Mastering the Loops of Language Teaching

Rahila Waqar

Language teaching requires teachers to focus one skill at one time but be conscious of multiple
skills simultaneously and bring any of them to the forefront as needed during the course of any
lesson. Segmenting the skills and working on them separately is useful for raising consciousness
but may not be very beneficial for learning that results in spontaneous usage of language in
natural contexts. The loops of language teaching [Waqar, 12:2013] is a model that helps
teachers to visualize the interwoven loops of the arena of their work.

The loops of language teaching model is premised on the following key principles of English
language pedagogy:

1. As Muslims, all of us have experienced that in order to understand the Quraanic ayah, we
need to know the context of situation and context of culture of the time of revelation.
Context of situation is related to the specific situation or circumstances in which the ayah
was revealed and context of culture, as the name suggests, is the prevalent norms and
culture of the society and their impact on daily life at that time. Both of these contexts are
non-linguistic. When we know the non-linguistic context of the time when a particular
ayah was revealed, we are able to comprehend the meanings of the ayah better. Once we
understand the non-linguistic context, we need to focus on the lexico-grammar (a
combination of morphology, lexicon and grammar) which forms the linguistic context.
Grasping the complete meaning is only possible when we are aware of both the non-
linguistic as well as the linguistic context of an ayah.

It is evident from the above example that meanings are construed in contexts of situation
and culture and the real meaning of words, used in a particular context, is always aided
by the active experience of those aspects of reality to which the words belong or in
which they occur (Malinowski 1935: 58; cf. Hasan 1985).

The model capitalizes on the context by using instances of language i.e genres and types
of texts as the basic tools of language teaching.

2. The texts and their generic stages are instances of language in use in their specific
contexts of situations and culture.

3. These instances of language or texts have distinct text structures and distinct lexico-
grammatical patterns. They fulfill specific social purposes (Coffin, Donohue and
North. 2009: 245). The social purposes as listed by Coffin, Donohue and North (2009)
are:
a. telling a story;
b. classifying and describing;
c. explaining how something works;
d. giving instructions;
e. arguing a point of view;
 f. discussing perspectives on an issue.
(pg. 245)

4. Languages are acquired when learners are immersed in the target language. But the
reality in Pakistan is that mediocre schools, due to lack of resources, are forced to hire
language teachers who are neither competent in teaching nor proficient in language use.
Consequently, these schools, not only have to train the teachers in pedagogical aspects
but often they also have to work on improving their language proficiency. Additionally,
school management is often forced to rely on the personnel they have as trainers rather
than sending their teachers to institutes that can train them effectively and efficiently.

The solution for the above issue is to use the instances of language use (different types
of texts). Carefully selected texts from authentic sources eliminate the fear of exposing
learners to poor English. Teacher can then flood the learners with one kind of text at one
time and take them through a process of extracting meanings from the texts with the help
of processing tasks and leading them to produce a relevant instance of language in
written or oral mode. This procedure, if followed religiously, results in the recycling of
the lexico-grammar of the studied text.

Along with the input flood, the input saturated with the focused form that learners may
notice and possibly acquire (Wong, 37:2005), the learners should also be made to notice
in some way the generic stages specific to each kind of the different texts they are
exposed to.

5. Input flood coupled with input enhancement, achieved through manipulating the
typographical tools like boldfacing, capitalizing, underlining or using a different font or
colour, makes the input salient for the learners (Sharwood, 118:1993) which in turn helps
them notice the focused form (Sharwood Smith, 1991, 1993; Schmidt, 1995, 2001;
Nassaji & Fotos, 2011).
Although some studies have found that input enhancement and input flooding play
crucial roles in language teaching (Dastjerdi, 2011; Hernandez, 2008; Lee, 2007;
Rashtchi & Gharanli, 2010; Rikhtegar & Gholami, 2015; Simard, 2009; White, 1998),
others conclude that they are not enough (Spada & Lightbown 148:2006).

6. Therefore, in addition to input flooding and enhancement, explicit form focused

instruction is also required for effective learning of any language. The form may be
practiced in isolation but learners should soon produce a context based communicative
instance of language to show how the learnt form is used to create meaning in real life
through written or oral modes.

7. Every grammatical structure has three dimensions that teachers need to cover. The
grammatical structures have morpho-syntactic forms that express meanings (semantics)
in context appropriate uses (pragmatics) (Freeman, 252:2001). The learning becomes
effective when all three dimensions are covered by the teachers.
Another important understanding basic to the loops is that most learners go through some
common stages of language learning during the process of acquisition and learning of a
language.

