. The Prandtl number of the mercury at 300 K is
(A) 0.0248 (B) 2.48 (C) 24.8 (D) 2.21
22. In a counter flow concentric tube heat exchanger has LMTD of 56 C. During a text run, hot
fluid flowing at 0.1 kg/s and 110 C is cooled by cold fluid supplied at a temperature of 25
and flow rate of 0.2 kg/s. Cph = 4.2 kJ/kg K, Cpc = 2.1 kJ/kg K. What will be the exit
temperature of the cold fluid in C?
(A) 56 (B) 135 (C) 54 (D) 85
23. If the temperature of a solid state changes from 27C to 627C, then emissive power
changes which rate
A. 6 : 1 B. 9: 1 C. 27: 1 D. 81: 1
24. What is the equivalent emissivity for radiant heat exchange between a small body (emissivity
= 0.4) in a very large enclosure (emissivity = 0.5)?
A. 0.5 B. 0.4 C. 0.2 D. 0.1
25. A thin flat plate 2m x 2m is hanging freely in air. The temperature of the surroundings is
25C. Solar radiation is falling on one side of the plate at the rate of 500 W/m2. What should
be the convective heat transfer coefficient is W/m2 C, if the temperature of the plate is to
remain constant at 30C?
A.25 B.50 C.100 D.200
26. The filament of a 80 W light bulb may be considered as a black body radiating in to a black
enclosure at 80C. The filament diameter is 0.2 mm and length is 60 mm. Considering the
radiation, determine the filament temperature
(A) 2473C (B) 2200C (C) 2940C (D) 3200C
27. A double walled flask idealized to be equivalent to two infinite parallel plates. The
emissivities of wall are 0.3 and 0.7 respectively. The space between them is evacuated. A
shied of polished Aluminum of = 0.05 is inserted between them. Find the % reduction in
hest transfer rate due to insertion of radiation shield.
Water flows at 50C inside a 2.5 cm inside-diameter tube such that hi =3500 W/m2 C. The
tube has a wall thickness of 0.8 mm with a thermal conductivity of 0.16 W/mC. The outside
of the tube loses heat by free convection with ho =7.6 W/m2 C.
65
28. What is the overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside area per unit length in W/m2
C?
29. What is the heat loss in kW per unit length to surrounding air at 20C.?
30. A slab having thermal conductivity 0.8 W / m K. If heat transfer rate through this wall is 80 %
of the rate through another wall ( k = 0.3 W/m K and thickness 120 mm). Both walls are
subjected to same temperature difference and same area. What is the thickness of the first
wall?
(A) 400 mm (B) 40 mm (C) 200 mm (D) 20 mm