As learners are exposed to language through input flood and input enhancement, learners start
experimenting with the newly acquired form. This stage referred to as improvisation by Willis
(2003) gives evidences of the learner becoming familiar with the form. Next, they become
capable of identifying the form when they see it in context but still their ability to see it as a
unique pattern to be learnt is not evident. This stage is called recognition by Willis (2003).
This is the stage where teachers must enter the Grammaring Loop (Waqar, 13:2013) and teach
the form explicitly in order to aid the learning of the form that has been introduced through input
flood and enhancement. With this consciousness raising experience learners build the system.
System-building along with several tasks requiring the usage of the introduced form help in
consolidation. Finally, the learners reach a stage where they consistently produce the form
correctly called spontaneous mastery by Willis (25:2003).

The loops of language teaching have been developed against the backdrop of all of the above
fundamental principles. These loops enable teachers to function effectively benefitting from the
ongoing formative assessment and to design each lesson based on the needs of the learners.

The feedback from the output of one lesson guides and informs the teachers
decisions on a daily basis. Though, the loops do not have to be neat and round
they may be stringybut they need to feed back so that the next step in teaching
and learning is not a mechanical next step because the curriculum dictates so.
Instead, it is informed by the learner needs and requirements.

(Waqar, 14:2013)

The interwoven language loops are shown in the figure below.

 The Input-
Output Loop

The
Preparation
The Loop The
Grammaring Discourse
Loop Loop

Figure 1: The Loops of Language Teaching

Each loop of the model is briefly explained below.

The Preparation Loop:

The first loop of the Language Teaching Model is the Preparation Loop in contrast to the other

loops which are action loops.

Select a genre

The
Preparation
Collect samples
Loop Study
for each
thoroughly
selected genre
Identify the
Generic Stages

Develop a
grammar
packet

Figure 2 The Preparation Loop

Expert language users create and construe meaning through different genres (spoken or written)

by exercising informed choices at different system levels, based on their understanding of the

context. They make choices at the field level (topic), at the tenor level (social roles and the level

of formality) and at the mode level (degree of spontaneity). Field, tenor and mode are referred to

as contextual or register variables [Coffin, Donohue & North: 2009: 215].

The field decides the kind of vocabulary that will be used, technical and specialized or layman. If

the topic of a discourse is robotics and the interlocutors are experts (tenor), the language choice

will be highly technical and might be incomprehensible for those who are not related to the field

of robotics. On the other hand, if the same topic is discussed by students who wish to enroll in a

course on robotics, they will use language and lexis that are common and non-technical.

The tenor determines the level of formality culturally appropriate for the interlocutors to interact

effectively.

The mode, written or spoken establishes the degree of complexity or spontaneity of language.

Written language is specific and elaborate whereas the spoken language is more spontaneous and

it uses several exophoric (outside the text) references whereas written language uses more

anaphoric (inside the text) references. For example, a speaker might say, Give this to her before

you leave. In this example the words this and her are exophoric references because they refer

to realities that are not mentioned in the discourse itself.

Field, Tenor and Mode refer to only one layer of the system of language. The other layers are

discourse semantics (the study of the meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences) and
the lexico-grammar [Setiajid: 2006: 3]. Each instance of language use manifests real choices

made at different levels of the system of language.

A curriculum structured around genres enables the teachers to present whole language

showcasing the form, meaning, as well as use in authentic contexts. Therefore, it is proposed that

at the preparation stage, texts (instances of language use) that are developmentally appropriate

for the level of the students must be carefully selected. Several level-appropriate samples of each

type should be selected. After that, each sample must be thoroughly examined to identify the

syntactic and semantic features of language specific to it. For example, a scientific expository

essay will have timeless present, technical nouns, adjectives and prepositions indicating

positions. Each paragraph will have a topic sentence and supporting details. Moreover, the essay

will begin with an introductory paragraph giving a brief description of the subject, followed by

subsequent paragraphs elaborating on the topic and finally the concluding paragraph. The

language teacher must ensure that s/he makes a note of both the grammatical features and the

generic structure of the chosen text type.

With this preparation the teacher can start working on the lesson plans for the next loop. Every

lesson plan should focus on one key aspect of language and that aspect should be enhanced using

any of the perceptual salience techniques mentioned earlier in the article.