66
Previous GATE Questions (Home work)

1. A steel steam pipe 10 cm inner diameter and 11 cm outer diameter is covered with an
insulation having a thermal conductivity of 1 W/mK. If the convective heat transfer
coefficient between the surface of insulation and the surrounding air is 8W/m2K then
critical radius of insulation is [GATE - 2000] (1)
(A) 10 cm (B) 11cm (C) 12.5 cm (D) 15cm
2. The value of Biot number is very small (less than 0.01) when [GATE-20000] (1)
(A) The convective resistance of the fluid is negligible
(B) The conductive resistance of the fluid is negligible
(C) The conductive resistance of the solid is negligible
(D) None of these
3. Air enter a counter flow heat exchanger at 70 C and leaves at 40 C. Water enter at 30 C
and leaves at 50 C. The LMTD in degree C is [GATE - 2000] (2)
(A) 5.65 (B) 14.43 (C) 19.52 (D) 20.17
4. For the circular tube of equal length and diameter shown below,
the view factor F13 is 0.17. The view factor F12 in this case will be
[GATE - 2001] (1)
(A) 0.17 (B) 0.21
(C) 0.79 (D) 0.83
5. What is the value of the view factor for two inclined flat plates having common edge of
equal width, and with an angle of 20 degrees? [GATE-2002] (2)
(A) 0.83 (B) 1.17 (C) 0.66 (D) 1.34
6. The properties of mercury at 300 K are: density = 13529 kg/m3, specific heat at constant
pressure=0.1393 kJ/kg-K, dynamic viscosity=0.152310-2 N.s/m2 and thermal conductivity =
8.540 W/m K. The Prandtl number of the mercury at 300 K is [GATE-2002] (1)
(A) 0.0248 (B) 2.48 (C) 24.8 (D) 248
7. For the same inlet and outlet temperatures of hot and cold fluids, the Log Mean
Temperature Difference (LMTD) is [GATE - 2002] (1)
(A) Greater for parallel flow heat exchanger than for counter flow heat exchanger.
(B) Greater for counter flow heat exchanger than for parallel flow heat exchanger.
(C) Same for both parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.
(D) Dependent on the properties of the fluids.
67
8. A 2 kW, 40 litre water heater is switched on for 20 minutes. The heat capacity Cp for water is
4.2 kJ/kg K. Assuming all the electrical energy has gone into heating the water, increase of
the water temperature in degree centrgrade is [GATE - 2003] (1)
(A) 2.7 (B) 4.0 (C) 14.3 (D) 25.25
9. A plate having 10 cm2 area each side is hanging in the middle of a room of 100 m2 total
surface area. The plate temperature and emissivity are respectively 800 K and 0.6. The
temperature and emissivity values for the surfaces of the room are 300 K and 0.3
2 4
respectively. Boltzmanns constant = 5.67 108 W/m K . The total heat loss from the
two surfaces of the plate is [GATE - 2003] (1)
Heat is being transferred by convection from water at 48 C to a glass plate whose surface
that is exposed to the water is at 40 C. The thermal conductivity of water is 0.6 W/mK and
the thermal conductivity of glass is 1.2 W/mK . The spatial gradient of temperature in the
4
water at the water glass interface is dT/dy = 1 10 K/m [GATE 2003] (2)
10. The value of the temperature gradient in the glass at the water-glass interface in K/m is
(A) 2 104 (B) 0.0 (C) 0.5 104 (D) 2 104
2
11. The heat transfer coefficient h in W/m K is
(A) 0.0 (B) 4.8 (C) 6 (D) 750
12. In a counter flow heat exchanger, for the hot fluid the heat capacity = 2 kJ/kg K, mass flow
rate = 5 kg/s, inlet temperature = 150C, outlet temperature = 100C. For the cold fluid,
heat capacity = 4 kJ/kg K, mass flow rate = 10 kg/s, inlet temperature = 20C. Neglecting
heat transfer to the surroundings, the outlet temperature of the cold fluid in C is
[GATE - 2003] (2)
(A) 7.5 (B) 32.5 (C) 45.5 (D) 70.0
13. Consider a laminar boundary layer over a heated flat plate .The free stream velocity is U. At
some distance x from the leading edge the velocity boundary layer thickness is v and the
thermal boundary layer thickness is T. If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, then
[GATE - 2003] (2)

68
14. One dimensional unsteady state heat transfer equation for a sphere with heat generation at
the rate of q can be written as [GATE - 2004] (1)
15. In a condenser, water enters at 30C and flows at the rate 1500 kg/hr. The condensing steam
is at a temperature of 120C and cooling water leaves the condenser at 80C. Specific heat
of water is 4.187kJ/kg K. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m2K, then heat
transfer area is [GATE-2004] (2)
(A) 0.707 m2 (B) 7.07 m2 (C) 70.7 m2 (D) 141.4 m2
16. A stainless steel tube (ks = 19 W/mK) of 2 cm ID and 5 cm OD is insulated with 3 cm thick
asbestos (ka = 0.2 W/mK). If the temperature difference between the innermost and
outermost surfaces is 600C, the heat transfer rate per unit length is [GATE - 2004] (2)
(A) 0.94 W/m (B) 9.44 W/m (C) 944.72 W/m (D) 9447.21 W/m
17. A spherical thermocouple junction of diameter 0.706 mm is to be used for the measurement
of temperature of a gas stream. The convective heat transfer co-efficient on the bead
surface is 400 W/m2K. Thermo physical properties of thermocouple material are k = 20
W/mK, C = 400 J/kg K and = 8500kg/m3. If the thermocouple initially at 30C is placed in a
hot stream of 300C, then time taken by the bead to reach 298C, is [GATE - 2004] (2)
(A) 2.35 s (B) 4.9 s (C) 14.7 s (D) 29.4 s
18. In a case of one dimensional heat conduction in a medium with constant properties, T is the
temperature at position x, at time t. Then T/ Is proportional to [GATE - 2005] (1)
19. Heat flows through a composite slab, as shown

below. The depth of the slab is 1m. The k
values are in W/m.K. The overall thermal
resistance in K/W is [GATE - 2005] (2)
(A) 17.2 (B) 21.9
(C) 28.6 (D) 39.2

69
20. A small copper ball of 5 mm diameter at 500 K is dropped into an oil bath whose
temperature is 300 K. The thermal conductivity of copper is 400 W/m.K ,its density 9000
kg/m3 and its specific heat 385 J/kg.K. If the heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m2.K and
lumped analysis is assumed to be valid, the rate of fall of the temperature of the ball at the
beginning of cooling will be, in K/s, [GATE - 2005] (2)
(A) 8.7 (B) 13.9 (C) 17.3 (D) 27.7
21. A solid cylinder (surface 2) is located at the centre of a hollow sphere (surface 1).The
diameter of the sphere is 1 m, while the cylinder has a diameter and length of 0.5 m each.
The radiation configuration factor F11 is [GATE - 2005] (2)
(A) 0.375 (B) 0.625 (C) 0.75 (D) 1
22. Hot oil is cooled from 80 to 50C in an oil cooler which uses air as the coolant. The air
temperature rises from 30 to 40C. The designer uses a LMTD value of 26C The type of
heat exchanger is [GATE - 2005] (2)
(A) Parallel flow (B) Double pipe (C) Counter flow (D) Cross flow
Linked Answer Questions (next two)
An un-insulated air conditioning duct of rectangular cross section 1m 0.5 m, carrying air at
20C with a velocity of 10 m/s, is exposed to an ambient of 30C. Neglect the effect of duct
construction material. For air in the range of 20-30C, data are as follows: thermal
conductivity = 0.025 W/m.K: viscosity =18Pa.s; Prandtl number=0.73; density=1.2 kg/m3.
The laminar flow Nusselt number is 3.4 for constant wall temperature conditions and, for
turbulent flow, Nu =0.023 Re0.8Pr0.33 [GATE - 2005] (2+2)
23. The Reynolds number for the flow is
(A) 444 (B) 890 (C) 4.44 x105 (D) 5.33x105
24. The heat transfer per metre length of the duct , in watts, is
(A) 3.8 (B) 5.3 (C) 89 (D) 769
25. In a composite slab, the temperature at the
interface between two materials is equal to
the average of the temperature at the two ends.
Assuming steady one-dimensional heat
conduction, which of the following statement is
true about the respective thermal conductivities?
[GATE - 2006] (1)