The Input-Output Loop:

The Input-Output Loop [Waqar: 2012] provides the basic framework for the process of

language learning that follows. The receptive skills of language, reading or listening, are used for

providing the learners the required input. Learners are exposed to the same kind of text with

enhanced input.
The input and the process exercises [McEldowney: 1982:2] provide scaffolding (support)

[Vygotsky: 1986] [Reid: 2007:10] for effective output. The scaffolding that matches the learners

need and is within the Zone of Proximal development ( Zone of proximal development: the

range of tasks that learners cannot perform independently but can with adult support [Ruddell:

1995: 37] ensures success, which is required for learner motivation. These teacher made

exercises aid the processing (comprehension) of the text, enable learners to focus on the key

information in the text, supporting (scaffolding) their learning. Learners comprehend some parts

of the input independently but for some parts they need scaffolding. With the help of the

exercises (scaffold), learners can comprehend parts that they could not without support [Ormrod:

1998: 66]).

After processing the information in the text, learners produce language in written or oral mode

using the basic data [McEldowney: 1982: 3] they have gathered through the processing tasks.

This production should not be the mirror image of the original [McEldowney: 1982: 3] but a

creative representation of what they understood from the text. Error correction principles of

giving communicative effectiveness priority over formal accuracy without abandoning

accuracy completely are followed while giving learners feedback on their production. Peer

evaluation is also used as needed supported by carefully prepared rubrics and editing marks

(details given below).

Teachers must work through the input-output loop several times for each genre that they wish the

learners to master i.e. they must select several samples of selected genres and go through all the

stages of the loop for each of them separately. Each input (sample of selected genre) should lead

to output and the output should be studied intently by the teacher to plan the next input. The
complexity of the input may be gradually increased remaining within the zone of proximal

development for a particular group of learners.

Output: Speaking or
Writing

Process: Exercises
and Activities

Input: Reading or
Listening

Figure 1 The Input-Output Basics

The Input-Output
Loop

Peer checking/
feedback on the
written output

Figure 2 'The Input-Output Loop'

This is loop 2 of The Language Teaching Model [Waqar, R. 2012]

There are several possible activities that can be done for processing the text. Teachers can use,

questions, gap filling tasks, matching headings/information/sentence parts/pictures with parts of

the text. For the output in the form of writing or speaking learners may write summaries,

character sketches, letters to characters of the story, expository or persuasive texts etc. They may

also present role-plays, dramas or make webs, mind-maps or any other graphical representation

or make dioramas and models of what they have read.

The output must be examined meticulously by the teacher to make a note of language aspects

that the learners have fumbled at. The teacher should sequence them (i.e. errors) in some logical

order based on the need and level of the learners. Moreover, they should also be classified on the

basis of possible causes and types.

The mini lessons of not more than ten minutes at the beginning of class on weekly basis can be

used to raise consciousness. This can be a short explicit teaching session grounded in a

meaningful context coupled with a short task focusing usage.

Peer feedback enable learners to notice the errors. Learners are provided level appropriate rubrics

and editing marks. They use both the resources to give feedback to their peers. Rubrics (an

adapted sample for self-assessment is given below) help them to focus on the required traits of

language i.e. ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency, voice and presentation; and the

editing marks help them give feedback on the mechanics. This stage of the loop helps learners

develop an eye for good language. The rubrics and the editing marks enable them to identify

good use of language.

Idea Development:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high) in the
following;
I used a balance of showing and telling.
My details try to paint a picture in the
readers head.
I took a unique approach in writing
about this topic.
I stayed on topic throughout the entire
writing.
My theme/ massage is clear to the
reader.
Voice:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high) in the
following;
I really tried to show passion about my
topic.
If read aloud, it sounds like something I
might really say.
I did things in my writing to help my
audience understand.
I captured a tone or mood with my
words.
My use of humor or sarcasm is
appropriate for this topic.
Sentence fluency:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high) in the
following;
My sentences mostly begin with
different words.
I use a mixture of simple and complex
sentences.
I use a variety of transitional words.
If read aloud, I can hear a rhythm
behind my sentences.
If I repeated anything, I did it for effect.
Presentation:
All my letters are formed correctly with the same slant and spacing.
The size and spacing is eye-catching.
Visuals when used are clear and they strengthen my ideas.
Paragraphs are well spaced or indented.
Overall my work is neat and legible.
Organization:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high) in the
following;
My introduction grabs the reader
attention.
My conclusion links back to my
introduction.
I used transition words to move from
idea to idea.
My paragraphs show where my sub-
topic begins or ends.
My title stands for my entire draft, not
just a part of it.
Word choice:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high) in the
following;
My adjectives (sense words) are
relevant and thoughtful.
I use specific verbs and there is a good
balance of action and linking verbs.
My nouns are precise; I dont overuse a
pronoun.
I have used some new words.
I used a few colour and texture words
to describe.
Conventions:
Rank each skill from 1 (low) to 5 (high)
in the following;
I misspelled __________ words.
My end punctuation was over looked
_________ times.
My commas and apostrophes were
looked over _________ times.
My capitalization was over looked
_______ times.
My grammar was over looked
________ times..
Adapted from: http://writingfix.com/PDFs/Process/6_Traits_Revision_checklist.pdf accessed on