70
(A) 2k1 = k2 (B) k1= k2 (C) 2k1 = 3k2 (D) k1=2k2

26. With an increase in the thickness of insulation around a circular pipe, heat loss to
surroundings due to [GATE - 2006] (1)
(A) Convection increases, while that due to conduction decreases
(B) Convection decreases, while that due to conduction increases
(C) Convection and conduction decreases
(D) Convection and conduction increases
27. In a counter flow heat exchanger, hot fluid enters at 60 and cold fluid leaves at 30. Mass
flow rate of the hot fluid is 1 kg/s and that of the cold fluid is 2 kg/s. Specific heat of the hot
fluid is 10kJ/kgK and that of the cold fluid is 5 kJ /kgK. The Log Mean Temperature
Difference (LMTD) for the heat exchanger in is [GATE - 2007] (2)
(A) 15 (B) 30 (C) 35 (D) 45
28. The average heat transfer co-efficient on a thin hot vertical plate suspended in still air can be
determined from observations of the change in plate temperature with time as it cools.
Assume the plate temperature to be uniform at any instant of time and radiation heat
exchange with the surroundings negligible. The ambient temperature is 25,c the plate has
a total surface area of 0.1 m2. and a mass of 4 kg. The specific heat of the plate material is
2.5 KJ/kgK. The convective heat transfer co-efficient in W/m2 K, at the instant when the
plate temperature is 225Cand the change in plate temperature with time
dT/dt = -0.02 K/s, is [GATE - 2007] (2)
(A) 200 (B) 20 (C) 15 (D) 10
Linked Answer Questions (next two)

Consider steady one-dimensional heat flow in a plate of 20 mm thickness with a uniform
heat generation of 80 MW/m3. The left and right faces are kept at constant temperatures of
160C and 120C respectively. The plate has a constant thermal conductivity of 200 W/mK.
[GATE - 2007] (2+2)
29. The location of maximum temperature within the plate from its left face is
(A) 15 mm (B) 10mm (C) 5mm (D) 0mm
30. The maximum temperature within the plate in C is

(A) 160 (B) 165 (C) 200 (D) 250

71
31. For flow of fluid over a heated plate, the following fluid properties are known
Viscosity = 0.001 Pa.s ;
Specific heat at constant pressure = 1kJ/kg.K;
Thermal conductivity = 1 W/mk.
The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at a specified location on the plate is 1 mm.
The thermal boundary layer thickness at the same location is [GATE - 2008] (1)
(A) 0.001 mm (B) 0.01 mm (C) 1 mm (D) 1000 mm
32. The logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) of a counterflow heat exchanger is
20C. The cold fluid enters at 20C and the hot fluid enters at 100C. Mass flow rate of the
cold fluid is twice that of the hot fluid. Specific heat at constant pressure of the hot fluid is
twice that of the cold fluid. The exit temperature of the cold fluid [GATE - 2008] (2)
(A) Is 40C (B) Is 60C (C) Is 80C (D) cannot be determined
33. For the three-dimensional object shown in the figure below, five faces are insulated. The
sixth face (PQRS), which is not insulated, interacts thermally with the ambient, with a
convective heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2.K. The ambient temperature is 30C. Heat is
uniformly generated inside the object at the rate of 100 W/m3. Assuming the face PQRS to
be at uniform temperature, its steady state temperature is [GATE - 2008] (2)
(A) 10C (B) 20C (C) 30C (D) 40C

34. A hollow enclosure is formed between two infinitely long
concentric cylinders of radii 1m and 2m, respectively. Radiative
heat exchange takes place between the inner surface of the
larger cylinder (surface-2) and the outer surface of the smaller
cylinder (surface-1). The radiating surfaces are diffuse and the
medium in the enclosure is non-participating. The fraction of the

72
thermal radiation leaving the larger surface and striking itself is [GATE - 2008] (2)
(A) 0.25 (B) 0.5 (C) 0.75 (D) 1
35. Steady two- dimensional heat conduction takes place in the body shown in the figure below.
The normal temperature gradients over surfaces P and Q can be considered to be uniform.
The temperature gradient T/x at surface Q is
equal to 10 K/m. Surfaces P and Q are maintained at

constant temperatures as shown in the figure, while
the remaining part of the boundary is insulated. The
body has a constant thermal conductivity of 0.1
W/m.K. The values of T/x and T/y at P are

[GATE - 2008] (2)