15 - 11 16

Editing Mark Meaning

sp spelling
ww wrong word
wrong verb, subject verb
wv, s/v, agr
agreement
N# Noun number
W.Prep Wrong preposition
take it out
lower case
capitalize
end punctuation
insert

RO run on sentence
new paragraph

frag fragment
T tense
------------ replace
transpose, change order
? not clear, confusing
Insert comma, semi
colon, colon
Insert inverted commas,
apostrophe
/ Insert space
Move here

Editing Marks that can be adapted for any level.

It is important that students write for a variety of audience and not just for their teacher. The

feedback stage provides learners an opportunity to have readers other than the teacher. After the

rewriting stage the teacher must ensure that learners get an opportunity to publish their final
pieces; some possibilities can be to display on the bulletin board, wall magazine, class magazine

etc. Good pieces may also be sent to local magazines and newspapers for publication.

The Grammaring Loop:

Once the students are familiar with the introduced genre, the teacher must enter the next loop

which is the third loop of The language Teaching Model, The Grammaring Loop [Waqar:

2012]. The term Grammaring is used to establish the fact that it is an active process, its an

action to be done, rather than the passive receiving of rules and principles. It is the fifth skill

[Freeman: 2003]. Freeman defines it as the ability to use grammar structures accurately,

meaningfully, and appropriately. She contends the traditional grammar teaching focused on

knowing language systems (declarative knowledge) and proposes that the grammar lesson

should be about knowing how to use language (procedural knowledge).

The learners output is the manifestation of their level of familiarity and mastery. If they are

experimenting with a language feature with some degree of success (improvisation and

recognition), it is time to introduce the form explicitly enabling learners to notice consciously.

Over time this repeated noticing enables them to incorporate the acceptable forms into their

spontaneous language production [Willis :2003].

When a grammatical feature is implicitly enhanced in an input, it enables the learners to

experience it in context. As a consequence they are able to see how grammatical categories are

put into use and they not only pay attention to the grammatical forms, but also to the way these

forms contribute to meaning [Coffin, Donohue, North: 2009 : 47]. Moreover, when teachers

carefully design their mini grammar lessons and use them on regular basis, they result in
effective consciousness raising. If that part has been done in the input-ouput loop, the explicit

teaching of a grammar concept will be absorbed by the learners readily.

Learner readiness

Linking the form

with function and Explicit Teaching of
communicative form
purpose The Grammaring
Loop

Practise in context Practise in isolation

Figure 3 The Grammaring Loop

This is the third loop of The Language Teaching Model [Waqar, R. 2012]

Thus, the focus of this loop is to show learners how a grammatical feature, already made salient

in the context of a selected genre, is formed, how it is used and what it means. The second stage

in the Grammaring the loop is to take them through several practice tasks in isolation and then in

context. The last step is to design a communicative tasks to link the form, meaning and use

(Larsen-Freeman 2003) to the context of situation and culture so that the learners use it in real

life like natural manner.

The Discourse Loop:

The last loop is the discourse or

the generic stages loop which Highlight the

generic stages
deals with the underlying patterns of the genre

of all discourse. This helps

learners in both reading and Help to use in Focus on one

context Stage
writing. Research indicates that The Discourse
Loop
skilled readers activate particular

expectations and strategies

depending on the genre they Provide Input Flood

practice in through several
attribute to the text, [McCarthy isolation examples

& McNamara: 2007: 1295] and Figure 4 The Discourse Loop

this enhances their understanding of it.

Every standard example of a genre or a category of text would have a general pattern common to

all its samples. A narrative, for instance, will have description of the background, an introduction

of characters, a beginning or orientation, a problem, climax and then the resolution of the

problem. Moreover, the events in a story are placed in a setting and a chronological order. The

pattern, once internalized, becomes a model for learners, which they can imitate. All imitative

processes are akin to creative processes: a model is both an end-point and a starting-point,

[Killgallon: 2008: 8].

Learners are exposed to several samples of a chosen genre in the input-output loop. They become

familiar with the underlying structure implicitly. This tacit introduction sets the stage for the

fourth loop. In this loop, the teacher guides the learners to consciously name and identify the

generic stages of the genre under study, and later choses any one key feature or generic stage of
the selected genre and explicitly enhances its understanding and awareness. For instance, if the

teacher notices that the story beginnings of learners are not appropriate or interesting, s/he may

choose to explicitly work with them so that their story beginnings become more catchy and

powerful.