73
Answer Keys Heat Transfer
Problematic Questions (Class Work)
1 C 14 C 27 48.9 40 C
2 C 15 0.3 28 0.00035 41 4
3 1.07 16 25.13 29 0.00525 42 93.18
4 0.105 17 23.15 30 B 43 C
5 0.084 18 25.11 31 B 44 A
6 B 19 B 32 A
7 C 20 B 33 B
8 A 21 B 34 77
9 C 22 B 35 C
10 C 23 C 36 B
11 C 24 1181 37 D
12 D 25 171.2 38 0.05
13 5.84 26 7.37 39 C
Previous GATE Questions (Class Work)

1 B 16 A 31 A 46
2 B 17 A 32 0.345 47
3 C 18 33 4613.5 48
4 A 19 B 34 D 49
5 D 20 B 35 C 50
6 B 21 625 36 5 51
7 C 22 C 37 C 52
8 B 23 C 38 C 53
9 D 24 24.93 39 B 54
10 C 25 0.1 40
11 A 26 C 41 A
12 D 27 400 42 D
13 C 28 11.02 43 A
14 D 29 B 44
15 D 30 A 45

74
Problematic Questions (Home Work)

1 C 10 A 19 2.26 28 7.3
2 680 11 A 20 A 29 0.0183
3 D 12 A 21 A 30 A
4 A 13 A 22 C
5 D 14 C 23 D
6 D 15 A 24 B
7 D 16 A 25 C
8 C 17 A 26 B
9 B 18 A 27 91.2
Previous GATE Questions (Home Work)

1 C 10 C 19 C 28 D
2 C 11 D 20 C 29 C
3 B 12 B 21 B 30 B
4 D 13 A 22 D 31 C
5 A 14 B 23 C 32 C
6 A 15 A 24 D 33 D
7 B 16 C 25 D 34 B
8 C 17 B 26 A 35 D
9 27.32 W 18 D 27 B

75

Heat Transfer - N 2018

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Heat Transfer - N 2018

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GATE 2018 MEi [ HEAT TRANSFER ]

FOCUS GATE | focusgate@gmail.com

Mark Distribution in Previous GATE Paper

Average Mark: 5.14

FOCUS GATE | focusgate@gmail.com

o Naturally heat can be transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature.

o Heat may be classified into two forms:

Sensible heat: Sensible heat interaction results change in temperature.

Latent heat: It is the heat energy utilized for phase change.

between bodies which occurs when there is a temperature difference.

dryers, heat exchangers etc

o Heat can be transferred by any of the following modes:

Conduction: Transfer of heat energy from one particle to another by direct

movement of matter from one place to another.

Radiation: Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves and it does not

require matter to transfer thermal energy.

FOCUS GATE | focusgate@gmail.com

FOCUS GATE | focusgate@gmail.com

Fourier`s Law of Heat Conduction

q = Heat flux (W/m2)

material property called the thermal conductivity

thickness in unit time, when the temperature difference is unity.

o Therefore units of k = (W/m2 ) (m/ K) = W / (m K) or W / (m C)

o It is the measure of ability of material to conduct heat.

o Thermal conductivity: solid > liquid > gas

o The thermal conductivity varies with temperature, K = f (T)

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Rth = Thermal resistance

= Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

cp = Specific heat (J/kg K

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Heat Conduction Equations

Case 2: Steady state heat transfer

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Case 4: Steady state, one dimensional heat transfer

One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation

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o Uniform Thermal conductivity

2. Conduction through a Composite Wall

Rth = Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rth 3

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o Combination of series and parallel connection

3. Plane Wall by considering contact resistance

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( Ti To ) Rth = Rth1 + Rcont: + Rth 2 Rcont =

4. Composite Wall by considering convection

Overall Heat transfer Coefficient (U)

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5. Plane Hollow cylinder

6. Composite Hollow cylinder

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7. Composite Cylinder by considering convection

Rth = Rcv1 + Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rcv 2

8. Plane Hollow Sphere

9. Composite Hollow Sphere

Rth = Rth1 + Rth 2

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10. Composite Sphere by considering convection

Rth = Rcv1 + Rth1 + Rth 2 + Rcv 2

Log mean area

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Critical thickness of insulation (rc)

termed as critical thickness.