For this purpose, the teacher collects several samples of story beginnings from the stories that the

learners have read in the Input-Output Loop as well as from other books and novels that are at

the learners level. After examining the sample story beginnings the learners classify and name

the different ways of beginning stories. These categories can be, beginning with a dialogue, an

action or a description etc. After thorough study of the samples the learners may do the following

activities:

write the story beginnings of known stories using all the studied techniques

begin their stories using the specified technique of story beginning

rewrite read stories beginning them with a new story beginning etc.

Similar techniques can be used for different stages of every genre.

Conclusion:

In order to master The Loops of Language Teaching, the sound understanding of the key

principles on which the model is premised is necessary. The next requirement is careful planning

which includes the selection of genres, identifying the basic grammatical features of each genre

and the generic stages. Using the genres enables teachers to keep the language intact and whole

(Waqar, 2013) . They present the whole language in the context of a genre (loop 2). In loop 3

they study a form under a microscope. The overall structure of the genre and the available

semantic choices are studied in loop 4 (Waqar, 2013).

The above explanation of the transition between loops is just a suggestion. These transitions may

be made in any direction and at any time during teaching. The decision will depend on teachers

professional judgment based on learner needs, demand of a chosen text/activity, etc. If a genre is

being studied in loop 2, the teacher may enter loop 3 if a student asks a question that requires an

answer related to the grammatical features of the genre. Similarly, loop 4 can be entered if

reference to a generic stage of the genre is needed for better comprehension.

The model provides a framework for teachers and enables them to organize their curriculum

keeping the learners and their production (speech and writing samples) at the core of all

decisions. The concept of loop is used to emphasise that constant formative assessment should

feed back instruction and curriculum both.

References

Dastjerdi, V. (2011). Role of input enhancement in teaching compliments. Journal of Language

Teaching and Research, 2(2), 460-466.

Harrison, Corbett. (2008) 30 Subskills for the 6 Writing Traits http://corbettharrison.com

accessed on 15 11 16

Hasan, Ruqaiya (1978) Text in the systemic-functional model in W.U. Dressler (ed.) Current
Trends in Text Linguistics. (pp.228-245) New York: De Gruyter.

Hernandez, T. (2008). The effect of explicit instruction and input flood on students use of
Spanish discourse markers on simulated oral proficiency interview. Hispania, 91(3), 665-675.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring. Boston, MA:

Heinle & Heinle.

Lee, S.K. (2007). Effects of textual enhancement and topic formality on Korean EFL students
reading comprehension and learning of passive form. Language Learning, 57, 87-118.

Malinowski, B. (1935) Coral Gardens and their Magic, Vol. 2. London: Allen and Unwin.
(reprinted as The Language of Magic and Gardening (1967) Indiana Studies in the History and
Theory of Linguistics. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.)

McEldowney, Patricia L. (1982) English in Context: Teachers Book. Nelson

Nassaji, H., & Fotos, S. (2011). Teaching grammar in second language classrooms: Integrating
form-focused instruction in communicative context. London: Routledge.

Rashtchi, M., & Gharanli, L. (2010). Noticing through input enhancement: Does it affect
learning of the conditionals? Journal of Language and Translation, 1(1), 19-27.

Rikhtegar, O., & Gholami, J. (2015). The effect of pre-verses post-presentation input flooding
via reading on the young EFL learners acquisition of simple past tense. English
Language Teaching, 8(3), 80-88.

Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of
attention and awareness in learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign
language learning (pp. 1-63). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press.

Schmidt, R . (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.). Cognition and second language instruction
(pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of
language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 72, 118-32.

Sharwood Smith, M . (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 15, 165-79.

Simard, D. (2009). Differential effects of textual enhancement formats on intake. System,

37(1), 124-135.

Spada, N., &Lightbown, P. M. (1993). Instructions and the development of questions in L2

Classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 205-221.

Spada, N., & LightbownP. M. (2006). How Languages are Learned. Third Edition, OUP China

Tratto da Taylor, C., Language to Language, CUP, 1998, pp. 77-106

Waqar, Rahila. (2013). The Loops of Language Teaching. SPELT Quarterly Journal 28(4), 29-
35.

White, J. (1998). Getting the learners attention: A typographical input enhancement study. In
C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.
85-113). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Willis, dave. (2003). Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammar and Lexis in English Language
Teaching. Language Teaching Library, Cambridge University Press, UK.

Wong, W. (2005). Input enhancement: From theory and research to the classroom. New York,
NY: McGraw Hill.